instructed second language acquisition a literature review

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The purpose of this literature review is to examine theory and research that has addressed what constitutes effective pedagogy for the acquisition of a second language (L2) in a classroom context. In other words, the review seeks to answer the question: How can instruction best ensure successful language learning?

Author(s): Professor R. Ellis, Auckland Uniservices Limited. Report for the Ministry of Education.

Date Published: 2005

Introduction

This is not an easy question to answer, both because there are many competing theories offering very different perspectives on how instruction can promote language learning and because the empirical research does not always afford clear cut findings. We will endeavour to reflect the different theoretical viewpoints and findings in the review. To do otherwise would be to misrepresent the current state of research in this field.

However, in order to avoid the pitfalls of complete relativity, we will attempt to identify a number of general principles, based on theory and research, which we believe can provide a guideline for designers of language curricula and for classroom teachers. In proposing these principles we do not wish to adopt a positivist stance. We do not believe that the research findings to date provide definitive specifications for language instruction. Rather we wish to suggest, in line with Stenhouse's (1975) arguments, that the principles be viewed as 'provisional specifications' best operationalised and then tried out by teachers in their own teaching contexts.

The review begins with an examination of the learning theories that underlie three mainstream approaches to language teaching (Section A). From there, it moves on to consider empirical studies of classroom teaching and learning (Section B). Given the vast amount of research that has taken place over the last three decades, the research considered will necessarily be selective, focusing on key theoretical claims and seminal studies. These sections provide the basis for the identification of a set of general principles (Section C). The review concludes with a discussion of how the research can best be utilized by practitioners (Section D).Inevitably in a review of this nature, readers will be confronted with a number of technical terms. In some cases, where they are of central importance these will be defined in the main text. However, in cases where they are less central, they are defined in the glossary. All terms in bold print can be found in the glossary.

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S. Loewen and M. Sato (eds): The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition

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Yumei Fan, Jinfen Xu, S. Loewen and M. Sato (eds): The Routledge Handbook of Instructed Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics , Volume 41, Issue 4, August 2020, Pages 617–620, https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amy048

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Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) as a subdomain of second language acquisition has received much attention from researchers in the past few decades. Several books have explored various facets of ISLA ( Ellis 2005 ; Housen and Pierrard 2005 ; Loewen 2015 ). However, there has not been a book that attempts to provide a thorough and broad overview of ISLA. For instance, the most recent one by Loewen (2015) only approaches language acquisition from a cognitive–interactionist perspective, leaving other theoretical frameworks undiscussed, such as the sociocultural perspective ( Lantolf 2011 ). The handbook under review fills the gap. It is contributed by 45 world-renowned scholars and prominent, emerging researchers from varying theoretical backgrounds, such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, psychology, and sociolinguistics, to name but a few. This combined expertise shines through in the whole book, taking readers on a journey to have an overview of the past ISLA research and identify new and growing areas of interest.

This volume contains a general introductory chapter and 31 chapters organized into six sections with each focusing on a single area in ISLA. The informative introduction by the two editors, Shawn Loewen and Masatoshi Sato, first outlines an overarching framework for ISLA, and then provides an overview of the subsequent chapters.

Section I (Chapters 2–5) centers on the theoretical issues in ISLA. Chapter 2, by Robert DeKeyser, addresses a set of issues related to L2 knowledge and skills (e.g. declarative/procedural, implicit/explicit, and automatized/controlled). Chapter 3, by Ronald P. Leow and Celia C. Zamora, provides a critical discussion of intentional and incidental L2 learning. Chapter 4, by Marije Michel, provides an accessible introduction to the triad of complexity, accuracy, and fluency in L2 production. Finally, Chapter 5, by Neomy Storch, discusses the application of sociocultural theory (SCT) in L2 classrooms, adding a social perspective to ISLA.

Section II (Chapters 6–11) focuses on different types of instruction that have been theoretically and empirically supported. Chapter 6 by Roy Lyster and Chapter 7 by Rod Ellis focus on content-based language teaching and task-based language teaching, respectively. Chapter 8, by YouJin Kim, discusses cognitive–interactionist approaches to L2 instruction in ISLA research, while Chapter 9, by James P. Lantolf, and Xian Zhang, presents a new concept-based language teaching pedagogy informed by SCT. Chapter 10, by Bill VanPatten, provides a theoretical discussion of input processing, and Chapter 11, by Ute Knoch and Susy Macqueen, discusses assessment in the L2 classroom.

