problem solving based teaching

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Resource library.

• Establishing Community Agreements and Classroom Norms
• Sample group work rubric
• Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse of Activities, University of Delaware

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning  (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the learning. 

Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to:

• Working in teams.
• Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
• Oral and written communication.
• Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
• Working independently.
• Critical thinking and analysis.
• Explaining concepts.
• Self-directed learning.
• Applying course content to real-world examples.
• Researching and information literacy.
• Problem solving across disciplines.

Considerations for Using Problem-Based Learning

Rather than teaching relevant material and subsequently having students apply the knowledge to solve problems, the problem is presented first. PBL assignments can be short, or they can be more involved and take a whole semester. PBL is often group-oriented, so it is beneficial to set aside classroom time to prepare students to   work in groups  and to allow them to engage in their PBL project.

Students generally must:

• Examine and define the problem.
• Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
• Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools necessary to solve the problem.
• Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
• Solve the problem.
• Report on their findings.

Getting Started with Problem-Based Learning

• Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able to do as a result of participating in the assignment?
• Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students may encounter in their future careers or lives. Cases are often the basis of PBL activities. Previously developed PBL activities can be found online through the University of Delaware’s PBL Clearinghouse of Activities .
• Establish ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
• Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
• Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves. Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of government officials, local business owners, etc.
• Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer assessments a part of the assignment grade.

Nilson, L. B. (2010).  Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors  (2nd ed.).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

What is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)? PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and research skills, but they also sharpen their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities essential for life-long learning.

See also: Just-in-Time Teaching

In implementing PBL, the teaching role shifts from that of the more traditional model that follows a linear, sequential pattern where the teacher presents relevant material, informs the class what needs to be done, and provides details and information for students to apply their knowledge to a given problem. With PBL, the teacher acts as a facilitator; the learning is student-driven with the aim of solving the given problem (note: the problem is established at the onset of learning opposed to being presented last in the traditional model). Also, the assignments vary in length from relatively short to an entire semester with daily instructional time structured for group work.

By working with PBL, students will:

• Become engaged with open-ended situations that assimilate the world of work
• Participate in groups to pinpoint what is known/ not known and the methods of finding information to help solve the given problem.
• Investigate a problem; through critical thinking and problem solving, brainstorm a list of unique solutions.
• Analyze the situation to see if the real problem is framed or if there are other problems that need to be solved.

How to Begin PBL

• Establish the learning outcomes (i.e., what is it that you want your students to really learn and to be able to do after completing the learning project).
• Find a real-world problem that is relevant to the students; often the problems are ones that students may encounter in their own life or future career.
• Discuss pertinent rules for working in groups to maximize learning success.
• Practice group processes: listening, involving others, assessing their work/peers.
• Explore different roles for students to accomplish the work that needs to be done and/or to see the problem from various perspectives depending on the problem (e.g., for a problem about pollution, different roles may be a mayor, business owner, parent, child, neighboring city government officials, etc.).
• Determine how the project will be evaluated and assessed. Most likely, both self-assessment and peer-assessment will factor into the assignment grade.

Designing Classroom Instruction

See also: Inclusive Teaching Strategies

• Take the curriculum and divide it into various units. Decide on the types of problems that your students will solve. These will be your objectives.
• Determine the specific problems that most likely have several answers; consider student interest.
• Arrange appropriate resources available to students; utilize other teaching personnel to support students where needed (e.g., media specialists to orientate students to electronic references).
• Decide on presentation formats to communicate learning (e.g., individual paper, group PowerPoint, an online blog, etc.) and appropriate grading mechanisms (e.g., rubric).
• Decide how to incorporate group participation (e.g., what percent, possible peer evaluation, etc.).

How to Orchestrate a PBL Activity

• Explain Problem-Based Learning to students: its rationale, daily instruction, class expectations, grading.
• Serve as a model and resource to the PBL process; work in-tandem through the first problem
• Help students secure various resources when needed.
• Supply ample class time for collaborative group work.
• Give feedback to each group after they share via the established format; critique the solution in quality and thoroughness. Reinforce to the students that the prior thinking and reasoning process in addition to the solution are important as well.

Teacher’s Role in PBL

See also: Flipped teaching

As previously mentioned, the teacher determines a problem that is interesting, relevant, and novel for the students. It also must be multi-faceted enough to engage students in doing research and finding several solutions. The problems stem from the unit curriculum and reflect possible use in future work situations.

• Determine a problem aligned with the course and your students. The problem needs to be demanding enough that the students most likely cannot solve it on their own. It also needs to teach them new skills. When sharing the problem with students, state it in a narrative complete with pertinent background information without excessive information. Allow the students to find out more details as they work on the problem.
• Place students in groups, well-mixed in diversity and skill levels, to strengthen the groups. Help students work successfully. One way is to have the students take on various roles in the group process after they self-assess their strengths and weaknesses.
• Support the students with understanding the content on a deeper level and in ways to best orchestrate the various stages of the problem-solving process.

The Role of the Students

See also: ADDIE model

The students work collaboratively on all facets of the problem to determine the best possible solution.

• Analyze the problem and the issues it presents. Break the problem down into various parts. Continue to read, discuss, and think about the problem.
• Construct a list of what is known about the problem. What do your fellow students know about the problem? Do they have any experiences related to the problem? Discuss the contributions expected from the team members. What are their strengths and weaknesses? Follow the rules of brainstorming (i.e., accept all answers without passing judgment) to generate possible solutions for the problem.
• Get agreement from the team members regarding the problem statement.
• Put the problem statement in written form.
• Solicit feedback from the teacher.
• Be open to changing the written statement based on any new learning that is found or feedback provided.
• Generate a list of possible solutions. Include relevant thoughts, ideas, and educated guesses as well as causes and possible ways to solve it. Then rank the solutions and select the solution that your group is most likely to perceive as the best in terms of meeting success.
• Include what needs to be known and done to solve the identified problems.
• Prioritize the various action steps.
• Consider how the steps impact the possible solutions.
• See if the group is in agreement with the timeline; if not, decide how to reach agreement.
• What resources are available to help (e.g., textbooks, primary/secondary sources, Internet).
• Determine research assignments per team members.
• Establish due dates.
• Determine how your group will present the problem solution and also identify the audience. Usually, in PBL, each group presents their solutions via a team presentation either to the class of other students or to those who are related to the problem.
• Both the process and the results of the learning activity need to be covered. Include the following: problem statement, questions, data gathered, data analysis, reasons for the solution(s) and/or any recommendations reflective of the data analysis.
• A well-stated problem and conclusion.
• The process undertaken by the group in solving the problem, the various options discussed, and the resources used.
• Your solution’s supporting documents, guests, interviews and their purpose to be convincing to your audience.
• In addition, be prepared for any audience comments and questions. Determine who will respond and if your team doesn’t know the answer, admit this and be open to looking into the question at a later date.
• Reflective thinking and transfer of knowledge are important components of PBL. This helps the students be more cognizant of their own learning and teaches them how to ask appropriate questions to address problems that need to be solved. It is important to look at both the individual student and the group effort/delivery throughout the entire process. From here, you can better determine what was learned and how to improve. The students should be asked how they can apply what was learned to a different situation, to their own lives, and to other course projects.

See also: Kirkpatrick Model: Four Levels of Learning Evaluation

I am a professor of Educational Technology. I have worked at several elite universities. I hold a PhD degree from the University of Illinois and a master's degree from Purdue University.

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Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning

Problem based learning.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy based on the constructivist learning theory through collaboration and self-directed learning. With PBL, students create knowledge and comprehension of a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem without a defined solution. Rather than focusing on learning problem-solving, PBL allows for the development of self-directed knowledge acquisition, along with enhanced teamwork and communication skills. Although originally developed for medical education, its use has expanded to other disciplines.

With PBL, the instructor’s role is to guide and challenge the learning process, rather than provide knowledge, while students engage in knowledge construction through teamwork. In alignment with constructivist theory, PBL promotes lifelong learning through inquiry.

Advantages:

• Student-centered learning;
• Promotes self-learning and self-motivation;
• Focuses on comprehension and higher level learning, rather than facts;
• Enhances critical appraisal skills;
• Develops literature retrieval and evaluation skills;
• Develops interpersonal skills and teamwork; and
• Promotes lifelong learning

Disadvantages:

• Instructor comfort with removing themselves from the central role;
• Student lack of acceptance of a different format of learning;
• Need for assessments that measure new knowledge and skills, such as practical exams, essays, peer and self assessments; and
• Time necessary to prepare course materials and assess

During the PBL process, students work in groups of 10-15 students supported by a tutor. The students are presented with a problem and, through group collaboration, activate their prior knowledge. The group develops hypotheses to explain the problem and identify issues to be researched which will help them to construct a shared explanation of the problem. After the initial teamwork, students work independently to research the identified issues, followed by discussion with the group about their findings and creation of a final explanation of the problem based on what they learned. The cycle can be repeated as needed.

The seven steps in the Maastricht PBL process are:

• Discuss the case to ensure everyone understands the problem;
• Identify questions in need of answers to fully understand the problem;
• Brainstorm what prior knowledge the group already has and identify potential solutions;
• Analyze and structure the findings from the brainstorming session;
• Formulate learning objectives for any lacking knowledge;
• Independently, research the information necessary to achieve the learning objectives defined as a group; and
• Discuss the findings with the group to develop a collective explanation of the problem.

In PBL learning, students in the group all serve a role. The roles should alternate through students for different problems. The tutor role is typically held by a instructor or teaching assistant who facilitates learning.

• Facilitates learning by supporting and guiding;
• Monitors the learning process
• Aims to build students' confidence
• Checks group understanding
• Assesses performance
• Encourages all group members to participate
• Keeps group on topic
• Assists with group dynamics
• Assists with time keeping
• Ensures records kept by scribe are accurate
• Leads group through process
• Ensures group remains on topic
• Encourages members to participate
• Maintains group dynamics
• Ensures scribe can keep up with accurate documentation

Group Member

References and Resources:

Duch, Barbara J.; Groh, Susan; Allen, Deborah E. (2001).  The power of problem-based learning : a practical "how to" for teaching undergraduate courses in any discipline  (1st ed.). Sterling, VA: Stylus Pub.

Schmidt, Henk G; Rotgans, Jerome I; Yew, Elaine HJ (2011). "The process of problem-based learning: What works and why". Medical Education.  45  (8): 792–806.

Wood, D. F. (2003).  "ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem based learning"

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Teaching problem solving.

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Tips and Techniques

Expert vs. novice problem solvers, communicate.

