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Anatomy of a Scholarly Article

TIP: When possible, keep your research question(s) in mind when reading scholarly articles. It will help you to focus your reading.

Title : Generally are straightforward and describe what the article is about. Titles often include relevant key words.

Abstract : A summary of the author(s)'s research findings and tells what to expect when you read the full article. It is often a good idea to read the abstract first, in order to determine if you should even bother reading the whole article.

Discussion and Conclusion : Read these after the Abstract (even though they come at the end of the article). These sections can help you see if this article will meet your research needs. If you don’t think that it will, set it aside.

Introduction : Describes the topic or problem researched. The authors will present the thesis of their argument or the goal of their research.

Literature Review : May be included in the introduction or as its own separate section. Here you see where the author(s) enter the conversation on this topic. That is to say, what related research has come before, and how do they hope to advance the discussion with their current research?

Methods : This section explains how the study worked. In this section, you often learn who and how many participated in the study and what they were asked to do. You will need to think critically about the methods and whether or not they make sense given the research question.

Results : Here you will often find numbers and tables. If you aren't an expert at statistics this section may be difficult to grasp. However you should attempt to understand if the results seem reasonable given the methods.

Works Cited (also be called References or Bibliography ): This section comprises the author(s)’s sources. Always be sure to scroll through them. Good research usually cites many different kinds of sources (books, journal articles, etc.). As you read the Works Cited page, be sure to look for sources that look like they will help you to answer your own research question.

Adapted from http://library.hunter.cuny.edu/research-toolkit/how-do-i-read-stuff/anatomy-of-a-scholarly-article

A research journal is a periodical that contains articles written by experts in a particular field of study who report the results of research in that field. The articles are intended to be read by other experts or students of the field, and they are typically much more sophisticated and advanced than the articles found in general magazines. This guide offers some tips to help distinguish scholarly journals from other periodicals.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH JOURNALS

PURPOSE : Research journals communicate the results of research in the field of study covered by the journal. Research articles reflect a systematic and thorough study of a single topic, often involving experiments or surveys. Research journals may also publish review articles and book reviews that summarize the current state of knowledge on a topic.

APPEARANCE : Research journals lack the slick advertising, classified ads, coupons, etc., found in popular magazines. Articles are often printed one column to a page, as in books, and there are often graphs, tables, or charts referring to specific points in the articles.

AUTHORITY : Research articles are written by the person(s) who did the research being reported. When more than two authors are listed for a single article, the first author listed is often the primary researcher who coordinated or supervised the work done by the other authors. The most highly‑regarded scholarly journals are typically those sponsored by professional associations, such as the American Psychological Association or the American Chemical Society.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY : Articles submitted to research journals are evaluated by an editorial board and other experts before they are accepted for publication. This evaluation, called peer review, is designed to ensure that the articles published are based on solid research that meets the normal standards of the field of study covered by the journal. Professors sometimes use the term "refereed" to describe peer-reviewed journals.

WRITING STYLE : Articles in research journals usually contain an advanced vocabulary, since the authors use the technical language or jargon of their field of study. The authors assume that the reader already possesses a basic understanding of the field of study.

REFERENCES : The authors of research articles always indicate the sources of their information. These references are usually listed at the end of an article, but they may appear in the form of footnotes, endnotes, or a bibliography.

PERIODICALS THAT ARE NOT RESEARCH JOURNALS

POPULAR MAGAZINES : These are periodicals that one typically finds at grocery stores, airport newsstands, or bookstores at a shopping mall. Popular magazines are designed to appeal to a broad audience, and they usually contain relatively brief articles written in a readable, non‑technical language.

Examples include: Car and Driver , Cosmopolitan , Esquire , Essence , Gourmet , Life , People Weekly , Readers' Digest , Rolling Stone , Sports Illustrated , Vanity Fair , and Vogue .

NEWS MAGAZINES : These periodicals, which are usually issued weekly, provide information on topics of current interest, but their articles seldom have the depth or authority of scholarly articles.

Examples include: Newsweek , Time , U.S. News and World Report .

OPINION MAGAZINES : These periodicals contain articles aimed at an educated audience interested in keeping up with current events or ideas, especially those pertaining to topical issues. Very often their articles are written from a particular political, economic, or social point of view.

Examples include: Catholic World , Christianity Today , Commentary , Ms. , The Militant , Mother Jones , The Nation , National Review , The New Republic , The Progressive , and World Marxist Review .

TRADE MAGAZINES : People who need to keep up with developments in a particular industry or occupation read these magazines. Many trade magazines publish one or more special issues each year that focus on industry statistics, directory lists, or new product announcements.

Examples include: Beverage World , Progressive Grocer , Quick Frozen Foods International , Rubber World , Sales and Marketing Management , Skiing Trade News , and Stores .

Literature Reviews

• Literature Review Guide General information on how to organize and write a literature review.
• The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It Contains two sets of questions to help students review articles, and to review their own literature reviews.
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Research Tips and Infromation

What is a Research Journal? A Complete Guide to Publishing in Research Journal

Introduction

Characteristics of reputable research journals, types of research journals, why publish in research journals, selecting the right research journal, navigating the peer-review process of research journal, ethics in research journal publishing, open access journals, research journal examples.

Research journals are the cornerstone of academic communication and play a vital role in the advancement of research fields. They serve as a platform for researchers to share their findings, exchange ideas, and contribute to the collective knowledge of the academic community. Research journals facilitate the dissemination of new knowledge, promote critical thinking, and foster academic discourse.

For example, in the field of medicine, prestigious journals like The New England Journal of Medicine , The Lancet, and JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) publish groundbreaking research that has a significant impact on clinical practice and patient care. Research published in these journals can influence guidelines, policies, and treatment protocols, shaping the field of medicine and improving healthcare outcomes.

