how to write a speech in parliament

• Course Calendar
• Private Training
• Group Masterclasses
• Online Courses and Webinars
• Train the Trainer
• Train the Trainer: Graduate Verification
• Training for Private Households
• Corporate Training and Services

Forms of Address

• Etiquette Insights
• Call: Call: +44 (0)207 856 0590
• Email: [email protected]
• Send a Whatsapp message: https://wa.me/442078560590

How to address British Politicians

The prime minister.

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the Head of Government of the United Kingdom.

Did you know? The office of Prime Minister is not established by any statute or constitutional document but exists only by long-established convention, whereby the monarch appoints as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons.

Dear Prime Minister Yours faithfully

Envelope: The Rt Hon Rishi Sunak, The Prime Minister

Verbal address: Prime Minister Conversation (first address): The Prime Minister Conversation (after that): Sir (or Madam if a female PM)

Members of Parliament

The United Kingdom has several different parliaments or assemblies and so how to address British politicians varies depending on the parliament to which they belong.

The Rt Hon.

How you address British politicians also depends on whether they are a privy counsellor. If they are, they have the prefix The Rt Hon’ before their names. ‘Mr/Mrs etc’ are dropped.

For example: The Rt Hon John Jones.

If a male privy counsellor is also a knight , his correct style of address would be ‘The Rt Hon Sir John Jones’.

If the privy counsellor is female, ‘The Rt Hon’ replaces Mrs/ Miss/Ms in her style of address.

For example: The Rt Hon Judy Jacobs.

If she is also a dame, her style of address would be ‘The Rt Hon Dame Judy Jacobs’.

As membership of the Privy Council is an appointment rather than an honour conferred, the letters PC follow all honours and decorations awarded by the Crown. They would go before most other letters after the name, including MP.  Thus, if Judy Jacobs were a Privy Councillor and a Member of Parliament, she would be: ‘The Rt Hon Judy Jacobs PC MP’.

British Parliament

Members of Parliament (MPs) refers to the House of Commons, the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

All members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom have the letters MP after their names in writing.

For example: Mr John Smith MP or John Smith MP.

Scottish Parliament

MSPs are elected members of the Scottish Parliament and accordingly have MSP after their name in writing.

Ms Jane Jones MSP or Jane Jones MSP.

Welsh Parliament

Members of the Senedd Cymru (the Welsh Parliament) use the English title Member of the Senedd (MS) or the Welsh equivalent Aelod o’r Senedd (AS) after their name.

For example: Mr Hugh Green MP or Hugh Green MP.

The King and Queen

Other royalty, british aristocracy, knights and dames, untitled people, we're here to help.

For in-depth advice or matters that are not covered in our Forms of Address section, please feel free to contact us.

Home   /   Forms of Address   /   How to address British Politicians

To provide the best experiences, we use technologies like cookies to store and/or access device information. Consenting to these technologies will allow us to process data such as browsing behaviour or unique IDs on this site. Not consenting or withdrawing consent, may adversely affect certain features and functions.

Register for Summer Camp!

Resource 11: Parliamentary Debate Format

Resource 11, parliamentary debate format.

Parliamentary Debate is modeled after British parliamentary procedure and is an academic debate format used in competitive high school and university tournaments. There is quite a bit of literature on strategies and techniques related to Parliamentary Debate (or “parli”), so this guidance sheet is intended as an overview for beginners to get started or for those interested in incorporating debate as an activity or exercise.

Protocol: There are a few variations on parliamentary debate speech timing, but one common iteration is: 20 minutes of preparation time, followed by…

• Affirmative (Pro): 7 minutes
• Negative (Con): 7 minutes
• Negative (Con): 5 minutes
• Affirmative (Pro): 5 minutes

Parli Topics: Given how widespread parliamentary debate is, it is fairly easy to find lists of topics online with in-depth guidance on facilitating parli rounds. By adding “for middle school” or “for high school” to your search, you can find topics that are good for beginners of any age. In general, topics can fall in the categories of “fact”, “value”, or “policy”, and should have equal ground on both sides. It’s also good to draw inspiration from Op-Ed articles and editorials about current issues, or think about important issues that no one is really talking about.

Here are some starters to create your own topics:

• “______ is better than _______.”
• “All _____ are _______.”
• “_______ ought to be valued over_______ in cases of _______.”
• “________ have a moral obligation to _________.”
• “The government should substantially increase funding for ________.”
• “______ should ban _______.”

Opening Case Example: To get started, here is a specific example of how you might structure your opening speech during your 20 minutes of preparation time:

The site for everyone working for an MP

Writing a speech.

• General tips for writing a speech for your MP 

This is not a guide to rhetoric.  It is not a guide on how to turn your MP into a renowned orator.  This is simply a guide to researching a speech and putting it together in a way that is suitable for your MP.

Your Member will have views on how they want a speech prepared.  Some will want bullet points, some will want statistics and some will want a speech in full.

Preparing the ground

When you are writing a speech for your MP, the first thing to do is to gather together as much information as possible on the subject.  How do you do this?

• Search the Commons Library website for any relevant research briefings
• If you can’t find what you need, phone the library (x6767) or email [email protected] and ask for the research officer who deals with your subject area and ask them for any relevant information they have to hand.
• Obtain copies of other debates and Questions on the subject are, you can download extracts from Hansard .
• Use an Internet search to find any useful websites that might give you useful information or point you in the right direction for the speech content.
• Are there any professional bodies, pressure groups, NGOs etc that have views on the subject and would provide a briefing?
• Look at the newspaper websites for recent reports on the subject.
• Try to find an angle that relates to your Member’s constituency.

When you have all this information, sift through it to get only the most relevant parts to include in the finished product.  If there is an interested body prepared to help, don’t be shy about asking them to write the first draft of the speech, but never hand over that draft without adapting it to your Member’s priorities and idiosyncrasies.

The aim of the speech

Then think of the aim of the speech: whom are you trying to persuade?  And what are you trying to persuade them?  Think about your use of the information you have recovered: will you seek to persuade the audience with a fact-based speech?  Or will you try to persuade them through lofty rhetoric?  Other things that you should find out: how should you address the audience (‘My Lords, Ladies and Gentlemen’ or ‘Dear friends of Ray Lodge Primary School’)?  How long should the speech be?  Will there be a supplementary speech, responding to another speaker?  Are there multiple audiences?  If it is a speech in Parliament, what is the one line that encapsulates the message that you will send the media as a quotation from the speech?

Writing the speech

Now you are ready to start writing.  What should you do before scribbling away?  First, think of the audience for the speech: you should not adopt the same tone for a speech to parents and teachers in the local primary school as you would for a speech in the House of Commons.  In the Commons there are specific conventions about how certain people and places are described.  The best way to learn these conventions is to attend debates, watch them on television and read them in Hansard.

Some examples of Parliamentary Language

So now, start writing.  Try to write in the same style as your MP’s past speeches.  Start off by introducing the subject (although it may be that you can assume some prior knowledge in your audience).  The middle of the speech should explain your point of view, using the information obtained earlier.  When summing up, you should briefly restate your arguments and leave your audience with one lasting image in their minds.  Remember that the conclusion is the one part of the speech that everybody will carry away with them: make it memorable, and make sure that the audience understand the main theme of the speech.

Finalising the speech

After writing the speech, read through again and again.  A first draft always tends to be longer than the finished article, so don’t be afraid to gut the speech . Finally, read it aloud to yourself: what would you think if you heard it?  Would you be persuaded?  If you would be, the chances are that the audience will be.  Check it again against your basic criteria (timing, forms of address etc.).  If it fits, your work is done!

It needs to be easily read, so be prepared to write in very large text and with a paragraph break between each sentence.  Page breaks should go at the end of each paragraph and always number the pages in case the sheets are dropped at the last minute.  Collate the sheets with a paperclip – not with a stapler.

Final warning

You won’t always have much notice before writing a speech.  I once had three hours to write a 7 minute speech on the Railways and Transport Safety Bill – a subject on which I knew very little.  By the time the speech was finished, my Member was in her seat in the Chamber and a doorkeeper had to deliver it to her.  It is good to get the adrenaline pumping once in a while.

2. Writing a speech for Conference 

Here are some handy hints to writing speeches for your MP if he or she is taking to the rostrum at the Party Conference – or anywhere else for that matter.  A great speech at Conference can have a long lasting impact, as well as being a fantastic boost to your boss’s confidence, especially if it’s their first time.  But of course a bad speech can be plain embarrassing, and will be remembered – and dredged up – for years to come.

Some people can take to the stage with an idea of what they want to say and engineer an eloquent speech on the spot, although few can match the senior politicians who are able to deliver an impressive twenty minute speech with neither notes nor autocue.  For mere mortals, speaker’s notes or a fully drafted script are vital props, and it is up to you to provide.

Writing a speech for a Conference audience of sympathetic party members is very different from writing for the sparring, political atmosphere of the Chamber.  For a start, the speechmaker generally doesn’t have to worry about heckling from the audience as is frequent in the Chamber, so you can be much more liberal with use of rhetorical questions when drafting.  In the same vein, while constructing a watertight case to support your point is paramount in the Chamber, on Conference occasions it’s not unusual to spend a while pondering the profundity of politics before getting down to the nitty gritty of your subject matter.  You can use PowerPoint, video/audio, props and other devices to give the finished product a great deal more innovation, style and flair.

• First things first
• Opening the speech
• The body of the speech
• Closing the speech
• Further Reading
• Quick links to great speeches

1.  First things first

Formulate a clear, specific statement of purpose for the speech.  There are six basic purposes of a speech:

• to entertain
• to motivate
• to advocate
• to persuade.

