hypothesis in qualitative research studies usually mcq

Qualitative Research MCQ Quiz With Answers

Take this exciting Qualitative research MCQ quiz that is designed to test your knowledge regarding the same. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in several different academic disciplines, such as social sciences and natural sciences. It is also used in non-academic contexts, including market research, business, and service demonstrations by non-profits. Here, we'll ask you a few questions related to qualitative research methods. If you think you have a good understanding of this subject, then you must take this quiz and see if you know enough to pass this test.

Which of the following is NOT a method of quantitative research?

Grounded Theory Research

Correlational Research

Quasi-Experimental Research

Experimental Research

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The grounded theory approach was developed by

Glaser and Strauss

Deductive Reasoning is applied in the:

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Action research

Applied research

Which of the following is a qualitative research design where lived experiences of individuals are examined in their "lifeworld"?

Ethnography

Phenomenology

Grounded theory

Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?

Deductive process

Control over the context

Fixed research design

Inductive process

The qualitative research design involves

Emergent design

Correlative design

Experimental design

Cohort design

The phenomenological study involves all the following features EXCEPT.

Bracket out

Description

Manipulation

Which of the following qualitative methods focuses on the description and interpretation of cultural behavior?

Symbolic interactionism

The area of inquiry in the grounded theory approach is

The holistic view of culture

Lived experiences

The behavior is observed over time in a natural context.

Social structural processes within a social setting

The research design in which the area inquiry is the manner by which people make sense of social interactions:

The term triangulation was coined by:.

Denzin (1989)

Leininger (1985)

Glaser and Strauss (1967)

In qualitative research, a guiding principle in deciding sample size is:

Effect size

Number of variables

Data saturation

Sub-group analysis

The term refers to the use of multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth:

Item analysis

Factor analysis

Error measurement

Triangulation

Characteristics of qualitative research design are

Flexible and elastic design

Use of mixed methodologies

Ongoing analysis to formulate subsequent strategies

The researcher becomes the instrument.

All of the above

The tendency in qualitative research to derive a complex array of data from a variety of sources, using a variety of methods, is termed as:

Cross-tabulation

Confirmability

The term “action research” was coined by:

Glaser & Strauss

Karl Pearson

Jacob Cohen

The standards for critiquing qualitative research include except:

Descriptive vividness

Methodological Congruence

Analytical and interpretative preciseness

Heuristic relevance

Chance for committing Type-I error

A method of analyzing qualitative data that involves an interactive approach to testing the research hypothesis:

Analytic induction

Axial coding

'Blind' review

Inquiry audit

The process of identifying and holding in abeyance any preconceived beliefs and opinions one has about the phenomena of understanding is:

Content Analysis

A design that unfolds in the course of a qualitative study as the researcher makes ongoing design:

Quasi-experimental design

Exploratory design

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These Qualitative Research multiple-choice questions and their answers will help you strengthen your grip on the subject of Qualitative Research. You can prepare for an upcoming exam or job interview with these 30 Qualitative Research MCQs. So scroll down and start answering.

1: Constructivism is a philosophical view that maintains there_____, in which people construct their own meaning of the world.

A. Is single reality

B. Are multiple realities

C. Are relatable realities

D. Are no realities

2: _____ is when the researcher develops a set of predetermined criteria by which to select participants.

A. Criterion sampling

B. Critical case sampling

C. Extreme case sampling

D. Maximum variation sampling

3: _____ selects a few essential cases for understanding the issue.

4: critical theory is a group of philosophical views that contend that reality is defined by social entities such as _____ politics, and gender..

A. Culture

B. Race

C. Class

D. All of these

5: _____ occurs when no new information is derived from the data collection process and all the needed information is obtained.

A. Data supersaturation

B. Data saturation

C. Both

D. None

6: A “top-down” type of reasoning in which a claim (a hypothesis or theory) is used to generate ideas or predictions and make observations is known as_____

A. Abductive reasoning

B. Deductive reasoning

C. Inductive reasoning

D. Analogical reasoning

7: An assumption in science that all actions in the universe do not have a cause is known as determinism.

A. True

B. False

8: _____ identifies highly unusual cases (the exception to the rule) as the sample.

9: _____ are notes that are taken during the observation to help the observer recall what was observed..

A. Sample notes

B. Field notes

C. Personal notes

D. Customised notes

10: A “bottom-up” type of reasoning in which a limited number of observations or measurements (i.e., data) are used to generate ideas and make observations is known as_____

11: _____ maximizes the diversity of the sample by including typical and extreme cases., 12: _____ are words collected via interviews or documents that are used for analysis..

A. Sample data

B. Documented data

C. Narrative data

D. None of these

13: _____ seeks to find individuals who do not fit into the emerging patterns identified in the analysis.

D. Negative case sampling

14: Observer is a research role where the observer is seen or heard.