Section III (Chapters 12–17) is devoted to the different language aspects of L2 instruction. Hossein Nassaji starts in Chapter 12 with a focus on L2 grammar acquisition, followed by the investigation of L2 pragmatics by Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig in Chapter 13. In Chapter 14, Tracey M. Derwing shifts the focus to L2 fluency development. Chapter 15, by Sara Kennedy and Pavel Trofimovich, concerns acquisition of pronunciation, while Chapter 16, by Beatriz González-Fernández and Norbert Schmitt, addresses vocabulary acquisition. This section concludes with Charlene Polio and Jongbong Lee’s examination of L2 written language learning in Chapter 17.

Section IV (Chapters 18–20) makes a case for the need to understand the mediating role of learning environment in ISLA. The section starts with Yuko Goto Butler’s (Chapter 18) introduction of ISLA research in East Asia, followed by Carmen Pérez-Vidal’s discussion of L2 learning in study abroad context (Chapter 19) and Hayo Reinders and Glenn Stockwell’s investigation of L2 learning in the computer-assisted language learning context (Chapter 20).

Section V (Chapters 21–27) explores the individual differences that have been found to mediate the effects of ISLA. The individual differences on the social, cognitive, and psychological dimensions are given adequate attention by Patricia A. Duff (Chapter 21), Shaofeng Li (Chapter 22), and Jean-Marc Dewaele (Chapter 24), respectively. Chapter 23, by Kata Csizér, looks into the L2 motivational Self System theory and dynamics system theory to understand learner motivation. Chapter 25, by Laura Gurzynski-Weiss, presents the research domain of instructor individual characteristics, an important but overlooked component within ISLA. Chapter 26, by Rhonda Oliver, Bich Nguyen, and Masatoshi Sato, is devoted to the topic of child L2 learners. The section ends with a discussion of instructed heritage language acquisition by Silvina Montrul and Melissa Bowles (Chapter 27).

Section VI (Chapters 28–32) centers on the research methodology in ISLA research. Chapter 28, by Luke Plonsky, discusses some critical issues relevant to quantitative ISLA research, while Chapter 29, by Peter I. De Costa, Lorena Valmori, and Ina Choi, explores qualitative methodology. The next two chapters complement each other, with Chapter 30 by Alison Mackey focusing on classroom-based research and Chapter 31 by Kim McDonough experimental research. Chapter 32, by Susan Gass and Scott Sterling, addresses research ethics. All these chapters provide very useful guidance for readers who are grappling with methodological knowledge.

Overall, this volume contributes to ISLA research by providing the most comprehensive and up-to-date examination of theoretical issues, empirical research, and pedagogical aspects of L2 instruction in a range of contexts. The findings gleaned from different domains of ISLA not only demonstrate the vast wealth of knowledge accumulated in this field over 40 years of investigation but also lay a solid foundation for future empirical and pedagogical exploration. One of the most striking advantages of this volume is the strong connection between research and pedagogy in each section (except for Section I). This special attention to ‘I’ in ISLA is very necessary given the fact the ISLA, arguably more than any other domain within applied linguistics, is expected to contribute to L2 teaching practice. The pedagogical aspects and implications foregrounded in the book can help teachers make sound and confident pedagogical decisions in their classrooms and help them teach more effectively in various contexts. Another strength is the inclusion of individual chapters on some under-researched topics in ISLA. An example is the chapter on L2 instructor individual characteristics, a necessary yet under-investigated component of ISLA. It is worth noting that the skillfully written sections on future directions in each chapter may offer guidance for readers who are looking for research topics. Also helpful for readers is the two call-out boxes provided in each chapter, one introducing the key concepts and the other the teaching advice. These boxes help readers access some of the most important theoretical and pedagogical points in each chapter, serving as a useful and accessible reference for them.

Some shortcomings should be noted. First, as the editors readily admit, some chapters overlap and could have been differently organized. Readers would find that some chapters in one section might fit better into other sections. For instance, if the chapter on cognitive–interactionist approach in Section II appeared in Section I, it could constitute a good complement to the SCT in this section, which might help readers develop a comparative perspective on the two oft-cited approaches. Furthermore, editors could have worked more on the coherence of different chapters. For instance, the author declares that there are two research strands in relation to SCT in Chapter 5: SCT as a rationale for and to explain the findings from studies and SCT as a theoretical framework in the design of teaching programs or assessment practices. However, the author only discusses the first strand, leaving the second with no explanation. Though the readers could find that the second strand concerning concept-based instruction and dynamic assessment was scattered in Chapters 9 and 11, it would be more coherent if the authors in these chapters had referred to each other. Another example of lack of coherence is that some concepts have been repeatedly elaborated by different authors in different chapters. For instance, the concept of implicit and explicit knowledge/learning has been discussed in some details in Chapters 2, 3 and 12. The authors of these chapters could have cross-referred each other when applying these concepts. Finally, some typographical errors could have been avoided by more careful editing. For instance, ‘focus-on-form/focus-on-form’ on Page 9 should be ‘focus-on-form/focus-on-forms’, and ‘conducing quantitative research’ on Page 10 should be ‘conducting quantitative research’. In addition, the two boxes in Figure 9.2 on Page 157 are annotated as ‘2a’ and ‘2b’, which is inconsistent with the text below the figure, where they are printed as ‘1a’ and ‘1b’.