With the exception of pure entertainment, any one of these could be the purpose for a Conference speech.

Do your research and search widely for information, try looking at:

• policy briefings
• recent news articles for relevant events
• legislation

Think about, and make a note of, what you wish the speech to accomplish, then make a list of your main points and back these up with supporting points.

You might also find it helpful to devise a core statement for the speech.  You can then  ‘signpost’ this core statement throughout the speech, so the audience doesn’t lose track of where you’re going.

Pare the list down to the four or five most important points, discarding the remaining ones or converting them into supporting points.

Arrange your main points in a logical order: this will form the outline of the speech.  For each main point, fill in with appropriate supporting points and evidence from your research to back them up.

2.  Opening the Speech

The opening of the speech is probably the most difficult part.  If the opening doesn’t work it can often be downhill from there!  Here are some ideas; your subject matter should help you to decide which approach (or combination) is the most suitable.

Ways to begin tend to fall into five main categories:

• Novelty – taking a cue from props, asking the audience to imagine a scenario, telling an anecdote and then revealing it as a dream and so on.  They can be very effective tools, but not everyone can pull it off.
• Dramatic – a warning about the content of the speech, or straight into shocking statistics – these openings can really grab the audience’s attention.
• Question – A rhetorical question for the audience to ponder, or one which the speaker might answer themselves.  It’s only safe to use these in Conference speeches, as rhetorical questions in Chamber speeches can often elicit cheeky answers from the opposition!
• Humorous – if in good taste, and delivered with the right timing, humour can be a very effective way of gaining interest and breaking the ice.  It sets the tone of the speech though, so steer clear of humorous openings if the rest of the speech is about famine or war.  Self-deprecating humour can be a particularly good device, as long as the speaker doesn’t undermine his or her knowledge of the subject matter – the audience might believe them!
• Reference – this type of opening is certainly the most common.  The speaker uses a reference as a launching pad for the rest of the speech. The reference might be the location, the subject, the Party, a recent event, the speaker themselves, a quotation from another, and so on.

Whichever you choose, or a combination of some of the above, ensure that you have done the following in your introduction:

• established a common ground between the speaker and the audience
• set the tone for the speech
• reinforced or established the speaker’s authority to speak on the subject
• aroused interest in the subject
• segued smoothly into the subject.

3.  The Body of the Speech

Go back to your pared-down list of four or five points and ensure that related points follow one another fluently, so that your speech follows a logical progression and is easy for the audience to keep up with.

Don’t try and overwhelm the listener with countless points: making a few and making each more effectively will give the speech a far greater overall impact.  Make sure each point is well supported with statistics, quotations, anecdotes, examples and facts, and check your facts again.

Remember to signpost, just like in an essay!  At the end of each point, try and return to the theme –  this ensures that the audience doesn’t lose sight of where you’re going in your speech.

In 2007, Matthew Parris took a canter through the arid badlands of political language and asked why politicians drape their speeches in the tired glad-rags of stale phrases.  Unfortunately the programmes are not currently available, but keep an eye on the BBC Sounds website, as they might republish them: Not My Words, Mr. Speaker

Remember – tell them what you’re going to say, say it, and then tell them what you’ve said!

4.  Closing the Speech

Some different techniques for closing the speech:

• Summarising – wrapping up the main points of the speech and bringing everything together.
• Direct Appeal – asking the audience to take specific action.
• Reference – like a reference opening, one that refers to the location, date, time, a quotation and so on – anything the speaker can tie into the subject.
• Inspirational – a moving anecdote, quotation, poem and so on.  This could be humorous.

Don’t let an interesting, intelligent and lively speech fade away towards the end – make sure your ending packs a punch and leaves a lasting impression.

5.  Further reading

• Richard Dowis,  ‘The Lost of Art of the Great Speech – How to Write One, How to Deliver It’
• Simon Sebag Montefiore –  ‘Speeches that Changed the World’  (and audio CD)
• Richard Heller –  ‘High Impact Speeches: How to Write and Deliver Words that Move Minds’

6.  Quick Links to Great Speeches

• Martin Luther King, ‘I Have a Dream’
• Winston Churchill – ‘Blood, Sweat and Tears’
• John F. Kennedy – Inaugural Address
• Susan B. Anthony ‘On Women’s Right to Vote’
• Edward VIII – Abdicates the Throne

7.  Training

There is an excellent training course on speech writing available free of charge from ACT: https://parliament.learningpool.com/mod/facetoface/view.php?id=3424

CHAPTER 4.1. British Parliamentary (BP) debate format

What is British Parliamentary?

This is a popular format in the UK and is used by many university-run competitions. There are eight speakers in this format: two teams of two people on each side. Each speaker gives a speech of up to five minutes (sometimes, longer seven minute speeches might be requested). The first and last minute are protected, but between these times points of information may be offered.

The debate consists of four teams: two government teams (referred to as «Opening Government» and «Closing Government») and two opposition teams (referred to as «Opening Opposition » and «Closing Opposition»). Each team consists of two speakers.Z

The speeches are given alternating between proposition and opposition, beginning with the first proposition team. The second teams on each side (the final four speakers) must take care to ensure that they offer new ideas to the debate -they cannot simply repeat what the team before them has already said. The final speaker on each side is the summary speaker: they cannot introduce completely new arguments (although they may give some new responses) and should summarise the debate so far.

Each team should prepare, and is judged, separately. This means at the end, they will be ranked from 1-4. It is entirely possible, for example, for one proposition team to come first whilst the other comes fourth.

Roles´ description:

Speaking time:

Each speaker is typically allocated a specific time to deliver their speech. The speaking times may vary, but common time allocations are:

Constructive Speeches:

• Prime Minister (PM) – 7 minutes: The PM presents the opening arguments and defines the motion.
• Leader of the Opposition (LO) – 7 minutes: The LO presents the opening arguments from the opposing side.

First Opposition Speeches:

• Deputy Prime Minister (DPM) – 7 minutes: The DPM responds to the LO’s arguments and further develops the government’s case.
• Deputy Leader of the Opposition (DLO) – 7 minutes: The DLO counters the government’s case and presents alternative perspectives.

Member’s Speeches:

• Member of the Government (MG) – 7 minutes: The MG provides new arguments, responds to the opposition, and strengthens the government’s position.
• Member of the Opposition (MO) – 7 minutes: The MO provides new arguments, responds to the government, and strengthens the opposition’s position.

Reply Speeches:

• Government Whip – 4 minutes: The Government Whip summarizes the government’s case, rebuts the opposition’s arguments, and delivers a persuasive closing statement.
• Opposition Whip – 4 minutes: The Opposition Whip summarizes the opposition’s case, rebuts the government’s arguments, and delivers a persuasive closing statement.

Points of Information (POIs)

During the speeches, members of the opposing teams may offer Points of Information to the speaker. The speaker has the choice to accept or reject these interruptions, which are typically brief and allow for interjections, questions, or challenges to the arguments being presented.

A. PRIME MINISTER (PM) SPEECH

The Prime Minister (PM) is the first speaker for the Government in the British Parliamentary (BP) debate format. Here are some preparation strategies for their speech:

The Prime Minister (PM) is the Government’s first speaker in the British parliamentary debate (BP) format. In preparing the speech, the following steps can be followed:

• Define the motion: The PM explains the motion and introduces his or her arguments. He or she should also introduce the team and set the tone for the debate.
• Anticipate the opposition’s arguments: Predict what arguments the opposition will use to defend its position (the goal is to cover as much disagreement as possible with the government’s position).
• Line of argument: The government team should present the strongest line of argument it can think of to defend its position in the debate. 
• Presentation of the position in the debate: The PM presents his/her argumentation in favor of the motion presented (2 to 3 arguments) in a single sentence. Once the position is presented, the PM develops in more detail each of the arguments.
• Evidence: The PM should support his/her arguments with examples, quotations, references, …
• Summary: The PM ends his speech by summarizing his arguments and closing in a striking manner.

B. LEADER OF THE OPPOSITION (LO) SPEECH

The Leader of the Opposition (LO) is the first Opposition speaker. In preparing and organizing his speech, the LO may follow the following steps:

• Present the opposition to the motion: The LO should show his opposition to the debate motion and the arguments presented by the PM. The objective of his speech is to clearly express the Opposition’s position in the debate.
• Rebuttal: LO must refute the arguments presented by the PM in his intervention.
• Constructive Argumentation: LO should present his arguments to demonstrate the falsity of the motion being debated.
• Anticipate the responses that the government may give: the Opposition should be able to anticipate how the government will respond and anticipate by covering as many counter-arguments as possible.
• Have a solid line of argument : the Opposition must defend its position in the debate with the best arguments it can muster.
• State the position in the debate: LO presents 2-3 arguments that demonstrate the soundness of their position. Once presented in summary form, LO will develop its line of argument.
• Evidence: LO shall present evidence that gives solvency to its line of argument.

D . DEPUTY PRIME MINISTER (DPM) SPEECH

To prepare the speech of the Deputy Prime Minister (DPM), we can follow the following steps:

• Analyze the LO’s speech: DPM should understand the points presented by the LO and further develop the arguments presented by the PM.
• Reconstruct arguments: DPM must reconstruct the government team’s position by responding to the LO’s rebuttals and expanding on the arguments presented by the PM. I
• ntroduce new arguments: DPM must introduce new arguments to further justify and reinforce the government’s position.
• Respond to the opposition: DPM should respond to the arguments presented by the Opposition team by questioning their validity.
• Closing the intervention: DPM shall make a strong conclusion summarizing the position defended by the Government team, demonstrating why its position is the most successful in this debate.

