human rights research paper example

240 Human Rights Essay Topics & Examples

Whether you’re interested in exploring enduring issues, social justice, or democracy, see the ideas below. Along with human rights topics for essays and other papers, our experts have prepared writing tips for you.

• ✅ Tips for Writing Essays on Human Rights

🏆 Best Human Rights Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

🥇 most interesting human rights topics for essays, 🎓 simple & easy human rights essay topics, 💡 great human rights research topics, 🔎 interesting topics to write about human rights, ❓ essay questions on human rights.

If you’re starting a discussion on human rights, essay examples on the subject can really help you with argumentation. And if you’re assigned to come up with a research paper or speech on it, a good idea is a must for an excellent grade. Good thing you’ve found this list of human rights essay topics!

✅ 9 Tips for Writing Essays on Human Rights

The recognition of people’s rights through proper laws preserves human dignity. This broadness means that human rights essay topics range in scope drastically, requiring you to bring together different kinds of ideas in a single paper.

Thus, you may need to keep in mind particular tips, from structural advice to correct terminology, to write an excellent human rights essay.

Do your research before you start working on your outline. Searching for book and journal titles beforehand will not only help you understand your topic better but also help you structure your thoughts, affecting your structure for the better.

Compiling a bibliography early will also save you from the mess, which comes from ordering and standardizing your sources as you go.

After you have your reference page ready, draft a human rights essay outline.

Make it as detailed or as simple as you need, because what is essential is that you divide your topics evenly between your paragraphs or subheadings.

Doing so will ensure that you have a comprehensive essay that helps advance academic knowledge on a particular subject, rather than an overpowered paper aimed at a single problem.

Write your thesis statement as your final prewriting step. Excellent thesis examples should state the theme explicitly and leave your reader with an accurate understanding of what you are trying to achieve in your paper.

Skipping or ignoring this phase may leave your work disoriented and without a definite purpose.

Keep in mind your chosen human rights essay questions when writing. Going off theme will never get you good marks with your instructor.

If you are writing from a cultural relativism point of view, then do you have the word-count to argue about moral relativism? Do not forget that everything you write should advance your central thesis and never undermine it!

Get a good grasp on the relevant terminology. Confusing human nature with the human condition is never a good start to a paper that aspires to shed light on one subject or the other.

You can start writing down the terms that you find useful or intriguing during your research phase to help you gain a better understanding of their meaning.

Understand the correct time and place to qualify or refute certain statements. Arguing against the children’s right to basic needs may never be appropriate in an academic setting. Acknowledge the arguable cases, and subvert these to your benefit, as an essayist.

Interest your audience with essay hooks and exciting facts. Academia is not a dull place, and your readers may find themselves more willing to engage with your work if they find it enjoyable, rather than dry and formalistic. Doing so will also demonstrate your good grasp on the subject!

Remain respectful of your chosen case, and remember that you are writing about a subject that experiences hundreds of daily violations.

Recognizing the dangerous nature of your paper will not only help you separate beneficial facts from superficial ones but may also allow you to hone your academic integrity.

Read sample essays online to gain a better understanding of what essay mechanics will work and which you can leave unused. This extra reading may also give you good human rights essay ideas to begin writing your paper!

However, remember that plagiarism is a punishable offense, unlike the simple act of becoming inspired by others’ work. Want to see some samples? Head over to IvyPanda and jump-start your paper!

• Three Generations of Human Rights Development The current legal recognition of human rights attainment originated from various declarations and the most pronounced included the Magna Carta declaration in the thirteenth century that curtailed the royal powers, the American declaration of independence […]
• How Nike Sweatshops in Asia Violate Human Rights Factors that facilitated the emergence and development of Nike sweatshops included the availability of cheap labor, lower costs of production, lower wages, the restriction on the labor movements by the local authorities, and the poor […]
• Torture and Human Rights Violation The researcher notes that the government never provided a clear explanation of the events and their position on the possibility of resorting to torture.
• Basic Human Rights Violation The Human Rights Watch was formed in the year 1978 following the creation of the Helsinki Watch. The issue of terrorism has posed the greatest challenge in the operations of the Human Rights Watch.
• The Origin of the Human Rights Concept This point out to the fact that there were rights in the document that are common to different parts of the world and that they were not only obtained from the western nations’ practices of […]
• Human Rights and the United Nations Charter The most significant resemblance of the New Laws of The Indies and Human Rights Law of the United Nations is the obligation to consider human rights as the primary basis for establishing the local regulations.
• Social Media: A Force for Political and Human Rights Changes Worldwide In this essay, I will discuss the effectiveness of traditional media and social media, and how social media has a better participation in changing the world in terms of politics and human rights.
• Effects of War on Humanity in Terms of Human Rights The effects not only affect the coalition governments in war, but also members of the attacked countries for instance, Iraq people recorded the greatest number of fatalities and casualties during the Iraq war.
• The Universality of Human Rights In contrast to the other institutions that suggest a single form of the notion existing in the given society, the area of human rights allows to switch the shapes of the very notion of human […]
• Prisoners’ Human Rights Denial Human rights watch is required to create a standardized list of rights and guarantees that should affect both domestic and international institutions in order to ensure the application of basic human rights, such as the […]
• The Evolution of Human Rights: France vs. America The Age of Enlightenment made human rights one of the major concerns of the world community, which led to the American and French Revolutions the turning points in the struggle for justice.
• McDonald’s: Human Rights and Environmental Sustainability Core values of the company One of the core values of the company is the respect for the fundamental rights of human beings.
• How Corruption Violates Fundamental Human Rights of Citizens This essay seeks to establish how corruption leads to breach of fundamental human rights of citizens and determine which rights in particular are mostly risky due to corruption.
• The Case of Malala: Is Education a Basic Human Right? Additionally, understanding the social and cultural dimensions of gender inequality in education allows one to determine the policy issues that cause the problem and thus establish a mechanism for preventing its reoccurrence in the future.
• Current Human Rights Issues Social rights go hand in hand with human rights since most of them are defined in declarations and treaties of human rights.
• Human Rights History and Approaches Further development of the concept of human rights was reflected in the European Middle Ages, the eras of renaissance and enlightenment, and the idea of empowering all people, based on the concept of “natural law”.
• The Role of Non-state Actors in the Implementation and Monitoring of Human Rights Various human rights international and local organizations have come up with strategies that aid in the implementation of human rights laws and monitoring and evaluation of the standards.
• Immigrants and Human Rights In order to solve the problem of violation of the human rights of the immigrants, some recommended policies include: The detention of immigrants should be reviewed on a regular basis, and if a person is […]
• Impact of Human Rights on Society Democratic space is an indication of tolerance and consideration of the people on the part of the government, since it shows that the voice of the people has a preference over any single person.
• Compare Two Movies Related With Human Rights In the Name of the Father is a movie that portrays an innocent arrest of Gerry Colon and subsequent torture for him to confess the terrorist’s crimes he did not commit and enduring long legal […]
• Saddam Hussein Human Rights Abuse This paper focuses on the activities that took place under the authority of Saddam Hussein which led to the abuse of human rights.
• Shirin Ebadi’s Perspective on Women’s Human Rights Activism and Islam It is worth noting that Shirin Ebadi’s self-identity as an Iranian woman and a Muslim empowers her experience and perspective in women’s rights activism.
• “Women’s Rights Are Human Rights” by Hillary Clinton Hillary Clinton’s speech about women’s rights effectively convinces her audience that women rights are an indispensable part of human rights through the use of logical argument, repetition, historical facts, and emotional stories.
• Human Rights Violations in Today’s World This paper addresses questions regarding human rights, including the United Nations’ involvement in enforcing those rights violations and the role of non-governmental organizations in addressing the issue.
• Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies for Human Rights Established in 1919 as the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, the organization has been very instrumental in championing the improvement of human rights and the reduction of human suffering.
• Human Rights in the Movie Escape From Sobibor As a result of the escape, the Nazi Authorities were made to shutdown the camp and planted trees The Second World War was a period during which a lot of violations of the human rights […]
• Human Rights Violations by Police: Accountable in Discharging Their Duties Corey in his study and reflection on two mass exonerations, that is, the Rampart and Tulia exonerations, identified police misconduct, and in particular perjury as the primary cause for wrongful convictions.
• United States and UAE Human Rights Comparison The nation’s denial of freedom of expression and religion, as well as its discrimination against women and the punishment of same-sex intercourse with the death penalty, are among the most prominent issues.
• Human Rights, Education and Awareness But the progress is underway, and while there is still much to be done in terms of securing even the basic human rights, the strategies and the general principles of achieving equality can be outlined.
• The concept of Human Rights Many of the fundamental initiatives, which animated the human rights movement, emerged in the after effects of the World War II and the mayhem of the Holocaust, leading to the legitimation of the Universal Declaration […]
• International Human Rights Law The civil and political rights preceded the origins of the economic, social, and cultural rights, and thus they are deemed as second-generation rights.
• R. Lemkin and E. Roosevelt as Human Rights Activists He devoted all his time and energy to trying to persuade the new delegates of the United Nations of the importance of the fight against genocide.
• Domestic Legal Traditions vs. Human Rights: A Global Perspective It is the obligation of every state to adhere to the human rights standard. One of the greatest similarities is that most of the countries have almost the same laws.
• Economics and Human Rights: Intersecting Theories Theories allied to the two disciplines play a critical role in explaining development because human rights theories give economists an opportunity to employ legal and political concepts in the process of drafting policies aimed at […]
• Thomas Jefferson as a Defender of Human Rights In conclusion, Thomas Jefferson was a steadfast defender of human rights, but most importantly, he fought for the rights of black people.
• Strategic Planning: Human Rights Watch The company’s competitive position represents the largest coverage of countries in various areas: monitoring military conflicts, protecting access to medicine, addressing and the rights of vulnerable segments of the population.
• Human Rights and Justice Sector: Article Review The central problem is the complex of new African American control institutions made up of the carceral system and the ruins of the dark ghetto.
• The Native Human Rights: Intergenerational Trauma Following are some strategies for addressing Indian citizens’ unique status, ways in which the fundamental right of Indians adheres, the practice of civil rights, the right to ownership of water, the right to be allowed […]
• Human Rights Reforms in the Arab World In modern history, the theme of human rights reformations in the Arab World has been influenced by the French and America Revolutions.
• Freedom of Speech as a Basic Human Right Restricting or penalizing freedom of expression is thus a negative issue because it confines the population of truth, as well as rationality, questioning, and the ability of people to think independently and express their thoughts.
• Violation of Human Rights: Tuskegee Syphilis Study The authors of the study and the authorities tried to justify human rights violations by saying that they were analyzing the effects of fully developing syphilis on Black males.
• Human Rights Violation in US Sports Despite the advancement in human rights in the most significant part of society, sports in various parts of the globe continue to cultivate actions of human rights violation.
• The Natural Human Right to Life: A Case Analysis One of such laws is the right to life, which an unknown shooter violated in a train carriage. The principle of justice is also violated since the identity of the murderer has not yet been […]
• Cultural Heritage and Human Rights in France For example, the imagination of the inhabitants of this region manifested itself vividly in many ways during the development and construction of the famous Notre Dame Cathedral.
• Retirement Options: Putting Human Rights to Work The employers consider terminating the old employees for their personal safety and the company’s economic stability. Therefore, public awareness stimulates action against discrimination and allows the employees to support the older people at work.
• Environmental, Social, and Governance Relating to Human Rights It is impossible to ignore the fact that the ESG trend can significantly affect the sphere of human rights in the energy sector.
• Biomedical Research Ethics and Human Rights This paper aims to discuss the impact of the history of research ethics on modern approaches and the protection of the rights of human subjects.
• The Absolute Human Right Not to Be Tortured The case against the prohibition of absoluteness contrary to torment and associated types of cruelty in universal law queries the ethical and legal conventions that form the foundation of the event of terrorism.
• Human Rights Issues: Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans Hurricane Katrina is considered one of the worst calamities in the history of the United States. The law of the United States gives the government the responsibility to protect the lives of its citizens.
• Rhetoric and Reality of Human Rights Protection For example, the prohibition of homosexuality in many countries of Africa and the Middle East, the restriction of China and Russia’s citizen’s freedoms, and the dictatorship of Africa and Latin America.
• Why Do Good? Human Rights Violations in Afghanistan To be more specific, this is because the main essence of Bentham’s philosophical standpoint is that only those actions which bring happiness and pleasure to others are morally right.
• Understanding Human Rights in Australia Needless to say, the key objective of this Act has been to improve the standards of legislation processes in the region.
• Understanding of Human Rights This provides us with a clue, as to what should account for the line of legal reasoning, regarding the illegality of the ‘burqa ban’, on the part of French Muslims in the European Court of […]
• Standing Rock Sioux Tribe Protest as a Violation of Human Rights Standing Rock claims that the pipeline would damage the sacred sites of their ancestors and is potentially harmful to the local environment and the economic situation of the tribe.
• Bridging the Line Between a Human Right and a Worker’s Choice Workers’ rights, in that sense, constitute one of the most important aspects of the human rights issue because many workers are willing to face peril if the market is able to pay a sufficient price.
• “Universal” Human Rights Agreement: Is It Possible? They can be defined as the freedoms and rights that all people in the world are endowed with from birth to death.
• The UN Declaration of Human Rights & The UN Millennium Project Human rights are “international norms that help to protect all people everywhere from severe political, legal, and social abuses”.
• Social Media and Human Rights Memorandum Considering a recent scandal with Facebook’s failure to protect people’s data in the Cambridge Analytica breach, it is feasible to dwell on the topic of human rights protection within the Internet.
• Definition of Human Rights Human rights are freedoms established by custom or international agreement that impose standards of conduct on all nations.
• Labor and Monopoly. Human Rights Simultaneously, the laborers do not enjoy any control on design and production over the work, thus, the staff are uncomfortable with their work. However, in the case of flight attendants, the profession is different in […]
• Reaction Paper about Treaty Bodies of Human Rights 2020 Therefore, it is important to evaluate the prospects of budget issues due to COVID-19, communication challenges due to reduced human contacts and pandemic concerns affecting human right defense as well as the general secretary’s rejection […]
• Human Rights in Islam and West Instead, it would stick to drafting standards and stay out of the actual developments and problems of the Stalinist Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and its colonies, and the segregationist United States and other powers […]
• African Human Rights Protection Many human rights activists have come forward to champion the rights of the minorities and in some instances agitate for democratic governance.
• Joseph Kony’s Violations of Human Rights Even so, conflicts in the 21st century are unique in that the warring parties are obliged to follow some rules of engagement and to respect human rights.
• Human Rights: Violated Historical and Ethical Principles The people in most of the research did not have a choice. The people in the experiments did not have the right to beneficence.
• Public International Law of Human Rights The present paper examines three important decisions issued by the International Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights in the field of state responsibility, human rights, and rights and duties of international […]
• US & UK Human Rights While Countering Terrorism The threat of terror and the further legal reactions of the nations to the problem were considered as challenging, and it is necessary to examine differences and similarities associated with the promotion of human rights […]
• Dignity: Is It a Basic Human Right and How to Protect of Self-Worth and Self-Determination? The problem has raised the issue of assisted suicide to end a life of suffering and the role of such a patient in deciding when and how they will die rather than waiting for the […]
• International Human Rights Opinion and Removing a Constitutionally Elected Government in Fiji It is believed that the gross overreaction of the military in the internal affairs of the Methodist church in Fiji has paved the way for international focus to be centered in this island, especially in […]
• Human Rights Act 1998 in British Legal System The safeguard of British liberty is in the good sense of the people and in the system of representative and responsible government which has been evolved”.[The Business of Judging] Such an approach isolated British constitutional […]
• Human Rights in Russia: A 2020 Report Concentrating on the Last Changes Overall, expert opinion on the outcomes of human rights in Russia in the future shows a lack of certainty the country’s record of infringements is going to improve. It is imperative to support the promotion […]
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Daily Briefs UN experts and ambassadors of foreign countries, including the US and the EU, responded to this violation, calling not to use weapons and allow the people to express their will.
• Will the Development of Artificial Intelligence Endanger Global Human Rights? The contradiction between the advantages of AI and the limitation of human rights manifests in the field of personal privacy to a larger extent.
• St. Johns Agency and Human Rights: Universal Policies to Support Human Rights The right to health as an inclusive right is one of the elements which states that the right is not only associated with access to health care facilities and services. The company incorporates various aspects […]
• History II, Early Human Rights Debates: The Truth About Pirates and the Social Justification The reading by Mark Roth describes the hidden historical truth behind pirates and their deceptive view by the modern society. This historical document depicts one of the earliest accounts of the mistreatment of Native Americans […]
• Universal Human Rights on The Case of MV Tampa On the other hand, the country was enforcing its own right to protect the citizens from the perceived danger a justified precaution in light of numerous cases of illegal immigration and terrorist attacks.
• Human Rights Obligations of Multinational Corporations The argument of whether it is valid to impose obligations on violation of human rights on MNCs calls to reason the minimum caliber MNCs should maintain in their obligations towards human rights.
• Human Rights Issues in Australia: Bullying Among School-Going Age and Young People The focus of the topic of the day is on bullying. It is used to prevent or avoid the occurrence of a bullying experience.
• Tortures as the Form of Human Rights Abuse The law of the country must allow persons tortured in any form to be permitted to make an official complaint and investigation to be started on the credibility of the person.