15: observer as a participant is a qualitative researcher who is primarily an observer but will have limited interaction with the participants., 16: _____ obtains participants serendipitously to take advantage of circumstances or new events as they arise..

A. Opportunistic sampling

B. Snowball sampling

C. Typical case sampling

17: _____ is when the researcher takes an active role in the activities under investigation, typically by assuming the role being studied.

A. Naturalistic observation

B. Obtrusive observation

C. Unobtrusive observation

D. Overt observation

18: Participant is a term used to describe a _____ who volunteers to be subjected to the procedures in a research study.

A. Human

B. Non human

19: Participant as observer is when _____

A. The researcher is engaged with the participants of the study

B. The researcher may be viewed as a friend or colleague

C. The participants know that this person is the researcher

20: _____ is a philosophical view shared by both quantitative and qualitative researchers where the belief is that there is one reality that can be studied using a structured scientific method, verified, understood, and tested as theories.

A. Positivism

B. Post positivism

C. Maturation

D. Both a and b

21: Qualitative research design uses the scientific method to make _____ observations, from which conclusions are drawn without the use of statistical analysis.

A. Numeric

B. Non numeric

22: _____ is when the participants alter their behavior in some way because they know they are being studied.

A. Determinism

B. Reactivity

C. Response bias

23: Begins with one or two participants who can provide information about the topic under investigation. The sample becomes larger as the study continues, this type of sampling is known as_____

24: _____ selects individuals who are average or representative of the issue being investigated., 25: what kind of data do researchers collect with qualitative research design.

A. Numeric data

B. Narrative data

C. Longitudinal data

D. Population data

26: Qualitative researchers have a holistic view that emphasizes that ______.

A. Each person experiences a slightly different realities

B. Shared behaviors can be measured in groups

C. Behavior is dependent on context

D. Behaviors operate the same between groups

27: In qualitative research, who is a co-researcher?

A. A second research team member

B. The participant

C. A student research assistant

D. The main investigator

28: Qualitative research using a(n) analysis, while quantitative research uses to interpret data.

A. Thematic; interactive

B. Inferential; statistical

C. Directional; deductive

D. Thematic; statistical

29: What is the belief that there is one reality?

A. Constructivism

B. Positivism

C. Critical theory

D. Modernism

30: What is the belief that reality is defined by social entities?

A. Postpositivism

B. Constructivism

31: A researcher wants to investigate why students participate in after school activities with a plan to interview 75 students. After 20 interviews, the responses begin to repeat with no new information. What is this an example of?

A. Data saturation

B. Interview bias

D. Response saturation

32: Who is a researcher that participates in activities, but does not reveal her role as a researcher?

A. Observer

B. Complete participant

C. Participant as observer

D. Observer as participant

33: Qualitative research uses ______ sampling to study participants in depth to provide rich and deep narratives of the topic.

A. Simple random

B. Probability

C. Stratified

D. Non-probability

34: What is a sampling strategy that selects a few essential cases for understanding the issue?

A. Critical case sampling

B. Opportunistic sampling

C. Criterion sampling

D. Stratified sampling

35: A researcher investigates how students interact during an art class and helps in projects when asked by the students. What is this an example of?

B. Observer as participant

C. Complete participant

D. Covert observations

36: To gain access to a population, a researcher finds one participant they know that has experienced their topic under investigation. That participant then gives contact information on another person for the researcher. What is this an example of?

A. Snowball sampling

C. Emergent sampling

D. Typical case sampling

37: One problem with any research is that participants may alter their behaviors when they know they are being watched. What is this behavior called?

A. Active bias

B. External bias

D. Reactivity

38: A researcher specifies six characteristics that each participant must meet in order to be studied. What is this an example of?

A. Extreme case sampling

B. Criterion sampling

C. Critical case sampling

D. Opportunistic sampling

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Qualitative and Quantitative Research are the classification of research on the basis of......
Data analysis in qualitative research, as contrasted with quantitative research, is generally—
Research hypotheses are ______________
In a qualitative research proposal you would not expect to see a............
Qualitative research is often exploratory and has all of the following characteristics except- -------
In qualitative research, differences among types of purposive sample have to do with-----
Conclusions from qualitative research are--------
The validity poses a problem for qualitative research because—
The null and alternative hypotheses divide all possibilities into
.........is true of the null and alternative hypotheses.

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Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology

Student resources, chapter 3: research methods.

1. Which of the following statements is not true? [TY3.1]

Psychological measurement can involve the measurement of phenomena believed to be related to a given psychological state or process.
Psychological measurement can involve the measurement of behaviour believed to result from a given psychological state or process.
Psychological measurement can involve self-reports of behaviour believed to be related to a given psychological state or process.
Psychological measurement can involve the self-reports of a sample drawn from a particular sub-population.
Psychological measurement can involve direct examination of psychological states and processes.