• Have students  identify specific problems, difficulties, or confusions . Don’t waste time working through problems that students already understand.
• If students are unable to articulate their concerns, determine where they are having trouble by  asking them to identify the specific concepts or principles associated with the problem.
• In a one-on-one tutoring session, ask the student to  work his/her problem out loud . This slows down the thinking process, making it more accurate and allowing you to access understanding.
• When working with larger groups you can ask students to provide a written “two-column solution.” Have students write up their solution to a problem by putting all their calculations in one column and all of their reasoning (in complete sentences) in the other column. This helps them to think critically about their own problem solving and helps you to more easily identify where they may be having problems. Two-Column Solution (Math) Two-Column Solution (Physics)

Encourage Independence

• Model the problem solving process rather than just giving students the answer. As you work through the problem, consider how a novice might struggle with the concepts and make your thinking clear
• Have students work through problems on their own. Ask directing questions or give helpful suggestions, but  provide only minimal assistance and only when needed to overcome obstacles.
• Don’t fear  group work ! Students can frequently help each other, and talking about a problem helps them think more critically about the steps needed to solve the problem. Additionally, group work helps students realize that problems often have multiple solution strategies, some that might be more effective than others

Be sensitive

• Frequently, when working problems, students are unsure of themselves. This lack of confidence may hamper their learning. It is important to recognize this when students come to us for help, and to give each student some feeling of mastery. Do this by providing  positive reinforcement to let students know when they have mastered a new concept or skill.

Encourage Thoroughness and Patience

• Try to communicate that  the process is more important than the answer so that the student learns that it is OK to not have an instant solution. This is learned through your acceptance of his/her pace of doing things, through your refusal to let anxiety pressure you into giving the right answer, and through your example of problem solving through a step-by step process.

Experts (teachers) in a particular field are often so fluent in solving problems from that field that they can find it difficult to articulate the problem solving principles and strategies they use to novices (students) in their field because these principles and strategies are second nature to the expert. To teach students problem solving skills,  a teacher should be aware of principles and strategies of good problem solving in his or her discipline .

The mathematician George Polya captured the problem solving principles and strategies he used in his discipline in the book  How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method (Princeton University Press, 1957). The book includes  a summary of Polya’s problem solving heuristic as well as advice on the teaching of problem solving.

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).

PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the approach is used over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However, broader definitions and uses range from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also be used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world problem.

Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary among disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields (Duch, Groh, and Allen, 2001):

• The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.
• The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.
• The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous courses/knowledge.
• If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the students must work together to solve it.
• If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and engaging to draw students into the problem.

The problems can come from a variety of sources: newspapers, magazines, journals, books, textbooks, and television/ movies. Some are in such form that they can be used with little editing; however, others need to be rewritten to be of use. The following guidelines from The Power of Problem-Based Learning (Duch et al, 2001) are written for creating PBL problems for a class centered around the method; however, the general ideas can be applied in simpler uses of PBL:

• Choose a central idea, concept, or principle that is always taught in a given course, and then think of a typical end-of-chapter problem, assignment, or homework that is usually assigned to students to help them learn that concept. List the learning objectives that students should meet when they work through the problem.
• Think of a real-world context for the concept under consideration. Develop a storytelling aspect to an end-of-chapter problem, or research an actual case that can be adapted, adding some motivation for students to solve the problem. More complex problems will challenge students to go beyond simple plug-and-chug to solve it. Look at magazines, newspapers, and articles for ideas on the story line. Some PBL practitioners talk to professionals in the field, searching for ideas of realistic applications of the concept being taught.
• What will the first page (or stage) look like? What open-ended questions can be asked? What learning issues will be identified?
• How will the problem be structured?
• How long will the problem be? How many class periods will it take to complete?
• Will students be given information in subsequent pages (or stages) as they work through the problem?
• What resources will the students need?
• What end product will the students produce at the completion of the problem?
• Write a teacher's guide detailing the instructional plans on using the problem in the course. If the course is a medium- to large-size class, a combination of mini-lectures, whole-class discussions, and small group work with regular reporting may be necessary. The teacher's guide can indicate plans or options for cycling through the pages of the problem interspersing the various modes of learning.
• The final step is to identify key resources for students. Students need to learn to identify and utilize learning resources on their own, but it can be helpful if the instructor indicates a few good sources to get them started. Many students will want to limit their research to the Internet, so it will be important to guide them toward the library as well.

The method for distributing a PBL problem falls under three closely related teaching techniques: case studies, role-plays, and simulations. Case studies are presented to students in written form. Role-plays have students improvise scenes based on character descriptions given. Today, simulations often involve computer-based programs. Regardless of which technique is used, the heart of the method remains the same: the real-world problem.

Where can I learn more?

• PBL through the Institute for Transforming Undergraduate Education at the University of Delaware
• Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E, & Allen, D. E. (Eds.). (2001). The power of problem-based learning . Sterling, VA: Stylus.
• Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style: A practical guide to enhancing learning by understanding teaching and learning styles. Pittsburgh: Alliance Publishers.

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5 Strategies for Aligning PBL to Real-World Problem-Solving

The closer project-based learning comes to the messy, complicated problems of our world today, the more students benefit.

In March 2020, I faced a number of challenges as a school superintendent. Earlier in the month, I had read about a virus that was sweeping the world, and while American schools had not shuttered, the challenge seemed both eminent and far off.

Over the next several weeks, months, and years, I, and every other leader, faced a series of problems, including closing schools, redesigning in-person instruction, developing virtual learning programs, and working in partnership with public health organizations.

Interestingly, I learned that authentic, real-world problem-solving has a few key features:

• I was never given one problem but was presented with a number of problem situations in which I and my team needed to derive key questions that drove our decision-making.
• The problems we faced continued to change, requiring us to go back and learn new content, prepare for multiple contingencies, and communicate up-to-date information and our plans for multiple scenarios.

Contemporary learning frameworks and related methodologies can learn a lot from what we are experiencing with Covid-19. Applying the two features above to project-based learning (PBL) by using a more fluid rather than static, linear model may best prepare students for what the future of learning and work actually looks and feels like.

5 Strategies to Make PBL More Authentic

1: Students derive the driving question from multiple contexts or multiple issues within a context. In one third-grade class, students read the book We Are Water Protectors and discuss the challenges Native Americans face with the introduction of the Keystone pipeline. Next, the teacher presents two problems:

• The extraction of cobalt to build electric cars and the negative impact on rural African communities
• The development of wind farms and the decline of the golden eagle

Students then work together in this strategy to determine the key challenges facing Indigenous people and native species. Next, they develop core questions they want to answer and determine what they need to learn to answer those questions.

2: Students face changes in the problem(s) they are contemplating. Problem environments are fluid, not static. In an AP economics class, students are analyzing supply and demand of a new video game system and preparing to advise the company on what it should do to improve profits.

Every day at the beginning of class, their teacher asks them to scan reliable news sources to report any changes to supply chains, governmental restrictions such as embargoes, or any other factor that would influence their solutions to the client.

The students found out that there were major supply chain issues with essential parts needed to create the video game console. Moreover, some of the ships carrying current consoles are sitting in Asia awaiting passage to the United States because of a political dispute.

The students worked together in small groups and discussed the key factors that were impacting the company they were advising, along with what the students needed to learn and understand before meeting with the client, and finally developed multiple recommendations based on multiple contingencies.

The general strategy looks like this:

• Students learn about changes to the problem content (this could be via reading multiple news reports, listening to daily podcasts, or engaging with actual people in the field).
• In small groups, students share their key understanding of the changes and how that impacts their current understanding and strategy.
• Students determine key “need-to-knows” they have and work with the teacher and peers to gain competencies.
• Students plan for multiple contingencies and tentative solutions.

3: Presentations are short bursts of what students think and propose during the project with dollops of feedback to make adjustments. Seventh-grade students are sending in their persuasive essay on one of a number of topics (e.g., addressing the homelessness crisis, engaging with politicians on critical race theory).

As they are drafting their papers, students are randomly assigned to present their ideas and current drafts to other students and receive feedback on their writing as well as their persuasiveness to opposing views.

The strategy looks like this:

• Students have a mid-lesson stop in which they have 5 minutes to prepare to present their current work.
• Students conduct a feedback protocol (tuning or critical friends) in which one or two students receive feedback.
• Students who received feedback share what they have changed in a reflective journal or exit ticket.
• This process is repeated daily.

4: Authentic audiences engage with students throughout the project rather than just at the beginning and/or end. In a fifth-grade art class, students have been commissioned by the local town council to paint murals that represent voices that are largely marginalized in their community. During their work, students meet with a number of artists and community members who share their stories, offer feedback, and address questions.

In this strategy, students engage with people outside the classroom at the beginning, middle, and end of a project to hear stories that relate to the problem context, receive guidance on the technical aspects of the content they are learning, and ask questions.

5: Groups work together in small bursts of time to solve problems. Students in Algebra II are working with logarithms to solve a number of problems related to stomach acid, algae-filled hot tubs, soil composition, and buffalo teeth.

While each student may be solving a different problem, students form small groups to share their learning, evaluate the connections between each context, and give each other feedback. After approximately two weeks of solving complex math tasks, the teacher presents three new problems and forms new groups for students to solve the problem in one or two days.

In this strategy, students form temporary groups of two to three to solve a new challenge and work together for one to two days without forming task-specific roles.

• Faculty & Staff

Teaching problem solving

Strategies for teaching problem solving apply across disciplines and instructional contexts. First, introduce the problem and explain how people in your discipline generally make sense of the given information. Then, explain how to apply these approaches to solve the problem.

Introducing the problem

Explaining how people in your discipline understand and interpret these types of problems can help students develop the skills they need to understand the problem (and find a solution). After introducing how you would go about solving a problem, you could then ask students to:

• frame the problem in their own words
• define key terms and concepts
• determine statements that accurately represent the givens of a problem
• identify analogous problems
• determine what information is needed to solve the problem

Working on solutions

In the solution phase, one develops and then implements a coherent plan for solving the problem. As you help students with this phase, you might ask them to:

• identify the general model or procedure they have in mind for solving the problem
• set sub-goals for solving the problem
• identify necessary operations and steps
• draw conclusions
• carry out necessary operations

You can help students tackle a problem effectively by asking them to:

• systematically explain each step and its rationale
• explain how they would approach solving the problem
• help you solve the problem by posing questions at key points in the process
• work together in small groups (3 to 5 students) to solve the problem and then have the solution presented to the rest of the class (either by you or by a student in the group)

In all cases, the more you get the students to articulate their own understandings of the problem and potential solutions, the more you can help them develop their expertise in approaching problems in your discipline.

Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?