• Human Rights and Global Democracy by Michael Goodhart Considering that the current human rights bodies focus mostly on rights of individuals, there is needs for translating the rights in a global context.
• Is FGM a Human Rights Issue in the Development of Humanism and Equality? Among the problems faced by developed states that receive migrants from third-world countries, the protection of women’s and girls’ rights in the field of reproductive health stands out.
• Cultural Values vs. the UN Declaration of Human Rights With the rise in diversity and the focus on the cross-cultural dialogue, the importance of acknowledging cultural values has risen.
• United States Role in Support of Universal Human Rights The first thing is to put an end to extrajudicial killings and detentions which will be in a bid to end intrusion to the freedom and the right to truth and justice.
• Universal Jurisdiction for Human Rights One of the most prominent roles in this process was played by the implementation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the UN, by the development of the national and intercultural awareness of various […]
• Human Rights: Humanitarian Intervention Some of these are the right to liberty, the right to life, the right of the freedom to think and express oneself, and finally the right to receive equal handling as regards issues relating to […]
• A “Human Rights” Approach to Imprisonment In Europe human rights in prisons are overseen by the Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
• Social Factors in the US History: Respect for Human Rights, Racial Equality, and Religious Freedom The very first years of the existence of the country were marked by the initiatives of people to provide as much freedom in all aspects of social life as possible.
• South Africa: Human Rights in the Constitution The Bill of Rights serves as the foundation upon which the democratic character of the Republic of South Africa is built.
• Human Rights in the Disaster Capitalism Context By the word human rights, it is generally meant to be the protection of individual rights against the encroachment by the state and it also means the basic rights and freedom of individuals.
• Human Rights: Development, Commission, Listening, Monitoring The final draft of the Declaration was handed to the Commission being held in Geneva, therefore, the draft declaration that was sent to all UN member states for commentary is known as the Geneva draft.
• Human Rights in China, Tibet and Dafur In spite of the progress, achieved in the process of regulating the situation, and the ongoing process of peaceful settlement, the atmosphere of intensity is preserved in the country, and scale military attacks on innocent […]
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights should be analyzed within the context of the political, cultural, and religious situation, emerging in the middle of the twentieth century.
• Vehicle Impoundment “HOON” Laws Are an Infringement of People’s Human Rights The other dimension presents the argument that the laws are meant for the well being of the pepole articulating that the legislation is in fact designed for the protection of the civil rights of the […]
• Global Human Rights: The European Court of Human Rights The European Convention on Human Rights, or officially called Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms became one of the most significant documents accepted by the Council of Europe.
• Human Rights and International Business The article deals with the crisis in Burma and the role of India and China in this crisis. Even though it might appear that the major theme of discussion is international politics, from the first […]
• Human Rights Violation in Kosovo The paper has discussed the massive violation of Human Rights in Kosovo, The International Community’s reaction and actions to the Kosovo crisis, and i have given my suggestions to the community on regard to Kosovo […]
• How Has Globalization Impacted on Issues of Human Rights? William Adler closely examines the disrupted lives of the three women who occupy an assembly-line job as the job and its company moves from New Jersey to rural Mississippi and to Matamoros, Mexico, across the […]
• Protecting America: Security and Human Rights 2007) After the 9/11 bombings of the World Trade Center, the US government under President Bush executed and implemented a series of actions that catapulted the country to a period of war.
• Basic Technology and Human Rights If some people are able to enjoy the facilities being introduced as a result of technological improvisations, and it reaches to a chosen few, with no chance in sight of reaching out to large number […]
• Refugee Women and Their Human Rights According to the researches have been made by UNHCR, 1998, found that 80% of the refugees immigrating to the United States and other countries of second asylum are women or children.
• Human Systems. Technology as a Human Right Since most of the world bodies continue to use the basic technology to communicate with the world e.g.about health and safety, access to these amodern’ basic technology should be regarded as a human right and […]
• Human Rights: Fredin v. Sweden Legal Case In this situation, the court considered a case that affected the protection of nature and the human right to own property and sentenced in favor of the state.
• Human Rights and Security in Post-Soviet Russia The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War and the polarization of the world. On the one hand, the collapse of the Soviet Union led to the rapid acceleration of […]
• Global and Regional Human Rights Institutions Overall, the topic of human rights and their protection through economic sanctions and other strategies requires additional attention from the states and international institutions.
• Prisoners’ Basic Human Rights and Their Violation In the report, McKelvie et al.highlight the important contradictions behind the blanket ban, namely the lack of understanding behind the purpose of the prison, the influence of the media and the public press, as well […]
• Human Rights of Migrants by Francois Crepeau The report by Francois Crepeau addresses the deaths of migrants in the central Mediterranean Sea and evaluates the European Union border control analysis, migration policy, and the application of values and human rights in the […]
• The U.S. and the UAE Human Rights Comparison A detailed analysis of the two nations can reveal significant and noteworthy differences between the overall attitudes of the U.S.and UAE.
• Monsanto: Profits, Laws, and Human Rights Although the majority of multinational giants have affirmed their conviction in upholding the letter of the law and professional ethics, in practice, a good portion of them has issues with either the ethical or the […]
• Malala Yousafzai – Pakistani Human Rights Activist The world learned about the girl after a gunman burst into a school bus and shot the girl in the head, thereby avenging her criticism of the Taliban and neglecting the prohibition to attend school.
• Human Rights and Laws on the International Level Zewei provides a characterization of the Tributary System and the concept of the Celestial Order of China, the impact of international law on China’s Confucianism worldview, and the process of integration of international law into […]
• Human Rights and Dignity: Non-Western Conceptions It has been accepted that human rights are the notion which was developed in the West, however, some scientists tried to contradict this idea presenting the arguments that many nations battled for human rights many […]
• Human Rights Issues During the Holiday Season Should we stick to the habitual “Merry Christmas” and stay loyal to the traditions of the majority or embrace a more neutral “Happy Holidays” and show respect to the cultural diversity?
• Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice It is essential to highlight the contributions of Ghonim because he was one of the first to leverage the use of social media.
• Human Rights Poster Design and Analysis First, I realised that placing the title or theme of the poster at a strategic point goes a long way to draw the attention of the target audience.
• Human Rights of Poor in Developing Countries Their interactions with those in authority and the decision makers in the society have been marred with many obstacles and denied the rights to freedom of speech and expression that is being enjoyed by the […]
• Communication as a Human Right and Its Violations According to the international laws, every person has a range of rights which should be met in the society completely, and the right to communicate is one of the most significant ways for a person […]
• Human Rights and Relations in Education and Career The information is located on the left and above and is easy to navigate. This is useful to the employees as it makes them aware of the key needs to the job and the benefits.
• China’s Land Grabs and Human Rights Violation What interested you about the article and how is the content of the article related to aspects of global citizenship? Upon reading the news article from Amnesty International’s website about Chinese officials’ land grabbing […]
• The Human Rights and Its Basic Principles There is a perspective that the initiation of the given process can be justified by the need to protect citizens and the state.
• Human Rights in Naturalistic and Political Conceptions Conferring to one venerable explanation, the Naturalistic Conception of Human rights, human rights are the privileges and rights that we enjoy by the mere fact that we are humans.
• Chile’s Human Rights Violations in 1973-90 After the death of the president, the military took office and a state of civil unrest engulfed the country. Human rights violations experienced in Chile have been highlighted and the actions are taken to address […]
• Islamic Culture, Its History and Human Rights The Christian and Jewish cultures gradually reshaped the Arabian Peninsula; people of Arabia became more accustomed to the concept of Abrahamic religion, while paganism was on the decline. Various forms of arts flourished in the […]
• Theocratic Government’s Census and Human Rights The primary idea of the paper is to disclose moral opacities of the issue, conduct stakeholder impact analysis, and speculate on the collision of values of the theocratic governments and people.
• History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Things did not look too bright at the time: the condition of Japan after Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings; the divided Koreas; the beginning of the cold war between the Soviet Union and the U.
• Equality, Diversity and Human Rights in Healthcare Equity can be achieved in a health system that acknowledges the diversity of the population respecting the expectations and needs of the patients, the staff and the services as a whole.
• Syrian Crisis and Human Rights Instruments However, the increase in the number of migrants triggers a range of concerns for the states that they choose as the target location.
• Culture and Religion in Human Rights Universality Fagan asserts that a commitment to the universal legitimacy of human rights is not consistent with the dedication to the principle of respecting cultural diversity.
• Consequentialism and Human Rights Ethics is a moral code that governs the behavior or conduct of an activity.”Ethics is thus said to be the science of conduct”.
• Ethical Reasoning Theories and Human Rights Utilitarianism involves the assessment of the consequences of any action taken by the business since it involves a common good for the majority.
• Human Rights and Resistance of South Asia To get an in-depth understanding of the question and discuss it appropriately, we will refer to the status of women in South Asia where women’s rights are still discriminated in the light of social and […]
• The Issues of Human Rights The scope of this review starts from the history of Labour Human Rights and examines how various authors have presented their case studies regarding the effectiveness or lack of it of the policies that govern […]
• International Justice for Human Rights Violation In order to understand the status of these amendments, it is important to appreciate the relevance of the definition given in reference to acts and the crime of aggression.
• Human Rights and Climate Change Policy-Making Advocates of the inclusion of human rights feel that there is an important link between climate impacts and human rights and as such, integrating the two would promote the formulation of the best policies. Specifically, […]
• Just War in Human Rights Perspective When a war is about to begin, people, who start the war, have to understand the role of human rights in the process of making decisions and clearly identify the peculiarities of the just war.
• The Human Right to Privacy: Microsoft and the NSA Microsoft had started to collaborate with the NSA to help it to offer services to its customers, but as they progressed, the NSA began to access all the programs of the Microsoft that made private […]
• Child Labor Issue According to the Human Rights The International Labor Organization defines child labor as “work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development”1 Being a United Nations agency, ILO […]
• Human Rights Abuses and Death Penalty in the UAE There are many explanations of why a number of Arab people remain to be vulnerable to abuses and violations of human rights. Besides, many people are still challenged by the inability to participate in the […]
• Human Rights and Legal Framework in Poor Countries In this article, Benton traces the origin of international order to the 17th century. Moreover, Benton claims that the two approaches have been utilized to explain effect of imperial administration on trends in international law.
• Women’s Fight for Equal Human Rights According to the readings assigned, the term feminist could be used to refer to people who fought for the rights of women.
• Immigrants’ Human Rights in America: The Issue of Immigration as Old as the Country In order to make the constitution a living document, America should introduce effective measures in ensuring that the rights of all immigrants are fully recognized, secured and protected.
• The Human Right to Water: History, Meaning and Controversy The utilitarianism theory of ethics relates to the welfare rights and the libertarianism theory of ethics relates to the liberty rights.
• The Evolution of Human Rights in Canada In addition, the movements aided the treaties to champion for the acquisition of rights of associations and political developments among the indigenous communities living in Canada.
• Human Rights and Their Role in Public Opinion Making The quest for human rights create a mental picture that draws the audience’s assumed knowledge of the need to end the restrictions of human beings in their endeavor to reach out to greatness in life.
• Human Rights and Intervention in Public Opinion Making According to Bloomer, human rights demonstrate the public ideas that are used in the media and politics to ensure that they reflect the true meaning of the intended actions.
• Gender Studies: Queer Politics and Human Rights As earlier stated, the idea of queer politics came about to confront injustice and to ensure that the rights of the minority groups in the society are respected.
• Human Rights Issues in the Bahrain Members of the Sunni minority are the rulers of the monarchy; the present king is Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa, and he has held the office since 1999.
• Conflict Over Human Rights The following discussion is a description concerning the conflicts between Iran and the United States in the promotion of human rights some violations of human rights by Iran, such as abuse of the captives.
• Human Rights in Relation to Catholic Theology The church declared the acts of slavery as infamy and conjured to discourage slavery since it was dishonored God and destroyed the lived of many people.
• The Ontario Human Rights Commission Application forms for job seekers and the process of interviewing applicants are usually subjected to all the mentioned elements of prejudice and discrimination.
• Torture and Human Rights However, the full state of affairs in Abu Ghraib prison came to the knowledge of the public when a report by the military into the first pictures leaked to an online magazine.
• Why Migration Cannot Be a Basic Human Right but Always Been a Part of Human Culture The United Nations has acknowledged the individual right of movement with Article 13-2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stating, “Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return […]
• Human Rights Violations in Chile In order to confront past abuses and human rights violations, both civilian collaborators and the past military officers who took part in the violations have been taken through the prosecution process owing to the torture […]
• Human Rights in 21st Century: China Although there have been cases of human rights violations in China, recent events and efforts depict the country as working towards promoting individual rights.
• Faith, Justice, War – and Human Rights in the Realm of the Present-Day World Quran: The Most Ancient and Sacred Islamic Book as the Basis for the Laws on Human Rights Considering the Issue from a Different Perspective: The Fifteen Postulates Security of life and property: bi-al haqq and […]
• Ethical Relativism in Human Rights To support this point of view, the nature of human society, the standardization of human rights and the progress of human rights will be analyzed.
• Human Rights and NGOs In the world today, there are numerous international human rights treaties which stipulate the obligations of states, and the rights of the citizens in these states and beyond2.
• Human Rights Issues in Guantanamo Bay It is expressed in the article that although the detainees are international criminals, the move by the US to detain them at the Guantanamo Bay is an abuse of international laws on the human rights.
• The Human Rights Violation in the Republic of Korea The human rights situation under President Kim Jong-Un in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea has remained dire due to the government’s unwillingness to yield to the recommendations by the United Nations Human Rights Council’s […]
• Gender and Human Rights The concept of a Human of Rights introduced by Foucault in 1950s, and also referred to as humanity is traditionally defined as a “floating signifier” and is related directly to the idea of human rights.
• The Politics of International Human Rights Law To uphold the reliability of the country’s immigration programs, the policy requires three categories of immigrants to be subjected to compulsory incarceration.
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Turkey, Media and Human Rights
• Paul Farmer about the Human Rights
• “Feminism, Peace, Human Rights and Human Security” by Charlotte Bunch
• Impacts of the ‘War on Terror’ on Human Rights
• The Objectives of Women in the International Community
• Human Rights Violations in Turkey
• Human Rights of People With Intellectual Disabilities
• The Effect of Terrorism on Human Rights: The Clash Between the Human Rights Advocates and Victims of Terrorism
• The European Human Rights System
• Human Rights Interventions
• Fighting for Human Rights: Somalia Humanitarian Crisis
• Human Rights and Social Transformation
• The UN Human Rights System
• The European System of Human Rights
• What Are Human Rights?
• Human Rights: Universalism, Marxism, Communitarianism
• Environmental Groups’ and Human Rights Organization Strategies
• Human Rights in History Teaching
• The Challenge of Human Rights and Cultural Diversity
• Is Universal Healthcare a Human Right?
• Confucianism and its Effects on Human Rights Development
• Debate Between John Stuart Mill and Immanuel Kant Theories on the Sources of Human Rights
• United Nations Human Rights Council
• Critique of the U.S & the U.N Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Definition of Human Rights and Trafficking
• Challenges for Universal Human Rights
• Human Rights in Asia
• Human rights and freedoms
• The human rights in the USA and around the world
• International Law & Protection of Human Rights: Syria and Libya
• On What Grounds is the Idea of Universal Human Rights Challenged?
• Human Rights Non-Governmental Organizations and the United Nations
• Freedom from Poverty as a Human Right and the UN Declaration of Human Rights
• Advancement of Human Rights from 1865 to Present
• Disabled Babies Have Human Rights Which We Must Let Them Enjoy
• The Impact of Human Right on Globalization
• Concerning the Human Rights of Immigrants: Policies, Approaches and Stereotypes
• Protection of Human Rights of Immigrants
• What is the UN Human Rights Council?
• The Taliban and Human Rights
• New “Act on Democracy and Human Rights in Belarus” Passed by the US Congress
• Human Rights in Serial ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’
• Through the Prism of Culture: Human Rights as They Are
• Global Community and Human Rights
• Human Rights: Analysis of Ludlow Massacre and the “Valour and the Horror”
• Ang Lee’s Attempts to Develop an Idea of Human Rights in Hulk, Brokeback Mountain, and Sense and Sensibility
• The Cold War: Global Prosperity and Human Rights
• Human Rights in Catholic Teachings
• Abusing Human Rights: Violence Against Women
• What if Environmental Rights Are More Important Than Human Rights?
• How Did the Development of Human Rights Affect the Caste System in India?
• Should Men and Women Have Equal Human Rights?
• How Are Human Rights Observed During Early Childhood?
• What Are the Barriers to Human Rights Being Recognized as Truly Universal in Application?
• How Does Criminal Justice in the United Kingdom Respect Human Rights?
• What Is the Role of the National Human Rights Commission?
• How Are Human Rights Abused in India?
• What Is the Relationship Between Human Rights and State Sovereignty?
• How Are Human Rights Observed in Islamic Countries?
• What Are Human Rights and From Where Do They Originate?
• How Were Human Rights Violated During the French Revolution?
• How Human Rights Affect Administrative Law?
• What Human Rights Dilemmas Do Social Workers Face?
• How Does Political Corruption Violate Human Rights?
• Who Practices Rights-based Development?
• When Religious Beliefs Overpower Human Rights?
• Why Does China Have Such a Poor Record of Human Rights?
• How Does Human Rights Affect Multi-national Companies on Their Marketing Strategies?
• What Is the History of the Spread of Human Rights in the World and the Obstacles in Its Way?
• What Are the Human Rights for Persons With Mental Disorders?
• How Are Human Rights Abused in the Absence of Oversight?
• What Is the Economic Impact on Human Rights in China?
• Why Have Many Human Rights Issues Remained Unaddressed?
• What Are the Concepts and Meaning of Human Rights in Society?
• What Effect Has the Human Rights Act 1998 Had on UK Law?
• How Do Self-determination Issues Affect Human Rights?
• Impact of Economic Liberalization on Human Rights?
• How Does Global Politics Affect Human Rights?
• Should Nature Have Constitutionally Protected Rights Equal to Human Rights?
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196 Human Rights Essay Topics & Examples