Despite these weaknesses, this volume is a valuable resource that brings together all the important issues related to ISLA. A wide range of audiences including researchers, graduate students, upper-level undergraduate students, teachers, and teacher-educators who are interested in L2 learning and teaching will all benefit from this most thorough and up-to-date treatment of the pertinent issues in ISLA.

Ellis R. 2005 . Instructed Second Language Acquisition: A Literature Review . Ministry of Education , New Zealand.

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Housen A. , Pierrard M. . 2005 . Investigations in Instructed Second Language Acquisition . Routledge .

Lantolf J. P. 2011 . ‘Integrating sociocultural theory and cognitive linguistics in the second language classroom’, in Hinkel E. (ed.): Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning . Routledge .

Loewen S. 2015 . Introduction to Instructed Second Language Acquisition . Routledge .

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A Review of Second Language Acquisition in Verbal Behavior Analysis

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• Published: 13 April 2022
• Volume 32 , pages 617–640, ( 2023 )

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• Randi Melvin-Brown   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5649-7437 1 ,
• Yors Garcia 2 ,
• Rocio Rosales 3 ,
• Amanda Mahoney 1 &
• Jessica Fuller 1  

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The purpose of this review was to summarize the behavior-analytic literature on the emergence of untrained second language skills and to provide recommendations for future research focused on second language acquisition. Seventeen distinct studies were included in the review. These studies implemented a variety of teaching methods (e.g., tact, intraverbal, mand, and echoic training) and tested for the emergence of untaught verbal operant relations. Results suggest that tact training is an effective approach to evoke untrained responses in a second language, and intraverbal training is effective for training rudimentary second language skills and the emergence of untaught responses. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

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A Systematic Review of Emergent Learning Outcomes Produced by Foreign language Tact Training

From the Jones-Plug to the Amphora: Could Stemmer´s Theory of Language Acquisition Complement Skinner´s Theory of Listener Behavior?

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Melvin-Brown, R., Garcia, Y., Rosales, R. et al. A Review of Second Language Acquisition in Verbal Behavior Analysis. J Behav Educ 32 , 617–640 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-022-09471-8

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Direct Instruction in Second Language Acquisition: A Critical Review of Related Literature

Journal on English Language Teaching

Second Language Acquisition (SLA), as a sub – discipline in applied linguistics, is rapidly growing and changing (Ellis & Shintani, 2014). As such, it has yielded stirring issues on both naturalistic and instructed settings causing reviews and/or investigations by language researchers. This paper accordingly serves as a humble attempt at critically reviewing the related literature of instructed SLA particularly direct instruction as situated in the landscape of language teaching. Initially, the paper kicks-off with the essentials of direct instruction. It subsequently delves into the importance of such instruction, and this extends to the analysis of notably empirical studies conducted in the 20th century and currently st empirical studies in the 21st century. In regards of these, the paper arrives at conclusions, recommendations, and trajectories for future SLA studies.

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The study explores the interaction between implicit instruction and second language acquisition (SLA), specifically examining the efficacy of explicit and implicit instructional approaches. Using a mixed-methods approach, it investigates how implicit instruction influences second language acquisition (SLA) outcomes. This study considers several variables, such as grammar usage, vocabulary building, and pronunciation teaching techniques, to establish how effective implicit instruction is in enhancing language acquisition and improving skill sets among those learning a second language. Participants involve learners with different levels of language skills, and data collection includes administering language tests, conducting interviews and observations, and assigning questionnaires. Quantitative data are analyzed using statistical methods, whereas qualitative data are collected using thematic analysis, highlighting underlying patterns and themes. The findings provide insights into the effects of exposure, implicit learning mechanisms, and naturalistic, real-world use of language acquisition. Furthermore, it provides insights into learners' perceptions and attitudes toward implicit instruction, which may impact instructional methods and curriculum development in language acquisition. They may enhance comprehension of how implicit instruction affects SLA and benefit language teachers and researchers regarding productive teaching methods and techniques.