2. A researcher conducts an experiment that tests the hypothesis that ‘anxiety has an adverse effect on students’ exam performance’. Which of the following statements is true? [TY3.2]

Anxiety is the dependent variable, exam performance is the independent variable.
Anxiety is the dependent variable, students are the independent variable.
Anxiety is the independent variable, students are the dependent variable.
Anxiety is the independent variable, exam performance is the dependent variable.
Students are the dependent variable, exam performance is the independent variable.

3. An experimenter conducts a study in which she wants to look at the effects of altitude on psychological well-being. To do this she randomly allocates people to two groups and takes one group up in a plane to a height of 1000 metres and leaves the other group in the airport terminal as a control group. When the plane is in the air she seeks to establish the psychological well-being of both groups. Which of the following is a potential confound, threatening the internal validity of the study? [TY3.3]

The reliability of the questionnaire that she uses to establish psychological health.
The size of the space in which the participants are confined.
The susceptibility of the experimental group to altitude sickness.
The susceptibility of the control group to altitude sickness.
The age of people in experimental and control groups.

4. What distinguishes the experimental method from the quasi-experimental method? [TY3.4]

The scientific status of the research.
The existence of an independent variable.
The existence of different levels of an independent variable.
The sensitivity of the dependent variable.
The random assignment of participants to conditions.

5. Which of the following is not an advantage of the survey/correlational method? [TY3.5]

It allows researchers to examine a number of different variables at the same time.
It allows researchers to examine the relationship between variables in natural settings.
It allows researchers to make predictions based on observed relationships between variables.
It allows researchers to explain observed relationships between variables.
It is often more convenient than experimental methods.

6. Which of the following statements is true? [TY3.6]

Case studies have played no role in the development of psychological theory.
Case studies have all of the weaknesses and none of the strengths of larger studies.
Case studies have none of the weaknesses and all of the strengths of larger studies.
Case studies should only be conducted if every other option has been ruled out.
None of the above.

7. An experimenter, Tom, conducts an experiment to see whether accuracy of responding and reaction time are affected by consumption of alcohol. To do this, Tom conducts a study in which students at university A react to pairs of symbols by saying ‘same’ or ‘different’ after consuming two glasses of water and students at university B react to pairs of symbols by saying ‘same’ or ‘different’ after consuming two glasses of wine. Tom predicts that reaction times will be slower and that there will be more errors in the responses of students who have consumed alcohol. Which of the following statements is not true? [TY3.7]

The university attended by participants is a confound.
The experiment has two dependent variables.
Reaction time is the independent variable.
Tom’s ability to draw firm conclusions about the impact of alcohol on reaction time would be improved by assigning participants randomly to experimental conditions.
This study is actually a quasi-experiment.

8. What is an extraneous variable? [TY3.8]

A variable that can never be manipulated.
A variable that can never be controlled.
A variable that can never be measured.
A variable that clouds the interpretation of results.

9. Which of the following statements is true? [TY3.9]

The appropriateness of any research method is always determined by the research question and the research environment.
Good experiments all involve a large number of participants.
Experiments should be conducted in laboratories in order to improve experimental control.
Surveys have no place in good psychological research.
Case studies are usually carried out when researchers are too lazy to find enough participants.

10. A piece of research that is conducted in a natural (non-artificial) setting is called: [TY3.10]

A case study.
A field study.
A quasi-experiment.
An observational study.

11. “Measures designed to gain insight into particular psychological states or processes that involve recording performance on particular activities or tasks.” What type of measures does this glossary entry describe?

State measures.
Behavioural measures.
Physiological measures.
Activity measures.
Performance measures.

12. “An approach to psychology that asserts that human behaviour can be understood in terms of directly observable relationships (in particular, between a stimulus and a response) without having to refer to underlying mental states.” Which approach to psychology is this a glossary definition of?

Behaviourism.
Freudianism.
Cognitivism.
Radical observationism.

13. “The complete set of events, people or things that a researcher is interested in and from which any sample is taken.” What does this glossary entry define?

Total sample.
Complete sample.
Reference sample.
Reference group.
Population.

14. “Either the process of reaching conclusions about the effect of one variable on another, or the outcome of such a process.” What does this glossary entry define?

Causal inference.
Inductive reasoning.
Inferential accounting.

15. “The extent to which the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable has been correctly interpreted.” Which construct is this a glossary definition of?

Internal inference.
External inference.
External validity.
Holistic deduction.
Internal validity.

Qualitative Research MCQ Quiz

hypothesis in qualitative research studies usually mcq

Participate in this engaging Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) quiz focused on Qualitative Research, specifically designed to assess your knowledge in this field.

Qualitative research is an investigative method utilized across various academic disciplines, spanning the social sciences and natural sciences. Furthermore, it finds practical application in non-academic settings, including market research, business endeavors, and the presentation of services by non-profit organizations. In this quiz, we will present a series of questions related to qualitative research methods.

