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Study in nature: protecting the ocean delivers a comprehensive solution for climate, fishing and biodiversity.

Southern Line Islands

Photograph by Southern Line Islands

Groundbreaking global study is the first to map ocean areas that, if strongly protected, would help solve climate, food and biodiversity crises

London, UK (17 March 2021) —A new study published in the prestigious peer-reviewed scientific journal Nature today offers a combined solution to several of humanity’s most pressing challenges. It is the most comprehensive assessment to date of where strict ocean protection can contribute to a more abundant supply of healthy seafood and provide a cheap, natural solution to address climate change—in addition to protecting embattled species and habitats.

An international team of 26 authors identified specific areas that, if protected, would safeguard over 80% of the habitats for endangered marine species, and increase fishing catches by more than eight million metric tons. The study is also the first to quantify the potential release of carbon dioxide into the ocean from trawling, a widespread fishing practice—and finds that trawling is pumping hundreds of millions of tons of carbon dioxide into the ocean every year, a volume of emissions similar to those of aviation.

“Ocean life has been declining worldwide because of overfishing, habitat destruction and climate change. Yet only 7% of the ocean is currently under some kind of protection,” said Dr. Enric Sala, explorer in residence at the National Geographic Society and lead author of the study, Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate .

“In this study, we’ve pioneered a new way to identify the places that—if strongly protected—will boost food production and safeguard marine life, all while reducing carbon emissions,” Dr. Sala said. “It’s clear that humanity and the economy will benefit from a healthier ocean. And we can realize those benefits quickly if countries work together to protect at least 30% of the ocean by 2030.”

To identify the priority areas, the authors—leading marine biologists, climate experts, and economists—analyzed the world’s unprotected ocean waters based on the degree to which they are threatened by human activities that can be reduced by marine protected areas (for example, overfishing and habitat destruction). They then developed an algorithm to identify those areas where protections would deliver the greatest benefits across the three complementary goals of biodiversity protection, seafood production and climate mitigation. They mapped these locations to create a practical “blueprint” that governments can use as they implement their commitments to protect nature.

The study does not provide a single map for ocean conservation, but it offers a first-in-kind framework for countries to decide which areas to protect depending on their national priorities. However, the analysis shows that 30% is the minimum amount of ocean that the world must protect in order to provide multiple benefits to humanity.

“There is no single best solution to save marine life and obtain these other benefits. The solution depends on what society—or a given country—cares about, and our study provides a new way to integrate these preferences and find effective conservation strategies,” said Dr. Juan S. Mayorga, a report co-author and a marine data scientist with the Environmental Market Solutions Lab at UC Santa Barbara and Pristine Seas at National Geographic Society.

The study comes ahead of the 15th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, which is expected to take place in Kunming, China in 2021. The meeting will bring together representatives of 190 countries to finalize an agreement to end the world’s biodiversity crisis. The goal of protecting 30% of the planet’s land and ocean by 2030 (the “30x30” target) is expected to be a pillar of the treaty. The study follows commitments by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, the European Commission and others to achieve this target on national and global scales.

Safeguarding Biodiversity

The report identifies highly diverse marine areas in which species and ecosystems face the greatest threats from human activities. Establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) with strict protection in those places would safeguard more than 80% of the ranges of endangered species, up from a current coverage of less than 2%.

The authors found that the priority locations are distributed throughout the ocean, with the vast majority of them contained within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zones of coastal nations.

The additional protection targets are located in the high seas—those waters governed by international law. These include the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (a massive underwater mountain range), the Mascarene Plateau in the Indian Ocean, the Nazca Ridge off the west coast of South America and the Southwest Indian Ridge, between Africa and Antarctica.

"Perhaps the most impressive and encouraging result is the enormous gain we can obtain for biodiversity conservation—if we carefully chose the location of strictly protected marine areas,” said Dr. David Mouillot, a report co-author and a professor at the Université de Montpellier in France. “One notable priority for conservation is Antarctica, which currently has little protection, but is projected to host many vulnerable species in a near future due to climate change."

Shoring up the Fishing Industry

The study finds that smartly placed marine protected areas (MPAs) that ban fishing would actually boost the production of fish—at a time when supplies of wild-caught fish are dwindling and demand is rising. In doing so, the study refutes a long-held view that ocean protection harms fisheries and opens up new opportunities to revive the industry just as it is suffering from a recession due to overfishing and the impacts of global warming.

“Some argue that closing areas to fishing hurts fishing interests. But the worst enemy of successful fisheries is overfishing—not protected areas,” Dr. Sala said.

The study finds that protecting the right places could increase the catch of seafood by over 8 million metric tons relative to business as usual.

“It’s simple: When overfishing and other damaging activities cease, marine life bounces back,” said Dr. Reniel Cabral, a report co-author and assistant researcher with the Bren School of Environmental Science & Management and Marine Science Institute at UC Santa Barbara. “After protections are put in place, the diversity and abundance of marine life increase over time, with measurable recovery occurring in as little as three years. Target species and large predators come back, and entire ecosystems are restored within MPAs. With time, the ocean can heal itself and again provide services to humankind.”

Soaking up Carbon

The study is the first to calculate the climate impacts of bottom trawling, a damaging fishing method used worldwide that drags heavy nets across the ocean floor. It finds that the amount of carbon dioxide released into the ocean from this practice is larger than most countries’ annual carbon emissions, and similar to annual carbon dioxide emissions from global aviation.

“The ocean floor is the world’s largest carbon storehouse. If we’re to succeed in stopping global warming, we must leave the carbon-rich seabed undisturbed. Yet every day, we are trawling the seafloor, depleting its biodiversity and mobilizing millennia-old carbon and thus exacerbating climate change. Our findings about the climate impacts of bottom trawling will make the activities on the ocean’s seabed hard to ignore in climate plans going forward,” said Dr. Trisha Atwood of Utah State University, a co-author of the paper.

The study finds that countries with the highest potential to contribute to climate change mitigation via protection of carbon stocks are those with large national waters and large industrial bottom trawl fisheries. It calculates that eliminating 90% of the present risk of carbon disturbance due to bottom trawling would require protecting only about 4% of the ocean , mostly within national waters.

Closing a Gap

The study’s range of findings helps to close a gap in our knowledge about the impacts of ocean conservation, which to date had been understudied relative to land-based conservation.

“The ocean covers 70% of the earth—yet, until now, its importance for solving the challenges of our time has been overlooked,” said Dr. Boris Worm, a study co-author and Killam Research Professor at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia. “Smart ocean protection will help to provide cheap natural climate solutions, make seafood more abundant and safeguard imperiled marine species—all at the same time. The benefits are clear. If we want to solve the three most pressing challenges of our century—biodiversity loss, climate change and food shortages —we must protect our ocean.”

Additional Quotes from Supporters and Report Co-Authors

Zac Goldsmith, British Minister for Pacific and the Environment, UK

Kristen Rechberger, Founder & CEO, Dynamic Planet

Dr. William Chueng, Canada Research Chair and Professor, The University of British Columbia, Principal Investigator, Changing Ocean Research Unit, The University of British Columbia

Dr. Jennifer McGowan, Global Science, The Nature Conservancy & Center for Biodiversity and Global Change, Yale University

Dr. Alan Friedlander, Chief Scientist, Pristine Seas, National Geographic Society at the Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawai'i

Dr. Ben Halpern, Director of the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis (NCEAS), UCSB

Dr. Whitney Goodell, Marine Ecologist, Pristine Seas, National Geographic Society

Dr. Lance Morgan, President and CEO, Marine Conservation Institute

Dr. Darcy Bradley, Co-Director of the Ocean and Fisheries Program at the Environmental Market Solutions Lab, UCSB

The study, Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate , answers the question of which places in the ocean should we protect for nature and people. The authors developed a novel framework to produce a global map of places that, if protected from fishing and other damaging activities, will produce multiple benefits to people: safeguarding marine life, boosting seafood production and reducing carbon emissions. Twenty-six scientists and economists contributed to the study.

Study’s Topline Facts

• Ocean life has been declining worldwide because of overfishing, habitat destruction and climate change. Yet only 7% of the ocean is currently under some kind of protection.
• A smart plan of ocean protection will contribute to more abundant seafood and provide a cheap, natural solution to help solve climate change, alongside economic benefits.
• Humanity and the economy would benefit from a healthier ocean. Quicker benefits occur when countries work together to protect at least 30% of the ocean.
• Substantial increases in ocean protection could achieve triple benefits, not only protecting biodiversity, but also boosting fisheries’ productivity and securing marine carbon stocks.

Study’s Topline Findings

• The study is the first to calculate that the practice of bottom trawling the ocean floor is responsible for one gigaton of carbon emissions on average annually. This is equivalent to all emissions from aviation worldwide. It is, furthermore, greater than the annual emissions of all countries except China, the U.S., India, Russia and Japan.
• The study reveals that protecting strategic ocean areas could produce an additional 8 million tons of seafood.
• The study reveals that protecting more of the ocean--as long as the protected areas are strategically located--would reap significant benefits for climate, food and biodiversity.

Priority Areas for Triple Wins

• If society were to value marine biodiversity and food provisioning equally, and established marine protected areas based on these two priorities, the best conservation strategy would protect 45% of the ocean, delivering 71% of the possible biodiversity benefits, 92% of the food provisioning benefits and 29% of the carbon benefits.
• If no value were assigned to biodiversity, protecting 29% of the ocean would secure 8.3 million tons of extra seafood and 27% of carbon benefits. It would also still secure 35% of biodiversity benefits.
• Global-scale prioritization helps focus attention and resources on places that yield the largest possible benefits.
• A globally coordinated expansion of marine protected areas (MPAs) could achieve 90% of the maximum possible biodiversity benefit with less than half as much area as a protection strategy based solely on national priorities.
• EEZs are areas of the global ocean within 200 nautical miles off the coast of maritime countries that claim sole rights to the resources found within them. ( Source )

Priority Areas for Climate

• Eliminating 90% of the present risk of carbon disturbance due to bottom trawling would require protecting 3.6% of the ocean, mostly within EEZs.
• Priority areas for carbon are where important carbon stocks coincide with high anthropogenic threats, including Europe’s Atlantic coastal areas and productive upwelling areas.

Countries with the highest potential to contribute to climate change mitigation via protection of carbon stocks are those with large EEZs and large industrial bottom trawl fisheries.

Priority Areas for Biodiversity

• Through protection of specific areas, the average protection of endangered species could be increased from 1.5% to 82% and critically endangered species from 1.1% to and 87%.
• the Antarctic Peninsula
• the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
• the Mascarene Plateau
• the Nazca Ridge
• the Southwest Indian Ridge
• Despite climate change, about 80% of today’s priority areas for biodiversity will still be essential in 2050. In the future, however, some cooler waters will be more important protection priorities, whereas warmer waters will likely be too stressed by climate change to shelter as much biodiversity as they currently do. Specifically, some temperate regions and parts of the Arctic would rank as higher priorities for biodiversity conservation by 2050, whereas large areas in the high seas between the tropics and areas in the Southern Hemisphere would decrease in priority.

Priority Areas for Food Provision

• If we only cared about increasing the supply of seafood, strategically placed MPAs covering 28% of the ocean could increase food provisioning by 8.3 million metric tons.

The Campaign for Nature works with scientists, Indigenous Peoples, and a growing coalition of over 100 conservation organizations around the world who are calling on policymakers to commit to clear and ambitious targets to be agreed upon at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Kunming, China in 2021 to protect at least 30% of the planet by 2030 and working with Indigenous leaders to ensure full respect for Indigenous rights.

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Nature provides many key benefits, from a stable climate to clean air, that may be at risk, a new study warns.

• ENVIRONMENT

Half of all land must be kept in a natural state to protect Earth

New science says land conservation must double by 2030 to prevent dangerous warming and unravelling of ecosystems.

World leaders must increase their commitments to conserving land and water, and quickly, if a stable climate and high quality of life are to be preserved in the near future, a new scientific study argues.

Countries should double their protected zones to 30 percent of the Earth’s land area, and add 20 percent more as climate stabilization areas, for a total of 50 percent of all land kept in a natural state, scientists conclude. All of this needs to be done by 2030 to have a real hope of keeping climate change under the “danger zone” target of 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius) and to prevent the world’s ecosystems from unravelling—according to an ambitious plan called the Global Deal for Nature.

“The benefits of protecting 50 percent of nature by 2030 are tremendous,” says Eric Dinerstein, director of biodiversity and wildlife solutions at RESOLVE , a non-profit group, and lead author of a new paper published Friday in Science Advances titled “ A Global Deal For Nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets .”

This is the first science-based plan with clear milestones on why it’s vital to achieve these goals and how it could be done, says Dinerstein. It’s not widely understood that large areas of forests, grasslands, and other natural areas are needed to soak up carbon emissions , he adds. Intact forests, and especially tropical forests, sequester twice as much carbon as planted monocultures, for example.

Only when 50 percent of the Earth’s terrestrial areas are protected, along with substantial cuts in fossil-fuel use and major increases in renewable energy , will we have a good chance of meeting the Paris climate target of less than 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius) of warming, the scientists argue. And if warming goes beyond 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Celsius), we lose some of those natural systems and the services they provide humanity, including their ability to absorb carbon, Dinerstein says.

“We can’t have a safer climate without protecting 50 percent of the Earth and vice versa.”

For Hungry Minds

“without them, there is no us.”.

“Every morsel of food, every sip of water, the air we breathe is the result of work done by other species. Nature gives us everything we need to survive,” says Enric Sala , a National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence and lead of the National Geographic Society's work as part of the Campaign for Nature , a partnership with the Wyss Campaign for Nature to inspire the protection of 30 percent of the planet by 2030.

Related: Stunning photos of the Earth

“Without them, there is no us,” said Sala, noting that we are losing “them” at an accelerating rate and are close to a tipping point.

“If we had to manufacture our own oxygen it would cost 1,600 times the entire global GDP—if it were even possible,” said Sala, who is a co-author of the Global Deal for Nature study.

Countries have already committed to protecting 17 percent on land and 10 percent of the oceans by 2020 under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Yet most countries are not on target to meet the 2020 goals. The U.S. is not a signatory to the convention. The head of the CBD, Cristiana Pașca Palmer, has said half of the world must be protected and nations will consider this proposal at a major meeting in China in 2020.