Human rights, the foundational pillars of a just society, go far beyond governments and cultures. In this collection of human rights research topics, explore the multifaceted dimensions of human rights, from historical struggles to contemporary debates. Try to understand the profound impact of human rights on societies and the pursuit of a better future.

⚖️ TOP 7 Human Rights Topics

🏆 best human rights essay topics, 🎓 interesting human rights research topics, 👍 human rights essay examples, 🔥 hot human rights topics to write about, 💡 simple titles for a human rights essay, 📌 easy human rights topics, ❓ more human rights topics for research paper.

• Human Rights Violation in the World
• Human Rights and Feminist Perspectives in Social Work
• Human Rights: Historical and Conceptual Evolution
• Human Rights Role in International Relations
• Human Rights in Contemporary World
• Privacy as a Basic Human Right
• Government Responsibility Regarding Human Rights
• Universal Conception of Human Rights and Its Challenges Human rights are intercontinental customs, which dictate and determine how different countries handle their citizens and residents.
• The Nature of Human Rights The essay provides an analysis of several prominent philosophers’ opinions on human rights and democracy, suggesting counterarguments and rebuttals.
• The Issue of Human Rights Violation This paper states that human rights violation remains a significant issue. Aligning them with the current forms of human mistreatment is necessary.
• The Right to Healthcare as a Basic Human Right This paper argues for the implementation of a universal healthcare system in the United States and emphasizes that healthcare is a basic human right.
• Having Children as a Human Right The massive significance of parenthood as a concept raises the question of whether people should be entitled to have children as a part of their basic set of rights.
• Role of Civil Society in Realization of Human Rights This essay discusses how civil bodies interact with the state to guarantee fundamental rights and freedoms in socio-political and economic facades.
• Feminist Movement: Women’s Rights Are Human Rights Women across the globe deserve a voice and equal human rights, and they should be appreciated, and their contributions to society acknowledged.
• Human Rights in Sociology and Philosophy The concept of human rights is among the most popular issues throughout the world in contemporary society today.
• Human Rights in United Arab Emirates The constitution of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) officially recognizes different rights and freedoms which its citizens and foreigners are entitled to.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Constructivists’ Views Constructivists’ views better than other approaches explain why such an initiative as the development of the declaration of universal human rights was even possible.
• Human Rights from a Historical Perspective Recognizing the value of human rights guarantees that arbitrariness will not be tolerated and that democracy exists in society.
• Discrimination and Human Rights Laws The paper discusses solutions of closing the gap between the reality of ongoing oppression and discrimination and the promises held out by our human rights laws.
• Understanding Human Rights: Labor Rights in a Globalizing World and Gender Rights Labour rights are human rights which encompass “the right to collective bargaining; the elimination of forced and slave labour.
• Slavery and Human Rights Violation The work presents three stories from various time periods and places, but they are common in the fact that, due to greed, some people are ready to sacrifice all human qualities.
• Human Rights and Gender Issues: “The Love Suicides at Amijima” & “Tale of Kieu” Comparing “The Love Suicides at Amijima” and “Tale of Kieu”, while representing different time periods, addresses the same problem of human rights and gender inequalities.
• The Fundamental Human Rights Speech Human rights, in plain terms, are the entitlement to the fundamental rights that are given to every individual. We are given these rights, which we retain until we die.
• A Form of Discrimination and Human Rights Violations Based on the relevance of the problem, models and methods of assistance to victims of domestic violence have been developed.
• Prisoners’ Human Rights Protection For the protection of human rights in prisons, it is important to examine the existing practices and incorporate the knowledge about the methods of promoting social justice.
• Responsibility of Mltinational Corporations in the Field of Human Rights Multinational corporations in the field of Human Rights have great power, force, potency, or effect in the entities of the current world order.
• Civil Rights Movement and Actual State of Human Rights Ending racial discrimination and equalization of rights between the variety of ethnic groups found on the territory of the United States is a struggle with a long history.
• UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights The U.N. Guiding Principles are a necessary but still insufficiently effective tool to protect human rights from large business structures.
• Human Trafficking as Violation of Human Rights Human trafficking is a heinous issue that is very serious and dangerous for our society. It is widely known that human trafficking has become an expanding issue across the world.
• Are Human Rights Universal? The author argues that the concept of “human rights” serves as an instrument of political propaganda, and not a legal mechanism for protecting the well-being of people.
• Human Rights: Social Relations and State and Citizens Relations Human rights play a crucial role in social relations and relations between the state and citizens. In the integral approach human rights are not made subservient to any ideology.
• Human Rights Violation During Hong Kong Protests This paper discusses the violation of human rights as applied to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and applied to the context of the Hong Kong protests in 2019.
• Violation of the Human Right to Life: Death Penalty The problem of the death penalty cannot be separated from the general concept of human rights as it violates the paramount right of a human to life.
• Human Rights Related to Immigration The essay discusses human rights related to immigration and analyzes if there are any ways to improve the situation of migrants.
• Donald Trump’s Policies of Poverty and Human Rights One of the events related to an acute social issue of poverty in the United States involves the U.N. report on extreme U.S. poverty and human rights in the context of Donald Trump’s policies.
• Human Rights and Freedom in Modern Society
• Citizen Journalism Protects Human Rights
• Human Development and Human Rights: South African Country Study
• The Black Lives Matter’s Fight for Human Rights in America
• The Black Lives Matter and Philosophies of Henry Shue and Thomas Pogge on Human Rights
• The Different Human Rights Violation in China
• The Bottled Water Industry and the Violation of Human Rights on a Global
• Government Reforms and Basic Human Rights
• The Death Penalty and Violations of Human Rights
• The Challenges and Struggles of Viola Desmond to Fight for Equal Human Rights
• Exploring the Relationship Between Military Spending & Human Rights Performance in South Asia
• How Effective Does the Human Rights Act 1998 Promotes
• Examining Coca Cola Human Rights Violations in Colombia
• The International Courts and Tribunals’ Success in Upholding Human Rights
• The Similarities and Differences in the Level of Development, Human Rights Protection, and Environmental Conditions Between the North and South
• Civil and Human Rights: Excessive Use of Force
• The History and Role of the Human Rights Watch, a Nonprofit Human Rights Organization
• Humanitarian Intervention and Human Rights Violationss
• Human Rights and Justice: Forms and Mechanisms of Oppression
• The Violation and Protection of Human Rights in Society
• Networked Society: Connectivity as a Human Right The media text focuses on the collaborative aspect of the internet in which people are able to add their own ideas, assumptions and create their own content for public viewing.
• Human Rights in Brunei: Impact of Cultural Practices Human rights and culture contradict because of their origins, and for a country like Brunei, Islamic culture will undoubtedly affect the rights of women and LGBT+ people.
• Healthcare as a Basic Human Right The right to have unlimited access to healthcare services is linked inseparably to the right to live, which is why accessibility to healthcare must be regarded as a human right.
• The 1807 Abolition Bill: Continuing Human Rights Struggle A research question concerns the effectiveness of the 1807 Bill in the fight against slavery and its contribution to the further fight against the issue.
• Human Rights Violations and Prosecutions of Perpetrators This paper discusses the challenges associated with human rights violations regarding international programs and the conditions under which prosecution is not effective.
• Human Rights and Discrimination Discrimination is against human rights and should be condemned because it has negative effects such as reduced productivity, feelings of anger, and anxiety.
• Recognition of Human Rights for LGBT Individuals The paper discusses the importance of studying the issue of LGBTQ people discrimination, including its causes, harmful effects, and current state.
• American Freedom and Human Rights American spirit consists of a dream of innocence and freedom. It is every American’s duty to create justice, and every person has the power to do so.
• History, Oppression and Human Rights Violation in India The caste system is not entirely eliminated and still exists in modern-day India expressed in property ownership and governance.
• Slavery as a Human Rights Issue The paper argues slavery in underdeveloped countries, especially Africa, continues to be a pressing and contemporary problem.
• Human Rights and Public’s Right to Know The issue of sharing every kind of information with members of the public remains sensitive and capable of affecting the interests of both citizens and governments.
• Freedom of Speech: The Basic Human Right Freedom of speech allows everyone to receive and impart information. People and communities should articulate their thoughts and ideas without fear of any form of intimidation.
• Violations of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in China China has a long history of suppressing authors and freedom of speech. Liu Xiaobo is a literary critic, known for their participation in the social and political spheres.
• Social Inequality and Human Rights in the Modern World This paper theorize civil rights to be the basis of developing the main social fields of education, healthcare, and career opportunities.
• Bartolome De Las Casas and Human Rights in the Age of Exploration Bartolome De Las Casas was a pivotal factor in the emergence of what is currently termed human rights principles, as shown by his deeds and ideas.
• Human Rights in China and the USA Every country has a different attitude toward human rights. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the problem of human rights in China and the USA.
• The Abortion Issue Regarding Human Rights This article raises the question of how people should determine what rights should be guaranteed by the constitution and what rights are core rights from birth.
• Black Sports Activism: Olympic Project for Human Rights Black activism has been fundamental in reducing institutional racism and the mistreatment of African-Americans’ rights in the larger society.
• Human Rights and Labor Laws Violations in Foreign Countries This discussion explores the situation in Chile and China, where workers have experienced labor laws and human rights violations in recent times.
• Indigenous People and Human Rights This work examines what rights a person has in the process of acculturation, how acculturation affects the indigenous people of many countries, its tendencies in the modern world.
• Human Rights and the Burqa Ban in France This paper expounding on how the affected French citizens may go about opposing the ‘burqa ban’ in the court of law.
• Human Rights Under Russian Leadership Human rights are among the essential norms which standardize human behavior and are protected by local and international laws.
• The Universality of Human Rights “Human rights are “universal” rights in the sense that they are held “universally” by all human beings”. This report discusses the universality of human rights.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The current paper reflects these rights to understand their impact on ending atrocities of unpleasant events that occurred in the past, such as war.
• Human Rights as an Essential Part of the Societal Structure Human rights are vital to any social structure as they create guidelines for the people based on their needs and desires.
• Human Rights in Brown v. Board of Education Case The Brown v. Board of Education case was a fundamental court decision since it secured the rights of millions of children but also the rights of the African American population.
• Human Subjects Protection: International and Regional Human Rights Standards Any clinical expertise must be integrated with the best possible scientific evidence. Otherwise, it is impossible to provide patients with all the needed options.
• Medicine and Public Health, Ethics and Human Rights Nowadays one can observe the tense connection between public health, medicine, human rights, and ethics; it can be explained by a number of medical challenges, etc.
• Human Rights and International Trade Human rights in international trade precipitated the formation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) which caters to the welfare of the workers and other interest groups.
• The Issues of Public Health, Ethics, and Human Rights Human awareness of medical care limits, the recognition of societal structure influence, etc. provide a wide link between healthy vision and ethical norms perception.
• The Human Right to Equality and Racial Issues in the US This paper examines the issue of the human right to equality and non-discrimination, which is in question in the United States.
• UK Anti-Terrorism Strategy and the Human Rights Implications on its Implementation The prevention of terrorism has been given a higher priority, and the new legislation has drawn on new instruments equivalent to the European levels.
• The Convention for Safeguarding the Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom of the EU Citizens The convention for safeguarding the Human rights and fundamental freedom of the EU citizens were drawn up by the European Council on November 4th, 1950, and enforced in 1953.
• Human Rights Cities: Mountain View This blog post describes the records and the solutions of Mountain View city’s compliances to the global universal rights of an individual.
• Human Rights Violation in Ethiopia The purpose of this paper is to draw the public’s attention to the terrifying events that are happening in Ethiopia and demand justice and freedom for the Oromo people.
• The Mutual Relationship Between the Fields of Human Rights and Environmental Protection
• The Relationship Between Intellectual Property and Human Rights International Law
• The Constitution and the Declaration of Human Rights
• The Concepts and Significance of Human Rights in Society
• Children, Guantanamo Bay and the Violation of Human Rights
• Civil Liberties and Violations of Human Rights
• The Reason Why Countries Signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• Human Rights and Latin American Indigenous Women
• How the Death Penalty Is Against Our Human Rights
• The Criminal Defence and Human Rights Lawyer
• Effective Practices for Infusing Human Rights
• How Being Homeless Affects an Individual’s Human Rights
• Gay Marriage: The Recognition of Equal Human Rights
• The Black Codes: Limiting Basic Human Rights and Civil Liberties of Blacks
• Human Rights and International Investment Law
• Exponential Innovation and Human Rights: Implications for Science and Technology Diplomacy
• The World Struggle for Human Rights and the Rights of Self
• Child Soldiers Are Abused and Deprived of Human Rights
• Business and Human Rights: The Evolving International Agenda
• Development and Human Rights as Addressed by Bolivian President Evo Morales
• Affordable Care Act as a Fundamental Human Right Healthcare should be recognized as a fundamental human right, which can be based on a new Medicare for All program to be cost-effective and affordable.
• Declaration of Human Rights Influence on Government In this article, the author examines the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its impact on the governments.
• Human Rights and the Rwandan Genocide In the first half of 1994, Rwanda lost approximately 800,000 citizens due to tribal clashes that led to what is referred to now as the Rwandan Genocide.
• Immigrants Human Rights Violation in the United States The research question addresses the need to halt family separations at the border by launching long-term cooperation with other states, such as Mexico.
• Ethical Cases: Human Rights To Decide on One’s Life From medical ethics, care providers must follow the principles of autonomy and beneficence, but they are opposed to each other in these ethical cases.
• Human Trafficking: International Human Rights International human rights law defines human trafficking as the violation of an individual’s right to liberty through appropriation of their legal personality, labor and humanity.
• Global Human Rights Progress and the Role of National Cultural Value Systems This paper aims to investigate arguments in favor and against the claim that there has been progressing in developing global human rights over the last twenty years.
• Human Rights Violations in Hong Kong The article is about the arrest of district councilor Cheng Lai-king on March 26, 2020, after being accused of seditious intent.
• Confucianism and Human Rights Development The work highlights the main ideas of Confucianism, describes how it has changed over time under the influence of Western culture and what impact it has on our lives.
• Sudan, Oil, War, and Human Rights This paper aims to address the main issues for why despite the end of the formal conflict in Sudan; global human rights actors have remained unable to stop the war-like patterns.
• Human Rights Problem of Domestic Help in El Salvador The condition of human rights in El Salvador concerning the domestic helps has been steadily deteriorating over the years
• Human Rights Conservation and the War on Terror Public Safety is the concept of governmental organizations concerned with protecting their citizens from all kinds of threats.
• Business Practices and Human Rights Human rights refer to the fundamental rights of every human being, irrespective of race, sex, religion, political affiliation, social standing or any other feature.
• Cultural Relativism, Universal Jurisdiction and Human Rights The Human Rights area of different countries has its own peculiar features and structure. Human Rights are the result of people’s fight for independence.
• Modern World Politics and the Cause of Human Rights Human rights, democracy and terrorism act as a triangle which bounds modern world politics to a certain limitation.
• Circumcision as a Human Rights Issue in the US Circumcision can be considered one of the disputable practices that are still used on infants because of outdated believes and issues.
• Remote Sensing to Monitor Human Rights Violations The use of modern technologies provides multiple options for various agencies that assess situations regarding human rights and their violations.
• Circumcision: Ethical Dilemma and Human Rights Circumcision is a complex phenomenon that can result in ethical dilemmas. To put it simply, circumcision consists of surgical operations on female and male genitals.
• Same-Sex Marriages and Human Rights Many people acknowledge that same-sex marriage is something that should be analyzed using this law. This discussion gives my personal perspective of this issue.
• Human Rights, Globalization and Economic Development Based on Bryzk’s definition of globalization, it is clear that a globalized world makes it easy to have a free flow of information and ideas across the border.
• Universal Human Rights in Political Ideologies The major contention of Communitarian with the ideologies of Universalism can be traced to the major element that each ideology advocates.
• Human Rights in Israel-Gaza and West Bank Regions The conflict in the Gaza region was a violation of human rights because the sovereignty of the state was not respected by foreign powers.
• Human Rights Advocates vs. Terrorism Victims In this study, we seek to find out the implication of terrorism on human rights and the impact of terrorism on global security.
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Crises This paper gives a detailed analysis of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights from different perspectives.
• High-Resolution Satellite Imagery and Human Rights The focus of this assignment is the use of high-resolution satellite imagery for detecting mass graves in Sheberghan, an area in Afghanistan.
• Childhood Obesity Study, Ethics, and Human Rights The present paper discusses ethical considerations and plans in the protection of human rights in the childhood obesity issue, possible limitations, and implications of the study.
• W. Kymlicka on Human Rights and Culture Protection Every society has a distinct culture that differentiates it from others and members of the society can interact freely even if they are from different cultural backgrounds.
• Canada’s Commitment to Human Rights Principles Human rights refer to those aspects that uphold the outmost virtues of humankind. This paper is an evaluation of Canada’s commitment to human rights principles.
• Islamic State and Values of Human Rights This paper gives a reflection and analysis of Islamic culture using the ideas gained from the movie “Islam in America”.
• Heart Failure Study and Human Rights Protection The present paper discusses ethical considerations and plans in the protection of human rights during the study on congestive heart failure (CHF) patients post-discharge.
• Canadian Studies: Sexuality and Human Rights The history of Canada cannot be imagined without a chapter of same-sex struggle that, in many ways, defined the development of ethical principles of the country.
• Human Rights and Ethnic Groups in American History The paper argues that the United States protects human rights and minority ethnic groups. It discusses American history, its political, economic, and civil rights aspects.
• The Human Rights Act as a Protection Tool in the UK The HRA (Human Rights Act) was introduced in the UK in 1998 as a means of implementing an internal judicial method of addressing human rights concerns.
• Universal Human Rights and Cultural Values The universality of human rights is a question for debate because of the impact of cultures on people’s acceptation and interpretation of these rights.
• Circumcision: Medical, Ethical and Human Rights Issues Human genitals is a matter that is to be treated with utmost care. Genital mutilations are mainly referred to as “a cultural practice”.
• The Gay Human Rights: Harvey Milk Contributions Harvey Milk and his contribution in the struggle to preserve gay human rights are discussed from a theoretical perspective. This paper provides an in-depth understanding of gay human rights.
• Human Rights and Development: The Antithesis of Armed Conflicts and War
• The Coca-Cola Company’s Abuse of Its Employees Through the Violation of the Code of Human Rights
• How Has the Human Rights Act Affected Parliamentary Supremacy
• Community Service Can Restore Social Justice and Uphold Human Rights
• Human Rights Act and Parliamentary Sovereignty
• Human Rights and Freedom of Expression and Opinion
• Human Rights and Criminal Justice in the United Kingdom
• How Far Has the Government Gone to Compromise Our Basic Human Rights
• Does Mental Health Treatment Infringe Human Rights?
• The Link Between Corruption and Human Rights Violations
• Are New Democracies Better Human Rights Compliers
• Connection Between Democracy and Human Rights
• Ethical and Philosophical Nature of Human Rights
• The Connection Between Torture and Sin as a Theological Theme in the Conference Torture, Human Rights, War on Terror
• The Pros and Cons of the Declaration of Human Rights
• China Internet Censorship Against Human Rights
• Human Rights and Civil Liberties in Canada
• Examining the Links Between Human Rights and Different Models of Disability in Education
• How Does Being Homeless Affect an Individual‘s Human Rights?
• How Far Has the Government Gone to Compromise Our Basic Human Rights?
• Are Security and Human Rights Mutually Exclusive?
• Are Human Rights Issues Valid?
• How Has Globalization Impacted Human Rights?
• How Can Community Service Improve Human Rights and Our Society as a Whole?
• How Did the Development of Human Rights Affect the Caste System in India?
• Are Human Rights Practices Improving?
• Are Human Rights Innate and Universal?
• Are Human Rights “Subversive to the Current” Society of States?
• How Does Human Rights Affect Multi-National Companies on Their Marketing Strategies?
• Does the Canadian Charter Effectively Protect Our Human Rights?
• Are Bangladeshi Women Enjoying Human Rights Properly?
• Are Human Rights Infringed in Treatments for Mental Health?
• Does Terrorism Threaten Human Rights?
• Are Human Rights Truly Universal?
• Are Human Rights Universal and Does It Matter?
• Does the Human Rights Act Protect Civil Liberties?
• Does the Terrorism Act Infringe Upon Our Human Rights?
• Are Human Rights Human?
• How Effectively Does the Human Rights Act 1998 Promote?
• Are Rich Nations Violating the Human Rights of the World’s Poor?
• Are Human Rights Universal Philosophy?
• Are Human Rights and Economic Well-Being Substitutes?
• Are Human Rights Protected?
• Are New Democracies Better Human Rights Compliers?
• Does the Human Rights Act 1998 Promote or Hinder Democracy?
• Are Worker Rights Human Rights?
• Does the WTO Violate Human Rights?

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StudyCorgi. (2021, September 9). 196 Human Rights Essay Topics & Examples. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/human-rights-essay-topics/

"196 Human Rights Essay Topics & Examples." StudyCorgi , 9 Sept. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/human-rights-essay-topics/.

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StudyCorgi . "196 Human Rights Essay Topics & Examples." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/human-rights-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "196 Human Rights Essay Topics & Examples." September 9, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/human-rights-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Human Rights were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 21, 2024 .

5 Tips for Writing Your Human Rights Research Paper

If you are a human rights student, you will often be asked by your professors to do research on a certain human rights issue and write a research paper. Research papers are considered to be academic writings based on your original research, interpretation and commentary of other research findings. They are done in order to demonstrate your academic knowledge of a certain human rights issue and your acquisition of different research methodologies.

Also read: 10 Tips for conducting human rights research

Research papers on human rights can focus on any type of human right or a broad overview of human rights. For example, you can focus your research paper on the right to labor or do a research on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which includes 30 human rights.  This article offers five tips for writing your human rights research paper with an aim to assist you to keep good organization and focus.

Step 1: Choose a Human Rights Topic

When writing a research paper the first thing you have to do is to choose a topic . So where can you get inspiration? A common tactic is to skim through thesis directories to discover topics or issues that spark your interest. Another option you can try, is to visit your favorite online magazine and look at the articles through a human rights lens. The fashion brand, where you buy your clothes, do they care about human rights? What are the human rights implications of the latest developments in artificial intelligence? What happens when you apply a human rights perspective to the netflix series you saw last week? Human rights are everywhere, and so are the topics for your research paper.

Step 2: Conduct Research

Once you have selected your topic, the next step is to conduct research. This can take various forms. Most students start with skim reading through the available literature. When you are searching an online library, make sure you also use synonyms and similar keywords in your search. It might be possible that your topic is well researched already but that most researchers choose a different term than the one you had in mind to describe the issue.

Look for articles and books that were written by human rights experts that deal with your chosen topic. Articles and books usually contain an empirical research that was already conducted within the field you are writing about. Once you find articles and books about your topic, check out the reference list or bibliography. The sources listed there can be a great tool for you to identify more suitable literature.

A great source for conducting research is the Internet, where you can find scholarly articles , books , journals, blog posts, encyclopedias and case directories . However, make sure you distinguish between invalid sources (i.e. Wikipedia, forums, etc.) and valid sources (i.e. scholarly article published by a university research center). Usually, your professor will outline and define what type of sources are acceptable to use in a research paper (i.e. scholarly articles, books, online journals, media articles etc.).

However, the most important is that information you find is trustworthy and based on facts. Academic publications often go through a rigorous quality assurance process and are thus considered more trustworthy than a message anyone can post on social media without much accountability. Your research paper should be based on at least five reliable sources.

Research traditions also vary in different universities and locations. At universities in Germany and Austria it is more common to reference twenty to fifty sources, even for a short research paper while in the UK less sources and more original writing is often state of the art. Make sure you discuss expectations with your professors especially if you are studying abroad and may be used to a different university system.