Similarly, in the field of computer science, journals such as IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence , ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction , and Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research publish cutting-edge research on artificial intelligence, machine learning, and human-computer interaction. Research published in these journals can shape the development of new technologies, algorithms, and applications, driving advancements in the field of computer science.

The article will provide an overview of research journals and their significance for research scholars, highlighting the importance of publishing in reputable journals to contribute to the academic community, gain recognition, and advance their careers. It will also discuss various aspects of research journals, including the peer-review process, ethical considerations, and the growing trend of open-access journals, to help research scholars make informed decisions when choosing where to publish their research.

What are Research Journals?

Research journals are periodical publications that publish original research articles, reviews, and other scholarly content related to a specific academic discipline or interdisciplinary field. They serve as a platform for researchers to communicate their findings and share their work with the broader academic community.

• Peer-review process: Reputable research journals typically employ a rigorous peer-review process, where submitted manuscripts are reviewed by experts in the field before they are accepted for publication. Peer review helps ensure the quality, accuracy, and validity of the research published in the journal.

For example, journals like Nature, Science, and Cell are well-known for their stringent peer-review process, where manuscripts undergo thorough evaluation by a panel of experts in the respective fields before they are accepted for publication.

• Editorial board: Reputable research journals have an editorial board comprising experts in the field who oversee the journal’s operations, provide guidance on its direction, and ensure the quality and integrity of the published content. The editorial board may include editors-in-chief, associate editors, and editorial reviewers who collectively make decisions on manuscript submissions.

For example, journals like Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Finance, and Journal of Biological Chemistry have distinguished editorial boards comprised of leading scholars and researchers in their respective fields.

• Indexing: Reputable research journals are often indexed in well-known databases and indexing services, which enhance their visibility and accessibility to the academic community. Indexing services, such as PubMed , Scopus , and Web of Science , ensure that research published in these journals is easily discoverable and citable.

For example, journals like Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, and Journal of Materials Science are indexed in popular databases, making them widely recognized and cited within their respective fields.

• Disciplinary journals: These journals focus on specific academic disciplines, such as physics, chemistry, sociology, or psychology, and publish research articles and content within that particular discipline.

For example, journals like Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Marketing, and Journal of Political Economy are disciplinary journals that cater to specific fields of study.

• Interdisciplinary journals: These journals publish research articles and content that span across multiple disciplines, bringing together research from different fields and encouraging interdisciplinary collaborations.

For example, journals like Science Advances, PLOS ONE, and Frontiers in Psychology are interdisciplinary journals that cover a wide range of topics and attract research from multiple disciplines.

• Open access journals: These journals make research articles freely available to readers without any paywalls or subscription fees, ensuring that research is accessible to a wider audience.

For example, journals like PLOS Biology, BioMed Central, and eLife are open access journals that provide unrestricted access to research content, promoting knowledge dissemination and democratizing access to scholarly information.

Understanding the different types of research journals and their characteristics can help research scholars choose the most appropriate journal for publishing their research, considering the scope, readership, and impact of their work.

Publishing research in reputable journals offers numerous benefits to research scholars, including:

• Academic recognition: Publishing in reputable research journals can enhance the visibility and recognition of researchers’ work within the academic community. Research articles published in well-established journals are often considered as valuable contributions to the field, which can lead to increased credibility and recognition among peers.

For example, publishing a research article in a prestigious journal like Nature or Science can significantly boost the academic reputation of the researcher and may lead to invitations for collaborations, speaking engagements, and other opportunities.

• Credibility: Publishing in reputable research journals adds credibility to the research findings. The peer-review process followed by reputable journals ensures that the research articles are rigorously evaluated by experts in the field, validating the quality and reliability of the research.

For example, research published in journals like The Lancet, Journal of the American Chemical Society, or IEEE Transactions on Information Theory is considered to be of high quality and reliable, which can strengthen the credibility of the research findings.

• Visibility: Publishing in reputable research journals increases the visibility of research work among the wider academic community. Many reputable journals have a large readership and broad reach, which can help researchers disseminate their findings to a larger audience.

For example, research articles published in journals like Nature Communications, Journal of Applied Physics, or Journal of Marketing Research are often widely read and cited by researchers, which can enhance the visibility and impact of the research.

• Career advancement: Publishing in reputable research journals can contribute to career advancement for research scholars. Publications in well-established journals are often considered important for securing academic positions, promotions, and research grants.

For example, having a strong publication record in reputable journals can be a significant factor in obtaining tenure or promotion in academia, securing funding from funding agencies, and advancing the career trajectory of a researcher.

• Building academic networks: Publishing in research journals can facilitate networking opportunities with fellow researchers, experts, and scholars in the field. It can lead to collaborations, discussions, and interactions that can foster the growth of research scholars’ academic networks.

For example, researchers who publish in reputable journals often receive invitations to conferences, workshops, and other academic events, providing opportunities to connect with other researchers, exchange ideas, and collaborate on future research projects.

• Promoting scientific rigor and integrity: Research journals play a crucial role in promoting scientific rigor and integrity through the peer-review process. The peer-review process helps ensure that research articles published in reputable journals are based on robust methodology, reliable data, and valid conclusions.

For example, the peer-review process followed by journals like Journal of Clinical Investigation, Journal of Experimental Medicine, or Psychological Bulletin ensures that the research articles are thoroughly evaluated by experts in the respective fields, maintaining the standards of scientific rigor and integrity.