The authors of the new Global Deal for Nature study lay out how the 30 percent protection could be reached in 67 percent of Earth’s 846 terrestrial ecoregions by 2030. Others would need some restoration.

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Notably, these are not meant to be “no go” areas, but rather areas protected from resource extraction and land conversion. Sustainable uses would be permitted in all but the most sensitive areas. Communities around protected areas are generally better off than those farther away, recent research in 34 developing countries has found .

Saving land for climate

Climate stabilization areas are lands that are currently intact but largely outside of the traditional protected area system. Governments only need to prevent activities that impact their natural function. Since 37 percent of all remaining natural lands are indigenous lands, it is crucial they are supported in the Global Deal for Nature, the study said.

Although the Global Deal for Nature is focused on land, the study authors support the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and its member organization’s call for 30 percent protection of the oceans by 2030. The world’s coral reefs are already suffering with just 1 C of warming, the team notes. Scientists fear few will survive should temperatures exceed 2 C. Yet corals aren’t just colorful to look at, they are the nurseries for much of the ocean’s fish and other marine life on which one or more billion people depend .

“The Global Deal for Nature is an ambitious, radical call to action to protect nature,” says Justin Winters, executive director of the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, who was not involved with the study. However, the goal of protecting half the planet is not going to happen without public understanding and involvement, she adds.

In 2017, the foundation launched One Earth Initiative to help create a vision of the future based on 100 percent renewable energy, protection and restoration of 50 percent of the world’s lands and oceans, and a transition to regenerative agriculture.

The foundation is working on showing how our wellbeing is connected to nature, Winters said. “We hope to inspire people to take action.” Actions can take many forms, she notes, from helping get kids outside to transforming a lawn into a wildlife garden to marching in protests and civil disobedience.

Climate change, loss of species, and ecosystem decline have spawned a new protest movement called Extinction Rebellion . It’s a loosely organized international network using “non-violent direct action to persuade governments to act on the climate and ecological emergency.” Dozens of protests have been held in 25 countries since its launch on October 31, 2018 in London, England.

The costs of conservation

Taking the necessary nature conservation measures to protect half the Earth could cost around $100 billion per year, the study estimates.

The money is there, but only if people understand the need, Sala says. He notes that nearly a billion dollars was pledged to rebuild France’s Notre-Dame Cathedral less than two days after a devastating fire . The U.S. Federal Reserve bank bailout in 2009 amounted to more than $29 trillion , according to one study. A trillion is a thousand billion, so 29 trillion dollars could fund 290 years of conservation efforts that protect half the Earth and help stabilize the climate.

The economic benefits of such an investment in nature could be in the trillions of dollars, studies show. Perhaps more importantly, we don’t really have a choice, says Sala.

“We have just ten years to save ourselves.”

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Peer-reviewed Journal Articles

The Moore Center for Science at Conservation International is one of the world’s premier conservation research institutes, producing and applying groundbreaking and policy-relevant research to help decision-makers protect nature. To date, Conservation International has published more than 1,100 peer-reviewed articles, many in leading journals including Science, Nature and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

On average, each of our scientific papers is cited more than 45 times by other scholars — a rate exceeding that of any other U.S. conservation organization as well as leading universities.

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Related resources

Conserving Earth

Earth’s natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, plants, and animals. Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources so all living things can benefit from them now and in the future.

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Geography, Geology, Conservation

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Earth ’s natural resources include air , water , soil , minerals , fuels , plants, and animals. Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources so all living things can benefit from them now and in the future. All the things we need to survive , such as food , water, air, and shelter , come from natural resources. Some of these resources, like small plants, can be replaced quickly after they are used. Others, like large trees, take a long time to replace. These are renewable resources . Other resources, such as fossil fuels , cannot be replaced at all. Once they are used up, they are gone f orever . These are nonrenewable resources . People often waste natural resources. Animals are overhunted . Forests are cleared, exposing land to wind and water damage. Fertile soil is exhausted and lost to erosion because of poor farming practices. Fuel supplies are depleted . Water and air are polluted . If resources are carelessly managed, many will be used up. If used wisely and efficiently , however, renewable resources will last much longer. Through conservation, people can reduce waste and manage natural resources wisely. The population of human beings has grown enormously in the past two centuries. Billions of people use up resources quickly as they eat food, build houses, produce goods, and burn fuel for transportation and electricity . The continuation of life as we know it depends on the careful use of natural resources. The need to conserve resources often conflicts with other needs. For some people, a wooded area may be a good place to put a farm. A timber company may want to harvest the area’s trees for construction materials. A business may want to build a factory or shopping mall on the land. All these needs are valid, but sometimes the plants and animals that live in the area are forgotten. The benefits of development need to be weighed against the harm to animals that may be forced to find new habitats , the depletion of resources we may want in the future (such as water or timber), or damage to resources we use today. Development and conservation can coexist in harmony. When we use the environment in ways that ensure we have resources for the future, it is called sustainable development . There are many different resources we need to conserve in order to live sustainably. Forests A forest is a large area covered with trees grouped so their foliage shades the ground. Every continent except Antarctica has forests, from the evergreen -filled boreal forests of the north to mangrove forests in tropical wetlands . Forests are home to more than two-thirds of all known land species . Tropical rainforests are especially rich in biodiversity . Forests provide habitats for animals and plants. They store carbon , helping reduce global warming . They protect soil by reducing runoff . They add nutrients to the soil through leaf litter . They provide people with lumber and firewood. Deforestation is the process of clearing away forests by cutting them down or burning them. People clear forests to use the wood, or to make way for farming or development. Each year, Earth loses about 14.6 million hectares (36 million acres) of forest to deforestation—an area about the size of the U.S. state of New York. Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats and increases soil erosion. It also releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere , contributing to global warming. Deforestation accounts for 15 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation also harms the people who rely on forests for their survival, hunting and gathering, harvesting forest products, or using the timber for firewood. About half of all the forests on Earth are in the tropics —an area that circles the globe near the Equator . Although tropical forests cover fewer than 6 percent of the world’s land area, they are home to about 80 percent of the world’s documented species. For example, more than 500 different species of trees live in the forests on the small U.S. island of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea. Tropical forests give us many valuable products, including woods like mahogany and teak , rubber , fruits, nuts, and flowers. Many of the medicines we use today come from plants found only in tropical rainforests. These include quinine , a malaria drug; curare , an anesthetic used in surgery; and rosy periwinkle , which is used to treat certain types of cancer . Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring we have these resources well into the future. One of these practices is leaving some trees to die and decay naturally in the forest. This “ deadwood ” builds up soil. Other sustainable forestry methods include using low-impact logging practices, harvesting with natural regeneration in mind, and avoiding certain logging techniques , such as removing all the high-value trees or all the largest trees from a forest. Trees can also be conserved if consumers recycle . People in China and Mexico, for example, reuse much of their wastepaper, including writing paper, wrapping paper, and cardboard. If half the world’s paper were recycled, much of the worldwide demand for new paper would be fulfilled, saving many of Earth’s trees. We can also replace some wood products with alternatives like bamboo , which is actually a type of grass. Soil Soil is vital to food production. We need high-quality soil to grow the crops that we eat and feed to livestock . Soil is also important to plants that grow in the wild. Many other types of conservation efforts, such as plant conservation and animal conservation, depend on soil conservation. Poor farming methods, such as repeatedly planting the same crop in the same place, called monoculture , deplete nutrients in the soil. Soil erosion by water and wind increases when farmers plow up and down hills. One soil conservation method is called contour strip cropping . Several crops, such as corn, wheat, and clover , are planted in alternating strips across a slope or across the path of the prevailing wind . Different crops, with different root systems and leaves, help slow erosion.

Harvesting all the trees from a large area, a practice called clearcutting , increases the chances of losing productive topsoil to wind and water erosion. Selective harvesting —the practice of removing individual trees or small groups of trees—leaves other trees standing to anchor the soil. Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variety of living things that populate Earth. The products and benefits we get from nature rely on biodiversity. We need a rich mixture of living things to provide foods, building materials, and medicines, as well as to maintain a clean and healthy landscape . When a species becomes extinct , it is lost to the world forever. Scientists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 1,000 times the natural rate. Through hunting, pollution , habitat destruction, and contribution to global warming, people are speeding up the loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate. It’s hard to know how many species are going extinct because the total number of species is unknown. Scientists discover thousands of new species every year. For example, after looking at just 19 trees in Panama, scientists found 1,200 different species of beetles—80 percent of them unknown to science at the time. Based on various estimates of the number of species on Earth, we could be losing anywhere from 200 to 100,000 species each year. We need to protect biodiversity to ensure we have plentiful and varied food sources. This is true even if we don’t eat a species threatened with extinction because something we do eat may depend on that species for survival. Some predators are useful for keeping the populations of other animals at manageable levels. The extinction of a major predator might mean there are more herbivores looking for food in people’s gardens and farms. Biodiversity is important for more than just food. For instance, we use between 50,000 to 70,000 plant species for medicines worldwide. The Great Barrier Reef , a coral reef off the coast of northeastern Australia, contributes about $6 billion to the nation’s economy through commercial fishing , tourism , and other recreational activities. If the coral reef dies, many of the fish, shellfish , marine mammals , and plants will die, too. Some governments have established parks and preserves to protect wildlife and their habitats. They are also working to abolish hunting and fishing practices that may cause the extinction of some species. Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels are fuels produced from the remains of ancient plants and animals. They include coal , petroleum (oil), and natural gas . People rely on fossil fuels to power vehicles like cars and airplanes, to produce electricity, and to cook and provide heat. In addition, many of the products we use today are made from petroleum. These include plastics , synthetic rubber, fabrics like nylon , medicines, cosmetics , waxes, cleaning products, medical devices, and even bubblegum.

Fossil fuels formed over millions of years. Once we use them up, we cannot replace them. Fossil fuels are a nonrenewable resource. We need to conserve fossil fuels so we don’t run out. However, there are other good reasons to limit our fossil fuel use. These fuels pollute the air when they are burned. Burning fossil fuels also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Global warming is changing ecosystems . The oceans are becoming warmer and more acidic , which threatens sea life. Sea levels are rising, posing risks to coastal communities. Many areas are experiencing more droughts , while others suffer from flooding . Scientists are exploring alternatives to fossil fuels. They are trying to produce renewable biofuels to power cars and trucks. They are looking to produce electricity using the sun, wind, water, and geothermal energy — Earth’s natural heat. Everyone can help conserve fossil fuels by using them carefully. Turn off lights and other electronics when you are not using them. Purchase energy-efficient appliances and weatherproof your home. Walk, ride a bike, carpool , and use public transportation whenever possible. Minerals Earth’s supply of raw mineral resources is in danger. Many mineral deposits that have been located and mapped have been depleted. As the ores for minerals like aluminum and iron become harder to find and extract , their prices skyrocket . This makes tools and machinery more expensive to purchase and operate. Many mining methods, such as mountaintop removal mining (MTR) , devastate the environment. They destroy soil, plants, and animal habitats. Many mining methods also pollute water and air, as toxic chemicals leak into the surrounding ecosystem. Conservation efforts in areas like Chile and the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States often promote more sustainable mining methods. Less wasteful mining methods and the recycling of materials will help conserve mineral resources. In Japan, for example, car manufacturers recycle many raw materials used in making automobiles. In the United States, nearly one-third of the iron produced comes from recycled automobiles. Electronic devices present a big problem for conservation because technology changes so quickly. For example, consumers typically replace their cell phones every 18 months. Computers, televisions, and mp3 players are other products contributing to “ e-waste .” The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that Americans generated more than three million tons of e-waste in 2007. Electronic products contain minerals as well as petroleum-based plastics. Many of them also contain hazardous materials that can leach out of landfills into the soil and water supply. Many governments are passing laws requiring manufacturers to recycle used electronics. Recycling not only keeps materials out of landfills, but it also reduces the energy used to produce new products. For instance, recycling aluminum saves 90 percent of the energy that would be required to mine new aluminum.

Water Water is a renewable resource. We will not run out of water the way we might run out of fossil fuels. The amount of water on Earth always remains the same. However, most of the planet’s water is unavailable for human use. While more than 70 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is freshwater . Out of that freshwater, almost 70 percent is permanently frozen in the ice caps covering Antarctica and Greenland. Only about 1 percent of the freshwater on Earth is available for people to use for drinking, bathing, and irrigating crops. People in many regions of the world suffer water shortages . These are caused by depletion of underground water sources known as aquifers , a lack of rainfall due to drought, or pollution of water supplies. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 2.6 billion people lack adequate water sanitation . More than five million people die each year from diseases caused by using polluted water for drinking, cooking, or washing. About one-third of Earth’s population lives in areas that are experiencing water stress . Most of these areas are in developing countries. Polluted water hurts the environment as well as people. For instance, agricultural runoff—the water that runs off of farmland—can contain fertilizers and pesticides . When this water gets into streams , rivers , and oceans, it can harm the organisms that live in or drink from those water sources. People can conserve and protect water supplies in many ways. Individuals can limit water use by fixing leaky faucets, taking shorter showers, planting drought-resistant plants, and buying low-water-use appliances. Governments, businesses, and nonprofit organizations can help developing countries build sanitation facilities. Farmers can change some of their practices to reduce polluted runoff. This includes limiting overgrazing , avoiding over-irrigation, and using alternatives to chemical pesticides whenever possible. Conservation Groups Businesses, international organizations , and some governments are involved in conservation efforts. The United Nations (UN) encourages the creation of national parks around the world. The UN also established World Water Day, an event to raise awareness and promote water conservation. Governments enact laws defining how land should be used and which areas should be set aside as parks and wildlife preserves. Governments also enforce laws designed to protect the environment from pollution, such as requiring factories to install pollution-control devices. Finally, governments often provide incentives for conserving resources, using clean technologies, and recycling used goods. Many international organizations are dedicated to conservation. Members support causes such as saving rain forests, protecting threatened animals, and cleaning up the air. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an alliance of governments and private groups founded in 1948. The IUCN works to protect wildlife and habitats. In 1980, the group proposed a world conservation strategy . Many governments have used the IUCN model to develop their own conservation plans. In addition, the IUCN monitors the status of endangered wildlife, threatened national parks and preserves, and other environments around the world. Zoos and botanical gardens also work to protect wildlife. Many zoos raise and breed endangered animals to increase their populations. They conduct research and help educate the public about endangered species . For instance, the San Diego Zoo in the U.S. state of California runs a variety of research programs on topics ranging from disease control in amphibians to heart-healthy diets for gorillas. Scientists at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in London, England, work to protect plant life around the world. Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank , for example, works with partners in 54 countries to protect biodiversity through seed collection. Kew researchers are also exploring how DNA technology can help restore damaged habitats. Individuals can do many things to help conserve resources. Turning off lights, repairing leaky faucets, and recycling paper, aluminum cans, glass, and plastic are just a few examples. Riding bikes, walking, carpooling, and using public transportation all help conserve fuel and reduce the amount of pollutants released into the environment. Individuals can plant trees to create homes for birds and squirrels. At grocery stores, people can bring their own reusable bags. And people can carry reusable water bottles and coffee mugs rather than using disposable containers. If each of us would conserve in small ways, the result would be a major conservation effort.