• Published: September 2004
• Volume 16 , pages 235–266, ( 2004 )

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• Cindy E. Hmelo-Silver 1  

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Problem-based approaches to learning have a long history of advocating experience-based education. Psychological research and theory suggests that by having students learn through the experience of solving problems, they can learn both content and thinking strategies. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method in which students learn through facilitated problem solving. In PBL, student learning centers on a complex problem that does not have a single correct answer. Students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order to solve a problem. They engage in self-directed learning (SDL) and then apply their new knowledge to the problem and reflect on what they learned and the effectiveness of the strategies employed. The teacher acts to facilitate the learning process rather than to provide knowledge. The goals of PBL include helping students develop 1) flexible knowledge, 2) effective problem-solving skills, 3) SDL skills, 4) effective collaboration skills, and 5) intrinsic motivation. This article discusses the nature of learning in PBL and examines the empirical evidence supporting it. There is considerable research on the first 3 goals of PBL but little on the last 2. Moreover, minimal research has been conducted outside medical and gifted education. Understanding how these goals are achieved with less skilled learners is an important part of a research agenda for PBL. The evidence suggests that PBL is an instructional approach that offers the potential to help students develop flexible understanding and lifelong learning skills.

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Hmelo-Silver, C.E. Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?. Educational Psychology Review 16 , 235–266 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3

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Problem based learning: a teacher's guide

December 10, 2021

Find out how teachers use problem-based learning models to improve engagement and drive attainment.

Main, P (2021, December 10). Problem based learning: a teacher's guide. Retrieved from https://www.structural-learning.com/post/problem-based-learning-a-teachers-guide

What is problem-based learning?

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a style of teaching that encourages students to become the drivers of their learning process . Problem-based learning involves complex learning issues from real-world problems and makes them the classroom's topic of discussion ; encouraging students to understand concepts through problem-solving skills rather than simply learning facts. When schools find time in the curriculum for this style of teaching it offers students an authentic vehicle for the integration of knowledge .

Embracing this pedagogical approach enables schools to balance subject knowledge acquisition with a skills agenda . Often used in medical education, this approach has equal significance in mainstream education where pupils can apply their knowledge to real-life problems. 

PBL is not only helpful in learning course content , but it can also promote the development of problem-solving abilities , critical thinking skills , and communication skills while providing opportunities to work in groups , find and analyse research materials , and take part in life-long learning .

PBL is a student-centred teaching method in which students understand a topic by working in groups. They work out an open-ended problem , which drives the motivation to learn. These sorts of theories of teaching do require schools to invest time and resources into supporting self-directed learning. Not all curriculum knowledge is best acquired through this process, rote learning still has its place in certain situations. In this article, we will look at how we can equip our students to take more ownership of the learning process and utilise more sophisticated ways for the integration of knowledge .

Philosophical Underpinnings of PBL

Problem-Based Learning (PBL), with its roots in the philosophies of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and Jerome Bruner, aligns closely with the social constructionist view of learning. This approach positions learners as active participants in the construction of knowledge, contrasting with traditional models of instruction where learners are seen as passive recipients of information.

Dewey, a seminal figure in progressive education, advocated for active learning and real-world problem-solving, asserting that learning is grounded in experience and interaction. In PBL, learners tackle complex, real-world problems, which mirrors Dewey's belief in the interconnectedness of education and practical life.

Montessori also endorsed learner-centric, self-directed learning, emphasizing the child's potential to construct their own learning experiences. This parallels with PBL’s emphasis on self-directed learning, where students take ownership of their learning process.

Jerome Bruner’s theories underscored the idea of learning as an active, social process. His concept of a 'spiral curriculum' – where learning is revisited in increasing complexity – can be seen reflected in the iterative problem-solving process in PBL.

Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK) framework aligns with PBL as it encourages higher-order cognitive skills. The complex tasks in PBL often demand analytical and evaluative skills (Webb's DOK levels 3 and 4) as students engage with the problem, devise a solution, and reflect on their work.

The effectiveness of PBL is supported by psychological theories like the information processing theory, which highlights the role of active engagement in enhancing memory and recall. A study by Strobel and Van Barneveld (2009) found that PBL students show improved retention of knowledge, possibly due to the deep cognitive processing involved.

As cognitive scientist Daniel Willingham aptly puts it, "Memory is the residue of thought." PBL encourages learners to think critically and deeply, enhancing both learning and retention.

Here's a quick overview:

• John Dewey : Emphasized learning through experience and the importance of problem-solving.
• Maria Montessori : Advocated for child-centered, self-directed learning.
• Jerome Bruner : Underlined learning as a social process and proposed the spiral curriculum.
• Webb’s DOK : Supports PBL's encouragement of higher-order thinking skills.
• Information Processing Theory : Reinforces the notion that active engagement in PBL enhances memory and recall.

This deep-rooted philosophical and psychological framework strengthens the validity of the problem-based learning approach, confirming its beneficial role in promoting valuable cognitive skills and fostering positive student learning outcomes.

What are the characteristics of problem-based learning?

Adding a little creativity can change a topic into a problem-based learning activity. The following are some of the characteristics of a good PBL model:

• The problem encourages students to search for a deeper understanding of content knowledge;
• Students are responsible for their learning. PBL has a student-centred learning approach . Students' motivation increases when responsibility for the process and solution to the problem rests with the learner;
• The problem motivates pupils to gain desirable learning skills and to defend well-informed decisions ;
• The problem connects the content learning goals with the previous knowledge. PBL allows students to access, integrate and study information from multiple disciplines that might relate to understanding and resolving a specific problem—just as persons in the real world recollect and use the application of knowledge that they have gained from diverse sources in their life.
• In a multistage project, the first stage of the problem must be engaging and open-ended to make students interested in the problem. In the real world, problems are poorly-structured. Research suggests that well-structured problems make students less invested and less motivated in the development of the solution. The problem simulations used in problem-based contextual learning are less structured to enable students to make a free inquiry.

• In a group project, the problem must have some level of complexity that motivates students towards knowledge acquisition and to work together for finding the solution. PBL involves collaboration between learners. In professional life, most people will find themselves in employment where they would work productively and share information with others. PBL leads to the development of such essential skills . In a PBL session, the teacher would ask questions to make sure that knowledge has been shared between pupils;
• At the end of each problem or PBL, self and peer assessments are performed. The main purpose of assessments is to sharpen a variety of metacognitive processing skills and to reinforce self-reflective learning.
• Student assessments would evaluate student progress towards the objectives of problem-based learning. The learning goals of PBL are both process-based and knowledge-based. Students must be assessed on both these dimensions to ensure that they are prospering as intended from the PBL approach. Students must be able to identify and articulate what they understood and what they learned.

Why is Problem-based learning a significant skill?

Using Problem-Based Learning across a school promotes critical competence, inquiry , and knowledge application in social, behavioural and biological sciences. Practice-based learning holds a strong track record of successful learning outcomes in higher education settings such as graduates of Medical Schools.

Educational models using PBL can improve learning outcomes by teaching students how to implement theory into practice and build problem-solving skills. For example, within the field of health sciences education, PBL makes the learning process for nurses and medical students self-centred and promotes their teamwork and leadership skills. Within primary and secondary education settings, this model of teaching, with the right sort of collaborative tools , can advance the wider skills development valued in society.

At Structural Learning, we have been developing a self-assessment tool designed to monitor the progress of children. Utilising these types of teaching theories curriculum wide can help a school develop the learning behaviours our students will need in the workplace.

Curriculum wide collaborative tools include Writers Block and the Universal Thinking Framework . Along with graphic organisers, these tools enable children to collaborate and entertain different perspectives that they might not otherwise see. Putting learning in action by using the block building methodology enables children to reach their learning goals by experimenting and iterating. 

How is problem-based learning different from inquiry-based learning?

The major difference between inquiry-based learning and PBL relates to the role of the teacher . In the case of inquiry-based learning, the teacher is both a provider of classroom knowledge and a facilitator of student learning (expecting/encouraging higher-order thinking). On the other hand, PBL is a deep learning approach, in which the teacher is the supporter of the learning process and expects students to have clear thinking, but the teacher is not the provider of classroom knowledge about the problem—the responsibility of providing information belongs to the learners themselves.

As well as being used systematically in medical education, this approach has significant implications for integrating learning skills into mainstream classrooms .

Using a critical thinking disposition inventory, schools can monitor the wider progress of their students as they apply their learning skills across the traditional curriculum. Authentic problems call students to apply their critical thinking abilities in new and purposeful ways. As students explain their ideas to one another, they develop communication skills that might not otherwise be nurtured.

Depending on the curriculum being delivered by a school, there may well be an emphasis on building critical thinking abilities in the classroom. Within the International Baccalaureate programs, these life-long skills are often cited in the IB learner profile . Critical thinking dispositions are highly valued in the workplace and this pedagogical approach can be used to harness these essential 21st-century skills.

What are the Benefits of Problem-Based Learning?

Student-led Problem-Based Learning is one of the most useful ways to make students drivers of their learning experience. It makes students creative, innovative, logical and open-minded. The educational practice of Problem-Based Learning also provides opportunities for self-directed and collaborative learning with others in an active learning and hands-on process. Below are the most significant benefits of problem-based learning processes:

• Self-learning: As a self-directed learning method, problem-based learning encourages children to take responsibility and initiative for their learning processes . As children use creativity and research, they develop skills that will help them in their adulthood.
• Engaging : Students don't just listen to the teacher, sit back and take notes. Problem-based learning processes encourages students to take part in learning activities, use learning resources , stay active , think outside the box and apply critical thinking skills to solve problems.
• Teamwork : Most of the problem-based learning issues involve students collaborative learning to find a solution. The educational practice of PBL builds interpersonal skills, listening and communication skills and improves the skills of collaboration and compromise.
• Intrinsic Rewards: In most problem-based learning projects, the reward is much bigger than good grades. Students gain the pride and satisfaction of finding an innovative solution, solving a riddle, or creating a tangible product.
• Transferable Skills: The acquisition of knowledge through problem-based learning strategies don't just help learners in one class or a single subject area. Students can apply these skills to a plethora of subject matter as well as in real life.
• Multiple Learning Opportunities : A PBL model offers an open-ended problem-based acquisition of knowledge, which presents a real-world problem and asks learners to come up with well-constructed responses. Students can use multiple sources such as they can access online resources, using their prior knowledge, and asking momentous questions to brainstorm and come up with solid learning outcomes. Unlike traditional approaches , there might be more than a single right way to do something, but this process motivates learners to explore potential solutions whilst staying active.

Embracing problem-based learning

Problem-based learning can be seen as a deep learning approach and when implemented effectively as part of a broad and balanced curriculum , a successful teaching strategy in education. PBL has a solid epistemological and philosophical foundation and a strong track record of success in multiple areas of study. Learners must experience problem-based learning methods and engage in positive solution-finding activities. PBL models allow learners to gain knowledge through real-world problems, which offers more strength to their understanding and helps them find the connection between classroom learning and the real world at large.

As they solve problems, students can evolve as individuals and team-mates. One word of caution, not all classroom tasks will lend themselves to this learning theory. Take spellings , for example, this is usually delivered with low-stakes quizzing through a practice-based learning model. PBL allows students to apply their knowledge creatively but they need to have a certain level of background knowledge to do this, rote learning might still have its place after all.