E. DEPUTY PRIME LEADER OF THE OPPOSITION (DLO)

The Deputy Leader of the Opposition (DLO) is the second Opposition speaker. In preparing the speech, the following steps can be taken:

• Recapitulate the opposition’s arguments: DLO should summarise the line of argument defended by the opposition team that started by presenting the LO.
• Respond to the government team: DLO should continue to refute the arguments presented by the government team after the intervention of the DPM.
• Reconstruct the opposition’s arguments: DLO must respond to the rebuttals launched by the DPM in its intervention by providing additional evidence.
• Introduce new arguments: DLO should introduce new arguments to further strengthen the position presented by the opposition.
• Closing the intervention: DLO should conclude its intervention by summarising the arguments presented by the opposition team and closing in a strong way to receive the strong support by providing two main forms of support, such as examples, philosophical points or quotations.

F. MEMBER OF THE GOVERNMENT (MG)

These are the steps we can follow to prepare the Government Member’s (GM) speech:

• Summarize the Government’s arguments: MG should recapitulate the arguments presented by the PM and DPM in their interventions.
• Reconstruct: MG should reconstruct the government’s position after the interventions of the LO and DLO, providing new information.
• Contribute new arguments: MG must introduce new arguments that reinforce the position defended by the government.
• Challenging the opposition: MG must refute the arguments presented by the opposition team throughout the debate.
• Conclude convincingly: MG must close his intervention by summarizing the government’s line of argument and demonstrating why his position is the most appropriate.

G. MEMBER OF THE OPPOSITION (MO)

Steps to prepare an opposition member’s speech (MO):

• Recapitulate the opposition’s arguments: MO summarizes the arguments presented by the opposition team throughout the debate.
• Reconstruction: MO responds to the rebuttals launched by the GM and the government team throughout the debate, providing new data that reinforce the opposition’s line of argument.
• Argumentation: introducing new arguments to reinforce the opposition’s proposal.
• Rebuttal: MO questions the arguments presented by the GM and the government team throughout their interventions.
• Closing: Conclude the intervention by summarizing the line of argument and asking for support for the position defended by the opposition.

An example of a MO speech:

«Thank you very much to the GM for his intervention. Next, I will summarize the line of argument defended by the opposition team throughout this debate, where it has been clear that (summary line of argument). Responding to the comments made by the government team to the line of argument defended by the opposition in this debate, (mention arguments and our reconstruction). To strengthen the position of the opposition in this debate (introduce new arguments and their evidence). Let me now question some of the points mentioned by the government in its interventions (rebuttals). To conclude, we mention how we have demonstrated the solvency of the opposition’s line of argument (summary of the line of argument) and ask for support for the position defended by the opposition team.»

H. GOVERNMENT WHIP (GW)

Steps to prepare the GW speech:

• Recap the government’s arguments: GW summarizes the arguments presented by the government team throughout the debate.
• Refute the opposition: GW challenges the arguments presented by the opposition throughout the debate.
• Summarize the debate: GW makes a detailed summary of what happened during the debate, highlighting the key points made by both sides, emphasizing the strength of their arguments and the flaws in the Opposition’s case.
• Close the debate: GW is responsible for closing the debate on behalf of the government team. It must therefore offer a strong conclusion that reinforces the Government’s position and highlights why the Government has won the debate.

Please note that the GW is not allowed to introduce new arguments in their speech

I. OPPOSITION WHIP (OW)

Steps to prepare the Opposition Whip (OW) speech, last speaker of the opposition:

• Recap: summarize the arguments presented by the opposition team throughout the debate 2. Summarize by highlighting the key points and evidence presented.
• Refute: Refute the arguments presented by the government team throughout the debate, identifying the weak points and providing solid counterarguments.
• Summarize: In detail the main arguments presented by both teams, highlighting the strengths of the Opposition’s line of argument and the weaknesses of the Government’s line of argument.
• Conclusion: End the speech with a strong conclusion highlighting the opposition’s position and highlighting why it is stronger. Ask for support for the position defended by the opposition throughout the debate.

Examples of the different speeches along the debate:

• Investigative

Parliamentary reporting tips for beginners

How to report parliamentary proceedings

To cover parliament, a journalist needs to know local laws, understand parliamentary procedure, know about the politicians and the political parties involved, and have a solid knowledge of history.

Providing context and analysis is essential

Unlike breaking news reporting, parliamentary reporting usually requires sufficient background knowledge to make sense of proceedings. That’s because the parliamentary reporter or correspondent is expected to provide adequate context and analysis as well as being able to put developments into perspective.

1: Respect the power of words

The word parliament comes from “parlement” – a word in  Norman French  meaning a conversation or a “talking”. In written European records, it has been used for more than 800 years to describe gatherings to talk about affairs of state.

The forerunner of modern parliaments met in 1265 in  Westminster, England .  By tradition, opposing parties sat  two swords length apart  – they had to resolve their differences with words, not weapons.  Parliament, therefore, is all about words, argument, debate.  The parliamentary reporter has the special responsibility of reporting those debates to the public.

2: Reflect the importance of parliament

Parliaments make and modify the laws of the land. In most parliamentary systems, the executive needs the support of parliament to stay in power. A vote of no confidence in the government will usually cause it to fall. Parliament is also an important stage for the testing of arguments. And as with any stage, it can throw up moments of great drama. The parliamentary reporter witnesses, summarises and reflects all of this to the public. And if, for whatever reason, parliament becomes impotent, it is just as important to reflect that.

3: Know the local laws

Different legislative bodies have different rules concerning access, privilege, use of cameras and recorders and so on. Parliaments, perhaps understandably, tend to take a severe view of anyone who does not respect their rules. Familiarise yourself with these rules, otherwise you may find yourself in contempt of parliament.

4: The importance of getting it right

At the most obvious level, check spellings, titles, party allegiances, etc. But it is equally important to quote people correctly and summarise their arguments fairly. The public will make up their minds about the big issues of the day partly informed by what they read and hear and see in the media. Make sure they have all the information they need.

5: Be clear and comprehensible

Your audience should be able to understand every word and every sentence you write, immediately and without possibility of confusion. This means, in the first place, that you must be clear about what you want to say. Then you must say it simply and without ambiguity. Choose your words carefully and eliminate any possibility of misunderstanding. As the  20th-century journalist, Cyril Connolly , wrote: “Literature is the art of writing something that will be read twice; journalism what will be grasped at once.”

6: Keep your own views out of it

A good reporter is open-minded and determined to give fair treatment to all the arguments he or she witnesses. A bad reporter lets his or her own views interfere. This is particularly true in reporting political controversy. It is not for the parliamentary reporter to decide which argument is the strongest. Instead, the good reporter lays out all the arguments, fairly and accurately, and lets the audience decide for itself.

7: The political context

Politicians always want to be presented in the best possible light. They will brief journalists to try to influence the way something is reported. For example, after the weekly Prime Minister’s Questions in the British Parliament, the press spokesmen for the party leaders will give journalists their own interpretation of who “won” and who “lost” the exchanges. Such briefings can be useful, but they should be treated with caution. Don’t let “spin” distort your reporting of what actually happened.

8: Make it interesting

Parliamentary proceedings can sometimes be dull. But they are important. So make them interesting. Capture the attention of your audience. Write clearly and simply. Engage interest with your first sentence and make the report flow naturally from there. The press fought hard, over centuries, for the right to report on the proceedings of parliaments, so don’t waste their sacrifice.

9: Avoid exclamation marks!

Print journalists sometimes call exclamation marks “screamers”. They should be used very sparingly, if at all. The exclamation mark suggests that something is dramatic. But either the thing you’re describing is genuinely dramatic, in which case you don’t need an exclamation mark; or it is not dramatic, in which case, adding an exclamation mark will not make it so. “Prime Minister resigns!” is a worse headline than “Prime Minister resigns”.

10: Keep a careful note

However good your memory, keep an accurate note of any parliamentary debate that you are reporting. Keep it somewhere safe. It might be needed later if your story is disputed.

Related training modules

Court reporting for beginners

News writing for beginners

RELATED ARTICLES MORE FROM AUTHOR

Fact-checking and adding context, constructing a news package for tv, constructing a news package for radio, the use of adjectives and adverbs in journalism, gender equality in the media, the active and passive voices in news, letting the pictures tell the story, developing and applying “news sense”, the questions every journalist should ask.

• Submissions

• Games, topic printables & more
• The 4 main speech types
• Example speeches
• Commemorative
• Declamation
• Demonstration
• Informative

Introduction

• Student Council
• Speech topics
• Poems to read aloud
• How to write a speech
• Using props/visual aids
• Acute anxiety help
• Breathing exercises
• Letting go - free e-course
• Using self-hypnosis
• Delivery overview
• 4 modes of delivery
• How to make cue cards
• How to read a speech
• 9 vocal aspects
• Vocal variety
• Diction/articulation
• Pronunciation
• Speaking rate
• How to use pauses
• Eye contact
• Body language
• Voice image
• Voice health
• Public speaking activities and games
• About me/contact
• Speech examples
• Student Council speeches

Student Council Speeches

By:  Susan Dugdale  

How to write a winning speech: a template, guidelines, plus example speeches

Student Council Speeches mark the end of an election campaign.

Will yours be successful?

The final answer is in the hands of your fellow students. It's entirely their decision.