Tree Huggers The Chipko Movement, which is dedicated to saving trees, was started by villagers in Uttar Pradesh, India. Chipko means hold fast or embrace. The villagers flung their arms around trees to keep loggers from cutting them down. The villagers won, and Uttar Pradesh banned the felling of trees in the Himalayan foothills. The movement has since expanded to other parts of India.

Thirsty Food People require about 2 to 4 liters of drinking water each day. However, a day's worth of food requires 2,000 to 5,000 liters of water to produce. It takes more water to produce meat than to produce plant-based foods.

Tiger, Tiger Tigers are dangerous animals, but they have more to fear from us than we have to fear from them. Today there are only about 3,200 tigers living in the wild. Three tiger subspecies the Bali, Caspian, and Javan tigers have gone extinct in the past century. Many organizations are working hard to protect the remaining tigers from illegal hunting and habitat loss.

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Environmental Changes Are Fueling Human, Animal and Plant Diseases, Study Finds

Biodiversity loss, global warming, pollution and the spread of invasive species are making infectious diseases more dangerous to organisms around the world.

By Emily Anthes

Several large-scale, human-driven changes to the planet — including climate change, the loss of biodiversity and the spread of invasive species — are making infectious diseases more dangerous to people, animals and plants, according to a new study.

Scientists have documented these effects before in more targeted studies that have focused on specific diseases and ecosystems. For instance, they have found that a warming climate may be helping malaria expand in Africa and that a decline in wildlife diversity may be boosting Lyme disease cases in North America.

But the new research, a meta-analysis of nearly 1,000 previous studies, suggests that these patterns are relatively consistent around the globe and across the tree of life.

“It’s a big step forward in the science,” said Colin Carlson, a biologist at Georgetown University, who was not an author of the new analysis. “This paper is one of the strongest pieces of evidence that I think has been published that shows how important it is health systems start getting ready to exist in a world with climate change, with biodiversity loss.”

In what is likely to come as a more surprising finding, the researchers also found that urbanization decreased the risk of infectious disease.

The new analysis, which was published in Nature on Wednesday, focused on five “global change drivers” that are altering ecosystems across the planet: biodiversity change, climate change, chemical pollution, the introduction of nonnative species and habitat loss or change.

The researchers compiled data from scientific papers that examined how at least one of these factors affected various infectious-disease outcomes, such as severity or prevalence. The final data set included nearly 3,000 observations on disease risks for humans, animals and plants on every continent except for Antarctica.

The researchers found that, across the board, four of the five trends they studied — biodiversity change, the introduction of new species, climate change and chemical pollution — tended to increase disease risk.

“It means that we’re likely picking up general biological patterns,” said Jason Rohr, an infectious disease ecologist at the University of Notre Dame and senior author of the study. “It suggests that there are similar sorts of mechanisms and processes that are likely occurring in plants, animals and humans.”

The loss of biodiversity played an especially large role in driving up disease risk, the researchers found. Many scientists have posited that biodiversity can protect against disease through a phenomenon known as the dilution effect.

The theory holds that parasites and pathogens, which rely on having abundant hosts in order to survive, will evolve to favor species that are common, rather than those that are rare, Dr. Rohr said. And as biodiversity declines, rare species tend to disappear first. “That means that the species that remain are the competent ones, the ones that are really good at transmitting disease,” he said.

Lyme disease is one oft-cited example. White-footed mice, which are the primary reservoir for the disease, have become more dominant on the landscape, as other rarer mammals have disappeared, Dr. Rohr said. That shift may partly explain why Lyme disease rates have risen in the United States. (The extent to which the dilution effect contributes to Lyme disease risk has been the subject of debate, and other factors, including climate change, are likely to be at play as well.)

Other environmental changes could amplify disease risks in a wide variety of ways. For instance, introduced species can bring new pathogens with them, and chemical pollution can stress organisms’ immune systems. Climate change can alter animal movements and habitats, bringing new species into contact and allowing them to swap pathogens .

Notably, the fifth global environmental change that the researchers studied — habitat loss or change — appeared to reduce disease risk. At first glance, the findings might appear to be at odds with previous studies, which have shown that deforestation can increase the risk of diseases ranging from malaria to Ebola. But the overall trend toward reduced risk was driven by one specific type of habitat change: increasing urbanization.

The reason may be that urban areas often have better sanitation and public health infrastructure than rural ones — or simply because there are fewer plants and animals to serve as disease hosts in urban areas. The lack of plant and animal life is “not a good thing,” Dr. Carlson said. “And it also doesn’t mean that the animals that are in the cities are healthier.”

And the new study does not negate the idea that forest loss can fuel disease; instead, deforestation increases risk in some circumstances and reduces it in others, Dr. Rohr said.

Indeed, although this kind of meta-analysis is valuable for revealing broad patterns, it can obscure some of the nuances and exceptions that are important for managing specific diseases and ecosystems, Dr. Carlson noted.

Moreover, most of the studies included in the analysis examined just a single global change drive. But, in the real world, organisms are contending with many of these stressors simultaneously. “The next step is to better understand the connections among them,” Dr. Rohr said.

Emily Anthes is a science reporter, writing primarily about animal health and science. She also covered the coronavirus pandemic. More about Emily Anthes

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• Published: 25 January 2023

Household energy-saving behavior, its consumption, and life satisfaction in 37 countries

• Xiangdan Piao 1 &
• Shunsuke Managi 2  

Scientific Reports volume  13 , Article number:  1382 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Since energy consumption became an important contributor to climate change owing to carbon emissions, energy-saving behavior and expenditure at the household level have been attracting scholars’ and policymakers’ attention. This study identified whether greenhouse gas emissions at the household level can be reduced through purchase of energy-saving goods and whether the energy-saving behavior enhanced with household income increase. We conducted a large-scale survey across 37 nations using internet-based and face-to-face approaches, collecting 100,956 observations. The wealth effect on energy consumption expenditure at the household level was found to be positive across countries, confirming that energy consumption increases with household wealth improvement. Furthermore, households show a positive association between household energy expenditure and life satisfaction in 27 out of 37 countries, including China, India, the United States, and Germany. Additionally, the favorable effects of household energy-saving behavior are confirmed. However, purchase of household energy-saving products has a limited effect on energy consumption expenditure, compared with that of energy-curtailment behavior. In conclusion, achieving a carbon–neutral household by reducing energy consumption expenditure at the household level is challenging; thus, along with the use of energy-saving goods, alternative energy sources, such as renewable energies, are recommended.

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Introduction.

Energy consumption is closely related to global climate change through greenhouse gas emissions. Hence, enhancing humanity’s well-being via sustainable energy consumption and environmental conservation is crucial. In this study, we aim to identify whether greenhouse gas emissions at the household level can be reduced by reducing the energy consumption expenditure of households globally. In 2015, the United Nations proposed the sustainable development goals for sustaining humanity’s well-being, encompassing 17 multidimensional goals related to environment preservation, economics, and society. Subjective well-being is assumed to be a proxy for humanity’s well-being both in sociological and other psychological and economic aspects 1 , 2 , 3 .

Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels, which include natural gas, coal, and oil, have become a crucial energy source for modern industries. As fossil fuel consumption is associated with greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels increased from 14 billion tons in 1971 to 34 billion tons in 2016 4 . The Fifth Assessment Report of climate change released in 2013 concludes that global warming is undoubtedly caused by human activities. The Paris agreement sets a clear goal to “limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels” 5 . To achieve this goal, policies to reduce CO2 emissions were introduced across the globe. For example, according to the IEA 6 , in-building light, space heating, and water heating increased to 83%, 43%, and 39%, respectively, in 2018. Furthermore, the transition to zero-emission vehicles was announced in Europe, Asia, and the Americas 7 . Additionally, efficiency stars were initiated for electronic products to meet the energy efficiency standards of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Energy.

Numerous studies have examined the association between well-being and energy consumption, with inconclusive results 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 . Chapman et al. 13 used individual-level micro-cross-sectional data from 37 nations to demonstrate that households often have difficulties in terms of being able to afford the costs of energy consumption and that individuals from such households are more likely to experience a lower quality of life. Niu et al. 9 used country-level panel data from 50 countries to describe the positive causal effect of energy consumption and human development in these countries; the authors also encouraged governments to provide low-income residential electricity as public services. By contrast, using country-level panel data, Mazur 8 argued that the associations between energy, electricity consumption, and quality of life improvements are not significant. The author also stated that the significant association between these variables may originate from analyses of cross-sectional data at the country level. Jorgenson et al. 11 also discussed the relationship between energy intensity and human well-being, particularly within the context of central and eastern European nations; these authors found that the relationship between these two variables in these two contexts is rather complex and is undergoing dramatic changes.

Energy-saving behavior belongs to the category of pro-environmental behavior, with the latter being defined as altruistic, friendly, and contributive behavior toward environmental conservation 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 . In this study, energy-saving behaviors refer to those that reduce overall energy usage, including electricity and fuels 21 , 22 . To quantify the different types of energy-saving behavior, we adopt energy curtailment behavior and purchasing energy-saving goods as well as household energy efficiency behavior. Energy curtailment behavior is the low financial cost of energy consumption reduction behaviors, such as turning off power to appliances when not in use. Purchase of energy-saving goods reflect household energy efficiency as it reduces the high cost of energy consumption. Examples of variables used as proxies of energy-saving behavior are recycling, reuse, and energy-saving behavior in selection of the means of transportation 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 . Substantial literature has investigated the determinants of pro-environmental behavior and found the following key factors: knowledge of environmental issues, environmental experiences at a young age, culture, consumption beliefs, and psychological factors 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 .

Various studies show that unbridled energy consumption can be a threat to the environment 14 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 . Moreover, scholars and policymakers have been focusing their attention on the impact of household consumption. For example, the Japanese government has set up a goal for the household sector to reduce 66% of its CO2 emissions by 2030 to ensure the achievement of the nation’s greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals. Nonetheless, according to traditional economic theories and the subjective well-being framework, households consume energy within the context of their wealth constraints and aim to maximize the utility of the consumed energy. Subjective well-being has been described in past research as a useful measurement for assessing people’s well-being. Theoretical and empirical findings provide conflicting evidence on the association between environmental conservation goals and hedonic goals 32 , 33 , 35 , 41 , 42 , 43 .

When energy is seen as a consumption good, energy consumption expenditure may increase as household income increases, indicating a positive relationship between household income and energy consumption expenditure. The key energy consumption metric is the quantity of energy consumed (e.g., kWh) across the targeted households. Since price information is limited, transforming consumption expenditure into a quantity (e.g., kWh) is problematic. According to the theory, measurement issues are common in that household expenditure measurement is based on the expenditure amount rather than the quantity consumed. Theoretically and empirically, studies have tried to address this measurement issue by estimating the demand system 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 . Although the information relates to quantity, the observable measurement is the expenditure. Recently, Du et al. 47 estimated the energy demand function based on the demand system model. Thus, following previous research, the present study adopted this method of estimating using the energy demand equation. However, the goal framing theory presents the individual’s involvement in pro-environment behavior, that is, energy-saving behavior, under the normative goal, as practicing energy curtailment or energy efficiency behavior is the right thing to do 41 , 49 .

Moreover, if people are satisfied with their energy consumption, it might be difficult for households to reduce their energy consumption expenditure. In this context, policymakers should consider alternative tools to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at the household level. Investigations into the relationship between energy consumption at the household level and subjective well-being may provide insights as to whether households might be capable of cutting their energy consumption to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. When the climate change situation is exacerbating, energy saving behavior is expected to sustain the environment. The fossil sourced energy, for example, electricity, curtailment behavior or energy efficiency behavior is proceeded 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 . However, research focusing on energy consumption, subjective well-being, and environmental-friendly energy consumption outcomes from a multi-national level perspective remain scarce. This study aims to address this knowledge gap.

This study contributes to the literature in the following aspects. First, the survey encompasses 37 nations, accounting for approximately 73% of the world’s population, providing data that serve to illustrate the effect of energy consumption expenditure on subjective well-being. The wealth effect is also examined within this context. The results are expected to highlight whether an increase in energy consumption leads to economic development. Second, this study lists the key determinants of energy consumption expenditure in households, providing important data that may have policy implications, such as being used in the simulation of energy consumption at the household level.

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section " Methods " offers the study data and outlines the methodology, Section " Results " reports the results, and Section " Discussion " presents the discussion them. Section " Conclusion " concludes the paper.

Data collection

To explore the relationships between subjective well-being and energy consumption expenditure at the household level, this study conducted a large-scale, original, cross-sectional survey with samples from 37 nations using internet-based and face-to-face approaches. The data collection process was as follows. First, the random sampling process was applied to match the population age and gender characteristics. To do this, based on the gender and age distribution in each nation, the population was divided into numerous groups. Among all age and gender groups, restricted panels of women older than 60 years of age are scarce; therefore, an age group closest to it, that is, 55–59 years of age, was selected to avoid sample selection bias.

Second, the targeted respondents were randomly selected through a reputed company and the questionnaire was distributed to them via the internet. The company has comprehensive registered panels that enhance the collected samples to match the country's specified gender and age distributions. Moreover, the sample collection is conducted among countries separately, and to enhance the reliable of the empirical regression results, the sample size for each country is greater than 500. For each country, the number of observations ranged from 500–20,744, with the total number of observations being 100,956 over 2015–2017 (see Table 1 ).