International Journal of English Studies

International Journal of English Studies (IJES) , Elsa Tragant

After discussing the ties between language teaching and second language acquisition research, the present paper reviews the role that second language acquisition research has played on two recent pedagogical proposals. First, communicative language teaching, advocated in the early eighties, in which focus on the code was excluded, and then the more recent research-based proposals of integrating some degree of focus on form in meaning-based curricula. Following Ellis (1998), four macro-options of focus-on-form interventions and their theoretical motivations are presented, followed by recent research evidence: input processing, input enhancement, formfocused output and negative feedback. The last section of the paper deals with two related pedagogical issues: the choice of linguistic forms in focused instruction and its benefits depending on individual factors and the learning context.

Margherita (Maggie) Berti

This book presents key findings of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research, along with reflection tasks and lesson activities, aiming to bridge the gap between SLA theories and practical applications in the language classroom. Although many textbooks excel in describing theories and research studies concerning SLA, often teachers and students have to undertake the difficult burden of applying such methodological principles in their own pedagogical and learning practices. With the objective of facilitating the use of SLA theories, the authors identified essential principles that teachers might find problematic and unpacked them through three main stages: reflection, conceptualisation, and reconstruction and planning. The first chapter explores the dynamic and complex nature of lexico-grammar and its acquisition, which is discussed in Larsen-Freeman's (2003) research. Nava and Pedrazzini explain that some might view lexi-cogrammar solely as a matter of form; however, lexicogrammar is multi-dimensional and should be considered from the perspectives of form, meaning and use. While each feature can be considered independently from the others, they are all intertwined in actual language use, and thus no single process is likely to account for the learning of lexicogrammar. The Affiliation

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Melike Ünal Gezer , Burgess- Brigham , Jung-Hsuan Su

Educational policies that impact second language (L2) learners—a rapidlygrowing group—are often enacted without consulting relevant research. This review synthesized research regarding optimal conditions for L2 acquisition, facilitative L2 learner and teacher characteristics, and speed of L2 acquisition, from four bodies of work—foreign language education, child language research, sociocultural studies, and psycholinguistics—often overlooked by educators. Seventy-one peer-reviewed journal articles studying PK-12 L2 learners met inclusion criteria. Findings included: 1) Optimal conditions for L2 learners immersed in a majority-L2 society include strong home literacy practices, opportunities to use the L2 informally, well-implemented specially-designed L2 educational programs, and sufficient time devoted to L2 literacy instruction, whereas L2 learners with little L2 exposure require explicit instruction to master grammar; 2) L2 learners with strong L2 aptitude, motivation, and first language (L1) skills are more successful; 3) Effective L2 teachers demonstrate sufficient L2 proficiency, strong instructional skills, and proficiency in their students' L1; 4) L2 learners require 3-7 years to reach L2 proficiency, with younger learners typically taking longer but more likely to achieve close-to-native results. These findings, even those most relevant to education, are not reflected in current US policy. Additional research is needed on the characteristics of successful or unsuccessful L2 learners and L2 teachers. Such research should attend systematically to the differences between L2 learning in maximal versus minimal input settings; whereas the psycholinguistic challenges of L2 learning might be common across settings, the sociocultural and interactional challenges and opportunities differ in ways that can massively impact outcomes.

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This study compared the effectiveness of differing instructional approaches used within two units of study in Spanish classes at a suburban middle school. The purpose of this quantitative, pre-experimental study was to determine if direct instruction in grammar and vocabulary combined with a variety of corrective feedback types would facilitate higher levels of second language acquisition than an instructional approach that concentrated on student activity and task performance. The theoretical base of the present study focused on associative-cognitive second language theories and hypotheses that explained how second language learning occurs. The purposive convenience sample was comprised of 86 students aged 12 to 14 years enrolled in beginning-level Spanish classes. The assessment scores of the students after being exposed to the direct instructional approach were compared with the assessment scores of the students after being exposed to the student-centered instructional approach. ...

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• Published: 10 May 2024

Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study

• Anna Williams 1 ,
• Jennifer R. Stevens 2 ,
• Rondi Anderson 3 &
• Malin Bogren 4  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  523 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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English is generally recognized as the international language of science and most research on evidence-based medicine is produced in English. While Bangla is the dominant language in Bangladesh, public midwifery degree programs use English as the medium of instruction (EMI). This enables faculty and student access to the latest evidence-based midwifery content, which is essential for provision of quality care later. Yet, it also poses a barrier, as limited English mastery among students and faculty limits both teaching and learning.

