essay on hepatitis c in english

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The liver is the largest internal organ in the body. It's about the size of a football. It sits mainly in the upper right portion of the stomach area, above the stomach.

Hepatitis C is a viral infection that causes liver swelling, called inflammation. Hepatitis C can lead to serious liver damage. The hepatitis C virus (HCV) spreads through contact with blood that has the virus in it.

Newer antiviral medicines are the treatment of choice for most people with the ongoing, called chronic, hepatitis C infection. These medicines often can cure chronic hepatitis C.

But many people with hepatitis C don't know they have it. That's mainly because symptoms can take decades to appear. So, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that all adults ages 18 to 79 years be screened for hepatitis C.

Screening is for everyone, even those who don't have symptoms or known liver disease.

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Every long-term hepatitis C infection starts with what's called an acute phase. Acute hepatitis C usually isn't diagnosed because it rarely causes symptoms. When there are symptoms in this phase, they may include jaundice, fatigue, nausea, fever and muscle aches.

Long-term infection with the hepatitis C virus is called chronic hepatitis C. Chronic hepatitis C usually has no symptoms for many years. Symptoms appear only after the virus damages the liver enough to cause them.

Symptoms can include:

• Bleeding easily.
• Bruising easily.
• Not wanting to eat.
• Yellowing of the skin, called jaundice. This might show up more in white people. Also, yellowing of the whites of the eyes in white, Black and brown people.
• Dark-colored urine.
• Itchy skin.
• Fluid buildup in the stomach area, called ascites.
• Swelling in the legs.
• Weight loss.
• Confusion, drowsiness and slurred speech, called hepatic encephalopathy.
• Spiderlike blood vessels on the skin, called spider angiomas.

Acute hepatitis C infection doesn't always become chronic. Some people clear the infection from their bodies after the acute phase. This is called spontaneous viral clearance. Antiviral therapy also helps clear acute hepatitis C.

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Hepatitis C infection is caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The infection spreads when blood that has the virus enters the bloodstream of a person who isn't affected.

Around the world, hepatitis C infection exists in several forms, called genotypes. There are seven genotypes and 67 subtypes. The most common hepatitis C genotype in the United States is type 1.

Chronic hepatitis C follows the same course no matter what the genotype of the infecting virus. But treatment can vary depending on viral genotype. However, newer antiviral drugs can treat many genotypes.

More Information

Hepatitis C care at Mayo Clinic

• Hepatitis C: How common is sexual transmission?

Risk factors

Screening for hepatitis c.

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that all adults ages 18 to 79 years be screened for hepatitis C. Screening is very important for people at high risk of exposure. This includes:

• Anyone who has ever injected, snorted or inhaled an illegal drug.
• Anyone who has atypical liver test results in which the cause wasn't found.
• Babies born from someone who has hepatitis C.
• Pregnant people during the pregnancy.
• Health care and emergency workers who have been in contact with blood or been stuck by a needle.
• People with hemophilia who were treated with clotting factors before 1987.
• People who have had long-term hemodialysis.
• People who got donated blood or organ transplants before 1992.
• Sexual partners of anyone diagnosed with hepatitis C infection.
• People with HIV infection.
• Men who have sex with men.
• Sexually active people about to start taking medicine to prevent HIV , called pre-exposure prophylaxis or PrEP .
• Anyone who has been in prison.

Complications

Healthy liver vs. liver cirrhosis

A healthy liver, at left, shows no signs of scarring. In cirrhosis, at right, scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue.

Liver cancer

Liver cancer begins in the liver cells. The most common type of liver cancer starts in cells called hepatocytes and is called hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hepatitis C infection that continues over many years can cause serious complications, such as:

• Scarring of the liver, called cirrhosis. Scarring can occur after decades of hepatitis C infection. Liver scarring makes it hard for the liver to work.
• Liver cancer. A small number of people with hepatitis C infection get liver cancer.
• Liver failure. A lot of scarring can cause the liver to stop working.
• Hepatitis C: What happens in end-stage liver disease?

The following might protect from hepatitis C infection:

• Stop using illegal drugs. If you use illegal drugs, seek help.
• Be careful about body piercing and tattooing. For piercing or tattooing, look for a shop that's known to be clean. Ask questions about how the equipment is cleaned. Make sure the employees use sterile needles. If employees won't answer questions, look for another shop.
• Practice safer sex. Don't have sex without protection with any partner whose health status you don't know. Don't have sex with more than one partner. The risk of couples who only have sex with each other getting hepatitis C through sex is low.
• Why isn't there a hepatitis C vaccine?
• Hepatitis C questions and answers for health professionals. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/hcv/hcvfaq.htm. Accessed March 1, 2023.
• Screening for hepatitis C virus infection in adolescents and adults: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2020; doi:10.1001/jama.2020.1123.
• Chopra S, et al. Overview of the management of chronic hepatitis C virus infection. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed March 1, 2023.
• HCV guidance: Recommendations for testing, managing, and treating hepatitis C. American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. https://www.hcvguidelines.org/. Accessed May 1, 2023.
• AskMayoExpert. Hepatitis C (adult). Mayo Clinic; 2021.
• Ferri FF. Hepatitis C. In: Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2023. Elsevier; 2023. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 1, 2023.
• Definition and facts of liver transplant. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/liver-disease/liver-transplant/definition-facts. Accessed March 1, 2023.
• Ami T. Allscripts EPSi. Mayo Clinic. March 24, 2023.
• Drinking after hepatitis C cure: Is it safe?
• New Hep C Treatment

Associated Procedures

• Liver biopsy
• Liver transplant

News from Mayo Clinic

• Mayo Clinic Minute: What is hepatitis C? March 11, 2024, 03:15 p.m. CDT

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Hepatitis C

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In this section:

What is hepatitis C?