Third, because internet users tend to be younger and more well-educated than non-internet users, the internet survey was likely to select individuals with better wealth status and good education level 55 . To counter this potential sample collection issue, the internet-based survey covered 32 nations, and the face-to-face survey was conducted in Mongolia, Myanmar, Egypt, Kazakhstan, and Sri Lanka, wherein the application of an internet-based survey was considered. Both types of surveys were conducted in Indonesia, India, and Vietnam. When conducting the face-to-face survey, survey agents visited the targeted area to collect data directly in the field along with the coauthor of this study. The agents were given extensive training. Although in the face-to-face survey, the random sampling process was not followed, the sample is valuable to present households’ energy consumption situation among rural or slum areas. Furthermore, the questionnaire was translated and repeatedly checked by professional translators to enhance accuracy. The internet-based survey covered 32 nations. The targeted countries were selected based on their regional representative population size, development representative economies, as well as cultural representativeness, that is, China and Japan are highly influenced by Confucianism, whereas Western countries share individualism, religion, and social norms.

The survey was designed to collect individuals’ perceived satisfaction in their lives, concerns about the environment, cooperation in energy usage that can be seen as energy-saving behavior, household income, energy expenditure, and other households’ demographics and economic background. In the choice items’ design for sensitive questions (e.g., household income), the exclusive items or “do not know” or unlikely-to-answer items were added to avoid dropout by respondents and improve the accuracy of the data. The survey type and number of observations in 37 nations are displayed in Table 1 .

Variable setting

Life satisfaction is a dependent variable based on the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development guidelines 56 . When policymakers aim to improve citizens’ well-being, the individual well-being level is unobservable. Therefore, subjective well-being is adopted to reflect citizens’ well-being. In measuring subjective well-being, life satisfaction and happiness are utilized in the literature, and the Cantrill ladder that measure the overall satisfaction is widely adopted 57 , 58 , 59 . The robustness check is applied for happiness, a way to measure individual subjective well-being.

To measure life satisfaction, we asked respondents to answer the following question: “Please imagine a ladder with steps numbered 0–10. The top and bottom of the ladder represent the best and worst possible lives for you, respectively. On which step of the ladder would you say you personally feel you currently stand? (10 = Best possible life; and 0 = Worst possible life).” Regarding happiness levels, the respondents were asked, “Overall, how happy are you with your life?” The response scale ranged from 1–5 (1, unhappy ; 2, slightly unhappy ; 3, neither ; 4, slightly happy ; 5, very happy ).

Energy consumption expenditure at the household level was converted into US dollars (USD) for all countries and categorized as the energy-consumption share of the monthly income and household income (the exchange rate is of January 7, 2021). In particular, for energy consumption measurement, the respondents were asked, “What is the average share of the energy bill (including a charge for electricity/ gas/ water/ kerosene/ gasoline) out of your monthly income?” The choices were: do not use at all = 1, 1–9% = 2, 10–19% = 3, 20–29% = 4, 30–39% = 5, 40–49% = 6, 50% and above = 6. To reduce missing value observations, we added the “do not know” choice. The household energy consumption expenditure was converted based on the categorized energy consumption and monthly household income. The subjective price of energy was measured as follows: we asked respondents the following question: “How do you feel about electricity/gas/water/kerosene/gasoline bills? Please select an item that best describes your thoughts.” The response scale ranged from 1–6 (6, very expensive ; 5, slightly expensive ; 4, just right ; 3, slightly cheap ; 2, very cheap ; 1, do not care ; 0, do not use at all ). The subjective price was calculated equally for all energy categories (i.e., electricity, gas, water, kerosene, and gasoline bills).

The dummy variables of energy-saving behaviors include (1) energy-curtailment behaviors (e.g., saving electricity, fuel, etc.); and (2) purchasing energy-saving household products. Other control variables include household income, educational attainment, age, occupational status, household status, number of children, and gender dummy.

Methodology

To investigate the relationship between household energy consumption, subjective well-being, and the determinants of energy consumption expenditure at the household level, both Eqs. ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) were estimated using the ordered logit model 60 , 61 . The ordered probit, ordered logit, and ordinary least square (OLS) models are considered appropriate when the independent variable is ordinal 60 , 61 ; therefore, the ordered probit and OLS models were used as robustness check. The relationship between household energy consumption and subjective well-being is demonstrated in Eq. ( 1 ):

where \({L}_{iC}\) denotes the subjective well-being indices (e.g., life satisfaction and happiness levels) of individual \(i\) from country \(C\) . The independent variable, \({K}_{iC}\) , denotes household energy consumption and is a continuous variable. \(X\) is a set of exogenous variables, including the following socioeconomic factors: household income, education attainment, age, occupational status, household status, number of children, and gender dummy. While \({D}_{C}\) is the country dummy in country \(C\) used to capture country-level heterogeneity, \({\varepsilon }_{iC}\) is the error term . \(\alpha\) , \(\theta\) , \(\beta\) , and \(\delta\) are parameters estimated using an ordered logit regression model with Stata 16.

The Likelihood Ratio ( LR ) Chi-Square test and Pseudo R-squared for the ordered logistic regression model and the ordered probit model were applied to measure the goodness of the fit, whereas F-statistics and adjusted R-squared were used for the OLS model.

In Eq. ( 2 ), the association of life satisfaction and energy consumption expenditure at the household level for each country was estimated using an ordered logit model, as follows:

where life satisfaction is the dependent variable (ranging from 0–10, with 0 being the worst and 10 the best possible life). \(K\) is a continuous variable for energy consumption expenditure at the household level. Moreover, \(X\) denotes socioeconomic and demographic factors. \({\varepsilon }_{i}\) is the error term, and \(d\) , \(f\) , and \(m\) are the estimated parameters in the ordered logit regression model. All estimations were conducted using Stata 16.

The types of socioeconomic and demographic factors influencing the energy consumption expenditure of households were investigated using Eq. ( 3 ) based on energy demand equation and an OLS model 44 , 62 , 63 , 64 :

where the dependent variable, \({K}_{i}\) , is energy consumption expenditure at the household level and a continuous variable indicating a larger energy consumption as it increases. \(Z\) denotes household income, \(M\) denotes energy saving behavior, socioeconomic, demographic factors and other control variables, including subjective price of electricity/gas/water/kerosene/gasoline, household status, age, education attainment, and occupational status. The estimated parameters are \(a,b\) and \(c\) . All estimations were conducted using Stata 16. \({\varepsilon }_{i}\) is the error term. The robustness check was confirmed based on the two-stage least square estimation.

According to household consumption theory, measurement issues are common in that household expenditure measurement is based on the amount (e.g., USD) rather than the quantity consumed (e.g., kWh). Theoretically and empirically, previous studies aimed to address this measurement issue by estimating the demand system 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 . Following previous research, this study adopted the energy demand equation method. Consider that the parameter is positive values and statistically significant. In that case, the results indicate that energy is the normal good and that demand for energy consumption increases when household income does. As a robustness check, the different types of the energy demand equation were applied according to previous studies 49 , 50 , 51 .

Ethics approval and consent to participate

For the original cross-sectional survey conducted by a company (Nikkei Research Company) between 2015 and 2017, the study design was approved by the appropriate legal and ethics review board of Kyushu University. The data were collected with informed consent from participants, following legal and ethical guidelines. All the methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations of Kyushu University.

Figure  1 presents the average monthly energy expenditure at the household level based on USD across the 37 surveyed nations. The households in Singapore expend the most amount of energy, that is, 748 USD each month on average. The energy consumption appears positively associated with the economic development level; for example, households from high-income countries, including France, Italy, Japan and the US, tend to consume more energy than those from low-income countries (e.g., Kazakhstan, Myanmar, and Mongolia). In India, Indonesia, and Vietnam, households with higher income expend more on energy than rural/slum households. For the energy expenditure to household income ratio, strong trends were not found between developing and developed countries. Notably, middle-income countries (e.g., Greece, Chile, Brazil, Egypt) spend a relatively higher share of total income on energy.

Average monthly energy expenditure at the household level across the 37 surveyed nations. Data source : Original survey.

The relationship between subjective well-being and energy consumption expenditure based on the ordered logit, ordered probit, and OLS models is shown in Table 2 , panel A. The LR Chi-Square test and Pseudo R-squared for the ordered logistic regression model and the ordered probit model were applied to measure the goodness of the fit, whereas F-statistics and adjusted R-squared were used for the OLS model. For the validation of the measurement of subjective well-being, life satisfaction and happiness measures were used. Importantly, the results from variated regression models are consistent, indicating a positive relationship between household energy consumption expenditure and the improvement of individuals’ subjective well-being. Regarding the model’s goodness of fit, the LR Chi-Square test with ordered logit and probit models, and the F-statistic in the OLS model are all statistically significant at 0.1%, which validates the regression model. As the consistency of the robustness results is derived from different models, the ordered logit model is applied in Table 2 (Panel B).

With the control variables being constant, energy consumption expenditure improves subjective well-being, including life satisfaction and happiness. The coefficients for the relationship of energy consumption with life satisfaction and with happiness are 0.018 and 0.008, respectively, and they are statistically significant at the 1% level; in other words, there is increased energy consumption for people who are satisfied with their lives and are happier. This is because electricity, water, gas, or gasoline are indispensable consumption goods in daily life. The results suggest that when policies lead to a reduction in the consumption of these goods at the household level, the life satisfaction of citizens is likely to decrease. When reducing energy consumption at the household level to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, the conflicts of interest of individuals in these households (given that they derive life satisfaction from energy consumption) pose a challenge to policymakers; therefore, policymakers should devise strategies to improve both citizens’ living standards and environmental preservation.

Referring to the criteria developed by the World Bank, the standard classification of high-income nations and non-high-income nations is as follows. Based on the 2017 gross national income (GNI) per capita, the World Bank List of Economies (June 2018) presented the following criteria for nations to be classified as high-income and non-high-income nations, respectively: a GNI per capita of $12,056 or higher, and less than $12,056. According to this standard of classification, in this study, high-income nations comprise Japan, Singapore, Chile, Australia, the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Italy, Sweden, Canada, Netherlands, Greece, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic, whereas non-high-income nations comprise Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Mexico, Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, South Africa, India, Myanmar, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Egypt, Russia, China, Turkey, Romania, and Sri Lanka.

Regarding the comparison of high- and non-high-income countries, energy consumption at the household level is more likely to lead to life satisfaction in non-high-income than in high-income countries. In high-income countries, the coefficients for the relationship of energy consumption with life satisfaction and with happiness are 0.010 and 0.003, respectively; these coefficients are 0.035 and 0.015, respectively, among non-high-income countries. Hence, in both high-income and non-high-income countries, an increase in energy consumption leads to an increase in life satisfaction; nonetheless, energy consumption is more crucial for households in non-high-income countries. Compared to the effect of energy consumption on satisfaction in high-income countries and non-high-income countries, individuals living in less urbanized countries appear more satisfied with energy consumption.

Table 3 presents the association between life satisfaction and energy consumption expenditure at the household level in each country by estimating Eq. ( 2 ) based on the ordered logit model for each country. There is a positive relationship between energy consumption expenditure and life satisfaction in 27 out of the 37 nations. For example, the coefficient of this relationship is 0.062 in Brazil, and is statistically significant at the 1% level. An increase in energy consumption expenditure positively impacts the life satisfaction of households in Brazil, meaning that individuals with greater energy expenditure tend to be satisfied with their lives. Similar results are found in other countries: Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Greece, India, Indonesia, Italy, and Japan. As life satisfaction is a proxy of well-being, energy consumption is expected to increase when households can afford more energy to obtain higher life satisfaction. These results indicate that most of the developed and developing countries analyzed face a conflict of interest in addressing individuals’ life satisfaction and environment conservation goals; these countries include China and India that are home to large populations that have a positive desire for energy consumption.

However, the association between life satisfaction and energy consumption expenditure at the household level was non-significant across some countries. In Australia, the coefficient of this association is positive but not statistically significant; hence, an increase in energy expenditure is not completely associated with life satisfaction at the household level here. Similar results are found in the Netherlands, Hungary, Sweden, Singapore, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Colombia. In these countries, energy consumption is at an adequate level, and additional energy consumption does not lead to higher life satisfaction. It may be that households consume an adequate amount of energy with their income and energy price.

Tables 4 , 5 , 6 , and 7 display the determinant factors of household energy consumption in 37 nations by estimating the energy demand equation for each country using Eq. ( 3 ). The key energy consumption metric is the quantity of energy consumed (e.g., kWh) across the targeted households. Since price information is limited, transforming consumption expenditure into a quantity (e.g., kWh) is problematic. As explained earlier, this study adopted the energy demand equation.

There are positive relationships between energy consumption expenditure at the household level and household income across countries. If the coefficients for household income are positive and statistically significant, this means that energy consumption expenditure at the household level would increase with an increase in household income ensuing from economic development in the country, ceteris paribus. The positive coefficients for the association between energy consumption expenditure and household income range from 0.756 (Japan) to 3.613 (the Philippines) in our sample, indicating that an additional 10,000 USD would lead to an additional energy consumption expenditure at the household level of approximately 17.3% (Japan) – 445% (Mongolia). The number is calculated using the magnitude of the coefficient/energy consumption expenditure. The results also show that homeowners tend to consume more energy than renters in Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Russia, the United States, and Vietnam. This indicates that if individuals live in their own houses, the household energy consumption expenditure tends to be higher owing to the wealth effect, as energy is a normal consumption good. Overall, the wealth effect on energy consumption expenditure at the household level is increasing in our sample, and with economic development, energy consumption may increase.

The following factors are confirmed to reduce energy consumption at the household level: (1) energy-curtailment behavior regarding electricity, (2) higher education, and (3) age. The energy-saving effect is confirmed in households. In Canada, the coefficient of energy-saving behaviors is -0.642, indicating that households consume 12.5% less energy when they adopt both energy curtailment behavior and non-saving groups (64.2/513). The Canadian household average energy consumption is 513 USD. Similar results are seen in Colombia, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The magnitude of the effect of energy curtailment behavior ranged from 6.4% (Russia) to 32% (India) less energy consumption expenditure. Hence, energy-saving behaviors have a favorable effect on environmentally preferable outcomes. By contrast, households in Indonesia save electricity as they tend to spend more on purchasing energy.

Individuals with higher education tend to save energy in 23 out of the 37 nations. For instance, the coefficient for individuals with university-level education is -2.292 and statistically significant at the 1% level. This suggests that households with individuals who have university-level education have less energy consumption expenditure than households with individuals with junior high school or lower levels of education. Similar results are seen in Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Encouraging households to engage in energy curtailment behaviors and higher educational attainment may lead to environment-friendly outcomes.