This mixed-methods study investigates the challenges and opportunities associated with the implementation of EMI in the context of diploma midwifery education in Bangladesh. Surveys were sent to principals at 38 public midwifery education institutions, and 14 English instructors at those schools. Additionally, ten key informant interviews were held with select knowledgeable stakeholders with key themes identified.

Surveys found that English instructors are primarily guest lecturers, trained in general or business English, without a standardized curriculum or functional English language laboratories. Three themes were identified in the key informant interviews. First, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Second, language labs were poorly maintained, often non-functional, and lacked faculty. Third, an alternative education model, such as the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum,  has potential to strengthen English competencies within midwifery schools.

Conclusions

ESP, which teaches English for application in a specific discipline, is one option available in Bangladesh for midwifery education. Native language instruction and the middle ground of multilingualism are also useful options. Although a major undertaking, investing in an ESP model and translation of technical midwifery content into relevant mother tongues may provide faster and more complete learning. In addition, a tiered system of requirements for English competencies tied to higher levels of midwifery education could build bridges to students to help them access global evidence-based care resources. Higher levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level would follow a multilingualism approach, teach using an ESP curriculum, and have complementary emphasis on the mother tongue.

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Introduction

As the international language of science, English holds an important position in the education of healthcare professionals. Globally, most scientific papers are published in English. In many non-native English-speaking countries, English is used as the language of instruction in higher education [ 1 ]. The dominant status held by the English language in the sciences is largely considered to increase global access to scientific information by unifying the scientific community under a single lingua franca [ 2 ].

In Bangladesh, where the mother tongue is Bangla and midwifery diploma programs are taught in English, knowledge of English facilitates student and instructor access to global, continuously updated evidence-based practice guidance. This includes basic and scientific texts, media-based instructional materials (including on life-saving skills), professional journals, and proceedings of medical conferences. Many of these resources are available for free online, which can be particularly useful in healthcare settings that have not integrated evidence-based practice.

In addition to opportunity though, English instruction also creates several challenges. Weak student and faculty English competency may impede midwifery education quality in Bangladesh. Globally, literature has linked limited instructor competency in the language of instruction with reduced depth, nuance, and accuracy in conveying subject matter content [ 3 ]. This can lead to the perpetuation of patterns of care in misalignment with global evidence. In addition, students’ native language proficiency in their topic of study can decline when instruction is in English, limiting native language communication between colleagues on the job later on [ 4 , 5 ].

In this paper, we examine the current status of English language instruction within public diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh. Midwifery students are not required to demonstrate a certain skill level in English to enter the program. However, they are provided with English classes in the program. Midwifery course materials are in English, while—for ease and practicality—teaching aids and verbal classroom instruction are provided in Bangla. Following graduation, midwifery students must pass a national licensing exam given in English to practice. Upon passing, some new midwives are deployed as public employees and are posted to sub-district health facilities where English is not used by either providers or clients. Others will seek employment as part of non-governmental organization (NGO) projects where English competency can be of value for interacting with global communities, and for participating in NGO-specific on-the-job learning opportunities. The mix of both challenge and opportunity in this context is complex.

Our analysis examines the reasons for the identified English competency gaps within midwifery programs, and potential solutions. We synthesize the findings and discuss solutions in the context of the global literature. Finally, we present a set of viable options for strengthening English competencies among midwifery faculty and students to enable better quality teaching and greater learning comprehension among students.

Study design

We employed a mixed-methods study design [ 6 ] in order to assess the quality of English instruction within education programs, and options for its improvement. Data collection consisted of two surveys of education institutes, a web-search of available English programs in Bangladesh, and key informant interviews. Both surveys followed a structured questionnaire with a combination of open- and closed-ended questions and were designed by the authors. One survey targeted the 38 institute principals and the other targeted 14 of the institutes’ 38 English instructors (those for whom contact information was shared). The web-search focused on generating a list of available English programs in Bangladesh that had viable models that could be tapped into to strengthen English competencies among midwifery faculty and students. Key informant interviews were unstructured and intended to substantiate and deepen understanding of the survey and web-search findings.

No minimum requirements exist for students’ English competencies upon entry into midwifery diploma programs. Students enter directly from higher secondary school (12th standard) and complete the midwifery program over a period of three years. Most students come from modest economic backgrounds having completed their primary and secondary education in Bangla. While English instruction is part of students’ secondary education, skill attainment is low, and assessment standards are not in place to ensure student mastery. To join the program, midwifery students are required to pass a multi-subject entrance exam that includes a component on English competency. However, as no minimum English standard must be met, the exam does not screen out potential midwifery students. Scoring, for instance, is not broken down by subject. This makes it possible to answer zero questions correctly in up to three of the subjects, including English, and pass the exam.