How common is hepatitis c in the united states, who is more likely to get hepatitis c, should i be screened for hepatitis c, what are the complications of hepatitis c, what are the symptoms of hepatitis c, what causes hepatitis c, how do doctors diagnose hepatitis c, what tests do doctors use to diagnose hepatitis c, how do doctors treat hepatitis c, how do doctors treat the complications of hepatitis c, how can i protect myself from hepatitis c infection, how can i prevent spreading hepatitis c to others, is a hepatitis c vaccine available, what should i eat and drink if i have hepatitis c.

Hepatitis C is a viral infection that causes liver inflammation and damage. Inflammation is swelling that occurs when tissues of the body become injured or infected. Inflammation can damage organs.

Viruses invade normal cells in your body. Many viruses cause infections that can be spread from person to person. The hepatitis C virus spreads through contact with an infected person’s blood.

Hepatitis C can cause an acute or chronic infection.

Although no vaccine for hepatitis C is available, you can take steps to protect yourself from hepatitis C . If you have hepatitis C, talk with your doctor about treatment. Medicines can cure most cases of hepatitis C.

Acute hepatitis C

Acute hepatitis C is a short-term infection. Symptoms can last up to 6 months. Sometimes your body is able to fight off the infection and the virus goes away.

Chronic hepatitis C

Chronic hepatitis C is a long-lasting infection. Chronic hepatitis C occurs when your body isn’t able to fight off the virus. About 75 to 85 percent of people with acute hepatitis C will develop chronic hepatitis C. 13

Early diagnosis and treatment of chronic hepatitis C can prevent liver damage. Without treatment, chronic hepatitis C can cause chronic liver disease, cirrhosis , liver failure , or liver cancer .

In the United States, hepatitis C is the most common chronic viral infection found in blood and spread through contact with blood. 14

Researchers estimate that about 2.7 million to 3.9 million people in the United States have chronic hepatitis C. 13 Many people who have hepatitis C don’t have symptoms and don’t know they have this infection.

Since 2006, the number of new hepatitis C infections has been rising, especially among people younger than age 30 who inject heroin or misuse prescription opioids and inject them. 15,16

New screening efforts and more effective hepatitis C treatments are helping doctors identify and cure more people with the disease. With more screening and treatment, hepatitis C may become less common in the future. Researchers estimate that hepatitis C could be a rare disease in the United States by 2036. 17

People more likely to get hepatitis C are those who

• have injected drugs
• had a blood transfusion or organ transplant before July 1992
• have hemophilia and received clotting factor before 1987
• have been on kidney dialysis
• have been in contact with blood or infected needles at work
• have had tattoos or body piercings
• have worked or lived in a prison
• were born to a mother with hepatitis C
• are infected with HIV
• have had more than one sex partner in the last 6 months or have a history of sexually transmitted disease
• are men who have or had sex with men

In the United States, injecting drugs is the most common way that people get hepatitis C. 13

Doctors usually recommend one-time screening of all adults ages 18 to 79 for hepatitis C. Screening is testing for a disease in people who have no symptoms. Doctors use blood tests to screen for hepatitis C. Many people who have hepatitis C don’t have symptoms and don’t know they have hepatitis C. Screening tests can help doctors diagnose and treat hepatitis C before it causes serious health problems.

Without treatment, hepatitis C may lead to cirrhosis, liver failure, and liver cancer. Early diagnosis and treatment of hepatitis C can prevent these complications.

Cirrhosis is a condition in which the liver slowly breaks down and is unable to function normally. Scar tissue replaces healthy liver tissue and partially blocks the flow of blood through the liver. In the early stages of cirrhosis, the liver continues to function. However, as cirrhosis gets worse, the liver begins to fail.

Liver failure

Also called end-stage liver disease, liver failure progresses over months, years, or even decades. With end-stage liver disease, the liver can no longer perform important functions or replace damaged cells.

Liver cancer

Having chronic hepatitis C increases your chance of developing liver cancer. If chronic hepatitis C causes severe liver damage or cirrhosis before you receive hepatitis C treatment, you will continue to have an increased chance of liver cancer even after treatment. Your doctor may suggest blood tests and an ultrasound or another type of imaging test to check for liver cancer. Finding cancer at an early stage improves the chance of curing the cancer.

Most people infected with hepatitis C have no symptoms. Some people with an acute hepatitis C infection may have symptoms within 1 to 3 months after they are exposed to the virus. These symptoms may include

• dark yellow urine
• feeling tired
• gray- or clay-colored stools
• loss of appetite
• pain in your abdomen
• yellowish eyes and skin, called jaundice

If you have chronic hepatitis C, you most likely will have no symptoms until complications develop, which could be decades after you were infected. For this reason, hepatitis C screening is important, even if you have no symptoms.

The hepatitis C virus causes hepatitis C. The hepatitis C virus spreads through contact with an infected person’s blood. Contact can occur by

• sharing drug needles or other drug materials with an infected person
• getting an accidental stick with a needle that was used on an infected person
• being tattooed or pierced with tools or inks that were not kept sterile—free from all viruses and other microorganisms—and were used on an infected person before they were used on you 
• having contact with the blood or open sores of an infected person
• using an infected person’s razor, toothbrush, or nail clippers
• being born to a mother with hepatitis C
• having unprotected sex with an infected person

You can’t get hepatitis C from

• being coughed or sneezed on by an infected person
• drinking water or eating food
• hugging an infected person
• shaking hands or holding hands with an infected person
• sharing spoons, forks, and other eating utensils
• sitting next to an infected person

A baby can’t get hepatitis C from breast milk. 18

Doctors diagnose hepatitis C based on your medical history, a physical exam, and blood tests. If you have hepatitis C, your doctor may perform additional tests to check your liver.