Selecting the appropriate research journal for publishing research is a critical step that can impact the visibility, credibility, and impact of the research. Here are some tips for researchers to consider when selecting a research journal:

• Scope, readership, and impact factor: It’s essential to carefully evaluate the scope and readership of a research journal to ensure that it aligns with the research topic and target audience. Researchers should also consider the journal’s impact factor, which is a measure of the journal’s influence and citation rate in the field.

For example, if a researcher is conducting research in the field of environmental science, a journal like Environmental Science & Technology or Environmental Research would be more appropriate compared to a general science journal like Science or Nature.

• Publishing policies, submission guidelines, and copyright policies: Researchers should thoroughly review the publishing policies, submission guidelines, and copyright policies of research journals before submitting their research. This includes understanding the journal’s requirements for formatting, word count, referencing style, and other submission guidelines.

For example, some journals may have specific requirements for data sharing, ethical considerations, or authorship, which researchers need to be aware of and adhere to during the submission process.

• Predatory journals: It’s crucial to avoid predatory journals, which are low-quality or fraudulent journals that lack proper peer-review processes and editorial standards. Publishing in predatory journals can have negative consequences on the credibility and impact of the research.

For example, researchers should be cautious of journals that spam their email inbox with solicitation emails, promise rapid publication with minimal peer review, or charge exorbitant publication fees without providing proper editorial services.

I have written an article on Avoiding Predatory Conferences and Journals: A Step by Step Guide for Researchers . This article will help you in avoiding predatory conferences and journals.

Publishing in reputable journals with high editorial standards and a rigorous peer-review process ensures that the research undergoes a thorough evaluation and maintains the integrity and quality of the research. Researchers should aim to publish in journals that are indexed in reputable databases, recognized by their peers, and have a good reputation in their respective fields.

By selecting the right research journal, understanding the publishing policies and submission guidelines, and avoiding predatory journals, researchers can enhance the visibility, credibility, and impact of their research publications.

The peer-review process is a crucial step in the publication process of research journals. It involves the evaluation of research papers by experts in the field to ensure the quality, validity, and rigor of the research. Here’s what researchers need to know about navigating the peer-review process:

• Peer-review process and its significance: Researchers should explain the peer-review process and emphasize its significance in ensuring the quality and validity of research. Peer-review helps to identify and rectify any potential flaws, errors, or biases in the research, and ensures that only high-quality research is published in reputable journals.

For example, the peer-review process typically involves submission of the research paper to the journal, followed by evaluation by experts in the field who review the research for its originality, methodology, results, and conclusions. Reviewers provide feedback, suggestions, and comments to the authors, which help in improving the research before final publication.

• Types of peer-review: Researchers should discuss the different types of peer-review, such as single-blind, double-blind, and open peer-review. In single-blind peer-review, the reviewer’s identity is concealed from the authors, while in double-blind peer-review, the identities of both reviewers and authors are concealed. In open peer-review, the identities of both reviewers and authors are disclosed.

For example, in single-blind peer-review, the reviewer remains anonymous, which can help reduce biases, while in double-blind peer-review, both the reviewer and author remain anonymous, which can further reduce potential biases. Open peer-review promotes transparency and accountability, as the identities of both reviewers and authors are disclosed, allowing for a more collaborative and constructive feedback process.

• Responding to reviewer comments and revising research papers: Researchers should provide tips on how to respond to reviewer comments and revise research papers accordingly. It’s important to carefully consider and address all reviewer comments in a respectful and professional manner. Researchers should revise the research paper based on the feedback received, provide clarifications, and make necessary changes to improve the quality and validity of the research.

For example, researchers should avoid being defensive or dismissive of reviewer comments and instead view them as opportunities for improvement. It’s important to provide well-justified responses to reviewer comments and revise the research paper accordingly to address any concerns or suggestions raised by the reviewers.

Navigating the peer-review process can be challenging, but it is a crucial step in ensuring the quality and validity of research publications. By understanding the peer-review process, familiarizing oneself with different types of peer-review, and responding to reviewer comments in a constructive manner, researchers can enhance the chances of their research being accepted and published in reputable research journals.

I have written an article on Expert Tips for Responding to Reviewers’ Comments on Your Research Paper . This article will help you in replying to reviewer’s comments effectively.

Ethical considerations in publishing research are critical to ensure the integrity, credibility, and transparency of the scientific literature. Researchers should discuss the following ethical aspects of publishing research:

• Plagiarism: Researchers should emphasize the importance of avoiding plagiarism, which involves presenting someone else’s work, ideas, or words as one’s own without proper attribution. Plagiarism can result in serious consequences, including retraction of published papers, loss of credibility, and damage to reputation.

For example, researchers should highlight the need to properly cite and reference all sources used in their research, including text, figures, tables, and other scholarly works. They should also be aware of different types of plagiarism, such as verbatim copying, paraphrasing without proper attribution, and self-plagiarism, and take steps to avoid them.

Read my article on The Consequences of Plagiarism: What You Need to Know? . This article will help you to understand the consequences of plagiarism.

• Authorship: Researchers should discuss the principles of authorship and highlight the importance of giving proper credit to all individuals who have made substantial contributions to the research. Authorship should be based on meaningful intellectual contributions to the research, and all authors should be accountable for the accuracy and integrity of the published work.

For example, researchers should explain the criteria for authorship, such as conception and design of the study, data collection and analysis, interpretation of results, and drafting and revising the manuscript. They should also discuss the need for obtaining consent from all authors before submitting the research paper for publication.

Please refer my blog post on Does Author Position in a Research Paper Matter? . This blog will help you in deciding the authorship and giving proper credit to the contributors of the research work in research paper.