Processes/data collection

Prior to the first survey, principals were contacted by UNFPA with information about the survey and all provided verbal consent to participate. The survey of principals collected general information about the resources available for English instruction at the institutes. It was a nine-item questionnaire with a mix of Yes/No, multiple choice and write-in questions. Specific measures of interest were whether and how many English instructors the institutes had, instructors’ hiring criteria, whether institutes had language labs and if they were in use, and principals’ views on the need for English courses and their ideal mode of delivery (e.g., in-person, online, or a combination). This survey also gathered contact information of institute English instructors. These measures were chosen as they were intended to provide a high-level picture of institutes’ English resources such as faculty availability and qualifications, and use of language labs. To ensure questions were appropriately framed, a pilot test was conducted with two institute principals and small adjustments were subsequently made. Responses were shared via an electronic form sent by email and were used to inform the second survey as well as the key informant interviews. Of the 38 principals, 36 completed the survey.

The second survey, targeting English instructors, gathered information on instructors’ type of employment (e.g., institute faculty or adjunct lecturers); length of employment; student academic focus (e.g., midwifery or nursing); hours of English instruction provided as part of the midwifery diploma program; whether a standard English curriculum was used and if it was tailored toward the healthcare profession; use of digital content in teaching; education and experience in English teaching; and their views on student barriers to learning English. These measures were chosen to provide a basic criterion for assessing quality of English instruction, materials and resources available to students. For instance, instructors’ status as faculty would indicate a stronger degree of integration and belonging to the institute midwifery program than a guest lecturer status which allows for part time instruction with little job security. In addition, use of a standard, professionally developed English curriculum and integration of digital content into classroom learning would be indicative of higher quality than learning materials developed informally by instructors themselves without use of listening content by native speakers in classrooms. The survey was piloted with two English instructors. Based on their feedback, minor adjustments were made to one question, and it was determined that responses were best gathered by phone due to instructors’ limited internet access. Of the 14 instructors contacted, 11 were reached and provided survey responses by phone.

The web-search gathered information on available English language instruction programs for adults in Bangladesh, and the viability of tapping into any of them to improve English competency among midwifery students and faculty. Keywords Bangladesh  +  English courses , English training , English classes , study English and learn English were typed into Google’s search platform. Eleven English language instruction programs were identified. Following this, each program was contacted either by phone or email and further detail about the program’s offerings was collected.

Unstructured key informant interviews were carried out with select knowledgeable individuals to substantiate and enhance the credibility of the survey and web-search findings. Three in-country expert English language instructors and four managers of English language teaching programs were interviewed. In addition, interviews were held with three national-level stakeholders knowledgeable about work to make functional technologically advanced English language laboratories that had been installed at many of the training institutes. Question prompts included queries such as, ‘In your experience, what are the major barriers to Bangla-medium educated students studying in English at the university level?’, ‘What effective methods or curricula are you aware of for improving student English to an appropriate competency level for successful learning in English?’, and, ‘What options do you see for the language lab/s being used, either in their originally intended capacity or otherwise?’

Data analysis

All data were analyzed by the lead researcher. Survey data were entered into a master Excel file and grouped descriptively to highlight trends and outliers, and ultimately enable a clear description of the structure and basic quality attributes (e.g., instructors’ education, hours of English instruction, and curriculum development resources used). Web-search findings were compiled in a second Excel file with columns distinguishing whether they taught general English (often aimed at preparing students for international standard exams), Business English, or English for Specific Purposes (ESP). This enabled separation of standalone English courses taught by individual instructors as part of vocational or academic programs of study in other fields, and programs with an exclusive focus on English language acquisition. Key informant interviews were summarized in a standard notes format using Word. An inductive process of content analysis was carried out, in which content categories were identified and structured to create coherent meaning [ 7 ]. From this, the key overall findings and larger themes that grew from the initial survey and web-search results were drawn out.

The surveys (Tables  1 and 2 ) found that English instructors are primarily long-term male guest lecturers employed at each institute for more than two years. All principal respondents indicated that there is a need for English instruction—18 of the 19 reported that this is best done through a combination of in-person and computer-based instruction. Ten institutes reported that they have an English language lab, but none were used as such. The other institutes did not have language labs. The reported reasons for the labs not being in use were a lack of trained staff to operate them and some components of the technology not being installed or working properly. The findings from the instructors’ survey indicated that English instructors typically develop their own learning materials and teach general English without tailoring content to healthcare contexts. Only two mentioned using a standard textbook to guide their instruction and one described consulting a range of English textbooks to develop learning content. None reported using online or other digital tools for language instruction in their classrooms. Most instructors had an advanced degree (i.e., master’s degree) in English, and seven had received training in teaching English. Interviews with instructors also revealed that they themselves did not have mastery of English, as communication barriers in speaking over the phone appeared consistently across 10 of the 11 instructor respondents.