If you believe you have a strong understanding of this subject, we encourage you to take the quiz to evaluate your expertise.

StatPearls [Internet].

Qualitative study.

Steven Tenny ; Janelle M. Brannan ; Grace D. Brannan .

Affiliations

Last Update: September 18, 2022 .

Introduction

Qualitative research is a type of research that explores and provides deeper insights into real-world problems. [1] Instead of collecting numerical data points or intervene or introduce treatments just like in quantitative research, qualitative research helps generate hypotheses as well as further investigate and understand quantitative data. Qualitative research gathers participants' experiences, perceptions, and behavior. It answers the hows and whys instead of how many or how much. It could be structured as a stand-alone study, purely relying on qualitative data or it could be part of mixed-methods research that combines qualitative and quantitative data. This review introduces the readers to some basic concepts, definitions, terminology, and application of qualitative research.

Qualitative research at its core, ask open-ended questions whose answers are not easily put into numbers such as ‘how’ and ‘why’. [2] Due to the open-ended nature of the research questions at hand, qualitative research design is often not linear in the same way quantitative design is. [2] One of the strengths of qualitative research is its ability to explain processes and patterns of human behavior that can be difficult to quantify. [3] Phenomena such as experiences, attitudes, and behaviors can be difficult to accurately capture quantitatively, whereas a qualitative approach allows participants themselves to explain how, why, or what they were thinking, feeling, and experiencing at a certain time or during an event of interest. Quantifying qualitative data certainly is possible, but at its core, qualitative data is looking for themes and patterns that can be difficult to quantify and it is important to ensure that the context and narrative of qualitative work are not lost by trying to quantify something that is not meant to be quantified.

However, while qualitative research is sometimes placed in opposition to quantitative research, where they are necessarily opposites and therefore ‘compete’ against each other and the philosophical paradigms associated with each, qualitative and quantitative work are not necessarily opposites nor are they incompatible. [4] While qualitative and quantitative approaches are different, they are not necessarily opposites, and they are certainly not mutually exclusive. For instance, qualitative research can help expand and deepen understanding of data or results obtained from quantitative analysis. For example, say a quantitative analysis has determined that there is a correlation between length of stay and level of patient satisfaction, but why does this correlation exist? This dual-focus scenario shows one way in which qualitative and quantitative research could be integrated together.

Examples of Qualitative Research Approaches

Ethnography

Ethnography as a research design has its origins in social and cultural anthropology, and involves the researcher being directly immersed in the participant’s environment. [2] Through this immersion, the ethnographer can use a variety of data collection techniques with the aim of being able to produce a comprehensive account of the social phenomena that occurred during the research period. [2] That is to say, the researcher’s aim with ethnography is to immerse themselves into the research population and come out of it with accounts of actions, behaviors, events, etc. through the eyes of someone involved in the population. Direct involvement of the researcher with the target population is one benefit of ethnographic research because it can then be possible to find data that is otherwise very difficult to extract and record.

Grounded Theory

Grounded Theory is the “generation of a theoretical model through the experience of observing a study population and developing a comparative analysis of their speech and behavior.” [5] As opposed to quantitative research which is deductive and tests or verifies an existing theory, grounded theory research is inductive and therefore lends itself to research that is aiming to study social interactions or experiences. [3] [2] In essence, Grounded Theory’s goal is to explain for example how and why an event occurs or how and why people might behave a certain way. Through observing the population, a researcher using the Grounded Theory approach can then develop a theory to explain the phenomena of interest.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is defined as the “study of the meaning of phenomena or the study of the particular”. [5] At first glance, it might seem that Grounded Theory and Phenomenology are quite similar, but upon careful examination, the differences can be seen. At its core, phenomenology looks to investigate experiences from the perspective of the individual. [2] Phenomenology is essentially looking into the ‘lived experiences’ of the participants and aims to examine how and why participants behaved a certain way, from their perspective . Herein lies one of the main differences between Grounded Theory and Phenomenology. Grounded Theory aims to develop a theory for social phenomena through an examination of various data sources whereas Phenomenology focuses on describing and explaining an event or phenomena from the perspective of those who have experienced it.