• Conflicts of interest: Researchers should highlight the need to disclose any conflicts of interest that could potentially bias the research findings or its interpretation. Conflicts of interest can arise from financial, personal, or professional relationships that may influence the research design, conduct, analysis, or reporting.

For example, researchers should disclose any funding sources, affiliations, or relationships that may have influenced the research. They should also explain how they have addressed or managed any conflicts of interest to ensure the integrity and transparency of the research.

• Data integrity: Researchers should emphasize the importance of maintaining data integrity throughout the research process, including data collection, analysis, interpretation, and reporting. Data should be accurate, complete, and transparent, and any manipulation, fabrication, or falsification of data is unacceptable.

For example, researchers should explain the need for proper data management, including data storage, backup, and documentation. They should also highlight the importance of data sharing and reproducibility to promote transparency and rigor in scientific research.

• Ethical guidelines: Researchers should highlight the importance of adhering to ethical guidelines set by reputable organizations, such as the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) . These guidelines provide standards and best practices for authors, editors, and reviewers in publishing research.

For example, researchers should familiarize themselves with the ethical guidelines provided by COPE and ICMJE , which cover various aspects of research publication, including authorship, conflicts of interest, data integrity, and plagiarism. Adhering to these guidelines helps ensure the ethical conduct of research and enhances the credibility and integrity of published research.

Adhering to ethical considerations in publishing research is essential to maintain the integrity, credibility, and transparency of the scientific literature. By avoiding plagiarism, giving proper credit to authors, disclosing conflicts of interest, maintaining data integrity, and following ethical guidelines, researchers can contribute to responsible and ethical research publishing practices.

Open access journals are a type of research journal that provides free and unrestricted access to research articles online, without the need for a subscription or paywall. Here are some points to consider when discussing open-access journals:

• Concept of open access journals: Open access journals aim to make research findings widely accessible to the global community, removing barriers to accessing scholarly knowledge. This means that anyone, regardless of their institutional affiliation or financial resources, can freely access, read, download, and share research articles published in open-access journals.

For example, researchers should discuss the importance of open-access journals in democratizing access to scientific knowledge, particularly for researchers and readers from developing countries or institutions with limited access to subscription-based journals. Open-access journals provide an opportunity for broader dissemination of research findings, leading to increased visibility and potential impact.

• Types of open access models: Open access journals can operate under different models, including gold, green, and hybrid open access.
• Gold open access: In the gold open access model, the research articles are published in open-access journals that make articles freely available to readers immediately upon publication. In this model, the costs of publication are typically covered by article processing charges (APCs), which are paid by the authors or their institutions.
• Green open access: In the green open access model, researchers self-archive or deposit their accepted manuscripts in a repository or an institutional repository after publication in a subscription-based journal. These manuscripts are made freely accessible to readers after an embargo period or without any embargo, depending on the publisher’s policies.
• Hybrid open access: In the hybrid open access model, a journal may offer both open-access and subscription-based options. In this model, authors can choose to pay APCs to make their individual articles freely available while other articles remain behind a subscription paywall.

For example, researchers should explain the differences between these open-access models and how they affect the availability, visibility, and cost of accessing research articles. They should also discuss the implications of each model for researchers, institutions, and readers, including the potential benefits and limitations.

• Potential challenges and criticisms of open-access journals: Despite the advantages of open-access journals, there are also potential challenges and criticisms associated with them.
• Funding and sustainability: One challenge of open-access journals is the need to cover the costs of publication, typically through APCs. This can be a barrier for researchers or institutions with limited funding resources, leading to concerns about the sustainability of open-access journals.
• Quality and credibility: Another criticism of open-access journals is the perception that they may have lower quality or less rigorous peer-review processes compared to subscription-based journals. This can raise concerns about the credibility and reliability of research published in open-access journals.
• Predatory publishing: Open-access journals have also been associated with the rise of predatory publishing, where unethical publishers charge high APCs but provide little or no peer review or editorial oversight. This can result in low-quality or even fraudulent research being published in open-access journals.

Open-access journals offer advantages in terms of wider accessibility and visibility of research findings, but they also come with potential challenges and criticisms. Researchers should be aware of different open-access models, discuss the advantages and limitations of open-access journals, and carefully consider the quality and credibility of the journals they choose to publish their research in.

Visit my article on Open Access Journals: What do you Need to Know as a Researcher? . This article will help you in understanding the way in which open-access journals function.

One more article I have written about Avoiding Predatory Conferences and Journals: A Step by Step Guide for Researchers . This artcle will help you in avoiding predatory journal publications.

Here’s the list of open access and subscription-based journal examples.

• Open Access Journals: These journals provide free, unrestricted access to their content online. They typically do not charge readers or institutions for access and allow users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles.
• Subscription-Based Journals: These journals require a subscription or payment to access their content. Readers or institutions must pay for access, either through individual subscriptions, institutional licenses, or pay-per-view options.

Publishing in research journals is a crucial step for research scholars to share their findings, establish their reputation, and contribute to the scholarly community. Carefully selecting reputable research journals, navigating the peer-review process, adhering to ethical considerations, and understanding open access options are important aspects of publishing research. By following best practices and contributing to reputable research journals, research scholars can make meaningful contributions to the advancement of knowledge in their fields and contribute to the scholarly community.

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 909–913, ( 2021 )

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• Clara Busse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0178-1000 1 &
• Ella August   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5151-1036 1 , 2  

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Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

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Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig.  1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig.  2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

Checklist for manuscript quality

Data Availability

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Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

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Busse, C., August, E. How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal. J Canc Educ 36 , 909–913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

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Types of journal articles

It is helpful to familiarise yourself with the different types of articles published by journals. Although it may appear there are a large number of types of articles published due to the wide variety of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the following types; Original Research, Review Articles, Short reports or Letters, Case Studies, Methodologies.