Citing well known authors and academics will make your research more reliable and your arguments well supported. It is a common best practice to summarize the key arguments of two or more authors and then, based on the research that has already been done, develop your own thoughts and conclusions around the topic. Once you have collected enough information on your topic, you can begin creating the outline of your research paper and developing your main argument.

Step 3 : Create an Outline

One of the most important steps in writing a research paper is creating a proper outline which will, later on, serve you as a guide and keep you on track. However, prior to creating an outline you should develop your research question and thesis statement which serve as a main idea and central point of your research paper. The arguments in your research paper should revolve around answering your research question ( Is murder a violation of the right to life? ) and testing your thesis statement ( Murder is not considered a violation of the right to life, but killings are considered a violation of the right to life ). The majority of your research paper will be based on arguments to verify or falsify your thesis statement based on facts and reliable sources.  

Once you defined your research question and thesis statement, you should be able to create an outline of your research paper which will help you organize your arguments. Creating an outline usually means organizing your thoughts into a linear structure with headings and subheadings presenting the main points of your argument.

Usually, a research paper, no matter what topic concerns, has the following structure:

• Title page (This includes the title, the author’s name, date, the university name and name of your professor)
• Abstract (This is a brief summary of your research paper with only main points outlined)
• Introduction (Introduction should contain your research question, thesis statement and brief background information on the topic with the main arguments presented)
• The main body (This part contains several sections in which you are going to summarize, analyze and present your literature findings and your arguments answering your research question and testing your thesis statement. In this part you are also going to explain how you have conducted your research and what research methodologies you used)
• Conclusion (In conclusion you should shortly summarize your main arguments and explain the significance of your research. In this part, you should outline whether or not your research question has been answered and if your thesis statement has been confirmed)
• Reference and Literature (In this section you will list all references and literature that you have used in your research paper)
• Appendix (This section is necessary only if you have any additional information to support your argument such as charts, tables or figures)

Step 4: Write the paper

Once you finished outlining your paper it is time to begin writing. When starting this process it can be helpful to skip the introduction and start with the main body text. Usually, introduction and conclusion are written last because only then you will have a clear picture of your research paper and will be able to summarize it more concretely without skipping the important points. During the writing process you will develop new ideas and thoughts and the paper might move in a different direction that you originally planned. That’s normal but you need to update all aspects of the paper accordingly to ensure everything is consistent.

While writing, organize your arguments into paragraphs in order to get a clear and concise line of arguments. During the writing stage you will consult the literature and information you collected during the phase of conducting a research. However, it is really important to pay attention to how you summarize your literature in order to avoid plagiarism. This means using someone else’s exact words and copying them into your own research paper. Plagiarism is absolutely unacceptable in any academic discipline and considered as a form of theft.

A common way to avoid plagiarism is to paraphrase a certain argument or a fact in your own words and add a footnote to the original source. If you want to use word to word quotes you must mark them with quotation marks. In addition, always make sure to cite at the end from which source the fact or information derived or came from.

When writing, you should always keep in mind that the main purpose behind writing a research paper is to present arguments supported by the evidence from research.

Step 5: Edit, Revise and Celebrate

After you finished writing your research paper it is important to edit and revise it. At this stage, put your paper away for some time to gain distance to your own writing before you come back and revise it. After a few days, you will be able to notice mistakes more clearly and see whether or not you have presented clear and concise arguments. During the edit phase you should check for typos and spelling mistakes and if language you have used is clear and concise. Also, you will be able to notice if there was repetition in some parts of the paper and repetitive words or phrases that could be replaced with synonyms to improve the style of your paper. Once you have handed in your paper, don’t forget to celebrate! One step closer to your human rights masters .

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About the author, ada hasanagic.

Ada Hasanagić is a human rights professional currently working as a researcher at the Delegation of the International Committee of the Red Cross in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Previously, Ada graduated with honors from the Sarajevo School of Science and Technology and the University of Buckingham in the fields of Political Science and International Relations. Also, she earned a master’s degree in Democracy and Human Rights from the University of Sarajevo and University of Bologna.

Human Rights - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Human Rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled, often held to include the right to life, freedom of thought, freedom from slavery, and others. Essays on Human Rights could explore the evolution of human rights, their international recognition, enforcement, and the various challenges facing human rights in the contemporary world. Discussions might also cover case studies of significant human rights violations and international human rights law. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of Human Rights you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Is Capital Punishment a Violation of Human Rights

The Eighth Amendment of United States Constitution provides that “excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.” Numerous Supreme Court Justices have wrestled with the interpretation of the Eighth Amendment and the question of what the Framers really meant by it. Capital Punishment also known as ‘The Death Penalty’ should be abolished because it is inhuman and shows little regard for human life. For years and even today, the idea ‘an eye […]

Human Rights and Democracy

Governments across the globe provide basic rights, laws and freedoms for the citizens of their countries to live by. These rights and freedoms vary from country to country with some countries being granted more freedoms than others. Democratic countries are known for granting their citizens a vast amount of freedoms and rights. Research has shown that the more democratic a country is the less likely they are to suffer from human rights violations. However, human rights violations still occur in […]

Corruption of the Criminal Justice System

There is a long history report of police violence against civilians in the United States which has resulted in creating laws by the government so that citizens may find a way to find a possible solution when their rights are violated. Section 242 of the constitution allows police officers to be fined or even imprisoned for any law enforcer who deprives a person of their rights on the basis of their colour or race (Kevin). The corruption investigations done by […]

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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Right in 1948. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights spells out the basic principles everyone should have such as liberty and the right to live, however what they do not explicitly state is the term “democracy” but describe this term. Throughout history, people are always drawn to democracy and freedom; no matter if it seems that democracy is in retreat. Rice states, “No transition to democracy is immediately successful, […]

The 14th Amendment: a Discourse on Human Rights

Issue: As a citizen do you feel that your fundamental rights that are stated in the Fourteenth Amendment have been neglected? Answer: Yes. It has been 151 years since the Fourteenth Amendment has been ratified, and the rights to life free of discrimination, the pursuit of happiness in regard to same sex marriage, and education are being neglected by the people in office. Discussion: Section one in the 14th amendment states that “All persons born or naturalized in the United […]

Racial Inequality in America

The United States has been struggling with racial inequality for decades, and the media has been paying more attention to this issue. Race can impact the likelihood of graduating high school, attending college, or even maintaining a livable income as an adult (Back and Solomos, 2020). An individual's racial ethnicity is a factor when determining these outcomes and is worth noting. If you are skeptical of your race's role in the number of options you have, look no further than […]

Hillary Clinton and her Speech about Human Rights

On September 5th 1995, Hillary Clinton delivered a speech at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China. Clinton informed her audience on the matter of gender inequality. She wanted to be the voice for women who are discriminated, abused and not treated equally simply because of their gender. Women’s rights should be the same as human rights. By using pathos and ethos, Clinton tries to convince her audience of the fact that women’s rights should be […]

How do Gender Sexuality Matter in Relation to Human Rights

It is imperative that all human rights are respected for all human beings. However, human rights are violated daily around the world due to discrimination among other causes. Gender and sexuality are extremely important when it comes to protecting our human rights, as that protection needs to be extended beyond sexual orientation and gender identity and only then would society achieve balance and greatly develop. The United Nations developed a strategy that seeks to achieve greater gender equality in the […]

The Struggle for African American Equality

The struggle for African American equality played out in all parts of life including schools, public life, and political office. This struggle was ingrained in American culture and it proved to be extremely difficult to escape. Until the 1940s, segregation, inequality, and violence was the norm for African Americans. In the late 1940s, African Americans began to see an opportunity for true freedom and that gave them the fuel to take action to demand change. Change was made through various […]

Human Rights are Basic Rights Given to a Person Mainly because they are Humans

 Human rights are held universally by all humans, and no distinction should be made as to who can exercise and obtain their rights. Benjamin Valention (2000) ponders why some conflicts result in the killing of massive numbers of unarmed civilians. This remains one of the most discussed topics facing humanity. He further states that as the threat of global nuclear conflict recedes in the wake of the cold war, mass killings seem poised to regain their place as the greatest […]

United States Key Role in Support of Human Rights

Human rights. Constitutional rights. Natural rights. What is real term and definition of human rights? The word human can be defined as a member of the homo sapiens species (man, woman or child). Rights are things that one is entitled to. Human rights are the rights you have simply because you’re human. Such examples are the right to live freely, simply being able to speak one’s mind and most importantly being treated equally. Human rights better known as universal rights […]

What is Freedom of Speech

Freedom of speech is the right of ones' right to express and communicate their ideas, opinion, and beliefs. As a result, nobody should fear being reprimanded, punished, or expurgated by society and perhaps the government at large. In most cases, it is done to attract mass attention from the community. It is entirely synonymous to seeking freedom of denied privileges such as an inappropriate distribution of public resources and side-lining of the minority among others. It is a universal right […]

Human Rights in the Era of Globalization

Human rights embody ore values. Among them, there is the dignity of all human beings their equality of fundamental worth and their need to live in this community, with respect and empathy for others, but also with some measure of industrial liberty. Mostly west world countries don't have any monopoly on these values, but people feel that they are always influenced by western countries. In a greater or lesser degree, they embraced the world's major religious and philosophical tradition from […]

Human Rights and Gender Justice

Human beings are rational beings and they possess certain basic rights which are known as human rights. These are rights which are essential for the protection and maintenance of dignity of individuals. It can be said that the rights that all people have by virtue of their being human are human rights. These rights belong to them because of their very existence and they come into operation with their birth. As they have an immense significance for human beings these […]

Extra Credit Human Rights Movements and the Cold War

Women’s rights movements in the 60s and 70s are considered part of the “second wave” of the feminist movement. It is also referred to as the Women’s Liberation Movement. Having grown up, in part, in the time frame, I can attest to the changes it brought about in women; specifically, my mother. She became far more independent and was more adamant about becoming a separate being from her husband. She achieved this through divorce because of the domineering way her […]

To Deny People their Human Rights is to Challenge their very Humanity

Even though we are in the twenty-first freedom filled century, the subject of gay rights is still seen as a taboo in our society. One of the arguments involving gay rights is if same-sex couples should be allowed to adopt. While many support gay couples adopting, whether it is because they strongly believe in equality or because they believe that successful parenting is irrelevant to gender, many people do argue against it for many reasons such as religion, culture, and/or […]

The Tyranny of the Majority

The Tyranny of the Majority is explained as a cruel and unfair treatment by leaders with absolute power over civilians. De Tocqueville, Author of Democracy of America states that the main point of democracy was the public having a sort of dedication to having the equality among the citizens in the U.S. The United States offers several examples of equality within the people, and how they express their action in society. By explaining the main power structures between the people […]

The Human Rights of Native Americans

Introduction: A natural right is something every man, woman, and child is born with and can never be taken away. Every person being born with rights has the obligation to pursue obtaining them through entrusting a body of government or authority to protect those rights(Locke). Rights to safety and freedom have developed as basic human rights through history so that people have freedom from an oppressive body and safety to ensure the quality of life. The human rights of Native […]

Civil Rights Movement and Human Rights

"In order for society to function peacefully, there are certain rights and freedoms that individuals are entitled to. Throughout history, there have been many people, such as, Martin Luther King and Pope Benedict XVI that have committed their lives to form a more equal system of justice. King throughout the 1950s and 1960s was known as the leader of the Civil Rights Movement, he fought to end racial segregation and discrimination in America. In 1963, King was arrested while fighting […]

Human Rights Perspectives in Lee V. Weisman: Balancing Religious Freedom and Education

The case of Lee v. Weisman, which was heard by the Supreme Court in 1992 and ruled in the same year, is regarded as a key legal and constitutional investigation of the separation of religion and state in the United States. This seminal judgment centered on the debate around the use of nonreligious prayer in public school ceremonies, most notably those pertaining to graduation. The case threw into stark focus the continuous conflict between two rights protected by the First […]

Violence against Women is a Form of Human Rights Violations

It is established in sexist social structures rather than individual and isolated acts; this violence affects all women, regardless of age, socio-economic status, level of education and region of the world; it displays itself in all societies and is a major obstacle to eliminating gender inequalities and discrimination against women around the world. The terms "violence against women" are frequently used in the texts or by human rights defenders. Gender-based violence is, however, violence against a person because of his […]

Roles of Civil Rights Advocates

Throughout the Civil Rights Movement during1954-1968, there were many people who fought for civil rights for African Americans and many activists who brought attention to the movement. There were many activists who rose and created change for African Americans. Some activists who brought attention to the movement had many different roles and approaches in the Civil Rights Movement. Activists like Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and Stokely Carmichael were very influential activists who had very different tactics to achieve […]

Human Rights in the Hotel Rwanda

Does the color of the skin or the name of the nation and race change a lot? Why are people so cruel? Where do this cruelty and war come from? Who is to blame for them (in the wars) and will they ever end? Why can't we understand that we are only pawns in them ?! In general, after watching, I had too many questions, and probably a couple of them all asked themselves: "What will happen if this happens […]

Bill of Rights: the Significance of Human Rights in Business Relationships

The Essence of Virtue in Business In my approach to identifying what I believe is most often neglected or violated in business relationships, I first posed the question of virtue. Virtue basically underlines the question of what is right. The Foundations of Natural and Human Rights However, due to mankind's inability to identify what is truly true, the definition of virtue still undergoes dispute amongst philosophers. Yet, virtue plays a significant part in the corporate world as it questions what […]

Human Rights in the Age of Congressional Reconstruction

The Second United States Congress, spanning the years 1866 to 1877, played a pivotal role in the governance and execution of the Reconstruction era. The current juncture holds immense significance within the annals of American history. During this particular epoch, there were notable strides made in the realm of legislation, accompanied by intense political competition and consequential shifts in societal dynamics. This endeavor sought to tackle the multifarious challenges that emerged in the aftermath of the Civil War. The primary […]

Morse V. Frederick: a Human Rights Perspective on Free Speech in Schools

The landmark decision handed down by the Supreme Court in the case Morse v. Frederick (2007) was a watershed point in the continuing discussion over the bounds of free expression in institutionalized learning environments. This case, which is often referred to by the slogan "Bong Hits 4 Jesus," which was posted on a banner by a student named Joseph Frederick, throws into sharp relief the complicated relationship between student rights and school authority. This article digs into the history of […]

Nietzsche and Democracy

On the Genealogy of Morals by Friedrich Nietzsche, it is clear that Nietzsche has a negative view of democracy. A close analysis of his text reveals Nietzsche was against egalitarianism and also a supporter of the struggle for liberty. On that account, the following essay will claim that Nietzsche was against democracy since he was more interested in the political forces that drive the march to liberty and that he believed that democracy was a source of weakness, since it […]

International Law and Human Rights Law

INTRODUCTION Usually theoretical or practical aspects of international law should take into account its very changing nature. Most important aspect of the change is happening continuously from the end of world war two in the field of human rights giving international law a different meaning and function. These changes are rarely harmonious usually reflecting as a collision between principles governing the field of international law. In the perspective of ''real world'' ranging temporally and geographically from the tragic experience of […]

Culture Vs Human Rights Women Edition

Introduction Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), why does this method thrive in the heart of Africa, Asia and the Middle East?  Some argue it's necessary while others strive to prevent the process from continuing throughout those areas. This brings up the question of whether FGM is a right of passage or violation of rights? According to the the World Health Organization, (1)"Female Genital Mutilation is a procedure to remove the female genital organs for non medical reasons." There are four different […]

Civil Rights Martyrs

Are you willing to give your life for your people? These martyrs of the civil rights movement gave everything for their people. Although some may say their deaths did not have an impact on the civil rights movements. They risked their lives just so African Americans could have the rights they have today. The definition of martyr is a person who is killed because of their religious or other beliefs. They believe that everyone should be equal and have the […]

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Essay About Human Rights No matter, where, when, or in what conditions a person is he/she always will be entitled to basic human rights and freedoms. As an example right to health, freedom to religion, right to life, etc. All those rights cannot be seen as privileges or be revoked or granted to someone. Those basic rights are universal and inalienable no matter what. The main problem with human rights is that they are easily understandable but when someone tries to put them into practice everything gets complicated. Historically people have been struggling to define, what means justice, rightfulness, and rights the concept. Only after the Second World War was founded and established, modern human rights’’, by the United Nations. One of the main United Nations purposes was to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and…’’ Following the same path in 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly was adopted the first Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which made a concrete basis for today’s international human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is based on principles, such as:

Freedom from discrimination, slavery, servitude, Equality before the law, Right to freely found a family and marry, Right to own property, Right to education, Freedom of own religion and so on.

In declaration there are not more important or less important rights- every one of them is an integral part of our lives. Each year those rights only grow and expand, for example writing articles about what will happen if someone will try to breach some of the basic human rights principles, and what will be the consequences. But the whole problem with Universal human rights is that they are not easily enforceable all around the globe. First of all the Universal declaration of human rights is only a declaration and not enforceable hard law. If some state will violate the declaration then countries will face weak and sanction procedure, which is not working effectively and fully properly. For example Russia. They are constantly violating human rights and the consequences and pressure from the western countries are so weak that they are continuing to do so. Also, the main bodies in the United Nations only investigate and monitor the violations. They cannot change the attitude of the state toward those who are violating the rights and force states to pay compensations to the victims. It's naive to say that the states are giving us all rights because nowadays states have so much power that they are not feeling those consequences, plus if the state breaches something in the international arena which is not connected with money then it will not play a really important role. Also, human rights are not a universal thing, because they have been building, pushed, and developed from a western nation perspective. Pushing individual rights as more important than group rights and so on. But not all international instruments are powerless towards the human right ignoring/breaching. For example, have been established a court on the "European court of human rights’’. There are 47 member states where its citizens and countries can bring some claims if their rights have been violated. And the court decision is binding towards all its member states and should immediately implement. Human rights are like a time that constantly goes forward and evolves, for example, makes new laws. And our lives are being more and more digitalized should there be a law someday which would make a right to access the internet? Universal means it could be affected or related to everyone. Meaning that human rights are universal, because everyone somehow applies them, but partially, not even knowing of their existence.   

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177 Human Rights Research Topics: Bright Ideas List 2023

Do you have a college research project or thesis on human rights and have been wondering how to prepare a good paper? You need a number of things, such as good research, analytical, and writing skills. However, the first step is getting the right topic. This is very challenging for most students, but we are here to help. This post provides a 177 human rights topics list that you can count on for the best grade. We will also tell you how to craft a great university human rights dissertation.

A Brief about Human Rights

Human rights are the basic freedoms and rights that belong to all persons in the globe, starting from birth to death. These rights apply irrespective of where you are, personal beliefs, or the way you decide to live your life. They cannot be taken away but can be restricted in some cases, such as if you break the law.

The basic rights are anchored on shared values, such as dignity, fairness, equality, independence, and respect. They are all protected by law. Because of their wide applications in areas such as the justice system and employment-related topics, you can expect to get many related school assignments and projects on it.

How to Write a Good Human Rights Thesis or Dissertation

Before we can look at the best human rights thesis topics, let’s look at the best process of writing it. This can be divided into six main steps:

• Identify the study topic in line with your class teacher/professor’s recommendations. You can use our list of basic human rights topics that comes shortly after this guide.
• Research the topic well to ensure it has ample resources. Then, identify the main points that will be covered during the study. It will be good to think about the entire dissertation right from the start because all parts are interconnected.
• Develop a thesis statement. This is very important because it will be tested after analyzing the results.
• Develop a good structure for the thesis. This is the outline that will guide you on what to include at what point. Carefully look at the current recommendation from your school. One of the best outlines you might want to consider include:

Introduction Literature review Methodology Results Analysis and discussion Conclusion Bibliography

• Prepare the first draft.
• Write the final draft by redefining the first draft. At this point, it will be a good idea to consider editing services from experts.