However, up until they mark their voting papers 'yes' or 'no' you have the potential to make their choice of candidate for the upcoming year 'you'.

How to write a great student council speech 

Use the quick links below to find what you need to write a great student council speech, whether it's the President, Vice-President, Secretary or Treasurer role you're after.

• the primary purpose of your speech
• a template that includes all the necessary elements of a good Student Council speech
• points to consider carefully before you write
• an example Student Council President speech
• an example Student Council Vice President speech
• an example Student Council Secretary speech
• an example Student Council Treasurer speech
• a printable speech planner and outline to download
• vital tips for rehearsal . These make the difference between looking and sounding polished and bumbling.
• a link to a collection of videoed student council speeches
• how to manage anxiety about speaking in front of others

Understanding your speech purpose

Understanding the nature or purpose of your speech could make all the difference between winning and losing.

Student Council speeches are persuasive speeches . Their ultimate goal is to get you the YES vote.

To help you achieve that use the template, (framework or pattern), below to cover all the essential elements you need to pull together.

In addition, it will structure your speech logically, and effectively, from its opening through to its close.

(I've turned the template into a printable enabling you to plan and outline your speech efficiently and easily. You can download it from the link further down the page.)

Return to Top

Student Council speeches template

• Greeting - Attention Getter - The Hook You'll need an opening statement or rhetorical  question to sit your audience up with open ears and minds. For more see: How to write a speech introduction: 12 of the best ways to start.  
• Who you are - your name, your place or grade in the school, and maybe, your hobbies or interests, and the clubs or teams you're a member of. For example, Amnesty International, the speech and debate club, cross-country and basketball. And if you've used a campaign slogan work it in. It'll jog people's memories. 'Ah, yes, that person!', they'll think. Being known and familiar gives you a head start.
• What you want - the role you are campaigning for: President, Vice President,  Treasurer, Secretary, Historian...
• What you are going to do for the audience - benefits to them in exchange for their vote. (Brief summary -you will expand this in the body of your speech.)
• Credibility - your qualification or expertise establishing your fitness for the role you want. (Brief summary - you will expand this in the body of your speech.)
• Transition leading to...
• Your Main Idea 1 - For example: your goal for the role, what you want to achieve, how you plan to do it, the benefits to your audience - what painful problem(s) will you solve for them, your fitness for the job, transition to...
• Main Idea 2 - Supporting ideas - details and examples - transition to...
• Main Idea 3 - Supporting ideas - details and examples - transition to...

NB. Only include a second and third idea if you have time to expand on them. If not, move through to the conclusion.

• Summary of main points
• Re-statement of what you want - to be elected to the role you're running for
• Re-statement of the benefits to the audience
• Closer, clincher, call for action

Points to consider BEFORE you write your speech

You'll make a better job of completing the printable student council speech template if you  take the time to go through the points below.

And then, read the student council speech examples, before you start to write.

Research the role

Think about your audience, what tone or choice of vocabulary is best suited to them.

Avoid trying to impress with either 'big' words or use of slang. Both are traps! Be yourself. Authentic. Real.

Keep your language conversational rather than overly formal and use smaller rather than large sentences.

Try using active rather than passive words. These convey enthusiasm. For examples, see this page on using action verbs . You'll discover how to go from boring bla bla bland to dynamic excitement.

What 'hook' will you use to get them to listen? Humor? Humor is good if it is relevant and inclusive rather than exclusive. (No 'in' jokes!).

Your goal in the role you want

Avoid setting up expectations that you will deliver beyond your capability. :-)

It might be very tempting, but can you really reduce school hours, increase academic standards, introduce a range of exciting new extracurricular activities, as well as have a 'green day' and a movie night every month? Please keep it real!

Your credibility or qualifications

Now is not the time either to be shy or arrogantly big-headed! Let the audience know how right you are for the role you want.

Set yourself apart from other candidates by sharing compelling personal stories or anecdotes that both support your pitch, and show you understand the key issues that matter to your fellow students.

Your school's requirements

If your speech does not meet pre- established criteria in any way you may find it is returned to you edited. It's safer to find out what those criteria are BEFORE writing to avoid having to re-write or worse, being disqualified entirely.

Mockery and personal insults are not clever. They boomerang back on you, letting your audience know you're not to be trusted and neither are you ready for leadership.

Readily acknowledging the skill and expertise of your fellow candidates sincerely in a way that doesn't demean yourself, or them, shows an open mind and maturity.

Aim to have your speech ready BEFORE the deadline.

Give yourself time to prepare thoroughly, including time to review of your opponents' campaigns. That can be very useful for seeing their strengths as well as their weaknesses, which you can then respond to in your own material.

Student Council President speech example 

Here's a sample student council speech. I've written it from the perspective of someone running for President.

As you read it, imagine it said aloud. That will help you get the rhythm and flow of language. The speech is between 3 - 4 minutes long, depending on how quickly you speak.

Vote Sophia Clarke for Student Council President

"I’ve got a question for you. I’m not asking you to shout your answer out, or raise your hand. All I’m asking is that you give it room in your mind. Let it sit for a bit, and have a think about it.

My question is – do you believe like I do, that all of us deserve the opportunity to make the best of ourselves? Not second best, 3 rd , or even, highly commended. The BEST.

I’m Sophia Clarke. I’m in the 12 th  grade, and I’m running for president. My vision is that each student is enabled to develop the skills and confidence to become the bigger, better version of themselves. The best they can be.  Regardless of who they are, and what they need to achieve that.

It’s an audacious goal. Some would say an idealistic, rather than a realistic, one.

However I say it’s awesome. And that you’re intelligent people who realize that reaching any goal starts with taking the first step.

So let me remind you why choosing me, Sophia Clarke, for president, is also choosing a better chance for yourself, and everyone else to grow.

I know you, and I know your needs well. I’ve served on your behalf in multiple roles through my years here; secretary, auditor, public relations officer, and have successfully taken on multiple issues. You’ll know some of those through directly benefiting from them.

It was me who was behind the push to get a regular anti-bullying program running throughout the school. That was two years ago, and now the  Teens Against Bullying  message underpins what we expect and strive for in our every day dealings with each other.

We know incidents of bullying are far fewer as a result. As our orange tee shirts say we ‘choose kindness, acceptance and inclusion’ for each other, and our selves.

Who has been involved in our mentoring-homework program? Either as a buddy-tutor or as a student getting a helping hand? And who, like me, is passionate about making sure that everybody gets a fair go?

In the past year, under my watch that program has escalated. We have over 50% more tutors across more subject areas and more students taking up the offer of help. That is a fabulous outcome for everybody. Truly win-win.

A tick in the box alongside my name is a tick for the continued growth of those programs. Their value is proven. They allow each of us to grow and experience the strength and confidence that comes from knowing that we can make a positive difference in other people’s lives as well as our own.

When you vote me for President you get my capacity to organize, to liaise, to listen and to speak, working for the benefit of everybody.

A 'yes' for me is a 'yes' for appreciating and celebrating diversity.

A 'yes' for me, Sophia Clarke for President, is 'yes' to a better you.

And together that is a 'yes' to a better life, and a better school, for all of us."

Student Council Vice President speech example

Like the speech above, this one runs to approximately 4 minutes when said aloud. Try it and see.

Nod your head if you've heard of the phrase '2nd fiddle' or '2IC'.

What about 'sidekick'?

Not booting a ball in from a sideline but a trusty partner to whoever it is who has the leading role. Like Robin is for Batman.

Or like, {name of your country's Vice President or Prime Minister} is for {name of country's President or Prime Minister} or {name of your school's Vice Principal} is for {name of your school's Principal}!

Well, that's what I aspire to - to become the trusty, tried and true sidekick to the President on our student council.

My name is Jason Hull. I'm in Grade 12 and proudly standing in front of you today as a candidate for the role of Vice President. Yes, I am asking you to give me something of immense value - your vote.

I know what the issues, here at {name of school} are. As part of my campaign, I've interviewed you, and listened. I promise your ideas will be acted on.

Afterall I've trained for this role, put in the time. You know, I know how to get things done.

Last year I served as Secretary and the year before that I was a representative for the committee - proof that I'm committed to bettering our school environment not just for you, but for everybody!

With your support, I'll be your go-to guy when you want to make sure that your opinions and feedback reach the decision-makers.

One of my main goals as your Vice President is to champion your initiatives: amongst others, that's the library extensions you told me about, the desire for healthier food choices in our cafeteria, and the urgent need to increase and diversify the workforce and out-reach opportunities that so many of you mentioned.

Whether you're passionate about improving our school facilities, or enhancing our community involvement, I'll be there to guide and help you. 

In the role of Vice President, I will work alongside the President fulfilling my duties to the best of my ability. 

Together, we'll make sure that your concerns, and hopes are not just heard but actively pursued. Not 'I' will make sure, but 'we'.

There is no 'I' in we, and that too, is a prerequisite of the Vice President's position: the capacity to put aside ego and to work productively for the good of all.

Because together, we, the Vice President, the President and the other council members, are stronger and can achieve more.

The Vice President role may be a support act but it's a vital one.  To succeed in it, collaboration is key. I promise to work hand in hand not only with the President but also with the entire student council team, our teachers, and our administration on your behalf.

Unity is strength. More than ever, we need to nurture understanding, kindness and respect for each other. Regardless of your grade, interests, or background, I want every one of you to feel valued and heard.

That's a goal many would say is impossible.

However, I say, we need to be the difference we want to see in the world. And to borrow those famous words of Helen Keller's: "Alone we can do so little. Together we can so much."