Key Concepts and considerations for school leaders

1. Problem Based Learning (PBL)

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational method that involves active student participation in solving authentic problems. Students are given a task or question that they must answer using their prior knowledge and resources. They then collaborate with each other to come up with solutions to the problem. This collaborative effort leads to deeper learning than traditional lectures or classroom instruction .

Key question: Inside a traditional curriculum , what opportunities across subject areas do you immediately see?

2. Deep Learning

Deep learning is a term used to describe the ability to learn concepts deeply. For example, if you were asked to memorize a list of numbers, you would probably remember the first five numbers easily, but the last number would be difficult to recall. However, if you were taught to understand the concept behind the numbers, you would be able to remember the last number too.

Key question: How will you make sure that students use a full range of learning styles and learning skills ?

3. Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge . It examines the conditions under which something counts as knowledge.

Key question:  As well as focusing on critical thinking dispositions, what subject knowledge should the students understand?

4. Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general truths about human life. Philosophers examine questions such as “What makes us happy?”, “How should we live our lives?”, and “Why does anything exist?”

Key question: Are there any opportunities for embracing philosophical enquiry into the project to develop critical thinking abilities ?

5. Curriculum

A curriculum is a set of courses designed to teach specific subjects. These courses may include mathematics , science, social studies, language arts, etc.

Key question: How will subject leaders ensure that the integrity of the curriculum is maintained?

6. Broad and Balanced Curriculum

Broad and balanced curricula are those that cover a wide range of topics. Some examples of these types of curriculums include AP Biology, AP Chemistry, AP English Language, AP Physics 1, AP Psychology , AP Spanish Literature, AP Statistics, AP US History, AP World History, IB Diploma Programme, IB Primary Years Program, IB Middle Years Program, IB Diploma Programme .

Key question: Are the teachers who have identified opportunities for a problem-based curriculum?

7. Successful Teaching Strategy

Successful teaching strategies involve effective communication techniques, clear objectives, and appropriate assessments. Teachers must ensure that their lessons are well-planned and organized. They must also provide opportunities for students to interact with one another and share information.

Key question: What pedagogical approaches and teaching strategies will you use?

8. Positive Solution Finding

Positive solution finding is a type of problem-solving where students actively seek out answers rather than passively accept what others tell them.

Key question: How will you ensure your problem-based curriculum is met with a positive mindset from students and teachers?

9. Real World Application

Real-world application refers to applying what students have learned in class to situations that occur in everyday life.

Key question: Within your local school community , are there any opportunities to apply knowledge and skills to real-life problems?

10. Creativity

Creativity is the ability to think of ideas that no one else has thought of yet. Creative thinking requires divergent thinking, which means thinking in different directions.

Key question: What teaching techniques will you use to enable children to generate their own ideas ?

11. Teamwork

Teamwork is the act of working together towards a common goal. Teams often consist of two or more people who work together to achieve a shared objective.

Key question: What opportunities are there to engage students in dialogic teaching methods where they talk their way through the problem?

12. Knowledge Transfer

Knowledge transfer occurs when teachers use their expertise to help students develop skills and abilities .

Key question: Can teachers be able to track the success of the project using improvement scores?

13. Active Learning

Active learning is any form of instruction that engages students in the learning process. Examples of active learning include group discussions, role-playing, debates, presentations, and simulations .

Key question: Will there be an emphasis on learning to learn and developing independent learning skills ?

14. Student Engagement

Student engagement is the degree to which students feel motivated to participate in academic activities.

Key question: Are there any tools available to monitor student engagement during the problem-based curriculum ?

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Case-based Teaching and Problem-based Learning

Case-based teaching.

With case-based teaching, students develop skills in analytical thinking and reflective judgment by reading and discussing complex, real-life scenarios. The articles in this section explain how to use cases in teaching and provide case studies for the natural sciences, social sciences, and other disciplines.

Teaching with Case Studies (Stanford University)

This article from the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning describes the rationale for using case studies, the process for choosing appropriate cases, and tips for how to implement them in college courses.

The Case Method (University of Illinois)

Tips for teachers on how to be successful using the Case Method in the college/university classroom. Includes information about the Case Method values, uses, and additional resource links.

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (National Science Teaching Association)

This site offers resources and examples specific to teaching in the sciences. This includes the “UB Case Study Collection,” an extensive list of ready-to-use cases in a variety of science disciplines. Each case features a PDF handout describing the case, as well as teaching notes.

The Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative (CRLT Occasional Paper)

This paper describes the Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative, including links to the full library of cases, and it offers advice both for writing cases and facilitating case discussions effectively.

The Case Method and the Interactive Classroom (Foran, 2001, NEA Higher Education Journal)

First-person account of how a sociology faculty member at University of California, Santa Barbara began using case studies in his teaching and how his methods have evolved over time as a professor.

Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is both a teaching method and an approach to the curriculum. It consists of carefully designed problems that challenge students to use problem solving techniques, self-directed learning strategies, team participation skills, and disciplinary knowledge. The articles and links in this section describe the characteristics and objectives of PBL and the process for using PBL. There is also a list of printed and web resources.

Problem-Based Learning Network (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy)

Site includes an interactive PBL Model, Professional Development links, and video vignettes to illustrate how to effectively use problem-based learning in the classroom. The goals of IMSA's PBLNetwork are to mentor educators in all disciplines, to explore problem-based learning strategies, and to connect PBL educators to one another.

Problem-Based Learning: An Introduction (Rhem, 1998, National Teaching and Learning Forum)

This piece summarizes the benefits of using problem-based learning, its historical origins, and the faculty/student roles in PBL. Overall, this is an easy to read introduction to problem-based learning.

Problem-Based Learning (Stanford University, 2001)

This issue of Speaking of Teaching identifies the central features of PBL, provides some guidelines for planning a PBL course, and discusses the impact of PBL on student learning and motivation.

Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse (University of Delaware)

Collection of peer reviewed problems and articles to assist educators in using problem-based learning. Teaching notes and supplemental materials accompany each problem, providing insights and strategies that are innovative and classroom-tested. Free registration is required to view and download the Clearinghouse’s resources.

See also: The International Journal of Problem-Based Learning

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Promising Practices in Undergraduate Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Education: Summary of Two Workshops (2011)

Chapter: 4 scenario-, problem-, and case-based teaching and learning, 4 scenario-, problem-, and case-based teaching and learning.

The primary purpose of the October workshop was to thoughtfully examine the evidence behind a select set of promising practices that came to light during the June workshop. Susan Singer opened the October workshop by linking its agenda to key themes of the June workshop (see Chapter 3 ). Although these practices are not perfect and do not represent the universe of evidence-based innovations, she said, they are recognized by experts as promising, and each is supported by some evidence.

The promising practices discussed include scenario-, problem-, and case-based teaching and learning (this chapter); assessments to guide teaching and learning ( Chapter 5 ); efforts to restructure the learning environment ( Chapter 6 ); and faculty professional development ( Chapter 7 ). Singer explained that the presentations were based on papers prepared following a template the steering committee developed after the June workshop. 1 The authors were asked to describe the context in which the promising practice was implemented, identify examples of how the practice was used, and provide evidence to support the claim that the practice was promising, including evidence of its impact or efficacy.

FIGURE 4-1 Problem-based learning.

SOURCE: Gijbels (2008). Reprinted with permission. Problem

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

David Gijbels (University of Antwerp) described the cycle of problem-based learning (see Figure 4-1 ). After the instructors present a problem to the class, students meet in small groups to discuss what they know about it and what they need to learn. During a short period of independent self-study, students gather the needed resources to solve the problem. They then reconvene their small groups to re-assess their collective understanding of the problem. When they solve the problem, the instructor provides a different problem and the cycle begins anew.

Noting that problem-based learning has many possible definitions and permutations, Gijbels nonetheless stressed the importance of identifying a core set of principles that characterize this type of learning. Having a core definition enables researchers to compare problem-based learning with other types of learning environments. In his research, Gijbels uses a model developed by Howard Barrows (1996) that identifies six characteristics of problem-based learning:

Student-centered learning.

Small groups.

Tutor as a facilitator or guide.

Problems first.

The problem is the tool to achieve knowledge and problem-solving skills.

Self-directed learning.

Gijbels then described a meta-analysis conducted to examine the effects of problem-based learning on students’ knowledge and their application of knowledge, and to identify factors that mediated those effects (Dochy et al., 2003). The meta-analysis focused on empirical studies that compared problem-based learning with lecture-based education in postsecondary classrooms in Europe, and almost all of the studies that met the criteria focused on medical education. 2 Through the analysis, Gijbels and his colleagues found the following:

Students’ content knowledge was slightly lower in problem-based learning courses than in traditional lecture courses.

Although students in problem-based learning environments demonstrated less knowledge in the short term, they retained more knowledge over the long term.

Students in problem-based learning settings were better able to apply their knowledge than students in traditional courses.

These findings prompted Gijbels and his colleagues to undertake a deeper analysis of the assessment of problem-based learning (Gijbels et al., 2005). That analysis focused on three levels of knowledge that were assessed in the selected studies: (1) knowledge of concepts, (2) understanding of principles that link concepts, and (3) the application of knowledge. Gijbels noted that of the 56 studies in the analysis, 31 focused on concepts, 17 focused on principles, and 8 focused on the application of knowledge. The analysis revealed the following:

Students in problem-based learning environments and traditional lecture-based learning environments exhibited no differences in the understanding of concepts.

Students in problem-based learning environments had a deeper understanding of principles that link concepts together.

Students in problem-based learning environments demonstrated a slightly better ability to apply their knowledge than students in lecture-based classes.

Gijbels concluded by stating that problem-based learning has not completely fulfilled its potential. He suggested that students might become better problem solvers if faculty members assessed them more on problem solving. Noting that students often do not develop a sense of shared cognition when working in teams in problem-based learning environments, he also stressed the importance of attending to group developmental processes when implementing problem-based learning.

CASE-BASED TEACHING

Mary Lundeberg (Michigan State University) defined some key elements of case-based teaching. In the paper she wrote for the workshop (Lundeberg, 2008, p. 1), she said:

Cases involve an authentic portrayal of a person(s) in a complex situation(s) constructed for particular pedagogical purposes. Two features are essential: interactions involving explanations, and challenges to student thinking. Interactions involving explanations could occur among student teams, the instructor and a class; among distant colleagues; or students constructing interpretations in a multimedia environment. Cases may challenge students’ thinking in many ways, e.g., applying concepts to a real life situation; connecting concepts [and/or] interdisciplinary ideas; examining a situation from multiple perspectives; reflecting on how one approaches or solves a problem; making decisions; designing projects; considering ethical dimensions of situations. Brief vignettes, quick examples, or unedited documents are not cases.