Medical history

Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and whether you have any history of blood transfusions or injected drug use.

Physical exam

During a physical exam, your doctor will typically examine your body to check for signs of liver damage such as

• changes in skin color
• swelling in your lower legs, feet, or ankles
• tenderness or swelling in your abdomen

Doctors use blood tests to diagnose hepatitis C. Your doctor may order additional tests to check for liver damage, find out how much liver damage you have, or rule out other causes of liver disease.

Blood tests

Your doctor may order one or more blood tests to diagnose hepatitis C. A health care professional will take a blood sample from you and send the sample to a lab.

Blood tests for hepatitis C include the following:

• Screening test for antibodies to the hepatitis C virus. A screening blood test will show whether you have developed antibodies to the hepatitis C virus. A positive antibody test means you were exposed to the hepatitis C virus at some point. However, the virus may no longer be present in your blood if your body fought off the infection on its own or if you received treatment that cured the infection.
• Hepatitis C RNA test. If your antibody test is positive, your doctor will use a hepatitis C RNA test to detect RNA—a type of genetic material—from the hepatitis C virus. The hepatitis C RNA test can show whether you still have the hepatitis C virus and how much virus is in your blood. This information can help your doctor treat the infection. To see if you are responding to treatment, your doctor may order this test while you are undergoing treatment to find out if the amount of virus in your blood is changing.
• Genotype test. Your doctor can use this test to find out what strain, or form, of hepatitis C virus you have. At least six specific strains—called genotypes—of hepatitis C exist. Genotype 1 is the most common hepatitis C genotype in the United States. 1 Your doctor will recommend treatment based on which hepatitis C genotype you have.

Additional tests

If you’ve had chronic hepatitis C for a long time, you could have liver damage. Your doctor may recommend additional tests to find out whether you have liver damage, how much liver damage you have, or to rule out other causes of liver disease. These tests may include

• blood tests
• transient elastography, a special ultrasound of your liver
• liver biopsy , in which a doctor uses a needle to take a small piece of tissue from your liver

Doctors typically use liver biopsy only if other tests don’t provide enough information about a person’s liver damage or disease. Talk with your doctor about which tests are best for you.

Doctors treat hepatitis C with antiviral medicines that attack the virus and can cure the disease in most cases.

Several newer medicines, called direct-acting antiviral medicines, have been approved to treat hepatitis C since 2013. Studies show that these medicines can cure chronic hepatitis C in most people with this disease. These medicines can also cure acute hepatitis C. In some cases, doctors recommend waiting to see if an acute infection becomes chronic before starting treatment.

Your doctor may prescribe one or more of these newer, direct-acting antiviral medicines to treat hepatitis C:

• daclatasvir (Daklinza)
• elbasvir/grazoprevir (Zepatier)
• glecaprevir and pibrentasvir (Mavyret)
• ledipasvir/sofosbuvir (Harvoni)
• ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir (Technivie)
• ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir/dasabuvir (Viekira Pak, Viekira XR)
• simeprevir (Olysio)
• sofosbuvir (Sovaldi)
• sofosbuvir/velpatasvir (Epclusa)
• sofosbuvir/velpatasvir/voxilaprevir (Vosevi)

Newer medicines are sometimes used along with these older hepatitis C medicines:

• peginterferon alfa-2a (Pegasys) or peginterferon alfa-2b (PEG-Intron)

You may need to take medicines for 8 to 24 weeks to cure hepatitis C. Your doctor will prescribe medicines and recommend a length of treatment based on

• which hepatitis C genotype you have
• how much liver damage you have
• whether you have been treated for hepatitis C in the past

Your doctor may order blood tests during and after your treatment. Blood tests can show whether the treatment is working. Hepatitis C medicines cure the infection in most people who complete treatment.

Hepatitis C medicines may cause side effects. Talk with your doctor about the side effects of treatment. Check with your doctor before taking any other prescription or over-the-counter medicines.

For safety reasons, talk with your doctor before using dietary supplements , such as vitamins, or any complementary or alternative medicines or medical practices.

Cost of hepatitis C medicines

The newer direct-acting antiviral medicines for hepatitis C can be costly. Most government and private health insurance prescription drug plans provide some coverage for these medicines. Talk with your doctor about your health insurance coverage for hepatitis C medicines.

Drug companies, nonprofit organizations, and some states offer programs that can help pay for hepatitis C medicines. If you need help paying for medicines, talk with your doctor. Learn more about financial help for hepatitis C medicines .

If hepatitis C leads to cirrhosis, you should see a doctor who specializes in liver diseases. Doctors can treat the health problems related to cirrhosis with medicines, surgery, and other medical procedures. If you have cirrhosis, you have an increased chance of liver cancer. Your doctor may order an ultrasound test to check for liver cancer.

If hepatitis C leads to liver failure or liver cancer, you may need a liver transplant .

If you don’t have hepatitis C, you can help protect yourself from hepatitis C infection by

• not sharing drug needles or other drug materials
• wearing gloves if you have to touch another person’s blood or open sores
• making sure your tattoo artist or body piercer uses sterile tools and unopened ink
• not sharing personal items such toothbrushes, razors, or nail clippers

Hepatitis C can spread from person to person during sex, but the chances are low. People who have multiple sex partners, have HIV or other sexually transmitted diseases, or who engage in rough or anal sex have a higher chance of getting hepatitis C. Talk with your doctor about your risk of getting hepatitis C through sex and about safe sex practices , such as using a latex or polyurethane condom to help prevent the spread of hepatitis C. 

If you had hepatitis C in the past and your body fought off the infection or medicines cured the infection, you can get hepatitis C again. Follow the steps above, and talk with your doctor about how to protect yourself from another hepatitis C infection. 