Original Research:

This is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish full reports of data from research. It may be called an  Original Article, Research Article, Research, or just  Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research format is suitable for many different fields and different types of studies. It includes full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections.

Short reports or Letters:

These papers communicate brief reports of data from original research that editors believe will be interesting to many researchers, and that will likely stimulate further research in the field. As they are relatively short the format is useful for scientists with results that are time sensitive (for example, those in highly competitive or quickly-changing disciplines). This format often has strict length limits, so some experimental details may not be published until the authors write a full Original Research manuscript. These papers are also sometimes called Brief communications .

Review Articles:

Review Articles provide a comprehensive summary of research on a certain topic, and a perspective on the state of the field and where it is heading. They are often written by leaders in a particular discipline after invitation from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read (for example, by researchers looking for a full introduction to a field) and highly cited. Reviews commonly cite approximately 100 primary research articles.

TIP: If you would like to write a Review but have not been invited by a journal, be sure to check the journal website as some journals to not consider unsolicited Reviews. If the website does not mention whether Reviews are commissioned it is wise to send a pre-submission enquiry letter to the journal editor to propose your Review manuscript before you spend time writing it.  

Case Studies:

These articles report specific instances of interesting phenomena. A goal of Case Studies is to make other researchers aware of the possibility that a specific phenomenon might occur. This type of study is often used in medicine to report the occurrence of previously unknown or emerging pathologies.

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These articles present a new experimental method, test or procedure. The method described may either be completely new, or may offer a better version of an existing method. The article should describe a demonstrable advance on what is currently available.

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• Correction 09 December 2020

How to write a superb literature review

Andy Tay is a freelance writer based in Singapore.

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Literature reviews are important resources for scientists. They provide historical context for a field while offering opinions on its future trajectory. Creating them can provide inspiration for one’s own research, as well as some practice in writing. But few scientists are trained in how to write a review — or in what constitutes an excellent one. Even picking the appropriate software to use can be an involved decision (see ‘Tools and techniques’). So Nature asked editors and working scientists with well-cited reviews for their tips.

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doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-03422-x

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Correction 09 December 2020 : An earlier version of the tables in this article included some incorrect details about the programs Zotero, Endnote and Manubot. These have now been corrected.

Hsing, I.-M., Xu, Y. & Zhao, W. Electroanalysis 19 , 755–768 (2007).

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Ledesma, H. A. et al. Nature Nanotechnol. 14 , 645–657 (2019).

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Brahlek, M., Koirala, N., Bansal, N. & Oh, S. Solid State Commun. 215–216 , 54–62 (2015).

Choi, Y. & Lee, S. Y. Nature Rev. Chem . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-020-00221-w (2020).

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Rethinking 'socially admitted' patients to improve care

by Canadian Medical Association Journal

Labeling vulnerable patients in hospital as "socially admitted" may prevent treatment of medical issues, according to new research in CMAJ ( Canadian Medical Association Journal ).

Emergency departments are the last resort for some socially-vulnerable people who may not have an acute or new medical issue. They may be seeking care because of a breakdown of supports or the inability of the patient, or their family, to cope with living at home. These people are known colloquially as "social admissions," and other labels such as "orphan patient," "failure to cope," and others have been applied.

"The 'social admission' phenomenon is an under-researched area in health care," writes Dr. Jasmine Mah, an internal medicine resident with an interest in geriatrics at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, with co-authors.

"These patients, often categorized by health care providers as not being acutely ill, experience in-hospital death rates as high as 22.2%–34.9%. Explanations may include under-triaging in the emergency department owing to poor recognition of atypical clinical presentations and delays in timely assessments."

Furthermore, patients may be misdiagnosed or develop acute illness in hospital.

To better understand this category of patients, researchers undertook a qualitative study to explore the views of health care providers on patients admitted as "social admissions" in Nova Scotia. They identified nine themes, including stigma, prejudices such as ageism, wait-lists, and other factors that contributed to views about caring for these patients.

"Our findings highlight the potential adverse effects on care when patients are labeled as 'socially admitted' (or as 'orphan patients' in the study hospital), such as incorrect assumptions about medical needs and cognitive abilities , which impedes opportunities to look for treatable medical issues," write the authors.

Labeling patients negatively affects their health and can have a negative impact on health care providers. Many providers were conflicted in how to deliver care and felt that these patients deserved care, but almost always from someone else.

"This pattern of downgrading care can lead to situations in which 'socially admitted' patients are looked after by team members who possess minimal experience recognizing evolving medical presentations or lack the authority to advocate strongly for clinical reassessments when needed. The implication that the care of 'social admissions' should be delegated to others reflects an implicit attitude of hierarchy and detachment from the needs associated with this patient population," they write.

The authors urge a reform of current structures and hierarchies to improve care for these vulnerable people.

In a related editorial , CMAJ deputy editor and emergency medicine physician Dr. Catherine Varner, with co-authors, suggests we need to reframe this issue as a policy failure to help solve the problem. In Ontario, for example, alternate level of care policies that punish hospitals and patients for occupying beds despite no longer needing acute care do not solve the problem.

"Punitive policies like these cause distress to patients, families, and providers and have not restored hospital occupancy to manageable levels," write Dr. Varner and co-authors. "These policies are also at odds with most health care workers' deep commitment in wanting to do better for patients who are otherwise let down by the broader health and social care systems."

Embedding collaborative, supportive programs such as multidisciplinary geriatric teams in emergency departments to manage frail older patients and health teams to support vulnerable people are examples of solutions.