Next, we will highlight the main topics that you should consider in human rights. However, we’d like to remind that you can only pay for thesis and not waste your time over a tone of assignments.

Top Human Rights Research Topics

• How does social discrimination impact people living with HIV/AIDS?
• Same-sex marriage: Why is it more social compared to religious significance?
• A review of international reaction to sweatshops in Asian countries.
• A closer look at the flaws of morals for kids raised in the US compared to those brought up in Japan.
• A comprehensive review of the employment problem arising from the surge of the immigrant population.
• Human rights violations in a country of choice: How has it impacted its image?
• War against terrorism: How is it impacting human rights?
• Should prisoners retain their voting rights?
• Should the US cut trade ties with countries that grossly violate human rights?
• Universal human rights: Are they achievable in the modern world?
• Is there a point where human rights can be justified in the interest of national security?
• Use of cameras in public places: Do they violate human rights?
• Non-governmental organizations’ operations: Are they strong enough to help protect human rights?
• Promotion of human rights: Should it be the first priority for every government?
• Capitalistic systems: Do they defend or violate human rights?
• Comparing the policies for human rights protection of the United States and India.
• A review of human rights violations during the 2021 US army withdrawal from Afghanistan.
• Should the US be held accountable for the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945?
• Human rights in the US and Latin America: A comparison.
• Compare two historical human rights portraits in the 20 th century.

Argumentative Human Rights Topics

• Is violation of human rights allowed during times of war?
• Circumcision of infants: Does it violate their human rights?
• Should women and men have varying rights?
• What is the link between human rights and traditions?
• Capital punishment: Should it be considered a violation of human rights?
• Right for freedom to education: Should it be made available for all?
• Social media networking services: Should they guarantee privacy for all the clients.
• Is the US policy on immigration discriminatory?
• Interest of states: Should it take precedence over an individual’s human rights?
• Developed countries have a duty to promote human rights in the developing states.
• Pet ownership should be considered a universal human right.
• Childhood concept differs from one culture to another: Should the notion of child labor also vary?
• What are inappropriate ways of fighting for human rights?
• Development of a country: Does it depend on the country’s defense of human rights?
• From a human rights perspective, which is the most important amendment to the US constitution?
• Comparing Apartheid and Holocaust: Has justice been done for the victims.
• Human rights in the 21 st century: Is the globe doing enough to address the crisis in the Tigray Region of Ethiopia and Afghanistan?
• What are the most important lessons on human rights from World War II?
• Human rights violations in West Bank: Has the globe done enough?

International Human Rights Topics

• What does the distribution of the COVID-19 vaccines tell us about human rights internationally?
• A review of cases of human rights in the United States between the 1950 and 2000.
• Analyze the impacts of discrimination based on color and race.
• A thematic review of modern human rights movements.
• Trace the evolution of human rights starting from the ancient times to the age of globalization.
• What is the relationship between human rights and peace in a country? A case study of the Netherlands.
• Disability in the UK is under attack: Discuss.
• Who should people running away from human rights violations turn to?
• Is it appropriate to deny human rights on the basis of religion and gender?
• Violation of human rights in North Korea: How is the developed world preparing to tackle it?
• Violation of human rights in Venezuela: Should the United States get involved?
• The right to stay silent in a court of law: How is this likely to affect the accused person?
• What are the best remedies for addressing violations of women’s rights in the Middle East?
• Will the world ever get to a point where people will live without worrying about human rights violations?
• What makes it so difficult to introduce gun control in the United States?
• Who should be held responsible for cases of mass shootings in schools?

Controversial Human Rights Topics

• What are the similarities and differences between human and civil rights?
• Evaluate the violation of human rights in Syria in the 21 st century.
• Police-related human rights violation: How can we prevent it?
• Should prisoners have a right to vote?
• Assisted euthanasia is a violation of human rights: Discuss.
• Should persons who try to take their own lives be charged in a court of law?
• What is the best way to punish states for violating human rights?
• Countries arming themselves with nuclear weapons are readying to violate human rights.
• How effective are laws on domestic violence in the UK?
• All cases of human abuses in history should be tried and concluded.
• Is the UN doing enough to protect human rights?
• Holocaust: Is it possible for the world to heal completely?
• Do you think that the Rwanda Genocide could have been avoided?
• It is time to act: How do you think the global community should handle the problem of immigrants trying to cross from Africa into Europe?
• The hidden danger of not addressing bullying in school.
• Is disciplining a child a violation of human rights?
• Are correctional facilities doing enough to correct the behavior of inmates?
• Is imprisonment enough to punish murder criminals?
• Making a case for life imprisonment and the death penalty for murder criminals.
• Is abortion a violation of human rights?

Human Rights Discussion Topics

• What is your view on the famous revolt of the Cockroach People?
• Discuss the outcomes of the LGBT movements in the 20 th century.
• A deeper look into civil rights movements from Malcolm X point of view.
• Interaction between Japan and China during WWII: How did it impact human rights issues in the two states?
• Discuss the biggest human rights violations in South Africa after Apartheid.
• UN Refugee program: How does it help enhance refugees’ welfare across the globe?
• French Revolution and human rights: A thematic review.
• Human rights in medieval Europe.
• Human Rights Act in New Zealand in 1993: What is its significance?
• Which human rights did women across the globe find hard to access in the 20 th century?
• Police brutality in Brazil: Are the efforts taken by the government enough?
• Discuss transgender rights in Europe.
• A review of transgender human rights issues in the United States.
• Disability rights in the UK.
• Comparing disability policies in the US and India.
• Racial profiling by police.
• What are the roots of racism in the United States?
• Review the Trail of Broken Treaties.
• A deeper look at the Chattel Slavery in the Colonial America.
• Review the African-American male experience.
• Reviewing the history of the Bill of Rights in the United States.
• Analyzing the American Indian Movement: How does it compare with other human rights movements?
• Human rights in modern cinema: How are whites and people of color-treated?

Interesting Civil Rights Topics

• Black Power Movement: How did it impact the Black Lives Matter in 2020 and 2021?
• Are the 20 th Century civil rights movements sustainable?
• Comparing women rights movements in 2020 and the 20 th century.
• How did Martin Luther influence the civil rights approaches that came after him?
• Comparing the scientific Revolution, Reformation and Renaissance movements’ impacts on western thought.
• Protestant Reformation: Discuss how Catholic Church’s corruption and crusaders of war contributed towards its formation.
• A closer look at the human rights movements during the Industrial Revolution of between 1760 and 1840.
• How did the teachings of the American Revolution help the secession movement and Civil War?
• How did Teddy Roosevelt impact the progressive movement?
• The impact of communism impacts world history.
• The location of a civil movement is the most important thing in its success: Discuss.
• What made people start nationalist movement in Prussia?
• Discuss the results of anti-nationalist movements in New York.
• Female and Islam oppression on the globe.
• Reinventing a revolution: A closer look at the Zapatista Movement.
• What is the link between music, protest, and justice?
• Confederate Flag: Is it a symbol of oppression?
• Review the voting rights of 1965.
• The West Memphis Three.

Special Human Rights Debate Topics

• Women rights in the first half and second half 20 th century.
• Legalization of same sex marriage and its impact on global fights for human rights.
• Human rights movements in the US and their impact on federal policies.
• International human rights movements: How has it influenced the UK judicial policies?
• Responsibility to protect: How is it related to the issue of human rights?
• Suffrage rights in ancient Greek: A holistic review.
• Human rights presentation in the philosophy of enlightenment.
• Human rights violations during the First World War.
• What are lessons did we learn from Hitler and Holocaust during WWII.
• These five reasons are the main causes of human rights violations in the 21 st century.
• The main causes of gender disparity in the US.
• Comparing the state of human rights in the UK and Qatar.
• Do you think the bible violates human rights?
• Environmental racism: What are the main effects?
• The importance of the judiciary in protecting human rights.
• Women rights in the Roman Empire.
• Segregation is a violation of human rights.
• Discussing critical human rights issues in India.

Unique Human Rights Topics for Research

• The collapse of the Soviet Union and Rise of Communism in Russia.
• Comparing the Pan-African movement to the 20 th -century cultural nationalism of Latin America.
• A review of the Hong Kong Umbrella Movement’s goals and methods.
• Abolition of death penalty: Why it is a major human rights issue.
• Popularity of social media and its impact on human rights. A closer review of Arab countries in North Africa.
• International Calvinism: What was the impact on European Culture?
• Why do other countries not intervene in North Korea where massive abuses of human rights have been reported?
• A statistical review of human trafficking in the 20 th century.
• How can a person as an individual help to promote human rights?
• Utilitarianism contravenes human rights.
• Human rights institutions and their efforts in protecting human rights in Africa.
• Military actions to protect human rights: Does it make sense?
• Black Lives Matter Movement protests: What does the movement say about human rights today?
• Does the UK constitution comprehensively cover the issue of human rights?
• Global manufacturing: How has it impacted the rights of workers?
• Has the International Labor Organization done enough to protect the plight of workers on the globe?
• How does poverty impact human rights in developing countries?

PhD Topics in Human Rights

• A review of the parts of the globe with the worst cases of human rights violation.
• How does the internet promote human trafficking? A thematic review.
• A comprehensive review of factors that impact the outcome of different trials in a court of law.
• Legitimate forms of the death penalty.
• What factors prevent people from getting justice? A literature review.
• A comprehensive review of the impacts of legalizing drug use.
• What factors prevent equal representation of women in top leadership roles in the developing world?
• What are the major problems faced by LGBT couples? Propose possible solutions.
• Racial profiling by police: A case study of Mexico.
• A comparative review of human rights policies of three countries of your choice in Europe.

Other Human Rights Research Paper Topics

• LGBT relationships: Why are they disallowed in some countries?
• Comparing the rights of pets to human rights?
• A review of human rights violations during quarantines caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
• A review of the fundamental principle of the EU Commission of Human Rights.
• Human rights violations in Taiwan.
• What is the link between ecological problems and human rights problems?
• Evaluate the most frequently violated human right in your workplace.
• What is the UK policy on refugees?
• A closer review of transgender rights in Europe.
• Discuss physical abuses in marriage in the UK.
• Evaluate the amendment of laws in France to suit LGBT relationships.
• Prisoners of war: Do they deserve human rights protection?
• Discuss the strategies used by the two countries with the best human rights records.
• Comparing the human rights institutions in Africa to those in Asia.
• Violation of human rights in Crimea in 2014: Were the remedies enough?

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• v.9(10); 2012 Oct

Human Rights Research and Ethics Review: Protecting Individuals or Protecting the State?

Joseph j. amon.

1 Health and Human Rights Division, Human Rights Watch, New York, New York, United States of America

2 Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America

Stefan D. Baral

3 Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America

Chris Beyrer

4 Berman Institute of Bioethics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America

Wrote the first draft of the manuscript: JJA. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: JJA SDB CB NK. ICMJE criteria for authorship read and met: JJA SDB CB NK. Agree with manuscript results and conclusions: JJA SDB CB NK.

Joseph Amon and colleagues discuss the challenges of conducting human rights research in settings where local research ethics committees may favor the interests of the state over the interests of research participants.

Summary Points

• Recently there has been a dramatic expansion in research conducted in low- and middle-income countries, as well as research ethics committees (RECs) in these countries.
• RECs in low- and middle-income countries have little experience overseeing human rights research and may be subject to government control or influence that may favor the interests of the state over the interests of individual research participants.
• Many human rights investigators are trained in disciplines with ethical codes and professional norms, but do not typically engage RECs nor see human rights documentation as research, and they tend to view REC approval as counterproductive to the protection of research participants.
• Case studies of human rights research can provide important lessons on navigating conflicts of interest posed by some local (i.e., in country) RECs.
• Expanding the use of community engagement and developing strong ethical operating principles can help ensure that individuals and researchers are protected in human rights research and investigations.

Human rights violations play an important role as determinants of, or structural barriers to, health [1] – [6] . Research, investigation, and documentation focused on human rights have led to the development of rights-based interventions [7] , [8] and the promotion of human rights in the core strategies of international health organizations [9] , [10] .

At the same time, health and human rights investigations raise complex ethical and methodological challenges [11] . Key questions have emerged about the roles of ethical review and research ethics committees (RECs) when criminalized or marginalized populations are part of research or program efforts [12] , [13] . Human rights researchers may also follow ethical codes and professional norms such as those of journalists or lawyers, for example, but these do not typically engage RECs and may in fact define their work differently than biomedical or epidemiologic definitions of “research” [14] – [16] . Furthermore, members of local (i.e., in country) RECs may have conflicts of interest when state actors have a role in or supervision over RECs and can exert their influence to limit the scope of or impede investigations into human rights abuses.

In some circumstances, interests other than ensuring the sound protection of research participants may come to dominate the decisions that RECs make, including whether they agree to review the research and/or allow the research to be conducted at all. Researchers aware of these decision-making processes may “self censor” the focus of their research or choose to conduct research elsewhere. As increasing amounts of research are conducted on the impact of human rights on health, more attention is needed on the roles of RECs and researchers to ensure genuine protection of the individuals involved in human rights investigations.

Here we present examples of how human rights researchers can address complex ethical challenges by building the capacity of community-based organizations representing vulnerable populations and by adopting ethical operating principles. We illustrate our policy proposals using case studies of research involving men who have sex with men (MSM) in Africa, ethnic minorities in Myanmar, and individuals in compulsory drug treatment centers in Asia.

Human Participant Protections

The protection of participants in health-related research has evolved into a well-articulated international framework supported by normative documents, conventions, and, in growing numbers of jurisdictions, laws. Key among these are the World Medical Association's 1964 Declaration of Helsinki [17] , the US Department of Health and Human Services Belmont Report and regulations for the protection of research participants [18] , [19] , the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences international ethical guidelines [20] , and the International Conference of Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use ( http://www.ich.org/ ). All of these guidelines require prior review of research by an REC before research can be implemented. More recently, the World Health Organization published standards for such committees outlining key requirements for their structure, governance, and review standards [21] .

Over the last ten years, there has been extraordinary growth in the numbers of RECs in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). As new committees in LMICs have emerged, many countries have adopted a structure whereby local committees, affiliated with specific research institutions or organizations, are supported by a national committee. The national committee is in charge of creating policies, providing oversight, and, in some cases, performing an additional, final review.

Unfortunately, the methodology and intent of human rights research has not been fully considered in existing standards and guidelines on the ethical conduct of research. Similarly, RECs have traditionally been orientated to biomedical and epidemiologic research and have rarely considered human rights research. While principles such as autonomy, beneficence, non-malevolence, and justice are common to ethical codes in diverse disciplines [14] – [16] , [18] , [22] , the definition of “research” and the requirement for REC review are not universal across different types of research.

Defining “Research”

The definition of research and the difference between health research (typically requiring ethics review) and monitoring, evaluation, or practice (typically exempt from review) are not straightforward [23] . For individuals engaged in rights research and RECs considering their jurisdiction over such research, the determination of whether a human rights investigation constitutes research can be contentious and may reflect differences in disciplinary training and professional norms.

Health and human rights investigations can often be considered “non-research” under the US Department of Health and Human Services and international definitions that define research as developing “generalizable knowledge” [19] , [20] . Documentation of particular human rights abuses, factors that contribute to particular cases of human rights abuse, or human rights protections in particular situations are not usually considered “generalizable.” While broader surveys determining the prevalence of abuses may be considered research, in some cases they may be considered monitoring, which, again, is commonly exempt from review. In addition, individuals who provide testimony or evidence of human rights abuses are not traditional research participants. Instead, these individuals have an important motivation for engagement in human rights investigations, that is, for seeing such investigations as perhaps their only means of achieving justice for themselves and their communities. Thus, their view of the balance of “risk” versus “benefit” may be substantially different from the view held by biomedical researchers or REC members.

Conducting Research on MSM and HIV in Africa

Recently identified HIV outbreaks among MSM in several African countries have revealed many neglected or hidden human rights abuses. These abuses include discrimination in access to HIV prevention and treatment, lack of access to justice, police abuse, arbitrary arrest and detention, and ill-treatment and torture. In nearly all African countries in which research has been conducted, HIV infection rates have been markedly higher among MSM than among other men of reproductive age [24] – [29] . These epidemics are occurring among largely hidden, stigmatized, and—in many countries—criminalized MSM communities, challenging research and service provision [30] .

In some countries, police have specifically targeted outreach workers providing information and condoms to MSM [31] , [32] , and health-care workers have been complicit in efforts to “prove” homosexuality with forced anal exams [33] – [35] . In Uganda, conducting research on MSM, including investigations of possible human rights abuses, has become difficult or impossible. Reasons for this difficulty include proposed legislation to make sodomy a capital offense and to criminalize the failure to report individuals suspected of engaging in homosexual behaviors, and targeted violence against individuals identified as MSM, including murder [36] , [37] .

Nevertheless, MSM health service providers and gay service and rights organizations and activists in many African countries have been enthusiastic partners in HIV-related programs, including research, even though governments have been reluctant to support research on MSM. In several cases, governments have actively opposed research that would lend credence to the reality that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons exist in their countries, and to the fact that MSM are at elevated risk for HIV infection [37] , [38] .

At one site of a multi-country study being conducted by two of the authors of this article (S. D. B. and C. B.), the head of the only university-based REC informed the research team that, since homosexuality was criminalized in the country, no research protocols related to MSM would be accepted for review. The REC chair told the researchers that the role of the REC included the protection of social and cultural values of the country. While RECs may legitimately reference social and cultural values in considering what constitutes risk to individual human participants, the REC in this case defined its role well beyond protection of human welfare to instead reinforce a political position of the state.

In response, researchers engaged community-based organizations serving MSM in the country to gauge the level of support for the study, and trained community leaders on research ethics [39] . The study protocol was then reviewed by community leaders, who suggested protocol changes based on further community consultation. At the same time, the protocols were also reviewed by a REC in the US that was informed that the in-country REC had refused to review the protocol. After approval by the US REC, the researchers decided that the final decision to proceed should be made by the community-based organizations in country based upon their assessment of the risks and benefits of the research. Community members also participated in validating research findings, and members of the community presented the results to their peers and in domestic and international forums.

Investigating Health and Human Rights in Myanmar

In democratic societies where government legitimacy has broad acceptance, and where ministries of health are seen as working to advance the health and well-being of the population, researchers rarely question whether academic or state entities have the right to form and oversee RECs. In contrast, in repressive societies, and where an REC is seen as not representative of, or legitimately protecting the interests of, a particular vulnerable group (e.g., prisoners, women, or an ethnic or religious minority), RECs may be understood as agents of the state: prioritizing the protection of state interests over those of research participants.

In the case of Myanmar, decades of civil and ethnic conflict have left large areas of the country under contested political control. Several major ethnic nationalities, including the Karen, Kachin, Chin, Shan, Mon, and Wa, have been in open armed conflict with the ruling military-backed regime or have cease-fire agreements that allow them considerable autonomy. Most of these ethnic groups do not have formal relationships with the ruling government.

In working with ethnic populations in border zones since 1992, we (as well as collaborators from the University of California, Los Angeles, and other entities) have struggled with the question of who most legitimately represents these populations and specifically who should safeguard their rights and interests if researchers or investigators want to collect data. For individuals with no formal communication with the regime they are fighting, the concept that this regime could make decisions for their health and well-being is both absurd and offensive. However, popular support for the government in exile is strong among most of Myamnar's ethnic national organizations, and this exiled government has a well-established health and welfare committee. Consequently, we have helped to establish and build the capacity of an REC composed of Myanmar physicians and nurses in exile, community health workers, community members, and faith-based leaders. This group has now had several years of experience functioning as an REC and reviewing proposals, and their authority has been accepted by RECs at US institutions [40] – [42] .