The web-search and related follow up interviews found that most English instruction programs (10 out of the 11) were designed for teaching general English and/or business English. The majority were offered through private entities aiming to reach individuals intending to study abroad, access employment that required English, or improve their ability to navigate business endeavors in English. One program, developed by the British Council, had flexibility to tailor its structure and some of its content to the needs of midwifery students. However, this was limited in that a significant portion of the content that would be used was developed for global audiences and thus not tailored to a Bangladeshi audience or to any specific discipline. One of the university English programs offered a promising ESP model tailored to midwifery students. It was designed by BRAC University’s Institute of Language for the university’s private midwifery training program.

Three themes emerged from the other key informant interviews (Table  3 ). The first was that, in addition to students’ challenges with English, faculty mastery of English presented challenges as well. Of the 34 faculty members intending to participate in the 2019–2020 cohort for the Dalarna master’s degree, half did not pass the prerequisite English exam. Ultimately, simultaneous English-Bangla translation was necessary for close to half of the faculty to enable their participation in the master’s program. English language limitations also precluded one faculty member from participating in an international PhD program in midwifery.

The second theme highlighted the language labs’ lack of usability. The language labs consisted of computers, an interactive whiteboard, audio-visual equipment, and associated software to allow for individualized direct interactions between teacher and student. However, due to the lack of appropriately trained staff to manage, care for and use the language lab equipment, the investment required to make the labs functional appeared to outweigh the learning advantages doing so would provide. Interviews revealed that work was being done, supported by a donor agency, on just one language lab, to explore whether it could be made functional. The work was described as costly and challenging, and required purchasing a software license from abroad, thus likely being impractical to apply to the other labs and sustain over multiple years.

The third theme was around the ESP curriculum model. The program developers had employed evidence-informed thinking to develop the ESP learning content and consulted student midwives on their learning preferences. Due to the student input, at least 80% of the content was designed to directly relate to the practice of midwifery in Bangladesh, while the remaining 10–20% references globally relevant content. This balance was struck based on students’ expressed interest in having some exposure to English usage outside of Bangladesh for their personal interest. For conversation practice, the modules integrated realistic scenarios of midwives interacting with doctors, nurses and patients. Also built into written activities were exercises where students were prompted to describe relevant health topics they are concurrently studying in their health, science or clinical classes. Given the midwifery students’ educational backgrounds and intended placements in rural parts of Bangladesh, an ESP curriculum model appeared to be the most beneficial existing program to pursue tapping into to strengthen English competencies within midwifery programs. This was because the content would likely be more accessible to students than a general English course by having vocabulary, activities and examples directly relevant to the midwifery profession.

The study findings demonstrate key weaknesses in the current model of English instruction taught in public midwifery programs. Notably, the quantitative findings revealed that some English instructors do not have training in teaching English, and none used standard curricula or online resources to structure and enhance their classroom content. In addition, weak mastery of English among midwifery faculty was identified in the qualitative data, which calls into question faculty’s ability to fully understand and accurately convey content from English learning materials. Global literature indicates that this is not a unique situation. Many healthcare faculty and students in low-resource settings, in fact, are faced with delivering and acquiring knowledge in a language they have not sufficiently mastered [ 8 ]. As a significant barrier to knowledge and skill acquisition for evidence-based care, this requires more attention from global midwifery educators [ 9 ].

Also holding back students’ English development is the finding from both the quantitative and qualitative data that none of the high-tech language labs were being used as intended. This indicates a misalignment with the investment against the reality of the resources at the institutes to use them. While setting up the costly language labs appears to have been a large investment with little to no return, it does demonstrate that strengthening English language instruction in post-secondary public education settings is a priority that the Bangladesh government is willing to invest in. However, scaling up access to an ESP curriculum model tailored to future midwifery practitioners in Bangladesh may be a more worthwhile investment than language labs [ 10 ]. 

The ESP approach teaches English for application in a specific discipline. It does this by using vocabulary, examples, demonstrations, scenarios and practice activities that are directly related to the context and professions those studying English live and work (or are preparing to work) in. One way ESP has been described, attributed to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), is, “ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product but as an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” [ 11 ]. It is proposed by linguistic education researchers as a viable model for strengthening language mastery and subject matter comprehension in EMI university contexts [ 12 ].