She presented four examples to illustrate the wide range of cases that might be used in undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education: 3

The Deforestation of the Amazon: A Case Study in Understanding Ecosystems and Their Value, a problem-based case used in a biology seminar for nonmajors.

Cross-Dressing or Crossing-Over: Sex Testing of Women Athletes, a historical case used in large lecture courses with clicker technology (handheld wireless devices through which students register their responses to multiple-choice questions that are projected on a screen).

Case It!, in-depth problem-based multimedia cases used in biology labs.

Project-based scenarios used in engineering.

Citing the National Research Council (2002), Lundeberg identified three types of research questions often investigated in studies of educational activities—those that focus on description, cause, and process. She explained that there is much more descriptive research (i.e., faculty and student perceptions of what is happening) than research showing causal effects or describing the process of learning.

Lundeberg described the research that she and her colleagues have conducted on case-based learning. The descriptive aspects of their research involved surveys of 101 faculty members in 23 states and Canada who were using cases from the National Center on Case Study Teaching and Science (see http://library.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/case.html ). On the surveys, faculty members reported that cases make students more engaged and active learners and help them to develop multiple perspectives, gain deeper conceptual understanding, engage in critical thinking, enhance their communications skills, and develop positive peer relationships (Lundeberg, 2008). Lundeberg also reported that faculty members cited the increased time needed to prepare lessons and assess students as obstacles to implementing case-based learning.

To identify the systematic effects of case-based learning, Lundeberg and her colleagues conducted a year-long study of the use of cases in large undergraduate biology classes equipped with clickers. The study combined a design involving random assignment to experimental and control groups with an A-B-A-B design in which 12 participating faculty members alternated the use of cases and lectures systematically across two semesters. They found that “students (n = 4,366) who responded to cases using ‘clicker’ technology performed significantly better than their peers on five of the eight biology topics (cells, Mendelian genetics, cellular division, scientific method, and cancer), and in five of the eight areas in which they were asked to transfer information (cells, cellular division, scientific method, microevolution and DNA)” (Lundeberg, 2008, p. 8).

Students in the clicker classes also performed significantly better on tests of data interpretation than students in lecture classes. However, students who used cases with clicker technology showed no difference or lower effects on standardized tests measuring accumulated medical knowledge, on one topic in biology (characteristics of life), and on standardized tests of critical thinking.

Lundeberg argued that cases are effective for several reasons. First, stories are a powerful mechanism for organizing and storing information. In addition, the real-life context engages students. Cases also challenge students’ thinking and require them to integrate knowledge, reflect on their ideas, and articulate them. Lundeberg noted that role-playing during case-based education engages students and enables them to consider multiple perspectives.

In closing, Lundeberg reiterated that cases have an impact on understanding, scientific thinking, and engagement. She cited the need for more multiyear, mixed-methods studies on the effectiveness of case-based teaching, particularly classroom experiments that do not confound instructor or student effects. She also identified several gaps in the knowledge base at the undergraduate level: Which students benefit from cases? What content is most suitable? What benefits do different types of cases afford? What kinds of interaction between students and faculty matter? Do cases promote scientific literacy?

USE OF COMPLEX PROBLEMS IN TEACHING PHYSICS

Tom Foster (Southern Illinois University) discussed the use of complex problems in teaching physics. He explained that complex problems are rooted in cooperative group problem solving, which is characterized by the following traits (Foster, 2008):

positive interdependence among group members;

individual accountability;

monitoring of interpersonal skills;

frequent processing of group interactions and functioning; and

aspects of the task or learning activity that require ongoing conversation, dialogue, exchange, and support.

Foster emphasized the importance of designing the appropriate task in using this teaching method. He noted that if the problems are simple enough to be solved moderately well alone, students will not abandon their independence to work in a group. Students also will not abandon their independence if the problems are too complex for the group to initially succeed in solving them.

Context-rich problems are one example of an appropriate task for group problem solving. Foster creates such problems by converting traditional end-of-chapter problems into complex problems that students solve cooperatively, placing students in the problem by using the word “you.” Foster and his colleagues prefer not to include pictures in the problem, as a way of encouraging the group to decide whether and how to illustrate it. According to Foster, context-rich problems also provide many other decision points to foster ongoing interaction among group members. For example, problems might include extra information, omit information, or leave variables unnamed. These problems also “hide the physics” by avoiding technical terms and focusing on real-world settings. By hiding the physics, the problems demonstrate that the world is rich in physics and require students to determine which fundamental physical principles to apply (Foster, 2008).

In physics, context-rich problems are closed-ended, meaning that there is essentially one correct answer that is dictated by the rules of mathematics and physics. Even though they are closed-ended, the problems still require creativity to define and apply the correct principles and equations. Citing Schwartz, Bransford, and Sears (2005), Foster said that this balance between effectiveness and innovation is vital to the transfer of knowledge from one situation to another.

Foster noted that context-rich problems are an excellent way to challenge students’ misconceptions about problem solving. For example, students often believe that the aim of solving a physics problem is to reduce it to a mathematical exercise, and that it is always necessary to use all the information in a problem. Faculty members can address these misconceptions by structuring the problems differently, as described in previous paragraphs.

In Foster’s experience, it is easy to make context-rich problems too difficult. He and his colleagues have developed a set of 21 “difficulty traits” that fall into the broad categories of approach, analysis of the problem, and mathematical solution. Faculty members can use the traits as a checklist to design context-rich problems and to assess and adjust their level of difficulty.

Turning to the evidence, Foster explained that he uses traditional instruments, such as the Force Concept Inventory and conceptual surveys on electricity and magnetism, to measure students’ concept development. He has found that students who solve context-rich problems in cooperative group settings score as well on these measures as their peers who are taught using other interactive methods. To assess problem solving, Foster uses a rubric developed at the University of Minnesota that includes five dimensions: (1) description of the problem, (2) physics approach (i.e., whether students used the correct physics), (3) specific application of the physics, (4) mathematical procedures, and (5) logical progression. Foster reported that students’ problem-solving abilities improve through the use of context-rich problems, but he cautioned that the method does not result in quantum leaps in problem-solving abilities. Foster called his evidence on students’ attitudes and behaviors about context-rich problems anecdotal but positive.

He closed by identifying future directions for this method of physics instruction. Citing the need to create more context-rich problems in physics, he mentioned problems that begin with an answer and require the formulation of a question (such as on the television show “Jeopardy!”) as well as problems in which students identify and correct errors. He also stressed the importance of developing context-rich problems outside physics to assess the transfer of knowledge from one domain to another.

Remarking on the differences in terminology across disciplines, Karen Cummings (Southern Connecticut State University) observed that these differences pose a challenge for researchers. She asked Gijbels how he distinguished between knowledge of concepts and application of knowledge in his study. Gijbels agreed and explained that for his review of the literature he examined actual assessment questions to determine what type of knowledge they were assessing. Lundeberg added that it was a challenge for the faculty members in her study to develop assessments that measure higher order thinking, because it is easier for them to write questions that focus on definitions and conceptual knowledge.

Martha Narro (University of Arizona) asked Gijbels to clarify some of the findings that he discussed in his presentation. He explained that, across studies that assessed student learning of concepts, there was no significant difference between students in problem-based and traditional settings. Across studies that assessed student learning of principles and application of conceptual knowledge, however, students in problem-based environments performed better. He also pointed out that the findings varied depending on the context (specifically, whether the students were in their first or last year of medical school) and the curriculum, and that he was reporting on the overall trends in the data.

Responding to another question, Lundeberg and Foster discussed the issue of relevance when constructing scenarios, problems, and cases. They agreed that there is very little research on what it means to be relevant. Lundeberg related several examples of cases that faculty members designed to be relevant but that did not resonate with students. In her experience, allowing students to design their own cases is a powerful way to make the cases relevant. Foster added that many college students are still developing their identities, which makes the notion of relevance more challenging. An audience member, referring to a paper by Mayberry (1998) about pedagogies that encourage students to develop their own sense of science, cautioned faculty members to be careful about coming across as knowing more than students about what is relevant.

Following another question, the speakers engaged in a discussion about the importance of longitudinal research to understand the longer term impact of these pedagogical strategies. Lundeberg mentioned some examples of longitudinal studies of innovative instructional strategies that show mixed results. Foster added that it is difficult to measure long-term knowledge or to trace it back to its origins. As an example, he said that although students might not demonstrate understanding of a concept after a certain

course, the exposure they gained to that concept might facilitate later learning. In that situation, the initial course had an effect that is impossible to measure. The panelists noted that longitudinal research is important, difficult to conduct, difficult to fund, and relatively rare.

Numerous teaching, learning, assessment, and institutional innovations in undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education have emerged in the past decade. Because virtually all of these innovations have been developed independently of one another, their goals and purposes vary widely. Some focus on making science accessible and meaningful to the vast majority of students who will not pursue STEM majors or careers; others aim to increase the diversity of students who enroll and succeed in STEM courses and programs; still other efforts focus on reforming the overall curriculum in specific disciplines. In addition to this variation in focus, these innovations have been implemented at scales that range from individual classrooms to entire departments or institutions.

By 2008, partly because of this wide variability, it was apparent that little was known about the feasibility of replicating individual innovations or about their potential for broader impact beyond the specific contexts in which they were created. The research base on innovations in undergraduate STEM education was expanding rapidly, but the process of synthesizing that knowledge base had not yet begun. If future investments were to be informed by the past, then the field clearly needed a retrospective look at the ways in which earlier innovations had influenced undergraduate STEM education.

To address this need, the National Research Council (NRC) convened two public workshops to examine the impact and effectiveness of selected STEM undergraduate education innovations. This volume summarizes the workshops, which addressed such topics as the link between learning goals and evidence; promising practices at the individual faculty and institutional levels; classroom-based promising practices; and professional development for graduate students, new faculty, and veteran faculty. The workshops concluded with a broader examination of the barriers and opportunities associated with systemic change.

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• v.31(3); 2021 Jun

Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review

Azril shahreez abdul ghani.

1 Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Kulliyah of Medicine, Bandar Indera Mahkota Campus, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, 25200 Pahang Malaysia

2 Department of Medical Education, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, 16150 Kelantan Malaysia

Ahmad Fuad Abdul Rahim

Muhamad saiful bahri yusoff, siti nurma hanim hadie.

3 Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, 16150 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Malaysia

Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in a PBL context, using the protocol by Arksey and O’Malley. The protocol identified the research question, selected relevant studies, charted and collected data, and collated, summarized, and reported results. We discovered three categories of elements—intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills—proven effective in the achievement of learning outcomes in PBL.