It would be an honor to be your voice, your eyes and your ears as Vice President.

So, I ask you, will you trust me to have your best interests at heart? Will you enable me to work on your behalf?

And are you willing to give me, Jason Hull, your vote for best sidekick, aka. Vice President?

I'll take those smiles, as a 'Yes'.

Example Student Council speeches for Secretary and Treasurer

Click the link to read an:

• example Student Council speech for the role of Secretary . Plus, an overview of the Secretary's main tasks and responsibilities.
• example Student Council speech for the role of Treasurer . Plus, an overview of the Secretary's main tasks and responsibilities.

(This page was getting far too long to include them both here. ☺)

Get the printable student council speech outline

Click on the image below to open a downloadable printable student council speech planner and outline pdf. (Please note it will open in a new window.)

Your completed outline will provide both the structure and the content you need to efficiently write your speech.  

After you've finished writing your speech

Now that you've finished writing, you're ready to begin work on your delivery: how you present the speech to your audience.

The first step in that process is making sure your speech fits comfortably into whatever time you've been allocated.

After that comes rehearsal. The information you need for both steps is below.

Timing and word count

Student Council Speeches are generally brief: around 1-4 minutes long which isn't a lot of time! That's between approximately 150 - 600 words at an average speaking rate of 150 words per minute.

To be safe say your speech out loud as if you were delivering it for real and time it. In some schools going overtime can result in being disqualified.

Going faster to fit everything in

Please do not be tempted to say it faster to get everything you planned said. As a strategy it doesn't work. You'll end up gabbling: speaking far too quickly and people won't be able to understand what you're saying.

Cutting out extra material

If you have got too much material for the time limit, cut it. Choose the least important ideas to let go of first. Then move on to rephrasing to reduce the number of words used to express a point.

When you think it's done, repeat the test. Say it out loud as if you were actually giving it, and time it.

If you're now within the allotted time, you are ready for rehearsal.

For more about word count see: how many words per minute in a speech

How to rehearse your speech

Please, please  rehearse your speech ! Do not be tempted to wing it. The more you rehearse the easier it will be to deliver it well.

Remember it is only 1 to 4 minutes long! In that time your goal is to have your audience ready to vote for you.

You can help them make that decision by being confident and prepared. You will show that through:

• your speaking style  - natural, sincere, fluent, understandable (clear and able to be heard without straining)
• your body language  - relaxed, open gestures, good eye contact and smiling
• your personal grooming or presentation  because how you look 'speaks' too. Make sure that your clothing and general grooming supports your speech because, like it or not, you will be judged on both!

Go to: how to rehearse a speech properly .

 Videoed Student Council speech examples  

How do other people handle a Student Council speech? What's their content and delivery like?

Are they funny? Formal? Too hurried? Confident? Familiar with the audience?

It can help to look at what others have done. Even if it's only to decide their way will not be your way!

Click the link to access a collection ten videoed student council campaign speeches from the 2018 student council executive board candidates for Malvern Preparatory School, Malvern, Pennsylvania, USA. 

At the foot of the article you'll find links to the videos of the school's 2015, 2016 and 2017 student council campaign speeches.

A word of warning

Ps. panic not.

If you find yourself getting anxious over the thought of delivering your speech, please check this page for help.

• How to deal with acute public speaking anxiety: 14 ways that will help

speaking out loud 

Subscribe for  FREE weekly alerts about what's new For more see  speaking out loud  

Top 10 popular pages

• Welcome speech
• Demonstration speech topics
• Impromptu speech topic cards
• Thank you quotes
• Impromptu public speaking topics
• Farewell speeches
• Phrases for welcome speeches
• Student council speeches
• Free sample eulogies

From fear to fun in 28 ways

A complete one stop resource to scuttle fear in the best of all possible ways - with laughter.

Useful pages

• Search this site
• About me & Contact
• Blogging Aloud
• Free e-course
• Privacy policy

©Copyright 2006-24 www.write-out-loud.com

Designed and built by Clickstream Designs

• International edition
• Australia edition
• Europe edition

Greatest speeches in parliament of the past 100 years

W hat were the greatest parliamentary speeches of the past 100 years? Lloyd George battling for the People's Budget of 1909? Churchill defiant in 1940? Nye Bevan championing his blueprint for the NHS? Geoffrey Howe 's unexpectedly lethal dispatch of Margaret Thatcher in his resignation speech – in a deadly bit of jargon, his "personal statement" – on 13 November 1990?

It's a game anyone who is politically minded can play and Hansard – which is celebrating its centenary as the in-house (as distinct from 19th century-contracted-out) official report – has been doing just that to mark the occasion.

It's full of events and speeches you remember, vaguely or because you watched them on TV. Most involve war and peace, economic crisis, basic liberties or divisive social issues.

But there are also great issues which are now in cobwebs and less famous names forgotten. Who now recalls that Labour's first leader, Keir Hardie , made a moving, prescient speech against denying the vote to black South Africans when the country got its post-Boer war independence in 1909?

And what does the once-celebrated name ED Morel mean today? He was the Liverpool shipping clerk who led the brilliant campaign against the enslavement of the Congo by Leopold, King of the Belgians (Sir Roger Casement was Morel's doomed ally). Morel became a pacifist, later a Labour MP, albeit too much of a troublemaker to achieve office under Ramsay MacDonald.

The volume contains Morel's heartfelt Commons maiden speech in 1922, warning against the punitive reparations imposed on beaten Germany. It is poignant, but so is Sir Edward Grey 's report to MPs on the plunge into war in August 1914.

The links in this article all come from Hansard 's still not completed archive, a treasure that I knew was there, but had not previously dipped into. I shall be back.

Hansard asked 46 distinguished figures, mostly living peers and MPs, plus a few officials and observers, to choose their favourite from 1909 to 2009. It has now published the results in a £25 volume the size of an old-fashioned telephone directory.

Gordon Brown picked Edward Heath 's "forensic" destruction of the Tory case for restoring hanging in 1981, David Cameron his own distant relative Duff Cooper 's anti-appeasement speech on resigning from the Chamberlain government in 1938. Another of those deadly "personal statements" that litter the grey pages of Hansard.

Nick Clegg opted for the pro-Europe speech of his then-party leader, the later disgraced Jeremy Thorpe , in May 1967 – after de Gaulle's veto on British membership. Mischievous and far-sighted, Clegg calls it.

"A speech for the ages," Brown says of Heath on hanging, the then-new Labour MP attracted to it as an ethical issue. Not all the speeches are immediately obvious in the Hansard format; for anyone interested, Heath spoke at 4.45pm.

Each contributor gets a page to explain their choice.

All the speeches I mentioned above were picked, though the charm lies in the detail. For instance, no less than four senior Tories picked the Howe speech – Ken Clarke, Michael Heseltine and John Major, its chief beneficiary.

So did Nigel Lawson, who was told that three was enough and asked to pick another. So he perversely chose Neil Kinnock 's disappointing speech on the Westland row of 1986, which nearly toppled Thatcher, but didn't, thanks to the Labour leader's misjudged contribution.

It was Kinnock who chose his hero Bevan's speech, moving the second reading of the NHS bill on 30 April 1946 . Tony Benn also selected a Bevan legend: the speech Nye made on resigning from the government over NHS charges and military spending on the Korean war in April 1951 . It is a pretty good speech, but also the death knell of the 1945 Labour government. Lessons there still for both pragmatists and purists.

Less predictably, Bevan's scornful speech on Anglo-French deception during the Suez crisis of 1956 was picked by the late Jim Callaghan, no Bevanite he. And the late former Tory cabinet minister and Fleet Street editor William ("Dear Bill") Deedes also selected a Bevan speech, this time closing a defence debate in February 1951 .

Here we catch the minister of labour, backbench scourge of Churchill during the second world war, boldly crossing swords on defence matters with the ex-and-future premier – the miner v the aristocrat – and warning against excessive rearmament, the issue over which he would shortly resign. Do not fear the Soviets too much when they produce 25m tons of steel a year and the west can manage 140m tons, he said.

That is a pretty impressive basic argument which Bevan (no softie on the Russians) often used against cold war excesses. It is striking how well speeches in this volume stand up when they are rooted in firm principle, not transient fashion, and marry principle with practical politics.

By my imperfect maths Bevan wins the non-contest for most selections with four entries to Churchill's three. Roy Hattersley picks Lloyd George's four-and-a-half hour 1909 budget speech – one of the century's great dramas – and Elfyn Llwyd, the Plaid Cymru leader, Lloyd George's 1911 speech introducing national insurance – a godsend for millions.

The trio of LG, Churchill and Bevan – one from each main party – were, by general consent, I think, the most important parliamentary orators of the century, their words and weight combined.

But due recognition is given to others. Michael Foot's Falklands war speech of April 3 1982 was picked by ex-MP Robert Kilroy-Silk, who recalls being keen at the time that the Labour leader leader, speaking immediately after the humiliated Margaret Thatcher, should back the reconquest in the name of freedom and international law.

That was how they saw it. Time sometimes changes perspectives on these events.

Foot's defiant performance, winding up a debate he knew would be lost, as Labour fell on a confidence vote in 1979 (the first such defeat since 1841) was picked by Ian Paisley. "The greatest speeches do not always end in the greatest victories," the Ulsterman notes.

Enoch Powell , Foot's friend and rival in eloquence, is cited for his speech proposing a law against embryo research by Ann Widdecombe; but also by Denis Healey, no less, for the powerful ("worthy of Demosthenes") attack Powell made in 1959 against covered-up British imperial brutality at the Hola camp in Kenya during the Mau Mau emergency .