"To restore human dignity in health care—to properly address the barriers experienced by patients and the moral distress of health providers—structural factors causing health disparities must be confronted as policy failures, not personal ones," they conclude.

Catherine Varner et al, "Social admissions" to hospital are not personal failures but policy ones, Canadian Medical Association Journal (2024). DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.240577

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Article Contents

Introduction, acknowledgements, conflict of interest, morphogenesis-coupled dna repair - in mammalian embryogenesis, morphogenesis and dna double strand break (dsb) repair are carried out simultaneously to ensure normal development.

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Asao Noda, Morphogenesis-coupled DNA repair - in mammalian embryogenesis, morphogenesis and DNA double strand break (DSB) repair are carried out simultaneously to ensure normal development, Journal of Radiation Research , 2024;, rrae028, https://doi.org/10.1093/jrr/rrae028

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Embryonic development in higher organisms is an irreversible process controlled by a strict and predetermined genetic program. In their early embryo, dramatic changes called ‘embryo morphogenesis,’ which involve cell division and migration of cell populations, as well as three-dimensional tissue organization, occur precisely within a fixed time slot. This elaborate mechanism has fascinated developmental biologists for many years. However, excessive stress from the external environment can disrupt this process. For example, certain toxic chemicals and radiation can inhibit development or cause abnormal morphogenesis. During evolution, organisms have developed molecular mechanisms to deal with problems in all phases of cell metabolism. Thus, mechanisms must be present to deal with genomic damage during embryonic development, while maintaining a predetermined timetable. To date, damaged cells occurring during embryonic development were only considered to be eliminated by p53-dependent apoptosis to prevent the development of malformations. In this short review, I summarize recent findings on the mechanisms of double-strand break (DSB) repair (or DSB stress response) coupled with morphogenesis using regulatory proteins like chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 7 (CHD7), Pax2 transactivation domain interacting protein (PTIP), co-factor of BRCA1 (COBRA1) and BRCT-repeat inhibitor of TERT expression (BRIT1) as examples.

Example 1: Chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 7(CHD7)

Excessive radiation exposure can cause unrepaired DSBs in cell nuclei. These can be easily detected and quantified in apoptosis-resistant mesenchymal and stromal cells, such as fibroblasts [ 1 ]. In the process of screening for genes characteristic in cells bearing unrepaired DSBs, we discovered that CHD7 transcription was upregulated in these cells [ 2 ]. We also confirmed ATM-dependent phosphorylation of CHD7 protein and its accumulation in DSB foci protein complexes after radiation exposure. CHD7 is a transcription factor ubiquitously expressed in adult tissues; it is also known to control neural crest differentiation and morphogenesis during early development [ 3 ]. Neural crest cells are a migratory cell population transiently located in the border region between the neural plate and epidermis during early embryogenesis. They form neural, skeletal, epithelial and mesenchymal tissues and participate in several organogenesis processes, such as the development of craniofacial architecture, brain, and heart. The neural crest is thus called the ‘fourth germinal lobe’ [ 4 ]. CHD7 is expressed upstream of the transcription factors Slug, Twist, and Sox9 in the mesenchymal-epithelial transition of the neural crest and is essential for the formation of migratory neural crest cells [ 3 ]. It is also expressed upstream of semaphorin 3A (SEMA3A) and ephrin receptors and regulates the guidance of neuroaxonal elongation in 9.5- to 11.5-day mouse embryos [ 5 ]. CHD7 heterozygotes arising from de novo germline mutations show multiple developmental abnormalities in neurosensory organs, such as the eyes, mouth, nose, ears and brain, as well as heart malformations, indicating that gene haploinsufficiency induces fetal malformations. CHD7 is the major gene responsible for the Coloboma, Heart defect, Atresia choanae, Retarded growth and development, Genital abnormality, and Ear abnormality (CHARGE) congenital malformation syndrome in humans [ 6 , 7 ]. SEMA3A mutations are found in Kallmann syndrome, which resembles CHARGE [ 5 ]. Further, CHD7 is essential for neural crest induction from undifferentiated tissues. The fact that CHD7 localizes to the DSB site [ 8 ] and is phosphorylated in an ATM-dependent manner by switching its localization from promoter/enhancer binding to DSB binding [ 2 ] indicates that this transcription factor has both morphogenetic and DSB repair functions in the developing neural crest. The embryonic morphogenetic stage is highly sensitive to radiation, and excessive radiation induces malformations [ 9 ]. In mouse fetuses, induction of malformations peaks in 7- to 13-day embryos irradiated at 2 Gy. Although CHD7 is the most active during this period and drives morphogenesis, it may also drive concurrent repair in response to genomic stress. This coupling, or switching, between morphogenesis and DSB repair is attributed to ATM-dependent phosphorylation and the transient translocation of proteins to DSB sites. In case of excessive DNA damage or many cells bearing unrepairable damage, CHD7 remains at the DSB site for too long, thereby resulting in a reduction of its morphogenetic activity. Otherwise, cells with unrepaired DSBs could progress to mitotic arrest, preventing development. This is a plausible cause of radiation-induced fetal malformations and a good example of a morphogenetic transcription factor with DSB repair (response) function ( Fig. 1 ).

Decision of embryo with DSB damage.