Documenting Abuses in Compulsory Drug Treatment Centers

Between July 2007 and September 2011, Human Rights Watch conducted investigations of compulsory detention of drug users in China [43] , [44] , Cambodia [45] , Viet Nam [46] , and the Lao People's Democratic Republic [47] . In these countries, drug use is legal but drug users are subject to extrajudicial administrative detention for the purpose of compulsory treatment of drug dependency. The investigations conducted by Human Rights Watch included interviews with individuals recently detained in drug detention centers; key informant interviews with non-government organizations, funding entities, and, in some cases, government officials; review of relevant government laws and policies; and review of international donor policies and programs in drug detention centers. The investigators found that individuals in drug detention centers were routinely held without clinical determination of drug dependency or due process, and once detained were denied evidence-based drug treatment as well as other basic health services. Drug users were often forced to perform arduous physical exercise, military drills, or forced labor, and were subject to physical and sexual abuse.

While research on drug addiction, HIV virology, HIV prevalence, and HIV prevention has been routinely conducted inside detention centers with the approval of government-affiliated RECs and the authorization of the government-controlled detention centers, the specific ethical concerns of conducting research in institutions that violate due process protections have not been addressed. At a minimum, researchers should be expected to accurately characterize the research setting and status of participants. Yet, researchers have often ignored the conditions within and lack of judicial oversight of such centers, presenting them as legitimate treatment facilities [48] , [49] . Researchers rarely report on the availability of evidence-based drug dependency treatment [48] , [50] – [55] and have obscured the status of research participants (e.g., referring to detainees as “patients” [48] or vaguely alluding to their “complex legal needs” [55] ). Published papers also often omit mention of the challenges of conducting independent research [48] , [50] – [55] . One study acknowledged using detention center staff to witness consent [55] , potentially increasing the risk of coercion. Researchers who do not have full, independent, or ongoing access to detention centers may be unable to assess negative consequences for research participants, and detainees who do not have access to legal counsel or the right to free speech may be unable to file a complaint alleging abusive research.

In response to these challenges, we chose to conduct research with individuals in the community who had been recently released from detention centers. However, human rights monitoring by independent international organizations is not allowed in China, Viet Nam, or the Lao People's Democratic Republic, and we did not feel that local RECs would approve research related to torture and ill-treatment. Therefore, a decision was made to proceed without local REC approval in order to protect both research participants and researchers, who we feared could be targeted by the state for proposing research that is viewed as sensitive to state security or disruptive of government goals of “social harmony.” In place of local REC approval, and because we felt that there was no defined community of recently released drug users to formally consult with (and that community engagement in the context of ongoing persecution would not be safe regardless), researchers developed and followed specific ethical operating principles. In contrast to the typical approach of RECs, where review is limited to the research protocol, every step of the research, from the protocol review to implementation to dissemination of results to scientific, diplomatic, and media audiences included internal ethics review by technical and legal experts.

Mitigating Risks in Human Rights Investigations

To address the possible conflicts investigators may face in protecting participants in the course of health and human rights investigations, local RECs are needed that can be considered truly independent. In addition, two distinct and complementary strategies—community-based review and the development of strong ethical operating principles—can help protect investigators and participants in health-related human rights research.

In the context of governments that persecute specific populations, actively limit free speech, and routinely punish criticism of the state, RECs are unlikely to be independent. Under these circumstances, using local RECs to safeguard the rights and interests of research participants may be counterproductive, putting both investigators and participants at risk. In these settings, researchers may need to actively engage communities and follow clear ethical operating principles in place of local REC review.

Community-based review and participatory research have a long history and were developed to address community members' concerns about neglect by and communities' mistrust of researchers, health-care systems, and government [56] , [57] . Conducted correctly, community-based participatory research (including financial and technical support for community engagement and leadership) creates bridges between policy-makers, scientists, and communities; facilitates reciprocal learning; assists in the development of culturally appropriate measurement instruments and interventions; and establishes a level of trust that enhances both the quantity and the quality of data collected and programs delivered [39] , [57] – [61] . While there is a well-established body of literature on engagement of marginalized populations in high-income settings and on some vulnerable populations in LMICs [57] , [58] , the issues faced by criminalized and violently stigmatized populations have less often been addressed.

One challenge of community-based review is that in many settings the “community” is not homogenous, organized, or able to participate in extensive consultation and review of proposed research. Research with migrants, prisoners, drug users, and criminalized populations is often conducted without a representative advocacy group. In other settings, it may not be clear who legitimately speaks for marginalized populations. In all settings, community-based review can be time-consuming and resource intensive.

In conducting human rights research, particularly in settings where safety may be of particular concern, a critical first step is to have standing procedures on investigator and participant protection. All Human Rights Watch staff who conduct interviews, for example, undergo security training and training on participants' protection and data safety. Researchers can also receive specialized training on how to sensitively interview people in such a way as to minimize risk of re-traumatization, including training on interviewing victims of sexual violence, children, persons in extreme pain, prisoners, and the mentally disabled. All researchers must participate in a security meeting prior to a research mission that establishes chains of communication so that security emergencies can be identified and handled once the mission is in progress. Post-mission meetings are held if security concerns arise, and the security of participants stemming from contact with researchers is monitored. Prior to publication of any findings from research (in the form of reports, journal articles, press releases, opinion pieces, photography, or other media), legal review is required and provides further assessment of research participant protection.

For individuals who experience human rights abuses, the consequences of reporting that abuse are often uncertain. Yet even when the risk of retaliation is judged to be high, many individuals may be willing to take such a risk in order to press for justice, despite the fact that justice may take years or even decades to be served. Individuals who are a part of communities that are systematically discriminated against, stigmatized, or criminalized may experience high levels of ongoing harm, and see participation in a human rights investigation as one of few means of challenging those abuses or demanding redress.

In the decade to come, RECs in LMICs will likely acquire increasing jurisdiction, resources, and authority over local research. These changes will offer a promise of greater protection for research participants who in the past have faced abuses with little opportunity for redress. But RECs may have little experience in evaluating the inherent risks faced by individuals vulnerable to human rights abuses as well as the risks and benefits from participation in a human rights investigation. RECs, which primarily review pre-research protocols, may also be poorly suited to the review of dynamic investigations using open-ended research methodologies where the risk to participants is less a result of research processes (e.g., questionnaires) than from post-research products (e.g., reports, legal processes, and media coverage).

The use of RECs to limit health and human rights research for political, cultural, or other considerations is a misuse of the legitimate functions of RECs. Careful attention must be paid when local committees assert that their views represent local cultural norms, or that human rights are an illegitimate focus of research as they express foreign values. A critical distinction for researchers is understanding the difference between respecting cultural traditions that are “matters of etiquette, ritual, or religion,” with little or no relation to ethics, from those cultural traditions with ethical (or human rights) implications, such as female genital mutilation or infanticide [62] . Cultural practices or government policies that either deliberately or incidentally serve to suppress or threaten the rights of certain people cannot be respected. RECs, charged specifically with upholding the rights and protection of individuals, should not use culture or “values” as a means to deny human rights.

Increasing attention to human rights as a determinant of health will result in increasing requests to RECs to review research that investigates the role and complicity of state actors, government laws and policies, and social or cultural norms as they relate to health. Stronger, independent RECs trained in human rights may be better equipped to more adequately review this research. When RECs are unable to do so, or where research on human rights or criminalized or marginalized populations is expressly prohibited, researchers may need to rely upon alternative strategies, including engaging communities and following ethical operating principles, to ensure that research participants are protected and that research is ethically conducted. While such innovations do not eliminate all risks, and may be costly in terms of time and resources, the alternatives, which may include acceding to censorship or not conducting investigations at all, are unacceptable limits.

Abbreviations

Funding statement.

The authors received no specific funding for this article.

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• Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world, the Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 ( General Assembly resolution 217 A ) as a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations. It sets out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected and it has been translated into over 500 languages . The UDHR is widely recognized as having inspired, and paved the way for, the adoption of more than seventy human rights treaties, applied today on a permanent basis at global and regional levels (all containing references to it in their preambles). 

Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,

Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,

Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,

Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,

Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,

Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,

Now, therefore,

The General Assembly,

Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction. 

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.

• Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
• No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

• Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.
• Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
• Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
• This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
• Everyone has the right to a nationality.
• No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
• Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
• Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.
• The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
• Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
• No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

• Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
• No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
• Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
• Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
• The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

• Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
• Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
• Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.
• Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.

Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.

• Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
• Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
• Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
• Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
• Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
• Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
• Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

• Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.
• In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
• These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

• Text of the Declaration
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• The Foundation of International Human Rights Law
• Human Rights Law

2023: UDHR turns 75

What is the Declaration of Human Rights? Narrated by Morgan Freeman.

UN digital ambassador Elyx animates the UDHR

To mark the 75th anniversary of the UDHR in December 2023, the United Nations has partnered once again with French digital artist YAK (Yacine Ait Kaci) – whose illustrated character Elyx is the first digital ambassador of the United Nations – on an animated version of the 30 Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

UDHR Illustrated

Read the Illustrated edition of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UDHR in 80+ languages

Watch and listen to people around the world reading articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in more than 80 languages.

Women Who Shaped the Declaration

Women delegates from various countries played a key role in getting women’s rights included in the Declaration. Hansa Mehta of India (standing above Eleanor Roosevelt) is widely credited with changing the phrase "All men are born free and equal" to "All human beings are born free and equal" in Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

• General Assembly
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• Press Releases
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• Israel-Gaza Crisis

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100 Best Human Rights Topics For Your Thesis

Human rights topics are among the crucial subjects for academic papers. Human rights are inherent to every human being. That means people shouldn’t be denied their human rights regardless of their sex, nationality, color, language, religion, national or ethnic origin, as well as, other human divisions.

Human and civil rights research topics are can relate to treaties and laws that aim to safeguard natural rights. Natural rights can be described as a concept that addresses life, property, and liberty. As such, human and civil right movement essay topics can be about different issues that affect human beings concerning civil law and their legal protection.

Globally, several frameworks and policies that address human rights at transnational levels have emerged. These have also led to several treaties. Consequently, human rights topics for research paper have attracted interest from students and scholars that are pursuing law and human rights programs. Here is a civil and human rights topics list to consider if you want to write a paper that addresses modern social issues. You can also check out our law thesis topics .

Interesting Human Rights Topics

The popularity of human rights when it comes to research is always growing. That’s because issues that touch on human rights are prevalent in both developing and underdeveloped countries. Even some countries that are considered as the most advanced face human rights issues. Here are some of the most interesting human rights topics for essays and research papers.

• Causes of gender-based disparity in payment in the U.S
• Major problems and their solutions in LGBT marriage regulations
• How does child labor affect the psychology of healthy adults?
• What are the major LGBT community rights in the U.S?
• Are women intellectually inferior?
• What are the legal rights of Canadian servants?
• Can child labor cause post-traumatic stress disorder?
• What are the common causes of physical abuse among married couples in the U.S?
• Discuss labor right issues in the UAE
• Child labor history
• How does male leadership differ from female leadership?
• What hinders the equal representation of females in leadership roles?
• Should minorities be allowed to pray at their workplaces?
• Discuss women rights in African
• Discuss racial discrimination in the UAE
• Do social media play a role in women empowerment?
• What are the best ways to address body shaming issues?
• Do parents have an ethical basis for using force when disciplining children?
• Do the native people have rights at the time of immigrants’ influx?
• What’s the civil rights future in the U.S?

These are some of the best human rights essay topics for students at different academic levels. However, writing solid papers on these topics requires extensive research to gather the relevant and latest information.

Argumentative Human Rights Research Topics

If you want to argue out a point that relates to human rights, consider a topic in this category. Here are some of the best argumentative human rights research paper topics.

• Cutting the genitals of male infants is a violation of human rights
• Is the state allowed to violate human rights at the time of war in the interest of a nation?
• When should the rights of men and women differ?
• Are human rights dependent on situations?
• Can the same standards of human rights be achieved globally?
• Should specific traditions define human rights?
• Should all people have an equal right to free education?
• Should the state’s interests take priority of individual rights?
• Do social media networks guarantee privacy right?
• Is immigration restriction in the U.S a violation of human rights?
• Does democracy work as the best system for protecting human rights?
• Is pet ownership an example of human rights?
• Are developed countries responsible for the promotion of human rights across the world?
• How good is global trade when it comes to the promotion of labor rights?
• Which is the best political regime for protecting human rights?
• Is life imprisonment a violation of human rights?
• Is torture justifiable?
• Capitalistic system- Does it violate or defend human rights?
• Is the installation of surveillance cameras in public places a violation of human rights?
• Should voting right be extended to prisoners?

This category can also include some of the best animal rights topics. For instance, a topic that addresses pet ownership as a form of human rights can also address animal rights. Nevertheless, extensive research is required to write a solid paper on any of these human rights paper topics.

Analytical Human Rights Essay Topics

Perhaps, you want to write an analytical essay about a topic on human rights. In that case, consider a topic in this list of human rights essay topics.

• Which are the most violated human rights at workplaces and why?
• What is the connection between ecological problems and human rights?
• Analyze the European Commission of Human Rights’ organizational structure
• Analyze the effectiveness of the European Court of Human Rights
• Analyze the human rights violation in the adult film industry
• Analyze the purpose and principles of the European Convention on Human Rights
• How can human rights violations by the police be prevented?
• Analyze the violation of the rights of children in Taiwan
• How can the international community fine a state that violates basic human rights?
• Analyze the violation of human rights in Belarus

This is a great category to consider when looking for civil rights movement research topics. Information for writing papers and essays about these topics is also easy to find on the internet. That’s because several media outlets have written and published news articles on some of these civil rights topics online.

Compare and Contrast Civil Rights Movement Topics

Maybe you want to write a human rights thematic essay in which you compare and contrast different issues or concepts. In that case, consider the following topics.

• Compare and contrast the Human Rights Act (1998) and the Equality Act (2010)
• Compare and contrast pet rights and human rights
• Compare and contrast human rights and civil rights movements
• Compare and contrast slavery and serfdom- How are these phenomena a violation of human rights?
• Compare and contrast the rights of women during the 20th century
• Compare and contrast the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)
• Compare and contrast the Human Rights Model and the Freedom Model
• Compare and contrast the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and how Islam views human rights
• Compare and contrast human rights violation in the Brave New World novel by Aldous Huxley and 1984 by George Orwell
• How does apartheid compare and contrast with segregation?

This category also has some of the best women’s rights topics that require writers to compare and contrast violations over certain periods. Nevertheless, writing an essay about human rights about any topic in this category requires time and effort. That’s because you have to research and verify the information from different eras.

Historical Human Rights Violation Essay Topics

Some topics on the violation of human rights date back to certain periods in time. If you want to write a human rights violations essay that discusses issues of a specific period, here are some of the topics to consider.

• Discuss the implications of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
• The Bill of Rights history
• Historical female and Islam oppression
• Discuss the 1965 voting rights act
• The American Indian Movement
• Which groups of the population had the voting right in ancient Greek Poleis?
• What is the origin of the human rights concept?
• What were the defining factors for human rights in Medieval Europe?
• Which human rights could the 20th-century women not access?
• What was the purpose of the 1993’s Human Rights Act in New Zealand?
• What major human rights did the people fight for at the time of the French Revolution?
• Which human rights did the 1948 declaration make universal?
• How did World War II affect human rights?
• Where did human rights originate from?
• Analyze human rights violation in Crimea in 2014
• Analyze the violation of human rights during the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
• Discuss the representation of human rights in the Enlightenment philosophy
• Discuss the innocence presumption as a major policy in the American judicial system
• Discuss the role of Eleanor Roosevelt in the human rights protection campaign
• What changed how Western civilization views human rights?

Original Civil Rights Essay Topics

Maybe you want to write a civil rights essay on a topic that is completely original. In that case, consider this civil rights topics list.

• Discuss the development of the human rights issue in Hidden Figures
• Define ombudsman concerning human rights
• What is environmental racism?
• Explain why human trafficking continues
• Why are other countries not intervening in the violation of human rights by the North Korean government?
• How is utilitarianism a contravention of the human rights concept?
• Are human rights violated in the bible?
• How are human rights protected in African countries by the human rights institutions?
• Why are LGBT marriages and relationships not allowed in some nations?
• How can individuals participate in human rights protection campaigns?
• Is watching pornography a human right?
• What is the effect of racial discrimination on staff productivity?
• How should bullies be dealt with in school?
• How does obesity affect professional capacity?
• Best ways to fight racism
• What amendments should be made to legalize gay marriages?
• Do immigrate create serious employment issues for a native population?
• Should countries allow child transitioning?
• Discuss the social exclusion of HIV/AIDS patients
• Gay marriages do not have religious significance

Students have many human rights essay topics to choose from. Whether you need equal rights essay or women rights essay topics, you have many options to consider. Our thesis writers can help you choose a topic that you will be comfortable researching and writing about.

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100s of Free Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics and Titles

Published by Grace Graffin at January 6th, 2023 , Revised On May 17, 2024

Introduction

Writing a dissertation is a long process that requires good research skills and decent expertise in the field. Depending on the researcher’s university’s academic requirements, some different prerequisites and requirements should be fulfilled before writing the dissertation (thesis).

For instance, the supervisor may ask the researcher to provide a dissertation proposal with topics based on current legal trends. Once the dissertation topic is approved, the researcher will have to provide the supervisor with the research aim and problem statement alongside a good methodology .

Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: how the social rights of immigrants are protected under international human rights law: a primary investigation in the uk.

Research Aim: The research will aim to investigate the protection of the social rights of immigrants given in international law in the UK. Many human rights contracts clearly forbid discrimination centred on state origin and want states to guarantee that immigrants’ human rights are treated equally. Moreover, immigrants, like other particularly vulnerable groups, have been granted additional safeguards under international law to address situations in which their rights are most in danger, such as employment. The research will focus on the immigrants and their social rights in the UK.

Topic 2: The role of social media apps in spreading awareness among youth about human right

Research Aim: The research will aim to explore the part social media plays in spreading awareness of human rights among the young. In today’s world, people use social media more than reading newspapers, and social media has also helped many people get justice. Young or old, every age group is active on social platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, etc., and these apps have brought a new way to learn things. So, this study will specifically focus on social media apps and how they are contributing in spreading awareness about human rights among people.

Topic 3: What obstacles do international human rights policies encounter in terms of implementation? An academic review

Research Aim: The research will aim to investigate the challenges and problems international human rights face during implementation.  There are many factors that make it difficult to implement the policies in a country or an organisation. There should be solutions to the problems and challenges in the implementation of international human rights. This study will explore and explain the challenges and try to give solutions to tackle the challenges.

Topic 4: How are the rights of men being violated in the society? A human right perspective

Research Aim: The research aims to find the reason men’s rights are violated in society. Men’s rights are violated in society more often now. Men also get raped, beaten, killed without anyone questioning the abuser. Even after getting hit by a woman, people blame the man. Violence against males is a severe violation of human rights. The government’s role is to guard males from abuse, including domestic violence.

Topic 5: Define the rights to ethics, religion and life in the context of human rights law in US

Research Aim: The research will aim to define the basic human rights to culture, religion and life in the human rights law in the US. The research will explain the fundamental rights given to human beings, freedom of speech, and a thorough explanation of the human rights law article. The study will also describe the acts that violate fundamental human rights.

Topic 6: Investigating the impact of nationalist movements and ideologies on the rights of religious and ethnic minorities in India

Research Aim: The study investigates how nationalist movements and ideologies impact the rights of religious and ethnic minorities in India. It will also assess the role of governments in promoting or suppressing minority rights in such contexts.

Topic 7: Examining the rights and legal status of stateless persons who are forced to flee their countries of origin

Research Aim: The study aims to examine the rights and legal status of stateless persons who are forced to flee their countries of origin. This research will focus on the challenges they face in accessing protection and assistance in the absence of citizenship.