If you think you may have been exposed to the hepatitis C virus, see your doctor as soon as possible. Early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent liver damage.

If you have hepatitis C, follow the steps above to avoid spreading the infection. Tell your sex partner you have hepatitis C, and talk with your doctor about safe sex practices. In addition, you can protect others from infection by telling your doctor, dentist, and other health care providers that you have hepatitis C. Don’t donate blood or blood products, semen, organs, or tissue.

Researchers are still working on a vaccine for hepatitis C. If you have hepatitis C, talk with your doctor about vaccines for hepatitis A and hepatitis B . These vaccines can protect you from hepatitis A and hepatitis B infections, which could further damage your liver.

If you have hepatitis C, you should eat a balanced, healthy diet. Talk with your doctor about healthy eating. You should also avoid alcohol because it can cause more liver damage.

This content is provided as a service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), part of the National Institutes of Health. NIDDK translates and disseminates research findings to increase knowledge and understanding about health and disease among patients, health professionals, and the public. Content produced by NIDDK is carefully reviewed by NIDDK scientists and other experts.

The NIDDK would like to thank: Adrian M. Di Bisceglie, M.D., Saint Louis University School of Medicine

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Hepatitis C, Essay Example

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In fact, Hepatitis C is a liver disease, which is caused by Hepatitis C virus, so called HCV infection. “HCV infection sometimes results in an acute illness, but most often becomes a chronic condition that can lead to cirrhosis of the liver and liver cancer.”(CDC, 2007) Hepatitis C is also a general term for the liver’s inflammation caused by certain infection. It can also be caused by excessive exposure to alcohol, some medications, chemicals, poisons, as well as other toxins. This virus is considered to be very dangerous, predominantly because there is no vaccine against it and it cannot be cured. “35,000-40,000 new infections every year, the majority of which are symptom free.”(Askari & Cutler, 1999)

HCV is a contagious virus, like other viruses that cause hepatitis, but it is not essentially related to them. Hepatitis C virus is primarily transmitted through contact with blood or its products. For example, the sharing of contaminated needles could be the most probable mode of transmission. Other possible cases of virus transmission could be transfusion with infected blood or blood products, or organs transplantation from infected donors. In the year 1992, a test appeared for checking patients’ blood in order to avoid contamination. However, the virus does not transmit when living with or touching someone who is infected, but you can get the disease by sharing a razor, nail clippers or other similar items.

Even though hepatitis C gradually damages the liver, “Nine out of 10 infected people are not aware of their diagnosis.” (Askari & Cutler, 1999) The symptoms may not appear for 10-20 years or even more. However, when the symptoms do appear, the damage inflicted by a virus can be very serious. The symptoms can develop in 5 to 12 weeks after exposure to HCV infection. Among the symptoms of hepatitis C virus infection there are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, fatigue, pain over the liver, jaundice, dark-colored urine, and grayish or clay colored stools. Dehydration can also be caused by nausea and vomiting. Chronic hepatitis C can also cause the cirrhosis of the liver, when healthy liver tissue is replaced by fibrous tissue that results in scarlike hardening.

The development of hepatitis C infection in human organism involves four stages: acute stage, chronic stage, compensated cirrhosis, and decompensated cirrhosis. Acute phase comes immediately after infection and last about six months. The organism is given a chance to clear the virus, but if it does not happen, then the disease moves to another stage of long-term or chronic hepatitis C. “The 70% to 85% of individuals who do not manage to clear the virus spontaneously in the acute phase of infection are considered to be in the chronic phase of hepatitis C.”(Hepatitis C Trust, 2008) The diagnosis of chronic hepatitis C is usually confirmed after positive HCV antibody testing. At this stage it is highly unlikely that the virus can be cleared without medical interference. The development of cirrhosis differs from person to person, thus some people can develop it in less than ten years, and for some individuals the process may take up to fifty years. When it gets to cirrhosis stage, it means that the process of scarring of the liver has begun, thus the usual smooth texture of the liver eventually becomes lumpy and nodular. Compensated cirrhosis means that the liver can still recover the damage and perform most of its functions. However, when it comes to decompensated cirrhosis, there is a high risk of life threatening complication, for the liver at this stage is covered with nodules and shrinks in size.

Hepatitis C is a very dangerous disease, which at certain point can result in lethal issues. However, almost half of the people being infected do not know about the infection, which makes it difficult to prevent. With the development of medicine and appearance of diagnostic systems the problem seems to be more vivid and workable. I believe, people will eventually find the vaccine against Hepatitis C, which will save millions of lives.

Department of Health and Human Services. (2007). Viral Hepatitis . Retrieved May 7, 2009, from http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/

Askari, F. K., & Cutler, D. S. (1999). Hepatitis C, the silent epidemic: The authoritative guide. Perseus Publishing.

Hepatitis C Trust. (2008). Progression and stages of hepatitis C . Retrieved May 7, 2009, from http://www.hepctrust.org.uk/hepatitis-c/

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Hepatitis C virus is an infectious agent that causes hepatitis C, a type of liver inflammation in humans. This virus species leads to chronic infection and severe complications such as liver cirrhosis or cancer more often than some of the other hepatitis viruses.

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• Sook-Hyang Jeong

Signatures of V H 1-69 -derived hepatitis C virus neutralizing antibody precursors defined by binding to envelope glycoproteins

The burden of chronic hepatitis C virus infection is exacerbated by the lack of an effective vaccine. In this work, authors use a recombinant permuted (E2E1) HCV glycoprotein design to analyze the binding of different VH1-69-derived AR3-directed broadly neutralizing antibodies to the viral envelope glycoprotein.