Narrative Research

One of qualitative research’s strengths lies in its ability to tell a story, often from the perspective of those directly involved in it. Reporting on qualitative research involves including details and descriptions of the setting involved and quotes from participants. This detail is called ‘thick’ or ‘rich’ description and is a strength of qualitative research. Narrative research is rife with the possibilities of ‘thick’ description as this approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just one or two individuals, in the hopes of creating a cohesive story, or narrative. [2] While it might seem like a waste of time to focus on such a specific, individual level, understanding one or two people’s narratives for an event or phenomenon can help to inform researchers about the influences that helped shape that narrative. The tension or conflict of differing narratives can be “opportunities for innovation”. [2]

Research Paradigm

Research paradigms are the assumptions, norms, and standards that underpin different approaches to research. Essentially, research paradigms are the ‘worldview’ that inform research. [4] It is valuable for researchers, both qualitative and quantitative, to understand what paradigm they are working within because understanding the theoretical basis of research paradigms allows researchers to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the approach being used and adjust accordingly. Different paradigms have different ontology and epistemologies . Ontology is defined as the "assumptions about the nature of reality” whereas epistemology is defined as the “assumptions about the nature of knowledge” that inform the work researchers do. [2] It is important to understand the ontological and epistemological foundations of the research paradigm researchers are working within to allow for a full understanding of the approach being used and the assumptions that underpin the approach as a whole. Further, it is crucial that researchers understand their own ontological and epistemological assumptions about the world in general because their assumptions about the world will necessarily impact how they interact with research. A discussion of the research paradigm is not complete without describing positivist, postpositivist, and constructivist philosophies.

Positivist vs Postpositivist

To further understand qualitative research, we need to discuss positivist and postpositivist frameworks. Positivism is a philosophy that the scientific method can and should be applied to social as well as natural sciences. [4] Essentially, positivist thinking insists that the social sciences should use natural science methods in its research which stems from positivist ontology that there is an objective reality that exists that is fully independent of our perception of the world as individuals. Quantitative research is rooted in positivist philosophy, which can be seen in the value it places on concepts such as causality, generalizability, and replicability.

Conversely, postpositivists argue that social reality can never be one hundred percent explained but it could be approximated. [4] Indeed, qualitative researchers have been insisting that there are “fundamental limits to the extent to which the methods and procedures of the natural sciences could be applied to the social world” and therefore postpositivist philosophy is often associated with qualitative research. [4] An example of positivist versus postpositivist values in research might be that positivist philosophies value hypothesis-testing, whereas postpositivist philosophies value the ability to formulate a substantive theory.

Constructivist

Constructivism is a subcategory of postpositivism. Most researchers invested in postpositivist research are constructivist as well, meaning they think there is no objective external reality that exists but rather that reality is constructed. Constructivism is a theoretical lens that emphasizes the dynamic nature of our world. “Constructivism contends that individuals’ views are directly influenced by their experiences, and it is these individual experiences and views that shape their perspective of reality”. [6] Essentially, Constructivist thought focuses on how ‘reality’ is not a fixed certainty and experiences, interactions, and backgrounds give people a unique view of the world. Constructivism contends, unlike in positivist views, that there is not necessarily an ‘objective’ reality we all experience. This is the ‘relativist’ ontological view that reality and the world we live in are dynamic and socially constructed. Therefore, qualitative scientific knowledge can be inductive as well as deductive.” [4]

So why is it important to understand the differences in assumptions that different philosophies and approaches to research have? Fundamentally, the assumptions underpinning the research tools a researcher selects provide an overall base for the assumptions the rest of the research will have and can even change the role of the researcher themselves. [2] For example, is the researcher an ‘objective’ observer such as in positivist quantitative work? Or is the researcher an active participant in the research itself, as in postpositivist qualitative work? Understanding the philosophical base of the research undertaken allows researchers to fully understand the implications of their work and their role within the research, as well as reflect on their own positionality and bias as it pertains to the research they are conducting.

Data Sampling

The better the sample represents the intended study population, the more likely the researcher is to encompass the varying factors at play. The following are examples of participant sampling and selection: [7]

Purposive sampling- selection based on the researcher’s rationale in terms of being the most informative.
Criterion sampling-selection based on pre-identified factors.
Convenience sampling- selection based on availability.
Snowball sampling- the selection is by referral from other participants or people who know potential participants.
Extreme case sampling- targeted selection of rare cases.
Typical case sampling-selection based on regular or average participants.

Data Collection and Analysis

Qualitative research uses several techniques including interviews, focus groups, and observation. [1] [2] [3] Interviews may be unstructured, with open-ended questions on a topic and the interviewer adapts to the responses. Structured interviews have a predetermined number of questions that every participant is asked. It is usually one on one and is appropriate for sensitive topics or topics needing an in-depth exploration. Focus groups are often held with 8-12 target participants and are used when group dynamics and collective views on a topic are desired. Researchers can be a participant-observer to share the experiences of the subject or a non-participant or detached observer.

While quantitative research design prescribes a controlled environment for data collection, qualitative data collection may be in a central location or in the environment of the participants, depending on the study goals and design. Qualitative research could amount to a large amount of data. Data is transcribed which may then be coded manually or with the use of Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software or CAQDAS such as ATLAS.ti or NVivo. [8] [9] [10]

After the coding process, qualitative research results could be in various formats. It could be a synthesis and interpretation presented with excerpts from the data. [11] Results also could be in the form of themes and theory or model development.