Though it did not arise as a finding, reviewing the literature highlighted that Bangla language instruction may be an additional, potentially viable option. Linguistic research has long shown that students learn more thoroughly and efficiently in their mother tongue [ 12 ]. Another perhaps more desirable option may be multilingualism, which entails recognizing native languages as complementary in EMI classrooms, and using them through verbal instruction and supplemental course materials. Kirkpatrick, a leading scholar of EMI in Asia, suggests that multilingualism be formally integrated into EMI university settings [ 13 ]. This approach is supported by evidence showing that the amount of native language support students need for optimal learning is inversely proportional to their degree of English proficiency [ 14 ].

Ultimately, despite the language related learning limitations identified in this study, and the opportunities presented by native language and multilingualism approaches, there remains a fundamental need for members of the midwifery profession in Bangladesh to use up-to-date guidance on evidence-based midwifery care [ 11 ]. Doing that currently requires English language competence. Perhaps a tiered system of requirements for English competencies that are tied to diploma, Bachelor’s, Master’s and PhD midwifery programs could build bridges for more advanced students to access global resources. Higher academic levels might emphasize English more heavily, while the diploma level could follow a multilingualism approach—teaching using an ESP curriculum and integrating Bangla strategically to support optimal knowledge acquisition for future practice in rural facilities. Ideally, scores on a standard English competency exam would be used to assess students’ language competencies prior to entrance in English-based programs and that this would require more stringent English skill development prior to entering a midwifery program.

Methodological considerations

One of the limitations of this study is that it relied on self-reports and observation, rather than tested language and subject matter competencies. Its strengths though are in the relatively large number of education institutes that participated in the study, and the breadth of knowledge about faculty and student subject matter expertise among study co-authors. It was recognized that the lead researcher might be biased toward pre-determined perceptions of English competencies being a barrier to teaching and learning held by the lead institution (UNFPA). It was also recognized that due to the inherent power imbalance between researcher and participants, the manner of gathering data and engaging with stakeholders may contribute to confirmation bias, with respondents primarily sharing what they anticipated the researcher wished to hear (e.g., that English needed strengthening and the lead agency should take action to support the strengthening). The researcher thus engaged with participants independently of UNFPA and employed reflexivity by designing and carrying out the surveys to remotely collect standard data from institutes, as well as casting a wide net across institutes to increase broad representation. In addition, while institutes were informed that the surveys were gathering information about the English instruction within the institutes, no information was shared about potential new support to institutes. Finally, the researcher validated and gathered further details on the relevant information identified in the surveys through key informant interviews, which were held with stakeholders independent of UNFPA.

Adapting and scaling up the existing ESP modules found in this study, and integrating Bangla where it can enhance subject-matter learning, may be a useful way to help midwifery students and faculty improve their knowledge, skills, and critical thinking related to the field of midwifery. Given the educational backgrounds and likely work locations of most midwives in Bangladesh and many other LMICs, practitioners may want to consider investing in more opportunities for local midwives to teach and learn in their mother tongue. This type of investment would ideally be paired with a tiered system in which more advanced English competencies are required at higher-levels of education to ensure integration of global, evidence-based approaches into local standards of care.

Declarations.

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Bangladesh Rehabilitation Assistance Committee

English medium instruction

English for Specific Purposes

Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

United Nations Population Fund

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Farida Begum, Rabeya Basri, and Pronita Raha for their contributions to data collection for this assessment.

This project under which this study was carried out was funded by funded by the Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office.

Open access funding provided by University of Gothenburg.

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Anna Williams

Goodbirth Network, North Adams, USA, MA

Jennifer R. Stevens

Project HOPE, Washington DC, USA

Rondi Anderson

University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

Malin Bogren

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Contributions

Authors contributions in the development of this paper were as follows: AW- Concept, acquisition, drafting, revision, analysis, interpretation. JRS- Concept, revision. RA- Concept, analysis MB- Revision, analysis, interpretationAll authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval.

This study was part of a larger project in Bangladesh approved by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) with project ID UZJ31. The MOHFW project approval allows data collection of this type, that is carried out as part of routine program monitoring and improvement, including informed verbal consent for surveys and key informant interviews.

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Williams, A., Stevens, J., Anderson, R. et al. Challenges and opportunities of English as the medium of instruction in diploma midwifery programs in Bangladesh: a mixed-methods study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 523 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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Received : 31 July 2023

Accepted : 02 May 2024

Published : 10 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05499-8

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