• Joan Capella-Pujol
• Marlon de Gast
• Kwinten Sliepen

Hepatitis C virus RNA is 5′-capped with flavin adenine dinucleotide

Hepatitis C virus utilizes flavin adenine dinucleotide as a non-canonical initiating nucleotide for the viral RNA polymerase, resulting in 5′ capping of viral RNA, which provides protection against the host innate immune response.

• Anna V. Sherwood
• Lizandro R. Rivera-Rangel
• Jeppe Vinther

Structure of engineered hepatitis C virus E1E2 ectodomain in complex with neutralizing antibodies

HCV vaccine development has been challenged by difficulties in the biochemical preparation of E1E2 ectodomains. Here, the authors structurally characterize an engineered soluble E1E2 ectodomain complexed with broadly neutralizing antibodies, revealing it adopts a native fold amenable for vaccine design.

• Matthew C. Metcalf
• Benjamin M. Janus

News and Comment

Hcv direct-acting antiviral therapy adherence in people who inject drugs.

• Jordan Hindson

Methylation regulates HCV genome translation

This study demonstrates that an N6-methyladenosine (m 6 A) modification in the internal ribosome entry site of the hepatitis C virus RNA genome affects translation initiation through the action of the m 6 A reader protein YTHDC2 and its interaction with the La antigen.

Increasing survival in HCV-related hepatocellular carcinoma

• Katrina Ray

Preventing the development of hepatitis C in uninfected transplant recipients

Hcv-infected lungs and hearts can be safely transplanted into non-infected individuals.

• Iain Dickson

HCV therapy and risk of liver cancer recurrence: who to treat?

Recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma after resection or ablation with curative intent is common and not prevented by direct-acting antiviral agent (DAA) therapy for hepatitis C. Owing to multiple methodological inconsistencies, available studies fail to answer whether DAA therapy anticipated risk of severe tumour recurrence: a prospective randomized study might serve the purpose.

• Massimo Colombo
• Vincenzo Boccaccio

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72 Hepatitis Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best hepatitis topic ideas & essay examples, ⭐ good research topics about hepatitis, 📃 simple & easy hepatitis essay titles.