Introduction

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational approach that utilizes the principles of collaborative learning in small groups, first introduced by McMaster Medical University [ 1 ]. The shift of the higher education curriculum from traditional, lecture-based approaches to an integrated, student-centered approach was triggered by concern over the content-driven nature of medical knowledge with minimal clinical application [ 2 ]. The PBL pedagogy uses a systematic approach, starting with an authentic, real-life problem scenario as a context in which learning is not separated from practice as students collaborate and learn [ 3 ]. The tutor acts as a facilitator who guides the students’ learning, while students are required to solve the problems by discussing them with group members [ 4 ]. The essential aspect of the PBL process is the ability of the students to recognize their current knowledge, determine the gaps in their knowledge and experience, and acquire new knowledge to bridge the gaps [ 5 ]. PBL is a holistic approach that gives students an active role in their learning.

Since its inception, PBL has been used in many undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs, such as medicine [ 6 , 7 ], nursing [ 8 ], social work education [ 9 ], law [ 10 ], architecture [ 11 ], economics [ 12 ], business [ 13 ], science [ 14 ], and engineering [ 15 ]. It has also been applied in elementary and secondary education [ 16 – 18 ]. Despite its many applications, its implementation is based on a single universal workflow framework that contains three elements: problem as the initiator for learning, tutor as a facilitator in the group versions, and group work as a stimulus for collaborative interaction [ 19 ]. However, there are various versions of PBL workflow, such as the seven-step technique based on the Maastricht “seven jumps” process. The tutor’s role is to ensure the achievement of learning objectives and to assess students’ performance [ 20 , 21 ].

The PBL process revolves around four types of learning principles: constructive, self-directed, collaborative, and contextual [ 19 ]. Through the constructive learning process, the students are encouraged to think about what is already known and integrate their prior knowledge with their new understanding. This process helps the student understand the content, form a new opinion, and acquire new knowledge [ 22 ]. The PBL process encourages students to become self-directed learners who plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning, enabling them to become lifelong learners [ 23 ]. The contextualized collaborative learning process also promotes interaction among students, who share similar responsibilities to achieve common goals relevant to the learning context [ 24 ]. By exchanging ideas and providing feedback during the learning session, the students can attain a greater understanding of the subject matter [ 25 ].

Dolmans et al. [ 19 ] pointed out two issues related to the implementation of PBL: dominant facilitators and dysfunctional PBL groups. These problems inhibit students’ self-directed learning and reduce their satisfaction level with the PBL session. A case study by Eryilmaz [ 26 ] that evaluated engineering students’ and tutors’ experience of PBL discovered that PBL increased the students’ self-confidence and improved essential skills such as problem-solving, communications, critical thinking, and collaboration. Although most of the participants in the study found PBL satisfactory, many complained about the tutor’s poor guidance and lack of preparation. Additionally, it was noted that 64% of the first-year students were unable to adapt to the PBL system because they had been accustomed to conventional learning settings and that 43% of students were not adequately prepared for the sessions and thus were minimally involved in the discussion.

In a case study by Cónsul-giribet [ 27 ], newly graduated nursing professionals reported a lack of perceived theoretical basic science knowledge at the end of their program, despite learning through PBL. The nurses perceived that this lack of knowledge might affect their expertise, identity, and professional image.

Likewise, a study by McKendree [ 28 ] reported the outcomes of a workshop that explored the strengths and weaknesses of PBL in an allied health sciences curriculum in the UK. The workshop found that problems related to PBL were mainly caused by students, the majority of whom came from conventional educational backgrounds either during high school or their first degree. They felt anxious when they were involved in PBL, concerned about “not knowing when to stop” in exploring the learning needs. Apart from a lack of basic science knowledge, the knowledge acquired during PBL sessions remains unorganized [ 29 ]. Hence, tutors must guide students in overcoming this situation by instilling appropriate insights and essential skills for the achievement of the learning outcomes [ 30 ]. It was also evident that the combination of intention and motivation to learn and desirable learning behavior determined the quality of learning outcomes [ 31 , 32 ]. However, effective learning behaviors that help develop these skills have not been systematically described. Thus, this scoping review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in the PBL context.

Scoping Review Protocol

This scoping review was performed using a protocol by Arksey and O’Malley [ 33 ]. The protocol comprises five phases: (i) identification of research questions, (ii) identification of relevant articles, (iii) selection of relevant studies, (iv) data collection and charting, and (v) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results.

Identification of Research Questions

This scoping review was designed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior that can be generated from learning through PBL instruction. The review aimed to answer one research question: “What are the effective learning behavior elements related to PBL?” For the purpose of the review, an operational definition of effective learning behavior was constructed, whereby it was defined as any learning behavior that is related to PBL instruction and has been shown to successfully attain the desired learning outcomes (i.e., cognitive, skill, or affective)—either quantitatively or qualitatively—in any intervention conducted in higher education institutions.

The positive outcome variables include student viewpoint or perception, student learning experience and performance, lecturer viewpoint and expert judgment, and other indirect variables that may be important indicators of successful PBL learning (i.e., attendance to PBL session, participation in PBL activity, number of interactions in PBL activity, and improvement in communication skills in PBL).

Identification of Relevant Articles

An extensive literature search was conducted on articles published in English between 2015 and 2019. Three databases—Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed—were used for the literature search. Seven search terms with the Boolean combination were used, whereby the keywords were identified from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) databases. The search terms were tested and refined with multiple test searches. The final search terms with the Boolean operation were as follows: “problem-based learning” AND (“learning behavior” OR “learning behaviour”) AND (student OR “medical students” OR undergraduate OR “medical education”).

Selection of Relevant Articles

The articles from the three databases were exported manually into Microsoft Excel. The duplicates were removed, and the remaining articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. These criteria were tested on titles and abstracts to ensure their robustness in capturing the articles related to learning behavior in PBL. The shortlisted articles were reviewed by two independent researchers, and a consensus was reached either to accept or reject each article based on the set criteria. When a disagreement occurred between the two reviewers, the particular article was re-evaluated independently by the third and fourth researchers (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), who have vast experience in conducting qualitative research. The sets of criteria for selecting abstracts and final articles were developed. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are listed in Table ​ Table1 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Data Charting

The selected final articles were reviewed, and several important data were extracted to provide an objective summary of the review. The extracted data were charted in a table, including the (i) title of the article, (ii) author(s), (iii) year of publication, (iv) aim or purpose of the study, (v) study design and method, (iv) intervention performed, and (v) study population and sample size.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

A content analysis was performed to identify the elements of effective learning behaviors in the literature by A.S.A.G and S.N.H.H, who have experience in conducting qualitative studies. The initial step of content analysis was to read the selected articles thoroughly to gain a general understanding of the articles and extract the elements of learning behavior which are available in the articles. Next, the elements of learning behavior that fulfil the inclusion criteria were extracted. The selected elements that were related to each other through their content or context were grouped into subtheme categories. Subsequently, the combinations of several subthemes expressing similar underlying meanings were grouped into themes. Each of the themes and subthemes was given a name, which was operationally defined based on the underlying elements. The selected themes and subthemes were presented to the independent researchers in the team (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), and a consensus was reached either to accept or reformulate each of the themes and subthemes. The flow of the scoping review methods for this study is illustrated in Fig.  1 .

The flow of literature search and article selection

Literature Search

Based on the keyword search, 1750 articles were obtained. Duplicate articles that were not original articles found in different databases and resources were removed. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria of title selection, the eligibility of 1750 abstracts was evaluated. The articles that did not fulfil the criteria were removed, leaving 328 articles for abstract screening. A total of 284 articles were screened according to the eligibility criteria for abstract selection. Based on these criteria, 284 articles were selected and screened according to the eligibility criteria for full article selection. Fourteen articles were selected for the final review. The information about these articles is summarized in Table ​ Table2 2 .

Studies characteristics

Study Characteristics

The final 14 articles were published between 2015 and 2019. The majority of the studies were conducted in Western Asian countries ( n  = 4), followed by China ( n  = 3), European countries ( n  = 2), Thailand ( n  = 2), Indonesia ( n  = 1), Singapore ( n  = 1), and South Africa ( n  = 1). Apart from traditional PBL, some studies incorporated other pedagogic modalities into their PBL sessions, such as online learning, blended learning, and gamification. The majority of the studies targeted a single-profession learner group, and one study was performed on mixed interprofessional health education learners.

Results of Thematic Analysis

The thematic analysis yielded three main themes of effective learning behavior: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Intrinsic empowerment overlies four proposed subthemes: proactivity, organization, diligence, and resourcefulness. For entrustment, there were four underlying subthemes: students as assessors, students as teachers, feedback-giving, and feedback-receiving. The functional skills theme contains four subthemes: time management, digital proficiency, data management, and collaboration.

Theme 1: Intrinsic Empowerment

Intrinsic empowerment enforces student learning behavior that can facilitate the achievement of learning outcomes. By empowering the development of these behaviors, students can become lifelong learners [ 34 ]. The first element of intrinsic empowerment is proactive behavior. In PBL, the students must be proactive in analyzing problems [ 35 , 36 ] and their learning needs [ 35 , 37 ], and this can be done by integrating prior knowledge and previous experience through a brainstorming session [ 35 , 38 ]. The students must be proactive in seeking guidance to ensure they stay focused and confident [ 39 , 40 ]. Finding ways to integrate content from different disciplines [ 35 , 41 ], formulate new explanations based on known facts [ 34 , 35 , 41 ], and incorporate hands-on activity [ 35 , 39 , 42 ] during a PBL session are also proactive behaviors.

The second element identified is “being organized” which reflects the ability of students to systematically manage their roles [ 43 ], ideas, and learning needs [ 34 ]. The students also need to understand the task for each learning role in PBL, such as chairperson or leader, scribe, recorder, and reflector. This role needs to be assigned appropriately to ensure that all members take part in the discussion [ 43 ]. Similarly, when discussing ideas or learning needs, the students need to follow the steps in the PBL process and organize and prioritize the information to ensure that the issues are discussed systematically and all aspects of the problems are covered accordingly [ 34 , 37 ]. This team organization and systematic thought process is an effective way for students to focus, plan, and finalize their learning tasks.

The third element of intrinsic empowerment is “being diligent.” Students must consistently conduct self-revision [ 40 ] and keep track of their learning plan to ensure the achievement of their learning goal [ 4 , 40 ]. The students must also be responsible for completing any given task and ensuring good understanding prior to their presentation [ 40 ]. Appropriate actions need to be undertaken to find solutions to unsolved problems [ 40 , 44 ]. This effort will help them think critically and apply their knowledge for problem-solving.

The fourth element identified is “being resourceful.” Students should be able to acquire knowledge from different resources, which include external resources (i.e., lecture notes, textbooks, journal articles, audiovisual instructions, the Internet) [ 38 , 40 , 45 ] and internal resources (i.e., students’ prior knowledge or experience) [ 35 , 39 ]. The resources must be evidence-based, and thus should be carefully selected by evaluating their cross-references and appraising them critically [ 37 ]. Students should also be able to understand and summarize the learned materials and explain them using their own words [ 4 , 34 ]. The subthemes of the intrinsic empowerment theme are summarized in Table ​ Table3 3 .