Dissemination

To standardize and facilitate the dissemination of qualitative research outcomes, the healthcare team can use two reporting standards. The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research or COREQ is a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. [12] The Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) is a checklist covering a wider range of qualitative research. [13]

Examples of Application

Many times a research question will start with qualitative research. The qualitative research will help generate the research hypothesis which can be tested with quantitative methods. After the data is collected and analyzed with quantitative methods, a set of qualitative methods can be used to dive deeper into the data for a better understanding of what the numbers truly mean and their implications. The qualitative methods can then help clarify the quantitative data and also help refine the hypothesis for future research. Furthermore, with qualitative research researchers can explore subjects that are poorly studied with quantitative methods. These include opinions, individual's actions, and social science research.

A good qualitative study design starts with a goal or objective. This should be clearly defined or stated. The target population needs to be specified. A method for obtaining information from the study population must be carefully detailed to ensure there are no omissions of part of the target population. A proper collection method should be selected which will help obtain the desired information without overly limiting the collected data because many times, the information sought is not well compartmentalized or obtained. Finally, the design should ensure adequate methods for analyzing the data. An example may help better clarify some of the various aspects of qualitative research.

A researcher wants to decrease the number of teenagers who smoke in their community. The researcher could begin by asking current teen smokers why they started smoking through structured or unstructured interviews (qualitative research). The researcher can also get together a group of current teenage smokers and conduct a focus group to help brainstorm factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke (qualitative research).

In this example, the researcher has used qualitative research methods (interviews and focus groups) to generate a list of ideas of both why teens start to smoke as well as factors that may have prevented them from starting to smoke. Next, the researcher compiles this data. The research found that, hypothetically, peer pressure, health issues, cost, being considered “cool,” and rebellious behavior all might increase or decrease the likelihood of teens starting to smoke.

The researcher creates a survey asking teen participants to rank how important each of the above factors is in either starting smoking (for current smokers) or not smoking (for current non-smokers). This survey provides specific numbers (ranked importance of each factor) and is thus a quantitative research tool.

The researcher can use the results of the survey to focus efforts on the one or two highest-ranked factors. Let us say the researcher found that health was the major factor that keeps teens from starting to smoke, and peer pressure was the major factor that contributed to teens to start smoking. The researcher can go back to qualitative research methods to dive deeper into each of these for more information. The researcher wants to focus on how to keep teens from starting to smoke, so they focus on the peer pressure aspect.

The researcher can conduct interviews and/or focus groups (qualitative research) about what types and forms of peer pressure are commonly encountered, where the peer pressure comes from, and where smoking first starts. The researcher hypothetically finds that peer pressure often occurs after school at the local teen hangouts, mostly the local park. The researcher also hypothetically finds that peer pressure comes from older, current smokers who provide the cigarettes.

The researcher could further explore this observation made at the local teen hangouts (qualitative research) and take notes regarding who is smoking, who is not, and what observable factors are at play for peer pressure of smoking. The researcher finds a local park where many local teenagers hang out and see that a shady, overgrown area of the park is where the smokers tend to hang out. The researcher notes the smoking teenagers buy their cigarettes from a local convenience store adjacent to the park where the clerk does not check identification before selling cigarettes. These observations fall under qualitative research.

If the researcher returns to the park and counts how many individuals smoke in each region of the park, this numerical data would be quantitative research. Based on the researcher's efforts thus far, they conclude that local teen smoking and teenagers who start to smoke may decrease if there are fewer overgrown areas of the park and the local convenience store does not sell cigarettes to underage individuals.

The researcher could try to have the parks department reassess the shady areas to make them less conducive to the smokers or identify how to limit the sales of cigarettes to underage individuals by the convenience store. The researcher would then cycle back to qualitative methods of asking at-risk population their perceptions of the changes, what factors are still at play, as well as quantitative research that includes teen smoking rates in the community, the incidence of new teen smokers, among others. [14] [15]

Qualitative research functions as a standalone research design or in combination with quantitative research to enhance our understanding of the world. Qualitative research uses techniques including structured and unstructured interviews, focus groups, and participant observation to not only help generate hypotheses which can be more rigorously tested with quantitative research but also to help researchers delve deeper into the quantitative research numbers, understand what they mean, and understand what the implications are. Qualitative research provides researchers with a way to understand what is going on, especially when things are not easily categorized. [16]

Issues of Concern

As discussed in the sections above, quantitative and qualitative work differ in many different ways, including the criteria for evaluating them. There are four well-established criteria for evaluating quantitative data: internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity. The correlating concepts in qualitative research are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. [4] [11] The corresponding quantitative and qualitative concepts can be seen below, with the quantitative concept is on the left, and the qualitative concept is on the right:

Internal validity--- Credibility
External validity---Transferability
Reliability---Dependability
Objectivity---Confirmability

In conducting qualitative research, ensuring these concepts are satisfied and well thought out can mitigate potential issues from arising. For example, just as a researcher will ensure that their quantitative study is internally valid so should qualitative researchers ensure that their work has credibility.