He was speaking at 1.15am in company with a bunch of lefties, "far from being the racist bigot" he was later labelled, Lord Healey dryly notes.

Geoffrey Howe himself chooses Harold Macmillan's 1961 declaration of intent to join the future EU , the issue on which he broke a Tory prime minister 29 years later. But Mrs T's first chancellor gets a second selection for his 1981 budget speech – the crucial turning point for Thatcherite economics. The Sun's Trevor Kavanagh, who picked it, is more confident than I am in 2009 that they got it all right.

Robin Cook's resignation speech over the government's decision to go to war with Iraq in 2003 is picked by Shirley Williams ("an extraordinary prophecy," she calls it), as is his forensic dissection of the 1996 Scott report on covert arms UK sales to Iraq in the 1980s, picked by the Speaker, Michael Martin, no less.

Barbara Castle , another powerful voice in a small frame (another redhead too), is selected by Patricia Hewitt for her second reading speech on the equal pay bill in 1970. Few women feature in this volume, but Margaret Thatcher 's magnificent last speech as PM is rightly picked as memorable by both Norman Tebbit and the BBC's dancing pundit John Sergeant. It was Labour's revenge for 1979 and much else – but it did not feel like that on the day.

I was present on that occasion, as on many others in this engrossing volume. Its lack of a decent index is maddening, but I am unexpectedly fascinated by it – and by the choices made.

What would I have made if asked? Probably one of the above, though it would have been better to have dug up a lost gem.

David Blunkett selected the incisive contribution of Oswald Mosley – yes, that Sir Oswald – to the economic crisis in 1930, before he went off the political rails. Lloyd George spoke next, followed by several ex-current-and future PMs. Those were the days!

Alastair Campbell has offered up the late John Smith , always a witty, lawyerly speaker, in an economic attack on John Major's government in 1993, a year before his death. Dennis Skinner has picked one of his own speeches, a brilliant Friday morning filibuster designed to thwart opponents of stem cell research by talking for hours about a byelection writ. It was an important tactical manoeuvre at the time, now forgotten (and probably banned by "modernisation" reforms), so we forgive him the egocentricity.

There is melancholy as well as glory in these dusty digital pages, heroism and intrigue buried among the routine questions about sewage, country bypasses, colonies and war. The past, the issues and the orators, seems larger than the present.

It need not be; it may not be again. But no one currently operating in the Commons makes the cut; none of them probably made the longlist either. Alas, the comparisons are not comforting. Weighty debates today are few. The Commons chamber is not what it was.

Official Report, Centenary Volume 1909-2009, Great Speeches from 100 Years, edited by Ian Church. The Stationary Office, £25.

Contents may be reproduced under click-use licence from the Office of Public Sector Information .

• House of Commons
• Politics past

Comments (…)

Most viewed.

• Help and Support
• Referencing Guides

AGLC - Referencing Guide

• Second Reading Speeches
• General Rules
• Acts (Statutes)
• Annotated Bibliographies
• AI Generated Content
• Book Chapters
• Cases - Reported
• Cases - Unreported
• Conference Papers
• Correspondence
• Delegated Legislation
• Dictionaries
• Encyclopaedia
• Explanatory Memoranda
• Internet Documents
• Journal Articles
• Law Reform Commission Reports
• Newspaper Articles
• Parliamentary Papers
• Press & Media Releases
• Reference Materials
• Royal Commission Reports
• Social Media; Podcasts; Videos
• United Nations Materials
• Web Pages; Blog Posts
• All Examples
• Sample Bibliography
• Abbreviations
• More Information ...

Rule 7.5.1 Parliamentary Debates

•   Second Reading Speeches are sections of parliamentary debates 

•   Parliamentary debates are recorded in Hansard

•   Include the position of the speaker within a ministry or shadow ministry if relevant

Standard format for footnote

Standard format for bibliography

Footnote Examples

1  Commonwealth, Parliamentary Debates , Senate, 7 February 2017, 39 (George Brandis, Attorney-General).

2  Victoria, Parliamentary Debates , Legislative Council, 14 December 2017, 6854 <https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/daily-hansard/Council_2017/Council_Daily_Extract_Thursday_14_December_2017_from_Book_22.pdf>. 

See the  All Examples  page for examples of in-text and reference list entries for specific resources such as articles, books, speeches, and web pages.

• Press & Media Releases
• Social Media, Podcasts, Videos
• Web pages; Blog Posts
• << Previous: Royal Commission Reports
• Next: Social Media; Podcasts; Videos >>
• Last Updated: Mar 13, 2024 9:13 AM
• URL: https://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/AGLC

Cookies on GOV.UK

We use some essential cookies to make this website work.

We’d like to set additional cookies to understand how you use GOV.UK, remember your settings and improve government services.

We also use cookies set by other sites to help us deliver content from their services.

You have accepted additional cookies. You can change your cookie settings at any time.

You have rejected additional cookies. You can change your cookie settings at any time.

• National security

PM speech on security: 13 May 2024

Prime Minister Rishi Sunak makes a speech at Policy Exchange on security.

Please note: Political content has been redacted from this transcript.

[please note political content redacted here.].

I feel a profound sense of urgency. Because more will change in the next five years than in the last thirty.

I’m convinced that the next few years will be some of the most dangerous yet the most transformational our country has ever known.

So the question we face today is this: Who has the clear plan and bold ideas to deliver a secure future for you and your family? 

The dangers that threaten our country are real. They are increasing in number. An axis of authoritarian states like Russia, Iran, North Korea, and China is working together to undermine us and our values.

War has returned to Europe, with our NATO allies warning that if Putin succeeds in Ukraine, they might be next.

War rages, too, in the Middle East as Israel defends itself not only against the terrorists of Hamas but a barrage of missiles fired – for the first time – directly from Iran.

Right now in Africa, conflicts are being fought in 18 different countries. And Putin’s recklessness has taken us closer to a dangerous nuclear escalation than at any point since the Cuban missile crisis.

These are not faraway problems. Iranian proxies are firing on British ships in the Red Sea, disrupting goods destined for our high streets.

Here at home, China has conducted cyber targeting of our democratically elected MPs. Russia has poisoned people with chemical weapons.

And when Putin cut off the gas supplies it had a devastating impact on people’s lives and threatened our energy security.

And in this world of greater conflict and danger, 100 million people are now displaced globally.

Countries like Russia are weaponising immigration for their own ends, and criminal gangs keep finding new routes across European borders.

Illegal migration is placing an intolerable strain on our security and our sense of fairness, and unless we act now and act boldly this problem is only going to grow.

Extremists are also exploiting these global conflicts to divide us.

People are abusing our liberal democratic values – the freedom of speech and right of protest - to intimidate, threaten and assault others, to sing antisemitic chants on our streets and our university campuses, and to weaponise the evils of anti-Semitism or anti-Muslim hatred in a divisive, ideological attempt to set Briton against Briton.

And from gender activists hijacking children’s sex education to cancel culture, vocal and aggressive fringe groups are trying to impose their views on the rest of us.

They’re trying to make it morally unacceptable to believe something different and undermine people’s confidence and pride in our own history and identity.

But for all the dangers ahead, few are felt more acutely than people’s sense of financial insecurity. We’ve been pounded by a series of once-in-a-generation shocks.

The worst international financial crisis since the great depression in the 1930s. The first global pandemic since the Spanish flu in 1918.

The biggest energy shock since the 1970s. Global forces, yet they are hitting our living standards here at home.

We must be prepared strategically, economically, with robust plans and greater national resilience, to meet this time of instability with strength.

And people’s sense of insecurity is only heightened by the fears about new technologies like AI.

When the IMF says 40% of jobs could be affected, or hundreds of leading experts say the risks could be on a par with pandemics or nuclear war, and when children are exposed to bullying, sexualised content or even self-harm online, people want to know they’ve got someone in charge who understands these dangers, because only if you understand what is happening can you be trusted to keep us safe.

But the paradox of our age is that for all the profound dangers we face, right now, we also hold in our hands an opportunity for human progress that could surpass the industrial revolution in speed and breadth.

Technologies like AI will do for the 21st century what the steam engine and electricity did for the 19th.

They’ll accelerate human progress by complementing what we do, by speeding up the discovery of new ideas, and by assisting almost every aspect of human life.

Think of the investment they will bring, the jobs they’ll create, and the increase in all our living standards they’ll deliver.

Credible estimates suggest AI alone could double our productivity in the next decade.

And in doing so, help us create a world of less suffering, more freedom, choice, and opportunity.

Just imagine. Every child in school with their own personalised tutor, and every teacher free to spend more time personally developing each student.

New frontiers in medical diagnostics where a single picture of your eyes can not only detect blindness but predict other diseases like heart attacks or Parkinson’s. 

And counterintuitive as it may seem, throughout human history, the greatest breakthroughs of science and learning have so often come at the moments of greatest danger.

The first electronic digital computers were developed by British codebreakers in the Second World War. Solar technology went from powering pocket calculators to a viable commercial technology following the energy crisis of the 1970s.

The fastest development, and deployment, of a vaccine in history came during the Covid pandemic.

And so it is incumbent upon us to make this a period not just of great danger, but great progress, too. 

That’s why we launched a bold plan to make science and technology our new national purpose.

We’re rightly proud of Britain’s spirit of discovery and entrepreneurship made us the leading country in the industrial revolution.

But we can be just as proud, just as confident, just as optimistic about our future, and our prospects to lead again in this new industrial age.