 Intrinsic empowerment subtheme with the learning behavior elements

Theme 2: Entrustment

Entrustment emphasizes the various roles of students in PBL that can promote effective learning. The first entrusted role identified is “student as an assessor.” This means that students evaluate their own performance in PBL [ 46 ]. The evaluation of their own performance must be based on the achievement of the learning outcomes and reflect actual understanding of the content as well as the ability to apply the learned information in problem-solving [ 46 ].

The second element identified in this review is “student as a teacher.” To ensure successful peer teaching in PBL, students need to comprehensively understand the content of the learning materials and summarize the content in an organized manner. The students should be able to explain the gist of the discussed information using their own words [ 4 , 34 ] and utilize teaching methods to cater to differences in learning styles (i.e., visual, auditory, and kinesthetic) [ 41 ]. These strategies help capture their group members’ attention and evoke interactive discussions among them.

The third element of entrustment is to “give feedback.” Students should try giving constructive feedback on individual and group performance in PBL. Feedback on individual performance must reflect the quality of the content and task presented in the PBL. Feedback on group performance should reflect the ways in which the group members communicate and complete the group task [ 47 ]. To ensure continuous constructive feedback, students should be able to generate feedback questions beforehand and immediately deliver them during the PBL sessions [ 44 , 47 ]. In addition, the feedback must include specific measures for improvement to help their peers to take appropriate action for the future [ 47 ].

The fourth element of entrustment is “receive feedback.” Students should listen carefully to the feedback given and ask questions to clarify the feedback [ 47 ]. They need to be attentive and learn to deal with negative feedback [ 47 ]. Also, if the student does not receive feedback, they should request it either from peers or teachers and ask specific questions, such as what aspects to improve and how to improve [ 47 ]. The data on the subthemes of the entrustment theme are summarized in Table ​ Table4 4 .

Entrustment subtheme with the learning behavior elements

Theme 3: Functional Skills

Functional skills refer to essential skills that can help students learn independently and competently. The first element identified is time management skills. In PBL, students must know how to prioritize learning tasks according to the needs and urgency of the tasks [ 40 ]. To ensure that students can self-pace their learning, a deadline should be set for each learning task within a manageable and achievable learning schedule [ 40 ].

Furthermore, students should have digital proficiency, the ability to utilize digital devices to support learning [ 38 , 40 , 44 ]. The student needs to know how to operate basic software (e.g., Words and PowerPoints) and the basic digital tools (i.e., social media, cloud storage, simulation, and online community learning platforms) to support their learning [ 39 , 40 ]. These skills are important for peer learning activities, which may require information sharing, information retrieval, online peer discussion, and online peer feedback [ 38 , 44 ].

The third functional skill identified is data management, the ability to collect key information in the PBL trigger and analyze that information to support the solution in a problem-solving activity [ 39 ]. Students need to work either individually or in a group to collect the key information from a different trigger or case format such as text lines, an interview, an investigation, or statistical results [ 39 ]. Subsequently, students also need to analyze the information and draw conclusions based on their analysis [ 39 ].

The fourth element of functional skill is collaboration. Students need to participate equally in the PBL discussion [ 41 , 46 ]. Through discussion, confusion and queries can be addressed and resolved by listening, respecting others’ viewpoints, and responding professionally [ 35 , 39 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, the students need to learn from each other and reflect on their performance [ 48 ]. Table ​ Table5 5 summarizes the data on the subthemes of the functional skills theme.

Functional skills subtheme with the learning behavior elements

This scoping review outlines three themes of effective learning behavior elements in the PBL context: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Hence, it is evident from this review that successful PBL instruction demands students’ commitment to empower themselves with value-driven behaviors, skills, and roles.

In this review, intrinsic empowerment is viewed as enforcement of students’ internal strength in performing positive learning behaviors related to PBL. This theme requires the student to proactively engage in the learning process, organize their learning activities systematically, persevere in learning, and be intelligently resourceful. One of the elements of intrinsic empowerment is the identification and analysis of problems related to complex scenarios. This element is aligned with a study by Meyer [ 49 ], who observed students’ engagement in problem identification and clarification prior to problem-solving activities in a PBL session related to multiple engineering design. Rubenstein and colleagues [ 50 ] discovered in a semi-structured interview the importance of undergoing a problem identification process before proposing a solution during learning. It was reported that the problem identification process in PBL may enhance the attainment of learning outcomes, specifically in the domain of concept understanding [ 51 ].

The ability of the students to acquire and manage learning resources is essential for building their understanding of the learned materials and enriching discussion among team members during PBL. This is aligned with a study by Jeong and Hmelo-Silver [ 52 ], who studied the use of learning resources by students in PBL. The study concluded that in a resource-rich environment, the students need to learn how to access and understand the resources to ensure effective learning. Secondly, they need to process the content of the resources, integrate various resources, and apply them in problem-solving activities. Finally, they need to use the resources in collaborative learning activities, such as sharing and relating to peer resources.

Wong [ 53 ] documented that excellent students spent considerably more time managing academic resources than low achievers. The ability of the student to identify and utilize their internal learning resources, such as prior knowledge and experience, is also important. A study by Lee et al. [ 54 ] has shown that participants with high domain-specific prior knowledge displayed a more systematic approach and high accuracy in visual and motor reactions in solving problems compared to novice learners.

During the discussion phase in PBL, organizing ideas—e.g., arranging relevant information gathered from the learning resources into relevant categories—is essential for communicating the idea clearly [ 34 ]. This finding is in line with a typology study conducted by Larue [ 55 ] on second-year nursing students’ learning strategies during a group discussion. The study discovered that although the content presented by the student is adequate, they unable to make further progress in the group discussion until they are instructed by the tutor on how to organize the information given into a category [ 55 ].

Hence, the empowerment of student intrinsic behavior may enhance students’ learning in PBL by allowing them to make a decision in their learning objectives and instilling confidence in them to achieve goals. A study conducted by Kirk et al. [ 56 ] proved that highly empowered students obtain better grades, increase learning participation, and target higher educational aspirations.

Entrustment is the learning role given to students to be engaging and identify gaps in their learning. This theme requires the student to engage in self-assessment, prepare to teach others, give constructive feedback, and value the feedback received. One of the elements of entrustment is the ability to self-assess. In a study conducted by Mohd et al. [ 57 ] looking at the factors in PBL that can strengthen the capability of IT students, they discovered that one of the critical factors that contribute to these skills is the ability of the student to perform self-assessment in PBL. As mentioned by Daud, Kassim, and Daud [ 58 ], the self-assessment may be more reliable if the assessment is performed based on the objectives set beforehand and if the criteria of the assessment are understood by the learner. This is important to avoid the fact that the result of the self-assessment is influenced by the students’ perception of themselves rather than reflecting their true performance. However, having an assessment based on the learning objective only focuses on the immediate learning requirements in the PBL. To foster lifelong learning skills, it should also be balanced with the long-term focus of assessment, such as utilizing the assessment to foster the application of knowledge in solving real-life situations. This is aligned with the review by Boud and Falchikov [ 59 ] suggesting that students need to become assessors within the concept of participation in practice, that is, the kind that is within the context of real life and work.

The second subtheme of entrustment is “students as a teacher” in PBL. In our review, the student needs to be well prepared with the teaching materials. A cross-sectional study conducted by Charoensakulchai and colleagues discovered that student preparation is considered among the important factors in PBL success, alongside other factors such as “objective and contents,” “student assessment,” and “attitude towards group work” [ 60 ]. This is also aligned with a study conducted by Sukrajh [ 61 ] using focus group discussion on fifth-year medical students to explore their perception of preparedness before conducting peer teaching activity. In this study, the student in the focus group expressed that the preparation made them more confident in teaching others because preparing stimulated them to activate and revise prior knowledge, discover their knowledge gaps, construct new knowledge, reflect on their learning, improve their memory, inspire them to search several resources, and motivate them to learn the topics.

The next element of “student as a teacher” is using various learning styles to teach other members in the group. A study conducted by Almomani [ 62 ] showed that the most preferred learning pattern by the high school student is the visual pattern, followed by auditory pattern and then kinesthetic. However, in the university setting, Hamdani [ 63 ] discovered that students prefer a combination of the three learning styles. Anbarasi [ 64 ] also explained that incorporating teaching methods based on the student’s preferred learning style further promotes active learning among the students and significantly improved the long-term retrieval of knowledge. However, among the three learning styles group, he discovered that the kinesthetic group with the kinesthetic teaching method showed a significantly higher post-test score compared to the traditional group with the didactic teaching method, and he concluded that this is because of the involvement of more active learning activity in the kinesthetic group.

The ability of students to give constructive feedback on individual tasks is an important element in promoting student contribution in PBL because feedback from peers or teachers is needed to reassure themselves that they are on the right track in the learning process. Kamp et al. [ 65 ] performed a study on the effectiveness of midterm peer feedback on student individual cognitive, collaborative, and motivational contributions in PBL. The experimental group that received midterm peer feedback combined with goal-setting with face-to-face discussion showed an increased amount of individual contributions in PBL. Another element of effective feedback is that the feedback is given immediately after the observed behavior. Parikh and colleagues survey student feedback in PBL environments among 103 final-year medical students in five Ontario schools, including the University of Toronto, McMaster University, Queens University, the University of Ottawa, and the University of Western Ontario. They discovered that there was a dramatic difference between McMaster University and other universities in the immediacy of feedback they practiced. Seventy percent of students at McMaster reported receiving immediate feedback in PBL, compared to less than 40 percent of students from the other universities, in which most of them received feedback within one week or several weeks after the PBL had been conducted [ 66 ]. Another study, conducted among students of the International Medical University of Kuala Lumpur examining the student expectation on feedback, discovered that immediate feedback is effective if the feedback is in written form, simple but focused on the area of improvement, and delivered by a content expert. If the feedback is delivered by a content non-expert and using a model answer, it must be supplemented with teacher dialogue sessions to clarify the feedback received [ 67 ].

Requesting feedback from peers and teachers is an important element of the PBL learning environment, enabling students to discover their learning gaps and ways to fill them. This is aligned with a study conducted by de Jong and colleagues [ 68 ], who discovered that high-performing students are more motivated to seek feedback than low-performing students. The main reason for this is because high-performing students seek feedback as a tool to learn from, whereas low-performing students do so as an academic requirement. This resulted in high-performing students collecting more feedback. A study by Bose and Gijselaers [ 69 ] examined the factors that promote feedback-seeking behavior in medical residency. They discovered that feedback-seeking behavior can be promoted by providing residents with high-quality feedback to motivate them to ask for feedback for improvement.