Protein factors involved in morphogenesis-coupled DSB repair

NR: nuclear receptor; CHARGE: coloboma, heart defects, atresia choanae, growth retardation, genital abnormalities, and ear abnormalities

Example 2: Pax2 transactivation domain interacting protein (PTIP)

Paired Box Gene 2 ( Pax2 ) is a transcription factor that controls intermediate mesodermal differentiation. Pax2 KO mice are born without kidneys. They also lack the ureter, reproductive tract, oviduct, uterus, and vagina [ 10 , 11 ]. Moreover, Pax2 controls eye and inner ear formation—in KO neonates, the eye cup cannot be closed, the optic nerve cannot be semi-crossed and becomes fully crossed, and inner ear hearing is defective. Therefore, Pax2 is a causative gene for congenital malformations [ 12 , 13 ]. PTIP was discovered as a Pax2-binding protein and was thought to bind the transactivation domain of Pax2 to promote transcription [ 14 ]. During the initial stage of kidney primordium formation from the intermediate mesoderm, Pax2 remains activated in the absence of PTIP. However, in the late stages of kidney formation, Pax2-activated gene expression is suppressed in the absence of PTIP. PTIP KO causes embryonic lethality in 9.5-day embryos [ 15 ] and arrhythmia and glomerular disease in conditional KO adults [ 16 , 17 ]. PTIP is an adaptor protein carrying six BRCA1 C-terminal (BRCT) domains and is a protein that is typically associated with DSB foci [ 14 , 18 ]. During DSB repair, PTIP binds to 53BP1 on DSBs, transiently suppresses end-resection, and promotes nonhomologous end-joining [ 19 ]. This complex of PTIP and Pax2 is required in kidney development [ 20 ].

Example 3: Cofactor of BRCA1 (COBRA1)

COBRA1 is a BRCA1-binding protein [ 21 ] that promotes mammary gland development in a hormone-dependent manner [ 22 ]. Deletion of COBRA1 suppresses mammary gland development. However, when BRCA1 is also depleted (double KO), mammary gland development resumes (double negative shows somewhat positive), suggesting that the BRCA1/COBRA1 complex normally suppresses mammary gland development at the transcriptional level, timing its hormone-dependent activation [ 23 ]. As neither the RING nor BRCT domains are involved in the BRCA1-induced repression of COBRA1 function, the homologous recombination repair (HRR) function of BRCA1 and mammary gland development do not seem to be directly related. However, breast cancer may occur if the suppressive function of the BRCA1/COBRA1 complex is attenuated and abnormal mammary cell proliferation (hyperplasia) occurs owing to over-mobilization of BRCA1 to DSBs for HRR. In other words, this is another good example of morphogenesis coupled with DSB repair, considering that it normally regulates mammary gland development, while DSB repair occurs simultaneously in the event of damage.

Example 4: BRCT-repeat inhibitor of TERT expression/Microcephalin (BRIT1/MCPH1)

The transcription factor BRIT1 was initially identified as a negative regulator of hTERT gene expression during somatic cell differentiation [ 24 ]. BRIT1 controls the transcription of target genes by binding to TRF2 and E2F. BRIT1 was also found to be a typical DSB foci factor shortly after its discovery because BRIT1 encodes three BRCT domain repeats. Surprisingly, this gene is identical to MCPH1 , the causative gene for microcephaly [ 25 ], indicating that it binds to telomere ends and radiation-induced DSBs, as well as regulates brain development [ 26 ]. BRIT1/MCPH1 regulates brain development by controlling the division of neuroprogenitor cells and temporal–spatial processes via mitotic checkpoint regulation. Thus, this key transcription factor regulating brain development and cell division also acts as a DSB stress response factor during radiation exposure.

The above examples indicate that some of the key transcription factors controlling embryo development and differentiation are also involved in the DSB stress response or directly in DSB repair. They ensure normal development by simultaneously performing morphogenesis and DSB repair in the irreversible process of morphogenesis. Under excessive genome damage, the DSB response may reduce the driving force of morphogenesis owing to the mobilization of more proteins to the DSB sites, resulting in the induction of fetal malformations. The morphogenetic period of early development is a continuous biological process with a point of no return, in which the most complex life phenomena must occur precisely within a predetermined timeframe. To ensure this process, it is reasonable to assume that the key transcription factors have themselves acquired a DSB repair (DSB stress response) function during evolution. From this perspective, the p53 family of genes might broadly fall into the same category as p53, which is a stress-responsive transcription factor and malformation suppressor [ 27 , 28 ]. However, p53 is a negative regulator that removes damaged cells during embryogenesis, whereas the morphogenic factors described above are positive regulators that promote the recovery of damaged cells. Furthermore, it has been suggested that some of these regulatory factors may also play a role in carcinogenesis [ 13 , 29 ], as cancer could potentially result from a disruption in morphogenetic activity.

During evolution, organisms have successfully dealt with genomic damage during the most critical phases of life to maintain their continuity. This has led to the creation of proofreading mechanisms in DNA replication and the development of a transcription-coupled repair mechanism. Similarly, a mechanism must have been established for simultaneous morphogenesis and repair of genomic damage occurring in cells during early embryogenesis because of exposure to radiation or other stresses. Additional morphogenic factors with such DSB-stress response functions are expected to be identified in future.

The Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF), Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan is a public interest foundation funded by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare and the US Department of Energy with the purpose of conducting research and studies for peaceful purposes on medical effects of radiation and associated diseases in humans, to contribute to the health and welfare of atomic bomb survivors and all humankind. The views of the authors do not necessarily reflect those of the funding agencies. This study is based on RERF research protocol A4-09 and the result of collaboration among laboratory staff.

The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

Noda A , Hirai Y , Hamasaki K . et al.    Unrepairable DNA double-strand breaks that are generated by ionizing radiation determine the fate of normal human cells . J Cell Sci   2012 ; 125 : 5280 – 7 . https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.101006 .