And doing so will enrich our lives and create good, well-paid jobs in the growth industries of the future here at home.

At the same time, new and fast-growing economic superpowers like India, Indonesia, and Nigeria are significantly reshaping the global economy.

And just as this ever more interconnected world creates new dangers, it also creates new possibilities. 

The United Kingdom is uniquely placed to benefit. We’ve always been an open, trading, maritime nation; and Brexit has given us the opportunity to trade even more.

And we invent, discover, and produce new products and services that the world wants to buy.

From aircraft wings in Filton, to financial services in Glasgow, to incredible cultural exports like film, music, and TV, or sports like the Premier League.

Everywhere from rural Kenya to the cityscapes of South Korea, people stay up all times of day and night to watch their favourite British team. 

It’s no wonder that Brexit Britain has leapt above France, Japan, and the Netherlands to become the world’s fourth biggest exporter.

And the more we export, the better our businesses will do, the more jobs we will create, the more wealth we will generate – right across our country. 

This is the opportunity before us. A world transformed by technological progress. Huge global markets hungry for new talent, goods, and services. You can see it all around us.

Two brothers from Merseyside sat around their kitchen table and built Castore a £1bn sportswear business taking on global giants like Nike and Adidas, their kit now worn by Red Bull Formula 1 and Bayer Leverkusen. 

British companies and workers right across the country are pioneering offshore wind and exporting it around the world. Already, we’ve built the first floating offshore wind farm.

And our innovations have helped reduce the cost of wind energy by around two-thirds, and increased the size of turbines to the equivalent of the Eiffel Tower with blades bigger than Big Ben.

And you can see the opportunity too in healthcare, giving people longer, healthier lives. In Denmark, NovoNordisk created the Ozempic drug which is not only helping to tackle chronic disease globally, but singlehandedly grew Denmark’s entire economy last year.

All this progress should show us that while this is one of the most dangerous periods we’ve ever known, it will also be one of the most transformational.

And if we make the right choices, if we have a bold enough vision, then we should feel confidence, pride, and optimism that Britain’s future is secure.

My point is this: our country stands at a crossroads. Over the next few years, from our democracy to our society to our economy - to the hardest questions of war and peace - almost every aspect of our lives is going to change.

How we act in the face of these changes – not only to keep people safe and secure but to realise the opportunities too, will determine whether or not Britain will succeed in the years to come.

In the last 14 years, we’ve made progress in the most difficult conditions any governments has faced since the Second World War.

A world leading economy, we’ve seen the 3rd highest growth rate in the G7, and created 4 million jobs, 800 a day.

We took difficult decisions to restore our country’s financial security and control national debt, and that allowed us to support the country through Covid, deliver the fastest vaccine roll-out in the world, provide record funding to the NHS, and protect state pensions with the triple lock.

We’ve reformed welfare by capping benefits and introducing Universal Credit to help people into work.

We’ve reduced absolute poverty, pensioner poverty, child poverty. We’ve cut carbon emissions by a third.

Maintained our position as NATO’s second biggest defence power. Halved violent and neighbourhood crime. And improved standards in our schools with English schoolchildren not just the best readers in the UK, but in the western world.

We’ve legislated for equal marriage. And it is now not even surprising for people from ethnically diverse backgrounds to lead Scotland, Wales, and the United Kingdom. 

And the economy now decisively has momentum. Inflation down from over 11% to 3%. Wages rising faster than prices.

And in the first quarter of this year, we grew faster than France, Germany, Japan, Italy, and even America.

The plan is working – so we must stick to it, and not go back to square one.

Because at heart, we’re a nation of optimists. We’re not blind to the challenges or threats that we face.

We just have an innate belief that whatever they are, we can overcome them, as we have done so many times in our history. And create a secure future for you and your family.

Let me tell you more about my vision for how I would lead this country through this time of danger and transformation.

We’ve proudly taken the generational decision to increase defence spending to a new baseline of 2.5% of GDP, by 2030. Yet Labour have refused to match our pledge.

The global displacement of a hundred million people is a new and defining challenge of our age. But we can and will protect ourselves against illegal migration.

That’s why we’re pioneering the Rwanda scheme. And so, when people see that if they come here illegally, they will be swiftly detained and removed, they will be deterred from making that perilous journey, stopping the boats and saving thousands of lives. 

I know that our international frameworks are outdated. So there may be flashpoints ahead with the ECHR.

And if the Strasbourg Court make me choose between the ECHR and this country’s security, I will choose our country’s security every single time. 

And nor will I ever compromise on defending our values, our history, and our way of life, against those who seek to undermine them.

I am unapologetically proud of who we are.

And under my leadership, ours will be a country where people can disagree in good faith, but where they must do so with respect and decency for others.

A country where the benefits of belonging to our Union are self-evident to the overwhelming majority of our people.

A country where we protect and strengthen the greatest institution of all – the family, better protect children from the harms of the online and offline worlds, and do more to protect single sex spaces.

A country where we celebrate the small acts of kindness that bind our society together, and where we actively work to rebuild the civic involvement and pride that have always formed part of our distinctive national culture.

A country where we honour those prepared to pay the highest price for our freedoms, as we make this the best place in the world to be a veteran here at home.

And a country where we properly respect the older generation.

They’ve contributed all their lives, so whatever the triple lock costs, it is morally right to give older people dignity and comfort in retirement. 

But as well as strengthening our national security and restoring pride in our national culture, we’ll also protect you from the dangers of a more unstable world by giving you greater peace of mind over your financial security. 

People have been struggling to make ends meet – I know that. In the last few years, you’ve seen rising energy bills, mortgage rates, the cost of the weekly shop.

And I hope I’ve shown through my time in office that, from furlough to support with your energy bills, the government I lead will always be there for you.

But that’s only possible if we take the tough decisions to strengthen the country’s finances and control debt.

You can trust me to do that.

When I stood for the leadership of my party, and my opponent’s policies imperilled our financial strength, I was sooner prepared to lose than abandon what I believe so deeply is right for our country.

I feel the same conviction about Net Zero.

In a more unstable world, where dictators like Putin have held us to ransom over energy prices, I reject the ideological zeal of those who want us to adopt policies that go further, faster than any other country, no matter the cost or disruption to people’s lives.

But even as we strengthen our security and our sense of pride and confidence in ourselves, I also feel a sense of urgency about readying our country to succeed in a world transformed. 

That starts by giving all our young people – wherever they live and whatever their background - the skills and knowledge to succeed.

Building on the success of the last 14 years, we will create a truly world-class education system. 

The Advanced British Standard is the most far-reaching reform to education for 16-18 year olds in a generation.

We’re tearing down the artificial barriers between technical and academic education.

Increasing children’s time in the classroom.

Studying a greater breadth of subjects to match our competitors.

And unapologetically saying that every single child must leave school not just literate but numerate as well.

Now, I know this will not win universal acclaim but maths will be fundamental to our children’s life chances in this new technological age.

And it is our duty to give them those skills. And more. We’ll end rip-off degrees and massively expand the number of apprenticeships, because a degree is not the only path to success in the modern economy.

And we’ll make sure that everyone has the funding they need to retrain or learn new skills, at any point in their lives, because in the future education won’t stop when you walk out of the school gates.

But for Britain to finish first in today’s world, we don’t just need the skills to succeed, we need to create a dynamic, innovative economy fuelled by technological progress, so we lead in the industries of the future and help you and your family become wealthier and more economically secure. 

The government I lead is creating the conditions for a new British dynamism. By investing in the new infrastructure of the future - not just roads, railways, and buses, but gigabit broadband, research and development, computing power.

By helping to create hundreds of thousands of good, secure, well-paid, highly-skilled jobs, that will level up opportunity right across our country.

And yes, by taking the necessary decisions to build the right homes in the right places to support those jobs.

But true British dynamism won’t come from the State alone. It will come from you. It will come from the ingenuity and creativity of the British people, given the support, the opportunities and the rewards to have, pursue and realise big ambitions.

If you have a brilliant new idea – I want you to build it. If you’re passionate about solving a problem – I want you to pursue it.

If you simply want to set up on your own – I want you to get out there and do it.

Because you won’t find the future written in a slide deck in a Whitehall quango.

You’ll find it out there in our country.

And so the government I lead will create the conditions for people themselves to try, to build, to invent - yes, sometimes to fail, but more often to succeed.

That’s why we’re cutting taxes directly on investment. It’s why we’re cutting taxes to encourage innovation. 

And it’s why we’re seizing the freedom and flexibility of Brexit. Because so often, the EU’s default approach was top down, precautionary regulation.

Whereas we in the UK now have the chance to be more agile, so that rather than stifling innovation and growth, we encourage it, in everything from financial services to agriculture, from healthcare to house building.

Above all, we will reward hard work.

Because you don’t get anything in life without hard work.

So we’re making the tax system simpler, fairer, and more rewarding, cutting National Insurance by £900 for the average worker, alongside increasing the state pension by £900 this year.

We’re raising the National Living Wage to end low pay.

And we’re reforming welfare to make sure that work always pays, and our safety net is fair to those who pay for it.

Not least because giving people support to get off welfare and into work gives them purpose, dignity and hope and it is also the only sustainable way to cut legal migration. 

A world-class education system.

A dynamic, innovative economy.

Hard work valued and rewarded.

That’s how Britain will succeed in future.

That’s how we’ll grow the economy.

And that’s how we’ll transform public services, too.

Imagine a welfare system where new technologies allow us to crack down on the fraudsters, exploiting the hardworking taxpayers who fund it.