Topic 8: Investigating the tension between national security concerns and the protection of refugee rights

This research explores the tension between national security concerns and the protection of refugee rights. It discusses the context of border control policies, immigration detention, and anti-terrorism measures.

COVID-19 Human Rights Law Research Topics

Impacts of coronavirus on human rights.

Research Aim: This study will highlight the impacts of Coronavirus on human rights.

International human rights law and COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will address the current pandemic crisis and international human rights law status in response to COVID-19.

United Nations on human rights during COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will review the United Nations’ response to human rights for protecting human health and rights during COVID-19.

The role of National Human Rights Institutions during COVId-19

Research Aim: This study will highlight the role of National Human Rights Institutions during COVID-19.

Dissertation Topics in Human Rights Law and Society

Human Rights is an important area of the law inherent to all human beings, regardless of their race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, and other status forms. Human Rights can be seen as the most significant law area that has taken place since the end of the Second World War.

According to Rehman, even though the world has evolved over the years, human rights continue to be constrained and limited. Research in this particular area of the law is important to know its weaknesses and limitations in the 21st century.

This document contains a wide range of dissertation topics based on the area of Human Rights or Fundamental Rights. These topics provided by our PhD-qualified writers are based on the current legal trends, which tend to assess different topics related to Human Rights in the 21st Century.

Most of the themes provided have never been researched before, and a desk-based or comparative analysis approach is used to provide a meaningful contribution to human rights.

Some topics are aimed at the thesis, which should implement an international aspect of Human Rights. On the other hand, the other topics are focused on specific jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom or the European Union.

You can also start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, including an introduction to the topic, research question , aim and objectives, literature review , and the proposed research methodology to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our dissertation example to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

Review the step-by-step guide on how to write your own dissertation here .

Topic 1: An assessment of life imprisonment under the European Convention on Human Rights.

Research Aim: The research will be based on fundamental rights, more specifically on the European Convention on Human Rights. The research will use a desk-based approach to assess Article 3 of the ECHR, which prohibits inhuman or degrading treatment and punishment. The research critically assesses how the EU Member States deal with life imprisonment based on their domestic legislation.

Topic 2: Should prisoners be allowed to exercise their right to vote in a democratic society?

Research Aim: Disfranchisement is known as the revocation of the fundamental right to vote in a democratic society. The research will assess if there is a need to make the right to vote a basic fundamental right that can be exercised by prisoners. The research will use be a comparative assessment based on different jurisdictions.

Topic 3: The European Court Of Human Rights and its effectiveness amongst the EU member states

Research Aim: The research will assess the role of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in safeguarding the rights of EU Citizens. The research will evaluate the EU Supremacy and its authority over the EU Member States regarding human rights. In this line, the research will demonstrate how The ECtHR should balance the EU Law’s fundamental rights and the Member State’s Constitution on fundamental rights.

Topic 4: The link between human rights and same-sex marriage

Research Aim: The Universal Declaration on Human Rights recognises same-sex marriage as a basic right to marriage. However, it can be seen that most countries do not recognise this right. The research will assess different jurisdictions where same-sex marriage is considered legal to enforce this right amongst the signatory countries.

Topic 5: Assessment of human rights in the workplace

Research Aim: Basic Human Rights, such as protection from slavery or inhuman treatment, are available under the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. However, the research will assess human rights’ employment, such as fair treatment, equal pay, and minimum wage. The research will use a comparative analysis to evaluate how different jurisdictions view human rights regarding employment.

Topic 6: The right to life and death penalty in the 21st century

Research Aim: The fundamental right to life is enshrined under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. On the other hand, the death penalty seems to be against the right to life and the protection of life preservation. The research will assess how to strike a balance between the right to life and capital punishment.

Topic 7: Should the death penalty be reinstated in the United Kingdom post-Brexit?

Research Aim: The 13th Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights has prohibited the restoration of the United Kingdom’s death penalty since 2004. The research will assess if the United Kingdom should reinstate the death penalty after Brexit. Since the United Kingdom will leave the European Union, it will no longer be a party to the convention and will be able to reinstate the death penalty.

Topic 8: Social media and the right to hold an opinion

Research Aim: The research will assess if the current Freedom of Speech and the Right to hold an opinion is adequate to be used online. The research will demonstrate a need to reform the Universal Declaration on Human Rights for online use.

Topic 9: Should Article 14 of the Human Rights Act 1998 be amended to implement more protected characteristics?

Research Aim: Article 14 of the Human Rights 1998 has a minimal number of protected characteristics. Following Brexit, the United Kingdom nationals may lose the protection of the European Convention on Human Rights. In this line, the research will assess whether there is a need to review Article 14 of the Human Rights Act 1998.

Topic 10: Should Human Rights be ignored when taking counter-terrorism measures?

Research Aim: The research will assess if Human Rights should be overlooked when dealing with counter-terrorism measures. The research will aim to demonstrate if there is a need to protect a presumed or prospective terrorist’s basic human rights.

Topic 11: The EU Supremacy and the Constitutional Rights of the Member States

Research Aim: The EU Supremacy imposes authority and control over the EU Member States. In this line, a Member State should remove all conflicting laws that are incompatible with the EU Law. The research will assess the extent to which Member States have accepted the authority of the EU supremacy regarding human rights. In other words, the research will demonstrate if the European Convention on Human Rights has adequate fundamental rights for the Member States.

Topic 12: The importance of Human Rights in a democratic society

Research Aim: The research will assess the importance of human rights, which is a pivotal requirement for democracy. The research will use a comparative analysis of how fundamental rights have been adopted around the world. Furthermore, the research will assess how certain countries that do not follow the Universal Declaration on Human Rights may suffer from the lack of democratisation.

Topic 13: The role of courts in safeguarding fundamental rights in their domestic jurisdiction

Research Aim: The research will demonstrate the courts’ key role in safeguarding the fundamental rights enshrined in a country’s Constitution.

Topic 14: Does the General Data Protection Regulation Act as a Safeguard to the Basic Right To Privacy?

Research Aim: The research will assess the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and its safeguards regarding the right to privacy. The research demonstrates how the GDPR can have an important human rights aspect, such as when dealing with a consumer or an online user.

Topic 15: Should Countries Implement A Constitutional Court for Fundamental Rights Breaches?

Research Aim: The research will assess how each country deals with breaches of fundamental rights. The research aims to provide recommendations in implementing a higher domestic authority to treat only constitutional matters like the Constitutional Court of South Africa.

Topic 16: Can Torture Be Justified Under Human Rights?

Research Aim: Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that no individual shall be subjected to torture. The research will assess whether torture can ever be justified under the law. For instance, the research will aim to demonstrate whether there are justifiable grounds to inflict torture on criminals in certain cases such as terrorism with the view of getting confessions.

Topic 17: CCTV Surveillance and the Right to Privacy

Research Aim: The Research will assess the use of CCTV surveillance and its effect on Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The research will demonstrate if covert surveillance can either undermine or positively affect the right to privacy. The research will further critically analyse the right to privacy against public policy for the common good.

Topic 18: The Need to Standardise Disability Rights around the World

Research Aim: The Research compares and contrasts different disability rights under certain jurisdictions. The research will assess whether there is a need to standardise disability rights under one convention or treaty.

Topic 19: Should the Right to Education Be Extended to Tertiary Education

Research Aim: The research will access the right to education as found under Article 26 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. The right to education applies to only fundamental stages of education, such as primary and secondary education. The research will aim to demonstrate if the right to education should be extended to tertiary education.

Topic 20: The Role of Legislators and the Right to Education in the Sub-Saharan Region

Research Aim: The research will assess legislators’ role with regard to the right to education. The research will demonstrate whether Sustainable Development Goal No. 4 (SDG4) is implemented in various sub-Saharan regions. The research will prove whether legislators are implementing appropriate safeguards to remain in line with SDG4 and promote quality education.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service , which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results , and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

List of the Best Human Rights Law Dissertation Topics in Critical Issues

• An analysis of the link between human trafficking and armed conflict: trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced recruitment of child soldiers.
• The impact of technology on the protection of human rights in the digital age.
• Exploring the role of international criminal law in prosecuting human rights violations.
• The effectiveness of regional human rights mechanisms in addressing human rights abuses.
• Analysing the relationship between environmental law and human rights protection.
• Investigating the challenges and opportunities of implementing economic, social, and cultural rights.
• Examining the intersection of gender equality and human rights law.
• Assessing the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in advancing human rights agendas.
• The implications of counter-terrorism measures on human rights and civil liberties.

Important Notes:

As a human rights law student looking to get good grades, it is essential to develop new ideas and experiment with existing human rights law theories – i.e., to add value and interest to your research topic.

The field of human rights law is vast and interrelated to so many other academic disciplines like law , business law , cybercrime , and more. That is why it is imperative to create a human rights law dissertation topic that is particular and sound and actually solves a practical problem that may be rampant in the field.

We can’t stress how important it is to develop a logical research topic based on your entire research. There are several significant downfalls to getting your topic wrong: your supervisor may not be interested in working on it, the topic has no academic creditability, the research may not make logical sense, and there is a possibility that the study is not viable.

This impacts your time and efforts in writing your dissertation , as you may end up in a cycle of rejection at the initial stage of the dissertation. That is why we recommend reviewing existing research to develop a topic, taking advice from your supervisor, and even asking for help in this particular stage of your dissertation.

While developing a research topic, keeping our advice in mind will allow you to pick one of the best human rights law dissertation topics that fulfil your requirement of writing a research paper and add to the body of knowledge.

Therefore, it is recommended that when finalising your dissertation topic, you read recently published literature to identify gaps in the research that you may help fill.

Remember- dissertation topics need to be unique, solve an identified problem, be logical, and be practically implemented. Please look at some of our sample human rights law dissertation topics to get an idea for your own dissertation.

How to Structure Your Human Rights Law Dissertation

A well-structured dissertation can help students to achieve a high overall academic grade.

• A Title Page
• Acknowledgements
• Declaration
• Abstract: A summary of the research completed
• Table of Contents
• Introduction : This chapter includes the project rationale, research background, key research aims and objectives, and the research problems. An outline of the structure of a dissertation can also be added to this chapter.
• Literature Review : This chapter presents relevant theories and frameworks by analysing published and unpublished literature on the chosen research topic to address research questions . The purpose is to highlight and discuss the selected research area’s relative weaknesses and strengths whilst identifying any research gaps. Break down the topic and key terms that can positively impact your dissertation and your tutor.
• Methodology : The data collection and analysis methods and techniques employed by the researcher are presented in the Methodology chapter, which usually includes research desig n, research philosophy, research limitations, code of conduct, ethical consideration, data collection methods, and data analysis strategy .
• Findings and Analysis : The findings of the research are analysed in detail under the Findings and Analysis chapter. All key findings/results are outlined in this chapter without interpreting the data or drawing any conclusions. It can be useful to include graphs, charts, and tables in this chapter to identify meaningful trends and relationships.
• Discussion and Conclusion : The researcher presents his interpretation of the results in this chapter and states whether the research hypothesis has been verified or not. An essential aspect of this section of the paper is to link the results and evidence from the literature. Recommendations with regard to the implications of the findings and directions for the future may also be provided. Finally, a summary of the overall research, along with final judgments, opinions, and comments, must be included in the form of suggestions for improvement.
• References : This should be completed following your University’s requirements
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• Appendices : Any additional information, diagrams, and graphs used to complete the dissertation but not part of the dissertation should be included in the Appendices chapter. Essentially, the purpose is to expand the information/data.

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• Volume 46, Number 2, May 2024

Human Rights Quarterly ( HRQ ) is widely recognized as the leader in the field of human rights. For over 40 years, HRQ has published articles by experts from around the world writing for the specialist and non-specialist alike. The Quarterly provides up-to-date information on important developments within the United Nations and regional human rights organizations, both governmental and non-governmental. It presents current work in human rights research and policy analysis, reviews of related books, and philosophical essays probing the fundamental nature of human rights as defined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. HRQ has been nominated for the prestigious National Magazine Award for reporting.

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• "What Kind of Court Is This?": Perceptions of International Justice Among Rohingya Refugees
• Payam Akhavan, Rebecca J. Hamilton, Antonia Mulvey
• pp. 173-206
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926219

• Producing Truth: Public Memory Projects in Post-Violence Societies
• Alexandra Byrne, Bilen Zerie, Kelebogile Zvobgo
• pp. 207-233
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926220
• The Paradox of Diasporic Peacebuilding Amidst Violence: Providing Reparations to Colombians Abroad
• Rebecca Hamlin, Jamie Rowen, Luz Maria Sanchez
• pp. 234-263
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926221
• Cirights: Quantifying Respect for All Human Rights
• Skip Mark, Mikhail Filippov, David Cingranelli
• pp. 264-286
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926222
• Freedom of Speech and Academic Freedom in Higher Education in England
• Dominic McGoldrick
• pp. 287-329
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926223
• Prevention is Better than a Cure: The Obligation to Prevent Human Rights Violations
• Sigrun I. Skogly
• pp. 330-370
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926224
• The Geopolitics of Shaming: When Human Rights Pressure Works—and When it Backfires by Rochelle Terman (review)
• David P. Forsythe
• pp. 371-373
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926225
• Exponential Inequalities: Equality Law in Times of Crisis ed. by Shreya Atrey & Sandra Fredman (review)
• Barbara Havelková
• pp. 373-375
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926226
• The Khmer Rouge Tribunal: Power, Politics, and Resistance in Transitional Justice by Julie Bernath (review)
• John Quigley
• pp. 375-379
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926227
• Contributors
• pp. 380-382
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2024.a926228

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Abdeta Emana

Shahnawaz Laghari

Faghfirly Dufana

HUMAN RIGHTS: BETWEEN UNIVERSALISM AND CULTURAL RELATIVISM

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The concept of human rights over time has gained popularity and recognition. It has been observed that the evolution of human rights in the present era has aroused a lot of debate and controversy as regard its justification and applicability to a human being, by virtue of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations Conference in Vienna 1993. These international treaties reconfirmed the validity of the universality of human rights, which has attracted criticizing from cultural relativist scholars like Renteln that it is based on western origin. This paper adopted the doctrinal and analytical research method in examining cultural relativist views such as Renteln's argument on the Universality of Human Rights and Cultural Relativism if Universalism of Human Rights is Western Imperialism? Weakness and Challenges of cultural relativist View on human rights. It was therefore recommended that, in order to end the endless arguments on whether or not human rights are universal, there is a need to convene an international forum where at least a more significant number percentage of nations can form a quorum in resolving the issue.

Pranjal Choudhury

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Edna Raquel Hogemann

The consolidation of relations of global society requires the progressive establishment of a global legal system, consisting of a system of rules-precisely, human rights-as the source and evaluation criteria of positive national rights. This essay aims to contribute to some extent using reflective dialectical methodology, establishing logical-argumentative criteria, based on the dialogue between authors to exercise a critical reflection of the official narrative on the universality of human rights, in addition overcoming the universalism/relativism dichotomy eurocentricaly established by a theory of human rights between universalism and cultural relativism. Introdution There are strong criticisms of the attempts to create a world political order based on the defense of human rights, allowing international organizations and major powers to implement a centralized policy of "humanitarian" intervention, situated above the sovereignty of States, using even of war resources if necessary. In this line of argument, there are those who accuse the West of using "human rights rhetoric" to cover up their true political and economic interests and, through that discourse, impose its policies on the rest of the world. The process leading to the creation and consolidation of human rights is contemporary to the expansion of Europe and the West over the whole world and inextricably linked to this process and its contradictions. If, in the so-called West, the consolidation of some fundamental rights was the result of many struggles and conflicts and wars, non-European countries excluded from this process since the beginning and not infrequently participated as victims. The approach to the issue of human rights comes as a more tortuous issue to jurists faced with dilemmas that have assumed an enormous degree of importance with the intra-frontier and international community and which, at the same time, have not yet achieved unity of thought that allows its organization to ensure universal protection. It is, therefore, relevant to the establishment of a set of universal human rights to try to find, at least, a minimum set of guarantees capable of assuring the dignity of the human person. The very notion of dignity is problematic for the solution of this impasse, as each country, and within each of these countries, each culture sheltered by them, tends to establish its own conception of human dignity. To discuss a theory of human rights necessarily leads to a reference to the juridical theory of this class of rights, enshrined by a range of treaties, conventions and

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

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[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

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[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

International Human Rights Standards Research Paper

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In criminal justice, the question of the place of human rights often focuses on issues relating to imprisonment. However, imposing and enforcing community sanctions, such as probation, community work, or electronic monitoring, may also pose severe threats to the basic human rights of the offenders and their families. The rights potentially affected differ according to the sanction imposed and the stage of the criminal process – human dignity, privacy, and the presumption of innocence are examples of the rights that may be endangered. These rights are generally protected by binding international human rights law as expressed in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights or the European Convention on Human Rights. More specific international standards are set by recommendations and other instruments by international bodies. Questions arise, however, about the extent to which these standards are implemented and their impact monitored. These questions are becoming increasingly important as international cooperation, also with respect to community sanctions, increases and sanctions imposed in one country are implemented in another.

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It is indisputable that general legal standards exist that all sanctions must meet. These standards relate to the substance of the sanctions as such as well as to their appropriate imposition and implementation. They can be found in international human rights law and in national legal systems. The key standard is the absolute prohibition of cruel and unusual or inhumane punishment, although historically it has more often been applied to the death penalty and to the implementation of sentences of imprisonment than to sanctions that are implemented in the community.

It is often thought that human rights violations are less likely in the case of sanctions that are not to be implemented in a prison. Moreover, because community sanctions may serve as alternative to prison sentences, such sanctions are seen as benefits or privileges for offenders – as “doing them good.” Therefore, the potential risks that they pose to the rights of offenders are routinely underestimated (Von Hirsch 1990; McNeill 2013) and need to be investigated. Social theorists as diverse as Foucault (1975) and Cohen (1985) have warned that in modern societies, the discipline and control that characterizes prison life may be reproduced within the community when sanctions are enforced there. This is particularly true in countries where a rise in punitiveness (von Hirsch 1990; van Kalmthout and Durnescu 2008; McNeill 2013) has led to many sanctions other than imprisonment becoming harsher, thus transforming measures designed to facilitate the rehabilitation of the offender into measures aimed primarily at supervision and control (van Zyl 1993). In this regard it is noteworthy that more recently scholars have recognized not only the pains of imprisonment but also the “pains of probation” (Durnescu 2011) as posing a potential threat to human rights.

The focus in this research paper is on community sanctions and, to a lesser extent, on related community measures. According to the definition of “community sanctions and measures” adopted by the Council of Europe (1992), they refer to penalties that maintain the offender in the community, that is, outside prison, and involve some restrictions of his liberty through the imposition of conditions and obligations which are implemented by designated bodies. The composite term therefore also applies to diversion, compensation, reparation, and even mediation, as long as these forms of intervention are subject to some form of control by law-enforcement agencies in the widest sense. It does not, however, include noncustodial sanctions such as fines, which do not involve a specific “community” element. In most countries, community sanctions in the sense that it is used here far outnumber sanctions or measures that are enforced in prisons.

Safeguarding Human Rights In The Context Of Community Sanctions

Rights at risk.

As a general proposition, it must be recognized that the human rights of offenders may be infringed by the nature of any sanction which is incompatible with their human dignity: The near universal prohibition on cruel, unusual, or degrading punishment is a specific application of this human dignity standard. A characteristic of the human dignity test is that it recognizes the ability of all people, including offenders, to reflect, to make choices, and to exercise social responsibilities. The right to human dignity may overlap with other rights. An example is a sanction that forces the offenders to express publicly sentiments that they do not hold. That may be inherently humiliating but it may also infringe a related human right to freedom of expression. Other fundamental rights may be infringed if a court were to order that an offender has to marry the mother of his child (the right to marriage and family life) or has to attend church services regularly (freedom of religion) or has to take birth control measures (the right to privacy). All these are examples of “community sanctions” imposed in various jurisdictions, which have been held to infringe human rights (for details and reported examples, see van Zyl Smit 1993).