• Hepatitis A, B, and C: Control and Management The term “Hepatitis” refers to a group of medical conditions characterized by inflammation of the liver cells hepatocytes, the basic units of the liver.
• Hepatitis C: Prevention and Treatment PICOT Question: Compared to no screening, does obligatory screening for hepatitis C increase the timely diagnosis of the infection within 12 months in patients with immunity problems? The second study evaluates the effectiveness of screening […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• A Hepatitis Incident in North Dakota However, a review of the news presented on the North Dakota Department of Health website showed that a hepatitis incident caused the most significant concern in the state over the studied period.
• Hepatitis B: Prevention and Health Promotion Strategies The research determines the importance of nursing planning and interventions to attain the existing goals and how they can influence communities and populations’ health. For this reason, the significance of the topic and the necessity […]
• “Investigating Acute Hepatitis…” Article by Prinzi Some major points that the author explains concern the primary causes of hepatitis, possible contributors, and the current state of the investigation regarding the outburst of the infection.
• Communicable Diseases: Hepatitis C The disease poses a threat to the public health of global populations and health security due to the increase in the number of international travel and the economic growth of countries.
• Disease Surveillance Program: Hepatitis A Awareness The disease’s ease of spread requires health organizations to formulate a disease surveillance program and communication plan to educate and empower the affected population to understand their role in upholding community wellness.
• Epidemiology of Hepatitis A in Australia In Australia, the prevalence rates of HAV among young children under the age of five in Queensland were 10 and 264 per 100 000 people in non-Indigenous and Indigenous populations respectively between 1999 and 2002.
• Chronic Hepatitis B in Chicago Area Analysis By analyzing the issue closer and identifying the factors causing the increase in the number of hepatitis B patients, one will be able to locate the means of addressing the problem.
• Hepatitis B & Jaundice: Diagnosis and Treatment 9 acute hepatitis B without delta-agent and without hepatic coma, 3) B18. 9 Acute hepatitis B without delta-agent and without hepatic coma.
• Management of Hepatitis in the United Arab Emirates This directive was to affect the Ministry of Health of Dubai and Abu Dhabi and was to affect every new person with the intention of visiting the country.
• Hepatitis C and HIV Among Intravenous Drug Users In relation to this health issue of HIV and HCV, the community health nurse has the responsibility of promoting health among intravenous drug users.
• Hepatitis C: Causes, Risk Factors, and Treatment The major cause of Hepatitis C is the Hepatitis C virus. The blood test is capable of revealing the type of Hepatitis C an individual is suffering from, for instance, chronic Hepatitis C.
• Chronic Hepatitis B in Chicago The condition leads to the scarring of the organ. A liver biopsy can also be used to determine the extent of the problem.
• Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention and Control Hepatitis A Serological tests to differentiate between hepatitis B and A were developed in the 1970’s and consequently led to the identification of the causative agents.
• Epidemiology of Hepatitis C in England The department of Public Health England estimates that 215,000 patients are infected with the chronic form of the disease in the United Kingdom; the prevalence of the infection in England is about 40 cases per […]
• Hepatitis A: Signs, Treatment, Prognosis The moment an individual is infected with this disease and the immune system has fought the hepatitis A virus successfully; this individual will never be infected again since his or her body is now permanently […]
• Clinical Virology Review: Hepatitis B Hepatitis B refers to inflammation in the liver while Hepatitis B virus is the important cause of Hepatitis. Acute and chronic Hepatitis B is a major health concern and is capable of leading to complications […]
• Hepatitis C: Data and Statistics for Chronic and Acute Types Hepatitis C is supposed to be the most common disease caused by a virus and transmitted by blood in the United States.
• Hepatitis A: A Fatal Infectious Disease That Affects the Liver Water is the medium of survival of the virus. The virus enters the body through the anal opening or the mouth.
• Transmittable Liver Infection, Known as the Hepatitis a Virus The causative agent is one of the different forms of hepatitis viruses that trigger inflammation and affect the proper functioning of the liver.
• Psycho-Social Aspects of Hepatitis C The gap in time between identifying the cause of a disease like hepatitis C and finding a way to prevent, control, or eradicate it is often, unfortunately, a long one.
• Hepatitis C and Related Medical Issues At this stage the color of the liver changes to yellow and jaundice is evident. Jaundice is developed due to lack of bilirubin by the liver.
• Genetically Modified Potato as Hepatitis B Vaccine The thesis presented here is an argument in favor of using genetically modified potatoes in the effective prevention of the deadly hepatitis B virus infection.
• Hepatitis C: Diagnosis and Treatment The diagnosis of chronic hepatitis C is made by history, serological testing and liver biopsy. The next drug available for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C is peginterferon-alpha.
• Hepatitis C: Clinical Research and New Treatments Genotyping is a significant development since it helps to determine the treatment regiment to be offered to the patient. Optimal tests for HCV infection have been developed, leading to the early diagnosis and treatment of […]
• Implications of Hepatitis C Virus Infection The paper offers the analysis of the research methodology, variables, and the study design. The hypothesis of the study has been that HCV influences the central nervous system “in a subset of infected individuals”.
• Alcoholic Hepatitis: Models and Treatment In the prophylaxis of the disease, prednisolone and pentoxifylline are the most widely used pharmacological agents with empirical evidence indicating that they have disparate results in the management of the severe form of the disease.
• Anticipating New Regimens with Direct Acting Antivirals for Hepatitis C The article written by Rena Fox is aimed at informing the audience about the approval of two drugs that can be used for the treatment of hepatitis C.
• Management of Hepatitis B Virus Infection In the US, the cases of newly acquired hepatitis B virus infections have reduced significantly due to the success of public health management in the execution of an intensive national immunization policy.
• Countering to the Hepatitis Disease The state of affairs is worsened by the limited fiscal resources allotted by the exchequer. It is noted that others are known to cut off sections of the clitoris.
• Prevalence of Hepatitis B Hence, it means that the high prevalence of hepatitis B in Sub-Saharan countries is attributable to childhood infections of HBV. High prevalence of hepatitis B in Sub-Saharan countries is due to numerous factors that promote […]
• Pathogenicity and Molecular Typing of Fowl Adenovirus-Associated With Hepatitis/Hydropericardium Syndrome in Central China
• History, Symptoms, and Treatment of Hepatitis C
• Interferon-α-Enhanced CD100/Plexin-B1/B2 Interactions Promote Natural Killer Cell Functions in Patients With Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection
• Educating About the Risks of Hepatitis B
• Hepatocyte Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Inhibits Hepatitis B Virus Secretion and Delays Intracellular Hepatitis B Virus Clearance After Entecavir Treatment
• Identifying the Links Between HIV, Hepatitis, and Substance Misuse
• Hepatitis C-Associated Mixed Cryoglobulinemic Vasculitis Induces Differential Gene Expression in Peripheral Mononuclear Cells
• Hepatitis A,B,C,D,E,G: History, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment
• Mathematical Modeling for Hepatitis B Virus: Would Spatial Effects Play a Role and How to Model It?
• Autoimmune Hepatitis: Tolerogenic Immunological State During Pregnancy and Immune Escape in Post-partum
• Novel Immunotherapies for Autoimmune Hepatitis
• Edible Plant-Derived Vaccines Against Hepatitis B Virus
• Antibody Level After Hepatitis B Vaccination in Hemodialysis
• Cytoplasm-Translocated ku70/80 Complex Sensing of HBV DNA Induces Hepatitis-Associated Chemokine Secretion
• Natural Killer Cell Functional Dichotomy: A Feature of Chronic Viral Hepatitis?
• Treatment Methods for Patients Diagnosed With Hepatitis C Virus
• Preclinical Development and Production of Virus-Like Particles as Vaccine Candidates for Hepatitis C
• Developing Culturally Sensitive Interventions for Hepatitis B
• Patients With Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection Are at an Increased Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Nationwide Population-Based Case-Control Study in Taiwan
• Hepatitis and the Impact of the Disease on Emergency Medical Workers
• Interaction and Mutual Activation of Different Innate Immune Cells to Kill and Clear Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Cells
• Blood and Bio Identity: Ideas About Self, Boundaries, and Risk Among Blood Donors and People Living With Hepatitis C
• Plant Extracts From Cameroonian Medicinal Plants Strongly Inhibit Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Vitro
• Environmental Stability and Infectivity of Hepatitis C Virus In Different Human Body Fluids
• Glycan Shielding and Modulation of Hepatitis C Virus Neutralizing Antibodies
• Genetic Modified Potatoes Vaccines Based for Hepatitis B
• Psychosocial and Neurocognitive Factors Associated With Hepatitis C Implications for Future Health and Wellbeing
• Relationship Between Schistosomiasis and Hepatitis C
• Characteristics and Specialist Linkage to Care of Patients Diagnosed With Chronic Hepatitis C Across Different Settings in an Urban Academic Hospital: Implications for Improving Diagnosis and Linkage to Care
• Advanced Glycation End Products as a Predictor of Diabetes Mellitus in Chronic Hepatitis C-Related Cirrhosis
• Living With Hepatitis C’s Stigma of Getting Infected While Doing Bad Things
• Transmission, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Hepatitis B
• Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors of Viral Hepatitis Among Recent African Immigrants in the United States: A Community Based Participatory Research Qualitative Study
• Aspirin Use and the Incidence of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Patients With Hepatitis B Virus or Hepatitis C Virus Infection
• Hepatitis Types and Ems Implications
• Links Between Human Line-1 Retrotransposons and Hepatitis Virus-Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma
• Immune Status Against Hepatitis B in Patients After Allogeneic Hematopoietic Cell Transplantationfactors Affecting Early and Long-Lasting Maintenance of Protective Anti-hbs Titers
• Hepatitis B Vaccine for Newborns, Why It’s Important
• Molecular Biology and Infection of Hepatitis E Virus
• Low Mannose Binding Lectin, but Not L-Ficolin, Is Associated With Spontaneous Clearance of Hepatitis C Virus After Infection
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Hepatitis killing thousands daily, WHO warns in new report