Imagine the huge opportunities to cut crime through technologies like live facial recognition, helping police catch wanted criminals, find missing people, and spend more time on the beat. 

And imagine our NHS, still free at the point of use, but transformed for the future.

A service staffed by tens of thousands more doctors and nurses, thanks to our Long Term Workforce Plan. 

Backed by record funding made possible by years of fiscal discipline. With far greater choice over where you can receive your care, made as simple as choosing what to watch on iPlayer. 

And I believe there will be no more powerful example of what all the forces of British dynamism, innovation, scientific discovery and technological progress can achieve, than this:

To address, finally, the fear of one word that still lurks in the back of everyone’s minds, that touches almost every family in our country, and that envelopes our whole world, if we or a loved one hears it: cancer.

Yet even here, if we are bold enough, there can be cause for new hope. We already know we can prevent most lung cancer cases – the UK’s leading cause of cancer deaths – by stopping smoking.

That’s why I took the important decision to create a smokefree generation.

And with huge breakthroughs in early diagnosis and new treatments, like the MRNA vaccine for skin cancer, I believe we can be just as bold and ambitious in improving rates of cancer survival. 

Because if we can bring together my vision of a country transformed, with our world class education system that trains the PhD oncologists and apprentice lab technicians, and our dynamic economy that attracts investors and incubates the billion-pound biotech businesses of the future, our post-Brexit regulatory freedoms to approve trials in a safe but faster way.

And the scale of our NHS to help us research and trial those new drugs in a way no other country can, then just one example of the incredible achievements this country can make would be to make a generational breakthrough against this cruel disease and fundamentally change what it will mean for our children and grandchildren to hear the word cancer.

Today I’ve set out my vision for how Britain can succeed in one of the most dangerous yet transformational eras we’ve ever known.

The values that lie behind that vision are a new patriotism: a confidence in ourselves and in all that we can achieve.

I reject those who insidiously question our history and our identity.

I believe in that innate confidence in ourselves that has always run through our island story.

And just as we’re proud of all that we created, invented, and discovered in our past, so we can be confident and optimistic about what we will achieve in our future.

My pledge to you is that I will create the conditions to make that possible, to help you fulfil your ambitions.

To build the world-class education system that gives our children the skills they need to succeed, no matter where they started off in life.

To create the dynamic, innovative economy that will give you the opportunity of a wealthier, more financially secure life for you and your family.

To restore our sense of civic pride and national cohesion so we can be secure in the knowledge that we are all on the same side. 

And above all, you can trust me to keep you and your family safe and secure from the threats we face at home and abroad. 

There are storms ahead.

The dangers are all too real.

But Britain can feel proud again.

Britain can feel confident again.

Because with bold action and a clear plan, we can and we will create a secure future.

Is this page useful?

• Yes this page is useful
• No this page is not useful

Help us improve GOV.UK

Don’t include personal or financial information like your National Insurance number or credit card details.

To help us improve GOV.UK, we’d like to know more about your visit today. Please fill in this survey (opens in a new tab) .

Canada's Justin Trudeau Introduced Law To Imprison Anyone Who Ever Posted Hate Speech?

Canada's proposed online arms act was described as "orwellian" by some social media users., nick hardinges, published may 14, 2024.

On May 7, 2024, an X user claimed Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's government had introduced a new "Orwellian" law called the Online Harms Bill C-63 that would allow police to arrest people for posting hate speech online, even if the offense took place before the legislation existed.

The user wrote:

The Trudeau regime has introduced an Orwellian new law called the Online Harms Bill C-63, which will give police the power to retroactively search the Internet for "hate speech" violations and arrest offenders, even if the offence occurred before the law existed. This new bill is aimed at safeguarding the masses from so-called "hate speech."

The post referenced articles by two conservative news outlets, Revolver News and The People's Voice , that also discussed the claim.

Similar posts appeared all over X , where one user declared: "WTF." The platform's owner, Elon Musk , added: "This sounds insane if accurate!"

Examples  also emerged on Facebook , while Musk's and the original X user's posts had amassed more than 140 millions views combined, at the time of this writing.

Snopes looked into the legislation to see whether there was any evidence police would have the power to retroactively arrest people for posting hate speech prior to the bill's implementation.

What Do We Know About the Bill?

Canada's ruling Liberal Party unveiled proposed legislation called  Bill C-63  on Feb. 26, 2024.

A government media release said the bill would create an Online Harms Act that would "hold social media platforms accountable for addressing harmful content on their platforms and for creating a safer online space that protects all people in Canada, especially kids … and better safeguard everyone in Canada from online hate."

The proposals specifically target seven types of harmful content: 

• Content that sexually victimizes a child or revictimizes a survivor.
• Intimate content communicated without consent.
• Content used to bully a child.
• Content that induces a child to harm themself.
• Content that foments hatred.
• Content that incites violence.
• Content that incites violent extremism or terrorism.

Under the act, social media companies would be subject to three duties: acting responsibly, protecting children, and making certain content inaccessible — such as content that sexually victimizes a child or revictimizes a survivor, or intimate images posted without consent

The legislation would also establish a Digital Safety Commission, which would oversee and enforce new regulations on hate speech and the protection of children, and a digital safety ombudsperson, who "would act as a resource and advocate for users and victims." Both would be supported by a Digital Safety Office.

Importantly, the media release showed it would be the commission that enforces the laws, not the police.

In addition, Bill C-63 — which was not legally enforceable at the time of this writing as it had not yet received royal assent, the monarch's formal approval of legislation — proposed changes to Canada's Criminal Code and the Canadian Human Rights Act that would "better combat hate speech and hate crimes, provide improved remedies for victims and hold individuals accountable for the hatred they spread."

It would also increase the maximum sentences for illegal hate speech and allow Canadians to report such incidents to a human-rights tribunal. If successful, victims could be compensated up to CA$20,000, and fines of up to CA$50,000 could be levied.

What Is Unclear in the Bill?

Snopes found no evidence in Bill C-63 to support the claim the police would have the power to arrest someone if they found that person had posted hate speech online before the legislation's implementation.

However, text in section 41 of the bill, which listed proposed amendments to the CHRA, was somewhat unclear. It said if the person or panel conducting a Digital Safety Commission inquiry into discriminatory practice, such as hate speech, upholds a complaint, they may order the accused to pay a penalty of up to CA$50,000 to the government if the member or panel considers it appropriate with regard to:

• The nature, circumstances, extent and gravity of the discriminatory practice.
• The wilfulness or intent of that person.
• Any prior discriminatory practices that the accused has engaged in.
• The accused's ability to pay the penalty.

The proposed bill did not define whether "prior discriminatory practices" would include offenses that took place before the legislation was implemented. However, the clause about "prior discriminatory practices" appeared to be relevant only if someone had a new complaint filed against them. 

Snopes contacted the Canadian government for clarity on this and numerous other matters relating to the Bill and will update this article if we receive a response.

Another fact-checking outlet also addressed the claims about retroactive punishments for hate speech, finding that the focus was on continuous  hate speech.

Bill C-63 is available in full below:

(House of Commons Canada)

What Did the Bill's Opponents Say?

Some individuals and civil-rights groups condemned the legislation, branding it an attack on free speech.

Snopes spoke to the Canadian Civil Liberties Association, which  opposes the bill  in its current form, and asked whether the legislation would allow the police to imprison anyone who has ever posted hate speech online.

The group said any such claims were inaccurate. Anaïs Bussières McNicoll, director of the CCLA's Fundamental Freedoms Program, told Snopes:

The general rule under Canadian law is that statutes are not to be construed as having retroactive effect unless such a construction is expressly or by necessary implication required by the language of the law. Part 2 of Bill C-63 does propose some amendments to the Criminal Code with respect to hate crimes, but nothing indicates that these amendments would have a retroactive effect.

However, McNicoll explained that a different part of the bill would amend the Canadian Human Rights Act further as to which hate speech communicated online would be considered "discriminatory." She said the text in part 3 of section 34 "is not clear."

One can read it as implying a retroactive effect, although that is not explicitly mentioned. In any event, that section does not relate to criminal proceedings, but human rights legislation.

McNicoll concluded by saying the CCLA did not believe the amendments being considered under the bill should be enforced retroactively if it is granted royal assent.

Government Bill (House of Commons) C-63 (44-1) - First Reading - An Act to Enact the Online Harms Act, to Amend the Criminal Code, the Canadian Human Rights Act and An Act Respecting the Mandatory Reporting of Internet Child Pornography by Persons Who Provide an Internet Service and to Make Consequential and Related Amendments to Other Acts - Parliament of Canada . https://www.parl.ca/documentviewer/en/44-1/bill/C-63/first-reading. Accessed 14 May 2024.

Heritage, Canadian. Proposed Bill to Address Online Harms . 26 Feb. 2024, https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/online-harms.html.

McNicoll, Anaïs Bussières. 'Online Harms Act (Bill C-63): CCLA Joins Civil Society Call to Separate Parts Two and Three from the Bill'. CCLA , 8 May 2024, https://ccla.org/criminal-justice/online-harms-act-bill-c-63-ccla-joins-civil-society-call-to-separate-parts-two-and-three-from-the-bill/.

Wong, Adrian, Dr. 'Will Bill C-63 jail those who ever posted hate speech online?!' TechARP . 8 May 2024, https://www.techarp.com/crime/bill-c-63-jail-hate-speech-online/. Accessed 14 May 2023.

By Nick Hardinges

Nick Hardinges is a London-based reporter who previously worked as a fact-checker at Reuters.

Article Tags