Surprisingly, purchasing energy-saving household products has a limited effect on reducing energy consumption expenditure at the household level. The coefficients for purchasing energy-saving household products are negative, ranging between -0.044 and -0.763, and are statistically significant in Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, Italy, and Kazakhstan. Hence, the purchase of these products in these five countries decreases energy expenditure from 2.9% (China) to 14% (Australia). However, the relationship between energy consumption expenditure at the household level and purchasing energy-saving household products is non-significant in the other countries. Moreover, in Poland and Turkey, households that purchase these products consume more energy than those that do not. Therefore, purchasing energy-saving household products has a limited contribution to energy saving at the household level.

The findings also show that older individuals tend to have lower energy consumption. The coefficients for the age variable are negative and statistically significant in 30 countries (out of 37). The effect of age on energy consumption expenditure ranges between -0.003 and -0.148, indicating that as the average age of individuals increases by one year, their monthly energy consumption expenditure reduces from 0.3–14.8 USD. This may be because older individuals are more likely to live frugally.

In this study, we identify whether greenhouse gas emissions at the household level can be reduced by reducing energy consumption expenditure at the household level. To confirm this, (1) we investigate the relationship between energy consumption expenditure at the household level and life satisfaction, and (2) examine the effect of energy-saving behavior on reducing energy consumption expenditure at the household level, and find the following trends.

First, the evidence shows a positive association between energy consumption expenditure at the household level and subjective well-being; specifically, an increase in the former is expected to increase the likelihood of people being satisfied with their lives in 27 (out of 37) of the surveyed countries, including China and the United States. These results corroborate the evidence in prior research 32 , 33 , 35 , 41 , 42 , 43 , and that endeavoring to support the achievement of environmental conservation goals through reducing energy-related greenhouse gas emissions at the household level is likely to pose many challenges. Compared to the effect of energy consumption on satisfaction in high-income countries and non-high-income countries, individuals living in less urbanized countries appear more satisfied with energy consumption.

Second, (1) energy curtailment behaviors, (2) higher education, and (3) age show environmentally favorable effects on energy consumption expenditure at the household level, consistent with prior studies 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 . A policy implication of this finding is that encouraging energy-saving behaviors, reducing population, promoting higher educational attainment, and adopting frugal lifestyles (often related to older adults) may facilitate sustainable energy consumption and general well-being. However, the purchase of energy-saving products has a limited effect on energy consumption expenditure, and policymakers and corporations may need to make greater efforts in the research and development of energy-saving electronic products.

Globally, both energy prices and household income have been increasing in recent decades. Increasing energy prices are believed to reduce household energy consumption. However, increased household wealth allows households to consume more energy. In recent decades, owing to economic growth, a standard household can afford greater amounts of energy. Moreover, when household income increases, the household income spent on energy increases.

Based on previous studies on household energy consumption, energy is confirmed as a normal good 44 , 62 , 63 , 64 . Since energy is a normal good, an increase in energy consumption is more likely to lead to greater well-being. When household income increases, the share of normal goods (energy in this case) also increases in the overall household budget. If energy were an inferior good, then as household income increases, the expenditure on energy would decrease under the new optimized consumption choices. The results are consistent with previous studies showing that wealthy households consume more energy 65 , 66 , whereas prior studies investigated the link between economic growth and CO2 at the country level. Therefore, achieving a reduction in energy consumption, and simultaneously, carbon emissions, might be difficult under a household’s rational decision-making.

At the household level, energy-saving behavior and purchasing energy-saving products will reduce energy consumption expenditure. We found that either energy curtailment behavior or purchasing energy-saving electronic products will have a limited effect when household energy is mainly sourced from fossil fuels; relying on energy-saving goods will have a limited effect when pursuing the goal of carbon emission reduction. As the carbon neutral goal should be achieved until the 2050s, household energy sourced from renewable energy or other non-fossil fuels might be a good alternative to reduce the household sector’s carbon emissions. To help address the climate change issue caused by emissions at the household consumer level, various governments are enacting legislation to reduce such emissions.

However, according to this study’s results, when fossil fuels are the primary energy source, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by decreasing energy consumption at the household level might prove difficult. Fortunately, the renewable energy sector is developing rapidly. This study encourages stakeholders to seek alternatives, such as nuclear power or preferably renewable energy, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at the household level.

The study has the following limitations. First, the sample selection approach could result in selection bias in the survey. We primarily relied on an internet survey approach, which might have skewed the sample toward wealthy and well-educated households. To address this issue, face-to-face surveys were conducted in Mongolia, Myanmar, Egypt, Kazakhstan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India, and Malaysia to confirm the robustness of the main results. However, sample selection bias might still exist. Future studies should use comprehensive datasets to investigate household energy consumption, well-being, and environmental sustainability. Second, as the information on energy prices is limited, households’ expenditure on energy is used to measure household energy consumption in each country. We assume that the greater the amount spent on energy, the greater the amount of energy consumed by households. This assumption could potentially cause bias in the results. Therefore, future studies should use comprehensive price information with accurate household energy consumption information.

Energy consumption is considered a major contributor to climate change due to CO2 emissions. Therefore, energy consumption at the household level has caught the attention of numerous researchers and policymakers. Our study raises two questions: how does energy consumption influence life satisfaction? How can energy consumption at the household level be reduced? By conducting a large-scale survey using both internet-based and face-to-face approaches across 37 nations on 6 continents (comprising approximately 73% of the world population), this study demonstrates the relationship between life satisfaction and energy consumption expenditure at the household level, as well as the determinants of energy consumption behavior in households.

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The questionnaire and data are available upon reasonable request to the authors.

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This research was supported by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (JPMEERF20201001) of the Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency of Japan and JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP20H00648, and this Research was supported by Takahashi Industrial and Economic Research Foundation, Grant number J220000023. 

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X.P. conducted the analysis, prepared the first draft of the manuscript, and participated in the revision of the manuscript. S.M. supervised the manuscript.

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Piao, X., Managi, S. Household energy-saving behavior, its consumption, and life satisfaction in 37 countries. Sci Rep 13 , 1382 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-28368-8

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Climate change is most prominent threat to pollinators

A paper published in the CABI Reviews journal has found that climate change is the most prominent threat to pollinators -- such as bumblebees, wasps, and butterflies -- who are essential for biodiversity conservation, crop yields and food security.

The research, which is entitled 'What are the main reasons for the world-wide decline in pollinator populations?', suggests that many of the threats to pollinators result from human activities.

Pollinator populations are declining worldwide and 85% of flowering plant species and 87 of the leading global crops rely on pollinators for seed production. The decline of pollinators seriously impacts biodiversity conservation, reduces crop yield, and threatens food security.

Risk of extinction

According to The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), approximately 16% of vertebrate pollinators, such as birds and bats, and 40% of invertebrate pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, are at risk of extinction.

Dr Johanne Brunet and Dr Fabiana Fragoso, authors of the review, argue that efforts to control the various factors that negatively impact pollinators must continue given the dire consequences.

They stress that understanding the drivers of pollinator decline can guide the development of strategies and action plans to protect and conserve pollinators and the essential ecosystem services they provide.

Dr Brunet said, "This review introduces the diversity of pollinators, addresses the main drivers of pollinator decline, and presents strategies to reduce their negative impacts.

"We discuss how managed bees negatively affect wild bee species, and examine the impact of habitat loss, pesticide use, pests and pathogens, pollution, and climate change on pollinator decline. Connections between humans and pollinator decline are also addressed."

Changes in water and temperature

The researchers believe that the changes in water and temperature associated with climate change can lower the quantity and quality of resources available to pollinators, decrease the survival of larvae or adults, and modify suitable habitats.

Meanwhile, pollinators, they argue, are negatively impacted by human actions including habitat loss and degradation, the application of agrochemicals, climate change, and pollution.

The researchers say, that in the absence of pollinators, the human diet will shift towards a preponderance of wheat, rice, oat, and corn, as these are wind-pollinated crops. Crops that reproduce vegetatively, such as bananas, will be maintained.

Dr Fragoso said, "Widespread use of sustainable practices in agriculture, and further development of integrated pollinator management strategies, eco-friendly strategies including reduction of pesticide use, will help preserve pollinators.

"Potential adverse effects of managed bees on the local wild bee populations must be mitigated. Non-lethal collection methods should be developed and adopted globally in response to the increasing need for base-line pollinator data collection."

Holistic approach to pollinator conservation

The researchers conclude by advising that adopting a more holistic approach to pollinator conservation, with management strategies that integrate natural habitats and agricultural systems, together with managed and wild bees, should become a priority worldwide.

"Measures must keep being implemented to reduce climate change and prevent its serious negative impacts on pollinators. Climate change has the most diverse negative impacts on pollinators and is the threat most difficult to control," said Dr Brunet. "However, its consequences threaten food security and world stability, thus efforts to control it must be prioritized at a global scale."

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Materials provided by CABI . Original written by Wayne Coles. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Johanne Brunet, Fabiana P. Fragoso. What are the main reasons for the worldwide decline in pollinator populations? CABI Reviews , 2024; DOI: 10.1079/cabireviews.2024.0016

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YSE Class of ’24: Sangam Paudel Seeks to Balance Conservation with Economic Needs

If you spotted Sangam Paudel around campus this year, chances are he was looking for birds. Paudel ’24 MEM has searched for birds around West Campus  and even collected dead birds as part of his work with the  Yale Bird-Friendly Building Initiative . The research, which so far has tracked more than 2,600 bird collisions on campus,  is already helping to accelerate the adoption of bird-friendly building designs on Yale’s campus and the Initiative hopes other building managers and cities will follow suit.

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“It’s sad, but the research could help with implementing solutions such as retrofitting windows to add contrasts into otherwise clear or reflective windows, so that birds see windows as barriers and avoid collision,” Paudel said.

Growing up in Nepal, Paudel was fascinated by all animals, but it was snakes, crocodiles, and Australian wildlife conservationist Steve Irwin that really held his attention. His childhood love for wildlife gradually developed into a greater interest and concern for the natural world. As an undergraduate at Yale-NUS College in Singapore , he made his first foray into environmental research. He studied the otter population in the country, monitoring the movements of otter families and the interactions of individual otters, both within and outside the family.

It wasn’t until he came to Yale College for his undergraduate studies and took a class with Mark Ashton, Morris K. Jesup Professor of Silviculture and Forest Ecology, that Paudel developed a keen interest in the plant side of the environment.

“Sangam took my silviculture course when he was an undergraduate at Yale-NUS College. He came back two years later for a five-year master’s, making me realize how bright and enthusiastic he is as a student. His interest lies in using agroforestry as a mechanism for biodiversity conservation,” Ashton said.

After returning  to Southeast Asia, Paudel pursued field research in mangrove forests in Pulau Ubin, an island off the coast of Singapore. 

YSE has provided me the opportunity to dive deep into forestry and think about how we might balance economic needs with biodiversity conservation and restoration.”

He observed a disconnect between conservationists and agricultural workers in Indonesia and Malaysia where the palm oil industry is shaping the environment. Paudel  said he would feel uneasy when he’d see the palm oil plantations as he flew into an Indonesian city because of the industry’s impact on deforestation and biodiversity. When  he spoke with residents who lived near the palm oil plants, such as in Northern Sumatra, he found that many growers appreciated the product. They saw it as a way to escape poverty. 

These encounters led him to question how to promote sustainable land use and biodiversity conservation while also addressing  the economic needs of local land users.

“I asked myself what and for whom conservation was really for. Yes, there are ecosystem services, and beautiful birds almost seem to demand you protect them, but if a farmer seeks to escape poverty by working the land, how do you say no? Of course, it is more complicated, but it made me think about my conservation ethos,” Paudel said.

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 At YSE, he started delving into agroforestry, a more environmentally friendly form of agriculture in which trees are intentionally integrated with agricultural crops or pasture, and worked with Senior Research Scientist Florencia Montagnini on the implications the practice could have for food security and biodiversity. 

“Sangam was always so incredibly fast and dedicated, working as an editor of my upcoming book on agroforestry, assisting in my new biodiversity credits project, and helping me with my websites. He was always knowledgeable, enthusiastic, ready to take on new challenges, always happy to get the job done,” Montagnini said.

After graduating, Paudel will continue his research at YSE,  working with Ashton and others  to study how woody vines in forests affect tree growth. He also hopes to continue research he began with classmates at YSE in tropical forest restoration that focuses on shade trees in agroforestry systems across the global tropics. 

“YSE has provided me the opportunity to dive deep into forestry and think about how we might balance economic needs with biodiversity conservation and restoration,” Paudel said.

Class of ’24

YSE Class of ’24: Jane Jacoby Is at Home at the Intersection of Environmental Law and Justice

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• Published: 16 May 2024

Ethnobotanical insights into the traditional food plants of the Baiku Yao community: a study of cultural significance, utilization, and conservation

• Binsheng Luo 1 ,
• Yuanming Tong 2 ,
• Yujing Liu 3 ,
• Ying Zhang 2 ,
• Yixin Qin 1 &
• Renchuan Hu 2  

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine volume  20 , Article number:  52 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The Baiku Yao, primarily residing in Guangxi and Guizhou provinces of China, is a distinctive branch of the Yao ethnic group, known for their profound cultural preservation and unique ethnobotanical knowledge. This study investigates the Baiku Yao community’s utilization of traditional food plants, focusing on the relationship between their dietary practices and the local biodiversity within their mountainous living environment. It aims to illuminate the cultural significance and survival strategies embedded in their ethnobotanical knowledge, highlighting the potential for sustainable living and biodiversity conservation.

Through ethnobotanical surveys, key informant interviews, and quantitative analysis techniques such as the cultural food significance index (CFSI) and relative frequency of citations (RFC), this research systematically documents the diversity and cultural importance of edible plants in the Baiku Yao community. The study assesses how these plants contribute to the community’s diet, traditional medicine, and overall cultural practices.