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The number of lives lost due to viral hepatitis infections is increasing and already accounts for 3,500 deaths daily, according to a report by the World Health Organization (WHO) released on Tuesday.

The disease is the second leading infectious cause of death globally, with 1.3 million deaths per year, the same as tuberculosis, another top infectious killer, according to the World Health Organization ( WHO ) 2024 Global Hepatitis Report.

“This report paints a troubling picture,” said WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus. “Despite progress globally in preventing hepatitis infections, deaths are rising because far too few people with hepatitis are being diagnosed and treated .”

Swift course correction

Even though better tools for diagnosis and treatment are available and product prices are decreasing, testing and treatment coverage rates have stalled, the UN health agency stated in the report, released at the World Hepatitis Summit.

But, reaching the WHO elimination goal by 2030 should still be achievable, if swift action is taken now, the agency said.

“ WHO is committed to supporting countries to use all the tools at their disposal – at access prices – to save lives and turn this trend around ,” the UN health agency chief said.

Spike in deaths

More than 6,000 people are getting newly infected with viral hepatitis each day, according to the report.

New data from 187 countries show that the estimated number of deaths from viral hepatitis increased from 1.1 million in 2019 to 1.3 million in 2022 . Of these, 83 per cent were caused by hepatitis B and 17 per cent by hepatitis C. 

Updated WHO estimates indicate that 254 million people live with hepatitis B and 50 million with hepatitis C in 2022. Half the burden of chronic hepatitis B and C infections is among people 30 and 54 years old, with 12 per cent among children. Men account for 58 per cent of all cases.

Gaps in diagnosis and treatment 

Across all regions, only 13 per cent of people living with chronic hepatitis B infection had been diagnosed and approximately three per cent, or seven million, had received antiviral therapy at the end of 2022, falling far below global targets to treat 80 per cent of people living with chronic hepatitis B and hepatitis C by 2030.

The burden of viral hepatitis also varies regionally. The WHO African Region bears 63 per cent of new hepatitis B infections, yet despite this burden, only 18 per cent of newborns in the region receive the hepatitis B birth-dose vaccination.

In the western Pacific region, which accounts for 47 per cent of hepatitis B deaths, treatment coverage stands at 23 per cent among people diagnosed, which is far too low to reduce mortality.

In addition, despite the availability of affordable generic viral hepatitis medicines, many countries fail to procure them at these lower prices.

Eradicating the epidemic

The WHO report outlines a series of actions to advance a public health approach to viral hepatitis, designed to accelerate progress towards ending the epidemic by 2030.

They include expanding access to testing and diagnostics , strengthening primary care prevention efforts and shifting from policies to implementation for equitable treatment.

But funding remains a challenge , the agency said, with current levels insufficient to meet the needs.

WHO said this arises from a combination of factors, including limited awareness of cost-saving interventions and tools and competing health priorities.

The new report also highlights strategies for countries to address these inequities and access the tools at the most affordable prices available.

SDG 3: HEALTHIER GLOBAL POPULATION

• Promote mental health and wellbeing and strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse
• Reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from pollution, contamination and tobacco
• Achieve universal health coverage and provide access to affordable, essential vaccines and medicines
• Reduce global maternal mortality rate to less than 70 per 100,000 live births and under-five mortality to at least 25 per 1,000 live births
• End epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria and combat hepatitis and other communicable diseases

Sustainable development hinges on ensuring healthy lives and promoting wellbeing at all ages.

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Committee on a National Strategy for the Elimination of Hepatitis B and C; Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice; Health and Medicine Division; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Buckley GJ, Strom BL, editors. Eliminating the Public Health Problem of Hepatitis B and C in the United States: Phase One Report. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2016 Jun 1.

Eliminating the Public Health Problem of Hepatitis B and C in the United States: Phase One Report.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Conclusion

Hepatitis B and C kill about 20,000 people every year in the United States, and more than 1 million worldwide ( CDC, 2013 ; WHO, 2016 ). Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) together account for most viral hepatitis, which kills more people every year than road traffic injuries, HIV and AIDS, and diabetes ( WHO, 2016 ). While the deaths from other common killers (i.e., malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV) have decreased since the early 2000s, deaths attributable to viral hepatitis continue to rise ( IHME, 2016 ).

These deaths can be averted. Three doses of HBV vaccine convey 95 percent immunity ( WHO, 2015 ). Though HBV infection cannot be cured, proper treatment can reduce viral load to an undetectable level ( EASL, 2012 ). While there is no vaccine for HCV, new curative treatments can eliminate the infection in over 95 percent of patients ( Afdhal et al., 2014 ; Charlton et al., 2015 ; Feld et al., 2014 ). Improved prevention and expanded access to viral hepatitis treatments could greatly reduce the burden of these infections. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that reducing the incidence of chronic hepatitis B and C by 90 percent and reducing mortality by 65 percent would save 7.1 million lives by 2030 ( WHO, 2016 ).