Indicators such as triangulation and peer examination can help evaluate the credibility of qualitative work.

Triangulation: Triangulation involves using multiple methods of data collection to increase the likelihood of getting a reliable and accurate result. In our above magic example, the result would be more reliable by also interviewing the magician, back-stage hand, and the person who "vanished." In qualitative research, triangulation can include using telephone surveys, in-person surveys, focus groups, and interviews as well as surveying an adequate cross-section of the target demographic.
Peer examination: Results can be reviewed by a peer to ensure the data is consistent with the findings.

‘Thick’ or ‘rich’ description can be used to evaluate the transferability of qualitative research whereas using an indicator such as an audit trail might help with evaluating the dependability and confirmability.

Thick or rich description is a detailed and thorough description of details, the setting, and quotes from participants in the research. [5] Thick descriptions will include a detailed explanation of how the study was carried out. Thick descriptions are detailed enough to allow readers to draw conclusions and interpret the data themselves, which can help with transferability and replicability.
Audit trail: An audit trail provides a documented set of steps of how the participants were selected and the data was collected. The original records of information should also be kept (e.g., surveys, notes, recordings).

One issue of concern that qualitative researchers should take into consideration is observation bias. Here are a few examples:

Hawthorne effect: The Hawthorne effect is the change in participant behavior when they know they are being observed. If a researcher was wanting to identify factors that contribute to employee theft and tells the employees they are going to watch them to see what factors affect employee theft, one would suspect employee behavior would change when they know they are being watched.
Observer-expectancy effect: Some participants change their behavior or responses to satisfy the researcher's desired effect. This happens in an unconscious manner for the participant so it is important to eliminate or limit transmitting the researcher's views.
Artificial scenario effect: Some qualitative research occurs in artificial scenarios and/or with preset goals. In such situations, the information may not be accurate because of the artificial nature of the scenario. The preset goals may limit the qualitative information obtained.
Clinical Significance

Qualitative research by itself or combined with quantitative research helps healthcare providers understand patients and the impact and challenges of the care they deliver. Qualitative research provides an opportunity to generate and refine hypotheses and delve deeper into the data generated by quantitative research. Qualitative research does not exist as an island apart from quantitative research, but as an integral part of research methods to be used for the understanding of the world around us. [17]

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

Qualitative research is important for all members of the health care team as all are affected by qualitative research. Qualitative research may help develop a theory or a model for health research that can be further explored by quantitative research. Much of the qualitative research data acquisition is completed by numerous team members including social works, scientists, nurses, etc. Within each area of the medical field, there is copious ongoing qualitative research including physician-patient interactions, nursing-patient interactions, patient-environment interactions, health care team function, patient information delivery, etc.

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Disclosure: Steven Tenny declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Janelle Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Grace Brannan declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

Cite this Page Tenny S, Brannan JM, Brannan GD. Qualitative Study. [Updated 2022 Sep 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Research mcqs-part-ii.

51. Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable? a. Age b. Annual Income c. Grade Point Average d. Religion

52. In research, something that does not “vary” is called a ___________. a. Variable b. Method c. Constant d. control group

53. The strongest evidence for causality comes from which of the following research methods? a. Experimental b. Causal-comparative c. Correlational d. Ethnography

54. good qualitative problem statement: a. Defines the independent and dependent variables b. Conveys a sense of emerging design c. Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested d. Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find

55. Sometimes a comprehensive review of the literature prior to data collection is not recommended by grounded theorists. a. True b. False

56. The research participants are described in detail in which section of the research plan? a. Introduction b. Method c. Data analysis d. Discussion

57. The statement of purpose in a research study should: a. Identify the design of the study b. Identify the intent or objective of the study c. Specify the type of people to be used in the study d. Describe the study

58. A qualitative research question: a. Asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored b. Is generally an open-ended question c. both a and b are correct d. None of the above

59. According to the text, which of the following orders is the recommended in the flowchart of the development of a research idea? a. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, research question, hypothesis b. Research topic, research purpose, research problem, research question, hypothesis c. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, research question, hypothesis d. Research topic, hypothesis, research problem, research question, research purpose

60. One step that is not included in planning a research study is: a. Identifying a researchable problem b. A review of current research c. Statement of the research question d. Conducting a meta-analysis of the research e. Developing a research plan

61. Sources of researchable problems can include: a. Researchers’ own experiences as educators b. Practical issues that require solutions c. Theory and past research d. All of the above

62. Which of the following is a function of theory? a. Integrating and summarizing current knowledge b. Making predictions c. Explaining phenomena d. All of the above are important functions of theory