A total of 195 traditional edible plants were documented, belonging to 142 genera and 68 families, with a significant concentration in certain families such as Asteraceae, Rosaceae, and Fabaceae. The Baiku Yao diet prominently features herbaceous plants, with wild (103 species) and cultivated (89 species) varieties as diverse food sources. They utilize various plant parts, particularly fruits and leaves, for multiple purposes, including nutrition, medicine, and fodder. Their processing techniques, from raw to fermented, showcase a rich culinary tradition and emphasize a holistic use of plants for enhancing diet and health in a concise overview. The RFC and CFSI analyses reveal a deep cultural reliance on a variety of plant species, with a notable emphasis on vegetables, fruits, spices, and medicinal herbs. Specific plants like Zingiber officinale , Zea mays , and Oryza sativa were highlighted for their high cultural significance. The study also uncovers the multifunctional use of these plants, not only as food but also for medicinal purposes, fodder, and other cultural applications, reflecting the Baiku Yao’s profound ecological wisdom and their harmonious coexistence with nature.

The findings emphasize the rich ethnobotanical knowledge possessed by the Baiku Yao, underscoring the importance of documenting, safeguarding, and transmitting this invaluable traditional knowledge. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of cultural heritage and biodiversity conservation, advocating for concerted efforts to protect such traditional practices against the threats of modernization and cultural erosion.

Introduction

Edible plants serve not only as a primary food source for many local ethnic groups and communities but also represent a significant area of research in ethnobotany [ 1 , 2 ]. In specific circumstances, such as natural disasters or food shortages, certain wild plants are considered ‘famine foods’ and play a crucial role in sustaining food security [ 3 ]. The study and conservation of these food plants, as well as the associated traditional knowledge, are vital for understanding and utilizing biodiversity.

According to statistics, there are over 50,000 edible plant species globally. However, data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) indicate that just 15 major crops satisfy 90% of the world’s energy needs. This fact reveals humanity’s deep reliance on a limited number of crops and highlights the significant value and unutilized potential of nature as a resource repository [ 4 ]. Nevertheless, the rapid development of urbanization and modern agriculture is leading to the gradual decline of traditional farming methods, affecting the utilization rate of wild edible plants and resulting in changes in related traditional cultural knowledge and ethno-ecosystems [ 5 , 6 ].

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many remote areas globally, particularly mountainous communities, faced a series of challenges of food supply shortages and rising prices [ 7 ]. This situation increased local communities’ reliance on and consumption of wild edible plants, proving the critical role of traditional edible plants in maintaining food security [ 8 ]. The Baiku Yao of China, a group dependent on traditional farming and wild collecting, demonstrated unique resilience and adaptability in addressing food challenges during the pandemic.

The Baiku Yao, primarily located in the Baxu Yao Township and Lihu Yao Township in Nandan County, Guangxi Province, and the Yaoshan Yao Township in Libo County, Guizhou Province, is a distinct branch of the Yao ethnic group in China, with a total population about 40,000 [ 9 ]. They got this name because of the men’s traditional knee-length white trousers. Baiku Yao was recognized by UNESCO as one of the ethnic groups with the most intact cultural preservation, and they are also referred to as a ‘living fossil of human civilization’ [ 9 ]. The Baiku Yao primarily live deep in the mountains, often in limestone depressions, hillsides, or mountaintops. They have preserved their traditional farming culture, which has continued for thousands of years, mainly growing crops such as corn, soybeans, rice, cotton, and oilseeds [ 9 ]. Their dietary habits and food sources reflect the rich diversity of their culture.

Recent studies have highlighted the Baiku Yao’s extensive traditional knowledge of plant utilization. For instance, Hu et al. [ 10 ] revealed their use of plants and original techniques in traditional clothing dyeing. Luo and others have focused on the application of traditional fodder plants and veterinary plants among the Baiku Yao communities [ 11 , 12 ]. Recent research has also begun to focus on their edible plants. In the latest studies, Luo et al. studied the nutritional value and economic potential of a local food plant, Lindera pulcherrima var. attenuata , providing rich data and theoretical support for understanding their food culture and sustainable development [ 13 ]. However, the ethnobotany of Baiku Yao’s food plant culture remains an important but insufficiently explored field. Additionally, the Baiku Yao, a community that transitioned directly from a primitive to a modern society, has long inhabited the edges of the mountainous and limited land areas of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. We are very curious about how they have adapted to the challenging local conditions and how they manage their limited food supplies.

Thus, this study aims to resolve the above question and fill this research gap by systematically investigating the practice of applying edible plants in Baiku Yao communities, revealing this crucial ‘puzzle piece.’ This research surveyed the diversity of traditional edible plants used by the Baiku Yao, analyzed the characteristics of their dietary culture, and explored their survival strategies in the mountainous regions on the edge of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and their interaction with the environment. Additionally, this study will assess the functions and values of these traditional edible plants, exploring those with potential for development. The results can provide positive insights and academic references for future studies on these unutilized food plants.

Study sites

Based on a review of Baiku Yao literature, in conjunction with preliminary survey results and recommendations from the Baiku Yao Ethnic Museum staff, we selected the Lihu Yao Township (Lihu Community, Huaili Village, Dongjia Village, Yaoli Village, and Badi Village), Baxu Yao Township (Yaozhai Village, Lile Village, and Guanxi Village) in Nandan County in Guangxi Province, and Yaoshan Yao Village in Yaoshan Township, Libo County in Guizhou Province in China, as our research sites (see Fig.  1 , Table  1 ). These selected locations are primary settlements of the Baiku Yao, where traditional culture is exceptionally well-preserved, facilitating our data collection efforts. 90% of the population locally are Baiku Yao people who speak their own ethnic language. From 2020 to 2023, we conducted eight ethnobotanical surveys across different villages of the Baiku Yao ethnic group, covering all four seasons.

The study sites. (LH: Lihu Community, HL: Huaili Village, DJ: Dongjia Village, YL: Yaoli Village, and BD: Badi Village, YZ: Yaozhai Village, LL: Lile Village, GX: Guanxi Village, YS: Yaoshan Village)

Ethnobotanical interviews

The current study mainly utilized ethnobotanical methodologies, including key informant interviews supplemented by semi-structured and informal interviews. We meticulously recorded the ethnographic information (age, gender, occupation, etc.) of participants and information about the investigated species, including local Yao names, parts used, applications, resource types, processing methods, and precautions [ 14 ]. In our investigations within Baiku Yao communities, we selected 186 interviewees in total. Fifty-five key informants were recommended by local government officials, staff of the Baiku Yao Ethnic Museum, and village leaders, all possessing extensive knowledge and experience in plant utilization. An additional 131 participants were selected using the random selection method and snowball sampling at local markets or within Baiku Yao villages, with ages ranging from 20 to 82 years. Among the 186 interviewees, there were 84 males and 102 females; the selection of interviewees exhibited a degree of randomness. Thus, the gender ratio is not representative. We also employed participatory observations and field investigations to record how local people process food plants and collect voucher specimens or photograph them from the wild [ 14 ].

The identification and analysis of these voucher specimens and their photographs were conducted using resources such as Flora of China, Guangxi Plant Records, and relevant online databases ( http://www.iplant.cn , http://www.cfh.ac.cn/ , https://www.gbif.org/ , http://www.nsii.org.cn/2017/home.php , https://www.worldfloraonline.org/ ). This process facilitated the documentation of food plants in Baiku Yao communities and laid the groundwork for research and analysis of food plant resources. The voucher specimens are stored at the Herbarium of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine (GXMI).

Data analysis

The cultural food significance index (CFSI) encompasses a broad range of criteria to assess the cultural importance of specific wild edible plants. The CFSI is determined using a formula provided by Pieroni [ 15 ], designed to evaluate the cultural value of wild edibles:

The CFSI includes quotation frequency (QI, frequency of quotation index: the number of people who mentioned a plant among all informants), availability (AI, availability index: divided into very common (4.0), common (3.0), average (2.0) and uncommon (1.0), Correction Index: Widespread (=), In some places (− 0.5), In a particular place (− 0.1)), typology of the used parts (PUI, parts used index: divided into Whole plant (2.0), Leaf (2.0), Root (2.0), Branches and leaves (2.0), Tender branches and leaves (1.5), Fruit (1.50), Rhizome (1.5), Young shoot (1.25), Seed (1.0), Tender stem (1.0), Bark (1.0), Tender leaf (0.75), Flower (0.75), frequency of use (FUI, frequency of utilization index: divided into more than once a week (5.0), once a week (4.0), once a month (3.0), more than once a year but less than once a month (2.0), once a year (1.0) and unused for nearly 30 years (0.5)), kind and a number of food uses (MFFI, multifunctional food use index: divided into raw food and cold salad (1.5), boiling, stewing and seasoning (1.0), special purpose and condiments (0.75) and raw food as snacks (0.50), taste appreciation (TSAI, taste score appreciation index: divided into excellent (10.0), very good (9.0), good (7.5), fair (6.5), poor (5.5) and very poor (4.0)) and perceived role as food medicine (FMRI, food-medicinal role index: divided into very high (as medicinal food: 5.0), high (as medicine to treat a certain disease: 4.0), moderately high (very healthy food: 3.0), moderately low (healthy food, unknown efficacy: 2.0) and unknown or possibly toxic (1.0)).

As inferred from the formula, the value of the cultural food significance index (CFSI) is determined by a combination of factors: the frequency of mentions of a specific plant, its commonness, frequency of use, parts utilized, multifunctionality, taste evaluation, and its role in food-medicine practices. A higher CFSI value indicates a more significant role of the plant in dietary practices, thereby enabling preliminary identification of edible plants that are highly accepted and valued by people [ 15 ]. Applying the CFSI enables us to recognize the cultural significance of wild edible plants, highlighting their role in local diets and their potential for broader nutritional and medicinal uses [ 15 , 16 ].

This research additionally employed the relative citation frequency (RFC) as a method for statistical examination. The RFC values were determined through the formula provided in [ 17 ]:

Here, FCs denote the aggregate count of citations for each plant species by all respondents, while N is the total count of respondents [ 17 ]. The range of RFC values is from 0 to 1, where larger values suggest a more vital linkage between the food plant and the everyday existence of the Baiku Yao [ 18 ].

Results and discussion

Diversity analysis of baiku yao traditional edible plants.

In this survey, a total of 195 traditional edible plants of the Baiku Yao were documented, belonging to 142 genera and 68 families (Table  2 ). The taxonomic distribution of Baiku Yao’s edible plants revealed a concentration in certain families and a dispersion among genera (Table  3 ). The distribution among families shows that the diversity of these edible plants is concentrated in relatively few families. Specifically, there are 14 families with multiple species (≥ 5 species), comprising 114 species, accounting for 58.46% of all the edible plant species identified. Additionally, 18 families with a few species (2–4 species) comprise 44 species, making up 23.08% of the total. The remaining 36 families each contain only one edible plant species, summing up to 36 species, which is 18.46% of the total. In terms of genera, the distribution is more dispersed. There are 3 genera with multiple species (≥ 5 species), containing 17 species in total, representing 8.72% of all identified edible plant species. The genera with a few species (2–4 species) include 28 genera, containing 67 species, which is 34.36% of the total. The most common are monotypic genera, with 111, each having only one species, adding up to 111 species in total and accounting for 56.92% of the total.

The selection of edible plants by the Baiku Yao demonstrates a preference for specific families with a wide variety of plant species. The Asteraceae (18 species), Rosaceae (14 species), and Fabaceae (10 species) have the highest number of edible plant species, reflecting their significant role in the traditional dietary culture of the Baiku Yao. The Rosaceae family, with its diverse fruit offerings such as apples, pears, and peaches, caters extensively to the daily nutritional needs and snack preferences of the Baiku Yao community. These fruits are crucial for providing essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that contribute significantly to the overall health of the community. On the other hand, plants from the Asteraceae and Fabaceae families primarily contribute a variety of vegetables, enriching the Baiku Yao’s diet with a range of leafy greens and legumes. These vegetables are not only fundamental to their everyday meals but also offer a variety of nutrients important for maintaining a balanced diet.

At the genera level, the selection of edible plants shows significant diversity. Prominently, Dioscorea (6 species), Rubus (6 species), and Allium (5 species) are among the most represented, each playing a distinct role in the Baiku Yao’s diet. Dioscorea serves as an important source of carbohydrates for the local community; Rubus offers fruits, which are crucial for their nutritional content and flavor. Allium , with five species, can be utilized both as a vital seasoning and as a vegetable, enhancing meals with both taste and nutritional benefits.

Life forms and resource types

Regarding the life forms of Baiku Yao edible plants, herbaceous plants, numbering 115 species, account for 58.97%, making them the most common life form (Fig.  2 ). This prevalence may be linked to their larger biomass and greater accessibility. Tree species, totaling 34, comprise 17.44%, representing the second most common life form, followed by shrubs and lianas, with 24 and 22 species making up 12.31% and 11.28%, respectively. This distribution likely reflects the ecological characteristics of the Baiku Yao region, where herbaceous plants dominate and are more readily available, and their utility in the Baiku Yao diet.

Life forms of wild edible plants used by the Baiku Yao

The study result reflects the community’s use of various life forms to adapt to their specific environmental and cultural needs. Herbaceous plants are particularly common in this mountainous region due to their rapid growth and reproductive capabilities, which suit the dynamic changes and irregular agricultural activities of the area. These plants are easy to gather and cultivate, making them a crucial part of the daily diet, especially when providing seasonal vegetables and medicinal resources. Trees and shrubs, on the other hand, provide more stable and long-term resources, which are essential for ensuring a year-round food supply.

Regarding resource types, wild resources dominate with 103 species, slightly over 50%, while cultivated plants comprise 89 species, close to half (approximately 46%). The resource type indicates that the Baiku Yao does not exhibit a marked preference for either wild or cultivated sources, relying nearly equally on both. Mentha canadensis (mint), Eriobotrya japonica , and Broussonetia papyrifera are cultivated and can also be collected in the wild. Mint is a commonly used seasoning in Baiku Yao cuisine, E. japonica is a favored fruit, and B. papyrifera is not frequently consumed; it serves as both food and an excellent fodder source. Its high protein content in leaves, identified as a high-quality new feed, necessitates cultivation alongside wild harvesting [ 19 ]. Overall, the Baiku Yao’s reliance on both wild and cultivated resources is almost equal, reflecting a wide variety of wild edible plants and diverse cultivated species. This phenomenon demonstrates the Baiku Yao community’s profound survival wisdom in the mountainous and land-scarce areas of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. With limited arable land and distinct seasonal changes, large-scale agricultural production is not feasible. Thus, they adopt diverse food procurement strategies, relying heavily on wild edible plants and practicing mixed cropping on limited land to mitigate potential food crises from sudden disasters, which is most notably evident in their management of homegarden plants [ 20 ].