By assigning an active role to students as teachers, assessors, and feedback providers, teachers give them the ownership and responsibility to craft their learning. The learner will then learn the skills to monitor and reflect on their learning to achieve academic success. Furthermore, an active role encourages students to be evaluative experts in their own learning, and promoting deep learning [ 70 ].

Functional skills refer to essential abilities for competently performing a task in PBL. This theme requires the student to organize and plan time for specific learning tasks, be digitally literate, use data effectively to support problem-solving, and work together efficiently to achieve agreed objectives. One of the elements in this theme is to have a schedule of learning tasks with deadlines. In a study conducted by Tadjer and colleagues [ 71 ], they discovered that setting deadlines with a restricted time period in a group activity improved students’ cognitive abilities and soft skills. Although the deadline may initially cause anxiety, coping with it encourages students to become more creative and energetic in performing various learning strategies [ 72 , 73 ]. Ballard et al. [ 74 ] reported that students tend to work harder to complete learning tasks if they face multiple deadlines.

The students also need to be digitally literate—i.e., able to demonstrate the use of technological devices and tools in PBL. Taradi et al. [ 75 ] discovered that incorporating technology in learning—blending web technology with PBL—removes time and place barriers in the creation of a collaborative environment. It was found that students who participated in web discussions achieved a significantly higher mean grade on a physiology final examination than those who used traditional methods. Also, the incorporation of an online platform in PBL can facilitate students to develop investigation and inquiry skills with high-level cognitive thought processes, which is crucial to successful problem-solving [ 76 ].

In PBL, students need to work collaboratively with their peers to solve problems. A study by Hidayati et al. [ 77 ] demonstrated that effective collaborative skills improve cognitive learning outcomes and problem-solving ability among students who undergo PBL integrated with digital mind maps. To ensure successful collaborative learning in PBL, professional communication among students is pertinent. Research by Zheng and Huang [ 78 ] has proven that co-regulation (i.e., warm and responsive communication that provides support to peers) improved collaborative effort and group performance among undergraduate and master’s students majoring in education and psychology. This is also in line with a study by Maraj and colleagues [ 79 ], which showed the strong team interaction within the PBL group leads to a high level of team efficacy and academic self-efficacy. Moreover, strengthening communication competence, such as by developing negotiation skills among partners during discussion sessions, improves student scores [ 80 ].

PBL also includes opportunities for students to learn from each other (i.e., peer learning). A study by Maraj et al. [ 79 ] discovered that the majority of the students in their study perceived improvement in their understanding of the learned subject when they learned from each other. Another study by Lyonga [ 81 ] documented the successful formation of cohesive group learning, where students could express and share their ideas with their friends and help each other. It was suggested that each student should be paired with a more knowledgeable student who has mastered certain learning components to promote purposeful structured learning within the group.

From this scoping review, it is clear that functional skills equip the students with abilities and knowledge needed for successful PBL. Studies have shown that strong time management skills, digital literacy, data management, and collaborative skills lead to positive academic achievement [ 77 , 82 , 83 ].

Limitation of the Study

This scoping review is aimed to capture the recent effective learning behavior in problem-based learning; therefore, the literature before 2015 was not included. Without denying the importance of publication before 2015, we are relying on Okoli and Schabram [ 84 ] who highlighted the impossibility of retrieving all the published articles when conducting a literature search. Based on this ground, we decided to focus on the time frame between 2015 and 2019, which is aligned with the concepts of study maturity (i.e., the more mature the field, the higher the published articles and therefore more topics were investigated) by Kraus et al. [ 85 ]. In fact, it was noted that within this time frame, a significant number of articles have been found as relevant to PBL with the recent discovery of effective learning behavior. Nevertheless, our time frame did not include the timing of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic outbreak, which began at the end of 2019. Hence, we might miss some important elements of learning behavior that are required for the successful implementation of PBL during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Surprisingly, the results obtained from this study are also applicable for the PBL sessions administration during the COVID-19 pandemic situation as one of the functional skills identified is digital proficiency. This skill is indeed important for the successful implementation of online PBL session.

This review identified the essential learning behaviors required for effective PBL in higher education and clustered them into three main themes: (i) intrinsic empowerment, (ii) entrustment, and (iii) functional skills. These learning behaviors must coexist to ensure the achievement of desired learning outcomes. In fact, the findings of this study indicated two important implications for future practice. Firstly, the identified learning behaviors can be incorporated as functional elements in the PBL framework and implementation. Secondly, the learning behaviors change and adaption can be considered to be a new domain of formative assessment related to PBL. It is noteworthy to highlight that these learning behaviors could help in fostering the development of lifelong skills for future workplace challenges. Nevertheless, considerably more work should be carried out to design a solid guideline on how to systematically adopt the learning behaviors in PBL sessions, especially during this COVID-19 pandemic situation.

This study was supported by Postgraduate Incentive Grant-PhD (GIPS-PhD, grant number: 311/PPSP/4404803).

Declarations

The study has received an ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia.

No informed consent required for the scoping review.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Teaching Discipline-Based Problem Solving

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112.
• 2 Center for Teaching and Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203.
• 3 Center for Integrative Research on Cognition, Learning, and Education, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130-4899.
• 4 Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602.
• PMID: 35544201
• PMCID: PMC9508921
• DOI: 10.1187/cbe.22-02-0030

Problem solving plays an essential role in all scientific disciplines, and solving problems can reveal essential concepts that underlie those disciplines. Thus, problem solving serves both as a common tool and desired outcome in many science classes. Research on teaching problem solving offers principles for instruction that are guided by learning theories. This essay describes an online, evidence-based teaching guide (https://lse.ascb.org/ evidence-based-teaching-guides/problem-solving) intended to guide instructors in the use of these principles. The guide describes the theoretical underpinnings of problem-solving research and instructional choices that can place instruction before problem solving (e.g., peer-led team learning and worked examples) or problem solving before instruction (e.g., process-oriented guided inquiry learning, contrasting cases, and productive failure). Finally, the guide describes assessment choices that help instructors consider alternative outcomes for problem-solving instruction. Each of these sections consists of key points that can be gleaned from the literature as well as summaries and links to articles that inform these points. The guide also includes an instructor checklist that offers a concise summary of key points with actionable steps to direct instructors as they develop and refine their problem-solving instruction.

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• Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.
• Problem Solving*

The effect of using problem-oriented project-based learning in biology electronic module to empower problem-solving of high school students

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Yanang Surya Putra Hardyanto , Ibrohim Ibrohim , Sueb Sueb , Novela Memiasih , Devi Alvionita; The effect of using problem-oriented project-based learning in biology electronic module to empower problem-solving of high school students. AIP Conf. Proc. 24 May 2024; 3106 (1): 030039. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0215079

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Improving the quality of human resources through education and environmental issues are 21st-century life challenges that must be resolved. Implementing 21st-century education is expected to integrate knowledge, skills, and attitudes and mastery of information and communication technology, balanced by increasing problem-solving. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has also affected the implementation of learning activities, resulting in the ineffectiveness of teaching and learning activities in schools. It is necessary to learn biology with the main characteristics of project-based learning, focus on essential materials, and have the flexibility for teachers to carry out learning. To deal with this, research is needed to develop electronic teaching materials in the form of e-modules to facilitate online learning activities in schools and problem-oriented project-based learning (POPBL) biology learning models to facilitate the application of learning activities following the demands of the educational paradigm. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of the POPBL-based electronic module by comparing the differences in the level of problem-solving between students who study biology and those who do not use the POPBL-based electronic module. The research was a quasi-experiment using a non- randomized control group pretest-posttest design. The sample in this study was 72 students divided into an experimental class and a control class. ANCOVA results show a significance value of p= 0.000 <α (0.05) for problem-solving, so it can be concluded that using a POPBL-based e-module has an effect. The corrected mean value of problem-solving in the experimental class is more significant than in the control class. So, it can be concluded that biology learning using POPBL- based e-module has a higher potential to improve students’ problem-solving skills than conventional learning.

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STEAM Essentials: Creative Learning in the Classroom (Barcelona, Spain)

This is an engaging Erasmus+ program designed for teachers seeking to enhance their skills in STEAM education. This program focuses on the fundamental concepts of each STEAM discipline and how they can be integrated for interdisciplinary learning. Teachers will explore the latest research and best practices in the field to create dynamic and innovative lesson plans.

Description

• The STEAM Essentials course is an engaging Erasmus+ program designed for teachers seeking t o enhance their skills in STEAM education (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics). This course aims to empower educators with practical tools and strategies to promote creative learning experiences in the classroom.
• Through interactive workshops and collaborative projects, participants will gain hands-on experience in designing STEAM-based activities that foster critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The course also covers the use of technology and digital tools to enhance STEAM learning, as well as how arts and creativity can inspire students' imagination. 
• The course will dive into project-based learning (PBL) methodologies, demonstrating how educators can design and implement STEAM projects that encourage teamwork, communication, and problem-solving. Teachers will discover how to nurture a growth mindset in their students, instilling a passion for lifelong learning and adaptability in an ever-changing world.
• Course Program
• Pre-registration
• Course Category:   School Innovation
• Related Courses:  21st Century Skills for Teachers ,  The 4Cs in Education: Creativity, Collaboration, Communication and Critical Thinking ,  Entrepreneurship Education: Fostering Creativity and Innovation
• You can also directly contact us by email:  [email protected]

Learning objectives

• Understanding STEAM Principles: Participants will gain a comprehensive understanding of the core principles of STEAM education and its interdisciplinary nature, recognising the significance of integrating Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics in the teaching and learning process.
• Designing STEAM Lesson Plans: Teachers will learn how to design and implement engaging STEAM-based lesson plans and activities that promote creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration among students.
• Integrating Arts and Creativity: Educators will explore methods for integrating arts and creativity into STEM subjects, fostering students' imagination and self-expression, and making learning enjoyable and meaningful.
• Utilising Technology in STEAM Education: Participants will discover how to leverage technology and digital tools to enhance STEAM learning experiences, incorporating innovative digital resources into their teaching practices.
• Implementing Project-Based Learning: Teachers will learn how to apply project-based learning (PBL) methodologies to design and facilitate STEAM projects that encourage teamwork, communication, and independent exploration of subjects.

Methodology & assessment

Certification details.

• Certificate of Attendance: includes the name of the participant and the trainer, the location, the dates, learning hours and competences acquired. 
• Learning Agreement(s)
• Europass Mobility Document(s) 

Pricing, packages and other information

• Price: 400 Euro
• Package contents: Course

Additional information

• Language: English
• Target audience ISCED: Primary education (ISCED 1) Lower secondary education (ISCED 2) Upper secondary education (ISCED 3)
• Target audience type: Teacher Head Teacher / Principal Teacher Educator
• Learning time: 25 hours or more

Upcoming sessions

Vocational subjects

Key competences, more courses by this organiser.

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Next upcoming session  03.06.2024 - 07.06.2024

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