Human rights violations also occur, arguably more frequently, when a generally acceptable community sanction is imposed for a disproportionately long period or implemented inappropriately. Particularly if the legal prerequisites for such a sanction are not entirely clear and too much discretion is left to judges and enforcement agencies, the suffering may well go beyond what is acceptable from the human rights point of view, either relative to the offence committed or in absolute terms. Here again, human dignity may be at risk, for example, when a community service order is enforced in a way that exposes the offender to dangerous or unhealthy conditions or otherwise unacceptable risks. Another example is electronic monitoring if it exercises such close control that the offender becomes a mere object of this control. Here, of course, the right to privacy is affected as well, and this also refers to the privacy rights of third parties such as the family of the offender. Further human rights issues that may arise from the ways community sanctions or measures are enforced stem from procedural issues, in particular with regard to due process and complaints procedures.

International Standards

Against the background of prison population inflation and prison overcrowding, as well as the increasing use of noncustodial alternatives to imprisonment that was emerging without much system, international bodies in the middle of the 1980s started to draft comprehensive instruments that would both encourage the use of community sanctions and other alternatives to imprisonment and protect the human rights of those subject to them. All these instruments build on existing human rights codifications, namely, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) on the international level, and, at the regional level, particularly the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) but also the American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) and the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (ACHPR).

The first international standard minimum rules that dealt with community sanctions were drafted by experts of the United Nations Asia and Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. Their development was heavily influenced by a set of rules formulated by an international NGO, the International Penal and Penitentiary Foundation (IPPF 1988), which aimed at creating an analogous and complementary human rights instrument to the pioneering 1955 United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, which were widely accepted throughout the world. The final version of this UN instrument, the Tokyo Rules, as they came to be called after their place of birth, or, more formally, the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Non-custodial Measures, was adopted by the United Nations’ General Assembly by consensus in December 1990 (United Nations 1990). The development of the Tokyo Rules (TR) was the result of a “careful process of international consensus building” (van Zyl Smit 1993). It is noteworthy that they focused both on encouraging the use of community sanctions and other alternatives to imprisonment and also, albeit to a lesser extent, to the creation of human rights protections against their abuse (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2007).

European standards in this area were also prepared by governmental and independent experts, nongovernmental organizations such as the European Conference on Probation and Aftercare, and the secretariat of the Council of Europe. However, they were focused more clearly on the setting of standards in order to prevent abuses and to a lesser extent on propagating the use of community sanctions. The key standards were adopted in 1992 by the Council of Europe’s Committee of Ministers in the form of the European Rules on Community Sanctions and Measures (ERCSM) (Council of Europe 1992), which remain the primary regional instrument in this area to this day. They were supplemented in 1999 by a recommendation “concerning prison overcrowding and prison population inflation” (Council of Europe 1999). This latter recommendation, when read with the ECRSM, covers the same area as the Tokyo Rules but gives more details on the measures to reduce prison overcrowding as well as offering additional protection for those serving their sentences in the community. Following a critical evaluation of the ERCSM and their implementation, a further supplementary recommendation was adopted at the end of 2000 (Council of Europe 2000). It largely confirmed the existing ERCSM and concentrated on promoting their dissemination.

More was to follow. A further step was taken in 2003 with the adoption of a recommendation dealing with conditional release/parole, which sought to develop safeguards for persons who serve their sentences in prisons but complete them in the community (Council of Europe 2003). The European standard-setting process continues and most recently led to the adoption of the Council of Europe Probation Rules (CEPR) (Council of Europe 2010). Their rules are meant to be a practice-oriented addition to the existing ERCSM and rightly focus on probation agencies as their practices are crucial for the enforcement of community sanctions in conformity with human rights principles.

In contrast to the abovementioned UDHR, which is legally binding as customary international law (Meron 1989; Alston and Simma 1989), or the ICCPR, which is legally binding on all states that have ratified it, the more specific instruments are “soft law” and take the form of nonbinding recommendations. Nevertheless, they derive a degree of authority and legitimacy from the fact that they passed through a long drafting process that involved many governmental and nongovernmental parties and that they were adopted unanimously by the representatives of the states concerned (van Zyl Smit 1993; Morgenstern 2002).

Overriding Principles

Absolute limits for the imposition and enforcement of community sanctions and measures can be found in fundamental principles of international human rights law. As mentioned above, the respect for human dignity (Art. 1 UDHR) as well as the prohibition of cruel, unusual, inhuman, and degrading treatment and punishment (Art. 5 EDHR; Art. 7 ICCPR; Art. 3 ECHR; Art. 5s. 2 ACHR; Art. 5 ACHPR) plays a central role in this regard. Other widely recognized human rights, namely, the prohibition of discrimination (e.g., Art. 2 and 3 ICCPR) or general habeas corpus and due process requirements (e.g., Art. 9, 14 ICCPR), equally have to be respected. Consequently, both the Tokyo Rules (TR) and the ERCSM contain general “hold-all” provisions that refer to “norms accepted by the international community concerning human rights and fundamental freedoms” (ERCSM 21 and 22; TR 4). The precise meaning of these norms in the context of community sanctions needs to be specified, however, a task that the TR and the ERCSM undertake.

Both the TR and ERCSM stipulate the need for legal safeguards for every sanction or measure that has a penal content, while emphasizing that the idea of alternative or community sanctions being soft options or even privileges for the offender in comparison with a custodial sentence is wrong. They therefore call for clear and explicit legal provisions on the introduction, definition, and application of community sanctions and measures (that means sentencing and enforcement, especially regarding conditions and obligations and consequences of noncompliance, ERCSM 3, 4, 7, 9; TR 3.1). One of the fundamental principles spelled out clearly by the ERCSM is the concept of proportionality. Thus ERCSM 6 provides:

The nature and the duration of community sanctions and measures shall both be in proportion to the seriousness of the offence for which an offender has been sentenced or of which a person is accused and take into account his personal circumstances.

Similar provisions can also be found in the TR (TR 2.6).

To safeguard offenders’ rights and thus to implement the “legal citizenship” of the offender, both instruments contain detailed provisions on complaints procedures both against the imposition and the enforcement of community sanctions (ERCSM 13 and 15; TR 3.5 and 3.6; Morgenstern 2002; van Zyl Smit 2012). Furthermore, particularly the ERCSM highlight that the cooperation of the offender is crucial for the success of the measure. Both instruments also stress the right to privacy of the offender and his family, which is of utmost importance, on the one hand with regard to the use and dissemination of personal data and on the other hand with regard to visits and other personal contacts.

The Pretrial Stage

If a measure is taken before or instead of a criminal prosecution, it is vital that appropriate steps are taken to recognize the human right of being presumed innocent until proven guilty (Art. 11(1) UDHR; Art. 14(2) ICCPR; Art. 6 ECHR; Art. 8(2) ACHR; Art. 7(1b) ACHPR). Although the scope of this principle may differ between jurisdictions, it is widely accepted that when it comes to the decision on whether or not to detain a suspect, it means that during the pretrial phase, generally, the offender should be left at liberty wherever possible, that is, granted unconditional bail. If unrestricted liberty would threaten the proper functioning of the criminal justice process in some way, there is a presumption in favor of conditional bail or its equivalents, that is, keeping the offender in the community but subject to restrictions. It can be observed, however, that this seemingly undisputed principle is particularly at risk when such alternatives to remand custody are set. Bail conditions may serve, whether intentionally or not, coercive, therapeutic, or even punitive purposes, and what should be (pretrial) community measures easily becomes informal sanctions. Moreover, even when they are not punitive, bail conditions are often introduced merely to allow the alleged offender to make a smooth transition from unconvicted to convicted status (Hucklesby 2011), which neglects the crucial principle that the person affected is still presumed to be innocent. It is essential therefore that whenever pretrial measures serve purposes other than to secure the functioning of criminal process – for example, if they are designed as rehabilitative measures or therapy – then the alleged offender must consent to them being implemented at that stage. The presumption of innocence and its consequences are incorporated in the TR and the ERCSM. With regard to the pretrial stage, the TR only mention the need for pretrial dispositions that include the possibility of discharge for minor offences (TR 5.1) and the need to avoid pretrial detention as far as possible (TR 6, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2007). The ERCSM deal extensively with the question of cooperation and consent as one of the core problems of enforcement (ERCSM 31–36) and require it, as do the TR, particularly where any unconvicted person is involved (ERCSM 35, also CEPR 7; TR 3.4).

Sentencing And Enforcement

According to internationally accepted human rights standards, the key guiding principle to be used in sentencing is that of parsimony, particularly if the use of imprisonment is to be reduced. That implies that imprisonment may only be imposed as ultima ratio, both less often and for shorter periods (TR 2.6). The principle of minimum intervention also applies to the nature and duration of community sanctions, in particular with regard to the number and quality of potential conditions and obligations.

According to the preamble of the ERCSM, the application of community sanctions has to balance the need to protect society and the needs of offenders having regard to their social adjustment. The victims’ interests are only incorporated indirectly in this preamble in the form that CSM must be implemented in a way that allows for “reparation for the harm caused to victims.” It can thus be said that the ERCSM draw mainly on the concept of rehabilitation of offenders: All enforcement activities should gear towards it. The TR contain a similar commitment: They state that the sentencing decision should take into consideration the “rehabilitative needs of the offender, the protection of society, and the interests of the victim.” They add, however, that the victim “should be consulted, whenever appropriate” (TR 8.2).

All these sentencing principles derive from respect for human dignity (TR 3.9). A sanction may infringe human dignity, when its penal content is unacceptable. This relates not only to corporal punishment or to humiliating public confessions, discussed above, but also to excessive sentences whose impact on the offender is unpredictable. Where, for example, the law provides for some form of unpaid work as a noncustodial punishment, it should also require the court to determine the total hours to be worked and in which period this has to be done.

A specific question in this regard is whether a sentence of community service requires the offender’s formal consent before it can be imposed. Although this requirement is not universal, it exists in several European countries (Morgenstern 2010) and enjoys some recognition as an international standard (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2007). This is partly due to national (constitutional) requirements which outlaw forced labor in general terms. The position in European human rights law is uncertain as Art. 4(3) of the ECHR creates an exception in the penal sphere only for work “done in the course of detention … or during conditional release from such detention.” On the face of it, it does not extend to community service imposed directly as sanction in its own right (and not a substitute for prison), which should therefore be regarded as forced labor if no prior consent is gained. However, some scholars would extend the exception in the ECHR by analogy and argue that such consensual community service is not forced labor either (Emmerson et al. 2007). Whether the consent requirement may be circumvented when community service is labelled as exclusively rehabilitative is an open question (van Zyl Smit 1993; Morgenstern 2010). The International Labour Organization, rather than entering the debate directly, stresses that the nature of the work must be adequate for the rehabilitative purpose and may not serve a commercial function if it is to avoid being regarded as forced labor (Eradication of forced labour – General Survey concerning the Forced Labour Convention 1930 (No. 29); Abolition of Forced Labour Convention 1957 (No. 105); Morgenstern 2010).

Similar problems arise with regard to the necessity of consent to medical and psychological treatment as part of a community sanction: Does compulsory psychological therapy violate human dignity or other human rights? The instruments explicitly only prohibit “medical and psychological experiments” and “undue risk of physical and mental injury” (TR 3.4, a similar provision can be found in ERCSM 26). In any case, consent has to be informed and voluntary. The argument that the offender always acts under the threat of an otherwise unconditional prison sentence and therefore is never “free” cannot be dismissed immediately. In the end, however, it is not convincing because it leaves the offender at least the choice between two options, and prison is not always the greater evil (Durnescu 2011; Morgenstern 2010).

Both the ERCSM and the TR recognize that the rights of third parties, namely, the family of the offender but also under certain circumstances the victim are at stake. According to ERCSM 23, “the nature, content and methods of implementation of community sanctions and measures shall not jeopardize the privacy or the dignity of the offenders or their families, nor lead to their harassment. Nor shall self-respect, family relationships, links with the community and ability to function in society be jeopardized.” Particularly intrusive sanctions or forms of enforcement, such as electronically monitored house arrest or even intrusive home visits and interviews by probation officers, may infringe third persons’ rights to privacy and therefore require their informed consent and voluntary cooperation. The same principle applies to victims of crime when they are involved in the enforcement of a sanction as is the case with victim-offender mediation.

Attention must also be paid to the provisions that are made for consequences of an offender’s failure to fulfill the conditions of the community sanction. One aspect that has to be considered in the sentencing process is the burden placed on the offender by conditions attached to the sanction. Even if on the face of it, the burden is not excessive, it may become disproportionate and infringe the offender’s rights if it is enforced too strictly. In the enforcement process, there should be some flexibility in assessing whether there has been substantive compliance with the terms of the sentence. Most importantly, imprisonment should not be the automatic default sentence for failure to fulfill the requirements of the non-custodial sentence (TR 14.1; ERCSM 86). In deciding what further action is to be taken against the offender, other non-custodial possibilities must be considered, and partial fulfillment must be seen as a proportionately positive aspect. In the breach procedure, all due process requirements must be met (broadly spelled out in ERCSM 76-86).

Post-Sentencing Stage

Most countries have mechanisms that allow prisoners to be released before they have completed their full prison terms. Conditional release (parole) both reduces the burden on the prison system and takes into account the principle of minimum intervention by effectively converting (part of) a term of imprisonment into a community sanction. Early release can have a significant rehabilitative effect when it is accompanied by resettlement measures (Padfield et al. 2010). Nevertheless, early release from prison may raise human rights issues: Particular care must be taken to ensure that power to grant early release is not abused to put prisoners under pressure during the prison sentence. Where early release is conditional on good behavior in prison, it is important that the presence or absence of such behavior is determined fairly. The European Court of Human Rights has recognized that a penalty of loss of remission for a disciplinary infringement may be regarded as the equivalent of an additional sentence of imprisonment (Ezeh and Connors v United Kingdom appl. nos. 39665/ 98 and 40086/98, 19 October 2003). The consideration of early release in general must follow the same principles as stated above: It must be based on clear and explicit legal provisions that allow sufficient discretion to make the system flexible but not unpredictable. Conditions imposed should relate either to assisting the reintegration of prisoners into society or to exercising a measure of control on them while they are subject to such conditions, but must not constitute an additional punishment. Like other post-sentencing dispositions, conditional release and requirements attached to it must be subject to review if the offender so chooses (TR 9.3).

Enforcement And Monitoring Of International Standards For Community Sanctions

The impact of international standards depends not only on their formal legal status but on the way in which they are enforced. The TR and the ERCSM are to a great extent the non-custodial equivalents of the respective sets of prison rules developed by the United Nations and the Council of Europe. However, they are less well known, and they do not have the same back up as the prison standards, which at the European level and to a lesser extent at the international level are supported by the monitoring activities of bodies designed to prevent the torture and ill treatment of persons in detention. Even if the ERCSM and the TR are based, in the same way as the prison rules, on the principles of the ECHR and the ICCPR, respectively, almost no jurisprudence by the European Court of Human Rights or of the United Nations Human Rights Committee can be found that deals with the imposition or implementation of community sanctions and measures. This is in stark contrast to the prison rules that are regularly referred to by these bodies when they deal with prison conditions. This lack of wider reference to the rules dealing with community sanctions is regrettable because both sets of rules adopt a highly principled approach towards the human rights-based use of community sanctions and represent what human rights lawyers call “evolving standards of decency” in this field (van Zyl Smit 2006).

It can be argued that the problems of enforcing and monitoring the Tokyo Rules also stem from the fact that they are drafted relatively loosely. For example, TR 1.3 allows implementation of community sanction in a way that “take[s] into account the political, economic, social and cultural conditions of each country and the aims and objectives of its criminal justice system.” This wording reflects the difficulties that are often experienced in arriving at universal understanding and acceptance of one set of human rights (Alston 1994). More often than not, the inclusion of such very general provisions is the price for unanimity in adopting human rights instruments (Morgenstern 2002) and it is certainly a weakness. On the other hand, the official justification for such a provision in the TR – that they are not meant as one single model because they aim at being considered in very different criminal systems – cannot totally be dismissed if one takes into account that the UN had more than 180 member states at the time of their adoption. The situation, of course, is different at a regional or at least at the European level: Notwithstanding divergent interpretations of specific articles of the ECHR, the question of a universal understanding of human rights is not a source of major controversy within the Council of Europe.

Mechanisms to monitor the implementation of the instruments are limited but vary significantly between the two bodies. The United Nations used to collect data and reports on the implementation of their standards and norms including the TR. However, this material had little value because the information provided by the member states was incomplete. As a result, the systematic collection of such information has largely lapsed. The standards therefore are more often used as tool for technical assistance. The TR, for example, served as basis for the “Handbook of basic principles and promising practices on Alternatives to Imprisonment” (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2007) which is used for training courses or seminars in countries who wish to reform this aspect of their criminal justice systems.

For the ERCSM, too, no formal monitoring mechanism is in place, but the Council of Europe tries to provide a follow-up on their dissemination and implementation by way of expert reports and attempts to collect data on community sanctions through its SPACE II program. Increasingly, also the European Union at least indirectly helps to implement criminal justice standards formulated by the Council of Europe by relying on them when developing its own criminal justice policies and projects (see below and Morgenstern 2009, 2011).

Future Developments

Recently, debates about community sanctions and their human rights implications have returned to the penal policy agenda. The rehabilitative ideal may have had been seriously challenged but in many jurisdictions is (again) acknowledged as the key principle governing community sanctions (Robinson 2008; McNeill 2013). It is also being recognized increasingly that the legitimacy of community sanctions is based on perceptions of how fair and humane they are and that human rights standards provide precisely the necessary and generally available criteria for evaluating them (Sparks and McNeill 2010).

How such standards may impact on criminal policy in the field of community sanctions is revealed by recent developments within the European Union: Historically, the European Union showed little interest in criminal justice and human rights-related questions, which were regarded as matters for the Council of Europe that includes all European states except Belarus. When the European Union became more active in crime and criminal justice-related fields in recent years, the engagement was usually associated with more effective law-enforcement instruments, as these were seen as closely related to its economic and political objectives. One more recently adopted EU instrument, however, aims at facilitating the cross-border enforcement of community sanctions within the European Union. The Framework Decision on Probation (Framework Decision 2008/947/JHA of 27 November 2008) will enable all member states of the EU to enforce a foreign probation sanction or measure according to their national practice; the enforcing state generally has to accept the judgment. Its objectives are “facilitating the social rehabilitation of sentenced persons, improving the protection of victims and the general public, and facilitating the application of suitable probation measures and alternative sanctions in case of offenders who do not live in the State of conviction.” Given the very different sanction systems, enforcement modalities, and infrastructures of the 27 member states of the European Union, this is not an easy task, as member states are very reluctant to accept foreign judgments. This particularly refers to an area such as community sanctions where the details of how the punishments should be implemented are still largely shaped by nationally bound cultural norms. A lot of confidence-building measures are necessary, and steps have begun to be taken for EU member states to exchange detailed information about their community sanction systems (Flore et al. 2012). Here the established human rights standards of the Council of Europe come into play because they are already available, have been adopted by an even larger European institution (the Council of Europe to which all EU member states belong), and are based on fundamental common human rights values. They can thus be used as yardsticks or criteria against which national practices can be assessed (Morgenstern 2009, 2011).

Even if we consider that “human rights lawyers are notoriously wishful thinkers” (Humphrey 1973), this can be regarded as a positive development for the rights of those affected who may get to serve their community sentences in their countries of origin. It may be a harbinger of a wider international movement to recognize human rights in the enforcement of community sanctions.

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