Edible parts

The Baiku Yao community utilizes a wide array of species and parts from wild edible plants. This study categorizes the edible parts as follows: fruit, tender sprout, leaf (petiole), whole plant, tuberous root, seed, tuber, stem, root, flower (young inflorescence), bulb, corm, seed coat, pollen, bark, bamboo shoot (Fig.  3 ). The data show that the most numerous are plants with edible fruits, totaling 74 species. This is likely due to the high sugar content and pleasant taste of fruits. Following fruits, tender sprouts, and leaves represent the second and third most common categories, with 49 species and 26 species, respectively, which are highly edible and the main source of wild vegetables.

Used parts of edible plants by Baiku Yao people

The data further include 14 species with edible whole plants, 13 with tuberous roots, 11 with seeds, and 10 with tubers. Lesser encountered categories are stems with 5 species, roots and flowers (young inflorescence), each with 3 species, and bulb, corm, seed coat, pollen, bark, and bamboo shoot, each with 1 species, bringing the total count to 213. Despite their lower numbers, the culinary and nutritional value of less common parts like flowers should not be underestimated; for instance, using Buddleja officinalis flowers in dishes is quite common locally. Additionally, 18 plant species were found to have more than two edible parts, such as the Hylocereus undatus with edible flowers and fruits, Campanumoea javanica with edible tubers and fruits, and Zingiber mioga with edible whole plants and tender inflorescences. The multiple edible parts of certain species provide a reliable food source throughout different times of the year. This not only helps keep the community well-fed by offering a variety of nutrients but also shows deep local knowledge about how to use nature wisely and sustainably.

The wide variety of edible plant types and parts used by Baiku Yao offers a comprehensive and ample supply of nutrients for the local diet, including proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Ensuring a balanced dietary structure and nutrition is crucial for maintaining health.

Harvesting and processing methods

In our in-depth study of the Baiku Yao’s traditional harvesting habits, we observed a clear seasonality in their selection of wild edible plants. Spring and autumn, when most plants are in their peak growth phase, are the periods of most frequent harvesting activities. During these two seasons, the plant species harvested account for 56.39% of the total species surveyed. This seasonal collection not only reflects the close relationship between plant growth cycles and harvesting activities but also highlights the richness of edible parts available in specific seasons. For instance, spring is the growth period for many plants’ tender leaves and flowers, while autumn is the time for fruit and seed maturation.

Although the variety of plants harvested in winter decreases to 49 species (17.38% of the total), the activity continues, mainly focusing on rhizomes and some evergreens that survive low temperatures. The variety further reduces to 33 species (11.70%) in summer, possibly due to the vigorous growth of plants, leafy plants age and become less palatable, and fruit plants are not yet mature, leading to reduced harvesting in summer. Notably, 41 species can be harvested year-round, accounting for 14.54%, reflecting the Baiku Yao’s continuous dependence on these multi-seasonal plants.

The Baiku Yao also exhibit significant diversity in their processing and utilization methods of wild edible plants, which are closely linked to their living environment and self-sufficient lifestyle. Statistical analysis (see Fig.  4 ) shows that the primary processing methods include boiling, simple stir-frying, and raw consumption. The Baiku Yao people believe that boiling can reduce the loss of nutrients in food while aiding in the body’s absorption. Therefore, they have a strong preference for boiling in food processing. However, as their contact and exchange with the outside world increase, stir-frying has become increasingly favored by the Baiku Yao, which can further enrich food flavor.

Processing methods of food plants by Baiku Yao people

Nearly one-fifth of the plants are used as seasoning or spices, possibly involving roots, stems, or mature seeds harvested in specific seasons. Due to their long-standing location in inland mountainous regions where salt is scarce, the Baiku Yao has developed many plant species for seasoning to enhance the flavor of their food. The processing methods of seasonings are diverse; they can be stewed, boiled, or stir-fried together with meat, directly combined with salt and oil to form dipping sauces, or used in the initial meat marination for stewing or stir-frying. To avoid excessive repetition in this study, the term "seasonings" is uniformly used to categorize the related plant processing types. Other methods like roasting, steaming, and making cold dishes (salad) are less common but demonstrate the unique utilization of different plant parts. Additionally, a few plants undergo deep processing, such as extraction of sugars or oils, typically involving mature parts harvested in specific seasons.

These findings not only reveal the Baiku Yao’s extensive knowledge in harvesting and processing wild plants but also show how they combine the seasonal characteristics of plants with the utilization of different parts to adapt to their living environment and sustainable development needs. This accumulated experience is closely linked to their history of living in relatively isolated mountainous areas and relying on a self-sufficient lifestyle.

Application categories

Our study reveals the Baiku Yao’s comprehensive use of wild plants in their traditional dietary practices (Fig.  5 ), an approach of significant research value in ecology and cultural anthropology. With 90 varieties, vegetables lead the plant utilization categories, reflecting the Baiku Yao’s extensive development and application of wild plant resources in their long-term adaptation to the local environment. These vegetables not only provide the Baiku Yao with essential daily nutrition but also play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and food security.

Use purpose of food plants by Baiku Yao people

The Baiku Yao community consumes 54 different fruit species. These fruit species not only enrich the diet in taste and nutrition but may also serve as a buffer in the seasonal food supply. The utilization of 21 spice plants illustrates the complexity of Baiku Yao cuisine and its refined pursuit of flavors. Additionally, given that their diet primarily comprises light foods with minimal oil and salt, the rich variety of spice plants enhances flavor and nutrition. Using 22 staple food plants, such as various tubers and grains, underscores the diversity of carbohydrate sources in the Baiku Yao diet.

The 17 recorded species for nutritional tonics often contain significant medicinal value, which is crucial in traditional medical practices. The Baiku Yao’s knowledge and use of these plants reflect their deep understanding and intergenerational transmission of local plant medicinal properties. Moreover, other categories like brewing plants, edible pigments, and tea substitutes, though numerically fewer, are vital expressions of Baiku Yao’s cultural characteristics. Five recorded brewing plants reveal the role of brewing techniques in social ceremonies and daily life. Four edible pigment plants demonstrate the Baiku Yao’s aesthetic pursuit in visual enhancement and food processing. Additionally, a food additive species is usually burnt into ashes and added to wrapping zongzi (rice dumplings), enhancing this traditional dish’s taste and preservation.

Statistical data show that the Baiku Yao utilize 195 plant species to meet their dietary needs, with 124 having additional uses beyond essential food functions (Fig.  6 ). The multifunctional use of these plants illustrates the Baiku Yao’s exceptional wisdom in traditional knowledge and biodiversity utilization. Specifically, 94 species also serve medicinal purposes, confirming the deep-rooted culture of food therapy among the Baiku Yao and reflecting their profound legacy in local medical knowledge. The use of 50 plants as fodder highlights the Baiku Yao’s adaptability and resource recycling in agriculture and animal husbandry. The documentation of 12 veterinary plants reveals traditional methods of animal health management, potentially providing a foundational basis for modern veterinary science. The utilization of 7 dye plants and 8 ceremonial plants profoundly demonstrates the multi-dimensional role of plants in the Baiku Yao’s daily life and spiritual culture.

Multi-functional food plants used by Baiku Yao people

The versatile use of these plants not only adds to the Baiku Yao’s cultural wealth but also tangibly reflects their spiritual beliefs. The Baiku Yao’s comprehensive use of plants demonstrates a thorough ecological knowledge and a dedication to living in harmony with both nature and their community. This profound connection with the environment offers vital insights into preserving their distinctive cultural identity.

CFSI indices

Significant variations are evident in the cultural food significance index (CFSI) across different species. As per the study by Pieroni et al. (2001), wild edible plants are categorized into six levels based on their CFSI values: very high (CFSI = 1000 and above), high (CFSI = 999–500), moderate (CFSI = 499–100), low (CFSI = 99–50), very low (CFSI = 50–10), and negligible (CFSI < 10). There is a notable disparity in the distribution of plants across these categories. Specifically, the moderate category comprises 67 plant species, followed by the very low category with 51 species, and then the low (29 species), high (14 species), very high (23 species), and negligible (11 species) categories [ 15 ].

In studying the wild edible plants of the Baiku Yao region, special attention was paid to their cultural food significance index (CFSI) to assess the importance of different plants in the lives of local people. In this assessment, 23 plant species were assigned significantly high importance (CFSI = 1000 and above). These include Ipomoea batatas (sweet potatoes), Zanthoxylum armatum , Glycine max (soybeans), Morus alba , Raphanus sativus (radish), Musa basjoo , Zingiber officinale (ginger), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), Pisum sativum (peas), Capsicum annuum (chili peppers), Allium hookeri , Plantago asiatica , etc. These plants are typically common in daily diets, with a characteristic presence of spice and side-dish plants, and most are perennial herbs that can be harvested throughout the year. Their edible parts are diverse, including tubers, rhizomes, leaves, fruits, seeds, and other parts of the herbaceous plants.

Among all these plants, sweet potato has the most prominent CFSI value. As an important source of energy and protein nutrition for local residents, it is not only easy to cultivate but also has multiple usable parts and a high frequency of consumption. It also has various processing and culinary methods, hence its high CFSI value. Following this is Zanthoxylum armatum , which also has a high CFSI value and is typically used as a spice stewed with meat to eliminate the gamey taste. Plants like ginger, chili peppers, perilla, garlic, and onions also play a significant role in seasoning. Particularly noteworthy is Houttuynia cordata , also known as "yuxingcao," the wild vegetable with an extremely high CFSI. H. cordata is not only edible but also has medicinal value. It is processed locally in various ways, including stir-frying and cold salads. Rich in protein, minerals, crude fiber, and various vitamins, it contains active components like houttuynine and decanoyl acetaldehyde, offering anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antioxidant, and antiviral properties [ 21 , 22 ]. It is widely used in the treatment of respiratory diseases, urological diseases, digestive diseases, dermatological conditions, and gynecological ailments [ 23 ]. The culinary methods for H. cordata are versatile; it can be washed, roots plucked, and mixed with salt, sugar, vinegar, etc., for cold salad consumption. During the summer and autumn, tender stems and leaves are picked, blanched, and rinsed for stir-frying or soup preparation. In winter and spring, its rhizomes are dug up, salted, and consumed, generally preferring the light reddish-brown parts with complete stems and leaves, free of impurities. Furthermore, as a natural product rich in various nutrients and bioactive components, H. cordata has attributes such as safety, nutrition, and minimal side effects [ 24 ]. When added to feed, it not only enhances nutritional and medicinal values but also improves palatability, making it an ideal substitute for antibiotics and an emerging additive in animal feed [ 24 ].

In the high CFSI (CFSI = 999–500) category, there are 14 plant species, most of which are wild edible plants commonly classified as vegetables. These plants are not only valued for their nutritional content but also for their multifunctionality, making them a focal point of research. Typically processed through cooking methods such as frying or boiling, they form an indispensable part of the local diet. Notably, these plants satisfy not just dietary needs but also possess significant medicinal value, and as fodder, they supplement livestock’s food sources. This underscores the plants’ multiple roles in the ecosystem, serving both as a source of human food and as nutritional providers for animals.

The moderate CFSI (CFSI = 499–100) category includes 66 plant species, representing the largest proportion in all categories. Among these, 39 are herbaceous, mainly encompassing various fruits and vegetables. These plants hold a significant place in the daily diet of local communities and, due to their medicinal properties, are also vitally important in traditional medicine. For instance, E. japonica is not only widely cultivated as a food source but also valued for its medicinal properties. Similarly, plants like B. papyrifera , Artemisia indica , and Leucocasia gigantea exhibit their multifunctionality. Additionally, this category includes plants like Bambusa chungii , used for religious rituals, and Buddleja officinalis , known for its dyeing properties, revealing the profound influence of culture and tradition in the utilization of edible plants.

In the low CFSI (CFSI = 99–50) and very low CFSI (CFSI = 50–10) categories, there are 28 and 51 plant species, respectively. These plants are primarily medicinal herbs, covering a variety of edible categories, from vegetables and fruits to staple foods, supplements, and spices. In these categories, about 90% of the supplementary edible plants are distributed, which are not only nutritionally diverse but also hold a significant place in dietary therapy and folk medicine. Their lower CFSI values are likely due to the plants’ more limited uses and less frequent consumption as supplements. Finally, in the negligible CFSI category (< 10), there are 11 plant species. Although these plants currently hold a lower status in the prevailing food culture, their existence still has potential importance for the conservation of ecological diversity and cultural heritage.

Based on the data from the interviews (Table  4 ), we can observe that certain plants are closely linked to the livelihoods and daily lives of the local residents through the relative citation frequency (RFC) values. This table shows the top 10 edible plants most familiar within the local community, with species such as Zingiber officinale , Zea mays , and Oryza sativa not only ranking high in RFC values but also being commonly cultivated and consumed in the region, indicating their crucial role in local agricultural production and culinary culture.

The FCs in the RFC calculation reflect the total number of mentions of a specific plant species across all informants, corresponding to the quotation index (QI) within the cultural food significance index (CFSI), indicating that plants with higher RFC values often possess higher CFSI scores. However, since the CFSI evaluation considers various other factors, there are instances in this table where certain plants, including Oryza sativa (the most common staple food), Prunus persica , Prunus salicina , and Myrica rubra , have high RFC values. However, their CFSI scores do not exceed 1000. This phenomenon suggests that while they may be important components of the community’s daily diet, their contribution to culinary culture is relatively small compared to other crops.

Utilization strategies and heritage of Baiku Yao edible plants

The Baiku Yao, predominantly residing in the deep mountainous area, have sustained their millennia-old agricultural era, which continues to play a vital role today. They inherit traditional agricultural practices, farming according to the seasons, working from sunrise to sunset, and growing major crops, including corn, soybeans, rice, cotton, and oilseeds [ 20 ]. However, the scarcity of fertile land and underdeveloped transportation have compelled the Baiku Yao residents to intensify their exploration of surrounding wild edible plant resources and innovate their own cultivation systems. Firstly, their acquisition of wild edible plants encompasses not only staple plants rich in resources (such as L. pulcherrima var. attenuata , Ulmus castaneifolia , Dioscorea japonica , and Dioscorea persimilis ) but also a variety of vegetables and wild fruits for nutritional supplementation. Secondly, they adopt diverse species cultivation management strategies to ensure necessary food sources, such as intercropping sweet potatoes, soybeans, and cannabis in cornfields and planting various edible plants in courtyards less than 10 square meters [ 20 ]. Additionally, they use aromatic plants to enhance the pleasure and flavor of their diet, and medicinal and edible plants for nutritional supplementation, thereby constructing a rich and complex food system to cope with harsh living conditions.