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 2.5.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Consolidated Reporting Guidelines for Prognostic and Diagnostic Machine Learning Models (CREMLS)

Authors of this article:

Khaled El Emam   1, 2 , BEng, PhD ;   Tiffany I Leung   3, 4 , MD, MPH ;   Bradley Malin   5 , BA, MSc, PhD ;   William Klement   2 , PhD ;   Gunther Eysenbach   3, 6 , MD, MPH

1 School of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

2 Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada

3 JMIR Publications, Inc, Toronto, ON, Canada

4 Department of Internal Medicine (adjunct), Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, United States

5 Department of Biomedical Informatics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States

6 School of Health Information Science, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada

Corresponding Author:

• Khaled El Emam , BEng, PhD
• School of Epidemiology and Public Health
• University of Ottawa
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• Ottawa , ON , K1H 8L1
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A Peek Inside the Brains of ‘Super-Agers’

New research explores why some octogenarians have exceptional memories.

By Dana G. Smith

When it comes to aging, we tend to assume that cognition gets worse as we get older. Our thoughts may slow down or become confused, or we may start to forget things, like the name of our high school English teacher or what we meant to buy at the grocery store.

But that’s not the case for everyone.

For a little over a decade, scientists have been studying a subset of people they call “super-agers.” These individuals are age 80 and up, but they have the memory ability of a person 20 to 30 years younger.

Most research on aging and memory focuses on the other side of the equation — people who develop dementia in their later years. But, “if we’re constantly talking about what’s going wrong in aging, it’s not capturing the full spectrum of what’s happening in the older adult population,” said Emily Rogalski, a professor of neurology at the University of Chicago, who published one of the first studies on super-agers in 2012.

A paper published Monday in the Journal of Neuroscience helps shed light on what’s so special about the brains of super-agers. The biggest takeaway, in combination with a companion study that came out last year on the same group of individuals, is that their brains have less atrophy than their peers’ do.

The research was conducted on 119 octogenarians from Spain: 64 super-agers and 55 older adults with normal memory abilities for their age. The participants completed multiple tests assessing their memory, motor and verbal skills; underwent brain scans and blood draws; and answered questions about their lifestyle and behaviors.

The scientists found that the super-agers had more volume in areas of the brain important for memory, most notably the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. They also had better preserved connectivity between regions in the front of the brain that are involved in cognition. Both the super-agers and the control group showed minimal signs of Alzheimer’s disease in their brains.

“By having two groups that have low levels of Alzheimer’s markers, but striking cognitive differences and striking differences in their brain, then we’re really speaking to a resistance to age-related decline,” said Dr. Bryan Strange, a professor of clinical neuroscience at the Polytechnic University of Madrid, who led the studies.

These findings are backed up by Dr. Rogalski’s research , initially conducted when she was at Northwestern University, which showed that super-agers’ brains looked more like 50- or 60-year-olds’ brains than their 80-year-old peers. When followed over several years, the super-agers’ brains atrophied at a slower rate than average.

No precise numbers exist on how many super-agers there are among us, but Dr. Rogalski said they’re “relatively rare,” noting that “far less than 10 percent” of the people she sees end up meeting the criteria.

But when you meet a super-ager, you know it, Dr. Strange said. “They are really quite energetic people, you can see. Motivated, on the ball, elderly individuals.”

Experts don’t know how someone becomes a super-ager, though there were a few differences in health and lifestyle behaviors between the two groups in the Spanish study. Most notably, the super-agers had slightly better physical health, both in terms of blood pressure and glucose metabolism, and they performed better on a test of mobility . The super-agers didn’t report doing more exercise at their current age than the typical older adults, but they were more active in middle age. They also reported better mental health .

But overall, Dr. Strange said, there were a lot of similarities between the super-agers and the regular agers. “There are a lot of things that are not particularly striking about them,” he said. And, he added, “we see some surprising omissions, things that you would expect to be associated with super-agers that weren’t really there.” For example, there were no differences between the groups in terms of their diets, the amount of sleep they got, their professional backgrounds or their alcohol and tobacco use.

The behaviors of some of the Chicago super-agers were similarly a surprise. Some exercised regularly, but some never had; some stuck to a Mediterranean diet, others subsisted off TV dinners; and a few of them still smoked cigarettes. However, one consistency among the group was that they tended to have strong social relationships , Dr. Rogalski said.

“In an ideal world, you’d find out that, like, all the super-agers, you know, ate six tomatoes every day and that was the key,” said Tessa Harrison, an assistant project scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, who collaborated with Dr. Rogalski on the first Chicago super-ager study.

Instead, Dr. Harrison continued, super-agers probably have “some sort of lucky predisposition or some resistance mechanism in the brain that’s on the molecular level that we don’t understand yet,” possibly related to their genes.

While there isn’t a recipe for becoming a super-ager, scientists do know that, in general , eating healthily, staying physically active, getting enough sleep and maintaining social connections are important for healthy brain aging.

Dana G. Smith is a Times reporter covering personal health, particularly aging and brain health. More about Dana G. Smith

A Guide to Aging Well

Looking to grow old gracefully we can help..

The “car key conversation,” when it’s time for an aging driver to hit the brakes, can be painful for families to navigate . Experts say there are ways to have it with empathy and care.

Calorie restriction and intermittent fasting both increase longevity in animals, aging experts say. Here’s what that means for you .

Researchers are investigating how our biology changes as we grow older — and whether there are ways to stop it .

You need more than strength to age well — you also need power. Here’s how to measure how much power you have  and here’s how to increase yours .

Ignore the hyperbaric chambers and infrared light: These are the evidence-backed secrets to aging well .

Your body’s need for fuel shifts as you get older. Your eating habits should shift , too.

People who think positively about getting older often live longer, healthier lives. These tips can help you reconsider your perspective .