The United States has an opportunity and a responsibility to be part of the global action against hepatitis B and C. Already the Department of Health and Human Services' viral hepatitis action plan lays out ambitious goals for improving prevention and care, and expanding hepatitis surveillance ( HHS, 2014 ). In the near term, the committee finds control of both diseases to be imminently possible. This committee also believes that a more ambitious goal is within our reach: Elimination of HBV and HCV as public health problems in the United States. Although an elimination goal is entirely feasible, it is not necessarily likely without considerable attention to the barriers discussed in this report. First of all, disease reductions programs require an accurate understanding of the true burden of disease in a population. There is wide uncertainty in all estimates of HBV and HCV incidence and prevalence. Limited surveillance contributes to the uncertainty, as does the often asymptomatic course of the infections. Wider screening could help identify more chronically infected people, but screening for both infections is complicated.

Expanding screening for chronic HBV and HCV infections would surely identify new cases, but some would be among people with no access to care. Diagnosis with a chronic disease requires follow-up in primary care. Diagnosis of chronic hepatitis B carries with it the opportunity for treatment and monitoring to reduce the long-term risk of liver cancer and cirrhosis. It also offers the opportunity to vaccinate the patient's uninfected contacts. Such follow-up is not an option for people who are uninsured and ineligible for Medicaid.

Hepatitis B and C care require a health workforce knowledgeable about long-term management of viral hepatitis. Much of the burden falls on primary care providers, who are already overworked, and extends indefinitely. There is no cure for hepatitis B, and infected individuals require management for the rest of their lives. Hepatitis C, in contrast, can be cured in 8 to 12 weeks, thanks to new direct-acting antiviral drugs. These drugs are expensive in the United States. The first of these treatments to gain Food and Drug Administration approval cost $1,000 per pill in 2014 ( Sanger-Katz, 2014 ). Competition from other products has brought the price down, but curing a chronically infected HCV patient in the United States still costs between $54,000 and $168,000 ( Bickerstaff, 2015 ; Loria, 2016 ). Even at such prices, curing hepatitis C is cost-effective ( Bickerstaff, 2015 ; Chhatwal et al., 2015 ; Najafzadeh et al., 2015 ; Younossi et al., 2015 ). The tension between the expense and cost-effectiveness of treating HCV puts Medicaid and insurance companies in a difficult position. They have responded by restricting access to treatment to only the sickest HCV patients. Even so, HCV treatments alone accounted for about a third of the sharp acceleration in drug spending between 2013 and 2014 ( Martin et al., 2015 ). It is currently not financially possible to treat all the estimated 2.7 to 4.7 million people thought to have chronic HCV infection given the current prices ( Edlin et al., 2015 ; Ward and Mermin, 2015 ).

The high price of treatment creates a tension in determining which patients' treatment should be a priority. Those at most immediate risk of death are not necessarily those transmitting the virus, so the goals of ending HCV transmission and ending deaths from hepatitis C are somewhat at odds with each other.

There are creative strategies to mitigate this and other barriers to eliminating hepatitis B and C. Five years ago curing HCV infection with short-term, tolerable therapy seemed impossible. Similar breakthroughs in the treatment and management of hepatitis B are possible, as is the development of a prophylactic vaccine for HCV. This report has identified no shortage of research questions for basic scientists, pharmaceutical companies, and health services researchers. None of these questions is especially new, however. The challenge of directing more research interest to viral hepatitis remains.

It is also possible that limitations in disease surveillance, screening, treatment, vaccination, and research are all consequences of a more basic problem. Viral hepatitis is not a public priority in the United States. This too could change; attitudes toward disease can shift rapidly. Education and successful elimination of HBV among Alaskan Natives accompanied changes in local attitudes toward the disease. Liver disease often carries a stigma, perhaps because of its association with drug and alcohol use and sex; HBV and HCV can cause particular shame and distress in patients. Stigma, in turn, encourages silence and inaction among infected people, which is antithetical to any elimination program.

In making its conclusion regarding the feasibility of hepatitis B and C elimination, the committee acknowledges that considerable barriers must be overcome to meet these goals. For example, as elimination policies gain traction, the risk of infection should fall. Some people may respond by reducing efforts to protect themselves from infection. Public health campaigns highlighting the importance of elimination and the need to prevent individual infection might mitigate such behavior. A discussion of this and other solutions to the problems discussed in this report is not within the scope of the project. A second report, to be released in 2017, will outline a national strategy to eliminate hepatitis B and C. This report will discuss ways to address the critical factors and reduce the barriers to elimination set out in this document. The second phase of this project will also explore specific national targets for the elimination effort.

• Afdhal N, Zeuzem S, Kwo P, Chojkier M, Gitlin N, Puoti M, Romero-Gomez M, Zarski JP, Agarwal K, Buggisch P, Foster GR, Brau N, Buti M, Jacobson IM, Subramanian GM, Ding X, Mo H, Yang JC, Pang PS, Symonds WT, McHutchison JG, Muir AJ, Mangia A, Marcellin P, Investigators ION. Ledipasvir and sofosbuvir for untreated HCV genotype 1 infection. New England Journal of Medicine. 2014; 370 (20):1889–1898. [ PubMed : 24725239 ]
• Bickerstaff C. The cost-effectiveness of novel direct acting antiviral agent therapies for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research. 2015; 15 (5):787–800. [ PubMed : 26289734 ]
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• Cite this Page Committee on a National Strategy for the Elimination of Hepatitis B and C; Board on Population Health and Public Health Practice; Health and Medicine Division; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Buckley GJ, Strom BL, editors. Eliminating the Public Health Problem of Hepatitis B and C in the United States: Phase One Report. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2016 Jun 1. 4, Conclusion.
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