In our survey of the Baiku Yao community, we found that their rural courtyards play a crucial role in preserving and transmitting traditional knowledge related to edible plants. Surrounding the Baiku Yao community are Zhuang and Han villages, which, compared to the Baiku Yao community, have more arable land. Due to more convenient transportation, villagers often do not need to rely on collecting wild edible plants for their daily dietary supplementation. This has led them to generally choose larger-scale crops, with relatively fewer varieties of edible plants cultivated (Fig.  7 ). In contrast, the Baiku Yao community, facing different geographical and economic environments with more mountains and less arable land, fully uses the limited space in their small rural courtyards to cultivate diverse edible plants. This intensive and diverse planting approach not only demonstrates the Baiku Yao community’s effective utilization of land resources but also reflects their rich experience in knowledge and utilization of edible plants [ 20 ]. However, this traditional knowledge, particularly in the Baiku Yao community, faces challenges from modernization and threats from the younger generation, who are leaving to work outside and abandoning traditional agricultural lifestyles. Therefore, it is very important to record, safeguard, and pass on this important traditional knowledge, requiring effort and support from everyone in society.

Homegardens with different strategies ( A and B show the homegardens of the Baiku Yao village, while C and D show the homegardens of the Han villages around the Baiku Yao communities.)

Distinguishing features of local food plant culture

Although comprehensive ethnobotanical studies focusing on specific areas in Guangxi are relatively limited, our prior research has thoroughly explored the edible plants in the Fangchenggang area [ 25 ]. The Zhuang ethnic group predominantly inhabits this region, which is situated near the sea. It features a climate and ecological environment that distinctly contrasts with that of the inland mountainous areas. Such environmental differences directly influence the diversity of local plant species and their local folk uses.

Because of its proximity to the sea, the Fangchenggang area possesses a rich and diverse flora, which differs significantly from that of the Baiku Yao communities, which are in the mountainous region. For example, the Zhuang people in Fangchenggang can utilize a greater variety of plants adapted to the humid and hot climate, such as Abrus precatorius , Pentaphragma spicatum , and Hedyotis effuse [ 25 ], which are rare in the Baiku Yao area. These ecological differences lead to distinct choices in edible plants, thereby influencing food preparation and consumption habits.

Notably, many edible plants in the Zhuang community of Fangchenggang are used as tea substitutes or other beverages and are closely associated with the local humid and hot climate [ 25 ]. In high-temperature environments, people tend to choose beverages that offer a cooling sensation or have heat-relieving effects. The widespread use of tea substitute plants not only reflects adaptation to the environment but also highlights dietary preferences for refreshing drinks. Additionally, the humid and hot climate facilitates the fermentation process, and the Zhuang preference for fermented foods, especially sour-tasting ones, further aids in food preservation [ 25 ]. In contrast, the use of fermented foods is less frequent in the Baiku Yao community, likely due to its drier climate and traditional food preservation techniques.

On the other hand, geographically adjacent, Guangdong Province and Guangxi Province share certain cultural and linguistic similarities, yet they exhibit significant differences in some cultural practices. For instance, both the Cantonese and Hakka regions of Guangdong are renowned for their rich culture of herbal soups and herbal teas, influenced significantly by the open geographical location and level of economic development [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. The multiple ports and developed commercial activities in Guangdong facilitate the integration of foreign cultures with local traditions, enriching the local medicinal cuisine. In contrast, the Baiku Yao area, due to its relatively isolated geographical location and underdeveloped transportation conditions, has been less influenced by external cultures over time. This relative isolation has allowed the Baiku Yao community to preserve its traditional lifestyle and cultural practices but has also limited the introduction of new ideas and customs. Therefore, while Guangdong and Guangxi are geographically close, the Baiku Yao area does not share the rich culture of herbal soups and herbal teas seen in Guangdong. This phenomenon indirectly supports the notion of the Baiku Yao as a "cultural fossil," with its culture and traditions preserved through long-term geographical and social isolation.

This comparative analysis not only underscores the Baiku Yao’s unique utilization of edible plants but also reveals the deep-seated differences stemming from each region’s distinct geographical, ecological, and cultural contexts. By highlighting the significant roles of geographical and ecological factors in the selection and use of traditional edible plants, this study offers valuable insights into preserving and understanding the plant knowledge inherent in these cultures. Such insights are crucial for developing strategies that safeguard this invaluable cultural heritage.

The Baiku Yao’s traditional knowledge and use of edible plants represent a rich tapestry of ethnobotanical wisdom, deeply intertwined with their cultural identity and survival strategies. Their diversified use of plants, including vegetables, fruits, spices, and medicinal herbs, reflects a deep understanding of local biodiversity and a sustainable approach to resource utilization. The CFSI has proven instrumental in categorizing plants based on their cultural significance, illuminating the community’s reliance on and reverence for these natural resources. However, the encroachment of modernization poses significant threats to the preservation of this knowledge. It is imperative to document, protect, and transmit these practices, not only to sustain the Baiku Yao’s cultural heritage but also to contribute to global knowledge on sustainable living and biodiversity conservation. This study serves as a vital academic reference for future research and underscores the need for concerted efforts in ethnobotanical conservation.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

Cultural food significance index

Quotation index

Availability index

Parts used index

Frequency of utilization index

Multifunctional food use index

Taste score appreciation index

Food-medicinal role index

Relative citation frequency

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This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 32000264); the Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi (Grant No. 2018GXNSFBA281162); Survey and Collection of Germplasm Resources of Woody & Herbaceous Plants in Guangxi, China (GXFS-2021-34); The Guangxi High-Level Key Disciplines Construction Pilot Project in Traditional Chinese Medicine—Authentication of Chinese Medicinal Materials (No. 27).

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B.L. and R.H. did conception and design of the study and drafted and revised the manuscript; Y.T., Y.L., Y.Z., Y.Q., and R.H. collected the data; B.L., Y.T., Y.L., Y.Z., Y.Q. done interpretation and analysis.

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Luo, B., Tong, Y., Liu, Y. et al. Ethnobotanical insights into the traditional food plants of the Baiku Yao community: a study of cultural significance, utilization, and conservation. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine 20 , 52 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-024-00691-y

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Each year the  Environmental Science and Design Research Institute (ESDRI) hosts a competitive request for proposals which are reviewed by an interdisciplinary panel, awarding seed grants with funding up to $12,000 for multidisciplinary research related to ESDRI’s wide-ranging  areas of focus . These seed grants provide funds for preliminary or early-stage research, facilitating the building blocks to apply for extramural funding.

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This year the institute awarded three seed grants and they are thrilled to support this important and timely research!

"Two-eyed seeing in Earth observations: co-creating data tools and capacity for Earth observations data analysis in support of California’s land transfer policy"

Elaine (Lan Yin) Hsiao, PhD (Assistant Professor, School of Peace and Conflict Studies) and  He Yin, PhD (Assistant Professor, Department of Geography) were awarded an ESDRI seed grant to conduct a pilot study focused on supporting the transfer of land back to California Tribal Nations using two-eyed seeing that combines both remote sensing and Indigenous knowledge. This includes identifying lands that are at risk, from stressors such as degradation or wildfire, that would benefit from Indigenous conservation. “This work has real world implications because it is taking place in a state where funds are provided for Tribes to buy back land,” says Hsiao, “Within this project we can identify lands that might be optimal for land transfer while at the same time strengthening the argument that these lands should be given back.” 

This work centers around workshops with Tribal members in which they will first meet and begin the project design process, then the core research team will bring initial research back to Tribal members, and finally the whole team will work together to pull everything they have learned into a larger project proposal for external funding. The first workshop, taking place this summer, will include “listening sessions to understand the needs of the stakeholders,” tells He, “which are much needed to guide our remote sensing work.” He is excited to begin his first remote sensing project in the environmental justice sphere, adding “What is even more exciting is that I will co-design the research with the stakeholder, rather than just working alone.”

Joining Hsiao and He on this project are undergraduate students Rae Baba (Junior, Environmental Studies with Environment, Peace, and Justice minor) and Andrew Shenal (Sophomore, Environmental Studies with Geography and GIS minors). Both are participants in the  Summer Undergraduate Research Experience (SURE) program and are supported by ESDRI and the  Anti-Racism and Equity Institute (AREI), respectively.

The research team states that the seed grant makes this co-design process possible. By creating the workshops in California, it allows them to physically meet with partners and design together, from the basic plans of the project to how data is managed. Hsiao says, “This level of collaboration requires a lot of time together to work through questions and ideas, and it is really not possible to build this trust and side-by-side cooperation otherwise.”

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"Unlocking secrets below: Investigating the spatial heterogeneity of carbon stabilization in Arctic lake sediments through a visual lens"

Chelsea Smith, PhD (Postdoctoral Scholar, Department of Earth Sciences),  Allyson Tessin, PhD (Assistant Professor, Department of Earth Sciences), and  Shannon Hines  (Manager, Design Innovation Hub) will be deploying a camera system to study lake sediments in an Arctic lake in Alaska with their seed grant. Lakes hold an important role in carbon sequestration, but with climate change, that carbon isn’t necessarily going to remain stored in lake sediments. “Warming causes more carbon to enter lakes from the surrounding landscape as permafrost thaws, then in turn microbes can eat that carbon, releasing carbon dioxide,” tells Smith, “However, metals, such as iron and manganese, may stabilize the carbon, making it inaccessible to microbes allowing it to eventually become buried in the sediments over time.” The group's preliminary research shows that some parts of their research lake, Lake Toolik, are high in iron, while other parts are high in manganese. This interesting feature of the lake will allow them to look at the role of each of these metals separately and see if they are doing similar or different things.

Being awarded an ESDRI seed grant allowed an increase in interdisciplinarity for this research. Smith and Tessin brought on Hines as well as Nicholas Cindrich (BE ‘24, Mechatronics Engineering Technology), to help with the planning and design of the 3D printed camera and light attachments that will fasten to their sediment coring device. Sediment cores are a traditional way to sample sediment in lakes, but adding the camera and light allows for videos to be taken of the process to use in outreach and education material. Additionally, the team noticed some odd striations in one sampling site in Toolik Lake (right) and this new tool will allow them to examine that abnormality more closely. A prototype of this camera system will be tested out in the Central Basin of Lake Erie in June with plans to take it to Alaska in August.

Smith is very passionate about outreach and has plans to disseminate this information as well as generally teach students about this type of research in collaboration with the Toolik Field Station, the Alaska Native Science and Engineering Program, and as a Scientist in Residency at the Sitka Sound Science Center. Through these programs she’ll be with students from grade school through high school, participating in workshops, group projects, panel discussions, radio and podcast interviews, and classroom visits.

Find out more about this carbon stabilization research project

"Understanding the Early-Stage Invasion Dynamics of Box Tree Moths in Midwestern USA: Integrating Genomics and Landscape Approaches"

Sangeet Lamichhaney, PhD (Assistant Professor, Department of Biological Sciences),  Sarah Eichler, PhD  (Assistant Professor, Department of Biological Sciences), and  He Yin, PhD (Assistant Professor, Department of Geography) were awarded a seed grant to study the early-stage invasion of the Box Tree Moth (Cydalima perspectalis) in Ohio, Michigan, and New York. This work will be key to understanding the invasion dynamics of this moth, which decimates boxwood trees (Buxus sps.), but also has the potential to answer bigger questions in the field of invasion biology. “Most invasive systems we study are already established systems. We don’t normally get to study the biological processes associated with early stages of invasion, so we have a very interesting case with the Box Tree Moths which were first identified in the USA in 2021,” says Lamichhaney. “We will begin trapping Box Tree Moth adults and larvae in May and use genomics tools to characterize genetic diversity and population structure of local invasive populations, identify genetic markers associated with their successful introduction and explore where these populations originated from.”

During this time Eichler will lead the collection of “on the ground” data, and states “we will do a rapid assessment of the plant community near each trap as well as assess the relative development intensity of the area.” The team will also obtain plant tissue and soil samples to test the attractiveness of pests based on plant and soil nutrition. Alongside, He will be at the field sites to learn about the vegetation and landscape. “Such information is vital for guiding remote sensing work,” says He.

One of the key pieces to this work is the combination of genomic and landscape approaches. In addition to this “on the ground” data collection, Eichler and Yin will be analyzing landscape characteristics such as topography, land use patterns, habitat composition from satellite imagery to see if plant community may be a factor in where the moths become established. He tells us “While you cannot detect individual moths from satellite images, we can see the damage of the moth to plants, which can be used to trace moths.” These elements will be combined to answer the questions about the invasion dynamics of this pest. Lamichhaney, Eichler and He expect to accomplish a detailed assessment of surrounding landscape features in the invasion areas and identify the spatial relationships between genetic variations in local invasive populations and landscape features.

The team includes a handful of students with key skills from genomics to remote sensing and GIS: Aarati Basnet (PhD Student, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology), Carter Henry (Junior, Zoology), Aciano Leipply-Caban (Sophomore, Botany with Climate Change and GIS minors), and Gus Holman (incoming PhD Student, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology). 

The research team states that this new collaboration and the transdisciplinarity of the project was made possible, in part, by ESDRI. They are currently collaborating with the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Ohio Department of Agriculture (ODA), with plans to produce public awareness campaign materials based on the results of this study. Given the popularity of the Box Tree as an ornamental plant, it is crucial to involve the public in understanding the invasion in our region and methods for its control.    

Find out more about this invasive species research project

Kent State University is proud to be ranked as an  R1 Carnegie Classification .  Aside from the Environmental Science and Design Research Institute,  explore the other institutes and initiatives that are dedicated to cutting edge research and development .

To learn more about the Environmental Science and Design Research Institute’s Seed Grant Program as well view past awarded projects, please visit the Seed Grant Program page

• Environmental Science and Design Research Institute
• Department of Biological Sciences
• Department of Earth Sciences
• Department of Geography
• School of Peace and Conflict Studies
• Anti-Racism and Equity Institute

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