63. A review of the literature prior to formulating research questions allows the researcher to do which of the following? a. To become familiar with prior research on the phenomenon of interest b. To identify potential methodological problems in the research area c. To develop a list of pertinent problems relative to the phenomenon of interest d. All of the above

64. Computer database searches can be done: a. With a computer with CD-ROM drive b. At the library c. Online d. All of the above

65. What is the primary approach that is used by the IRB to assess the ethical acceptability of a research study? a. Utilitarianism b. Deontology c. Ethical skepticism d. Comparativeism

66. The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of: a. Cost and time required to conduct the study b. Skills required of the researcher c. Potential ethical concerns d. All of the above

67. A formal statement of the research question or “purpose of research study” generally; a. Is made prior to the literature review b. Is made after the literature review c. Will help guide the research process d. b and c

68. Research hypotheses are ______. a. Formulated prior to a review of the literature b. Statements of predicted relationships between variables c. Stated such that they can be confirmed or refuted d. b and c

69. Hypotheses in qualitative research studies usually _____. a. Are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study b. Are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and analyzed c. Are never used d. Are always stated after the research study has been completed

70. A research plan _____. a. Should be detailed b. Should be given to others for review and comments c. Sets out the rationale for a research study d. All of the above

71. The Method section of the research plan typically specifies EXCEPT; a. The research participants b. The results of prior studies that address the phenomena of interest c. The apparatus, instruments, and materials for the research study d. The planned research procedures

72. The Introduction section of the research plan a. Gives an overview of prior relevant studies b. Contains a statement of the purpose of the study c. Concludes with a statement of the research questions &, for quantitative research, it includes the research hypothesis d. All of the above

73. Which of the following is necessary in obtaining informed consent? a. A description of the statistical analyses that will be carried out b. A description of the purpose of the research c. A description of the reliability and validity of test instruments d. A list of publications that the researcher has had in the last ten years

74. Which of the following need(s) to be obtained when doing research with children? a. Informed consent from the parent or guardian b. Assent from the child if he or she is capable c. Informed consent from the child d. Both a and b

75. Ideally, the research participant’s identity is not known to the researcher. This is called: a. Anonymity b. Confidentiality c. Deception d. Desensitizing

76. Which of the following is true about the use of deception in research? a. It should never be used b. It can be used anytime c. If there is deception in a study, the participants may need to be debriefed d. The use of deception must be outweighed by other benefits of the study e. Both c and d are true

77. Which of the following is not an ethical guideline for conducting research with humans? a. Getting informed consent of the participant b. Telling participants they must continue until the study has been completed c. Keeping participants’ identity anonymous d. Telling participants they are free to withdraw at any time

78. ________ means that the participant’s identity, although known to the researcher, is not revealed to anyone outside of the researcher and his or her staff. a. Anonymity b. Confidentiality

79. Which of the following is not true? a. Misrepresenting and creating fraudulent data is dishonest b. Misrepresenting data is very easy to detect c. Misrepresenting data can be difficult to detect d. Breaking confidentiality is not a problem

80. What is it called when the participants are not revealed to any one but researcher and staff? a. Confidentiality b. Anonymity c. Ethics d. Discretion

81. Research participants must give what before they can participate in a study? a. Guidelines b. A commitment c. Informed consent d. Private information

82. Identify the term that refers to a post study interview in which all aspects of the study are revealed, reasons for the use of deception are given, and the participants’ questions are answered? a. Desensitizing b. Debriefing c. Dehoaxing d. Deploying

83. A set of principles to guide and assist researchers in deciding which goals are most important and in reconciling conflicting values when conducting research is called ____. a. Research ethics b. Deontological approach c. Utilitarianism d. None of the above

84. IRB is an acronym for which of the following? a. Internal Review Board b. Institutional Rating Board c. Institutional Review Board d. Internal Request Board

85. The act of publishing the same data and results in more than one journal or publication refers to which of the following professional issues: a. Partial publication b. Duplicate publication c. Deception d. Full publication

86. Which term refers to publishing several articles from the data collected in one large study? a. Duplicate publication b. Partial publication c. Triplicate publication d. None of these

87. Which of the following is a right of each participant in research? a. Deception b. Utilitarianism c. Freedom to withdraw d. Participants have no rights

88. The use of statistics to make assumptions concerning some unknown aspect of a population from a sample of that population is known as follow; a. Inferential Statistics b. Parameter c. Descriptive Statistics d. Sampling

89. Which of the following is not an assumption underlying testing and measurement? a. Various approaches to measuring aspects of the same thing can be useful b. Error is rarely present in the measurement process c. Present-day behavior predicts future behavior d. Testing and assessment benefit society

90. Systematic error is associated with: a. Reliability b. Validity

91. Which of the following generally cannot be done in qualitative studies conducted in the field? a. Getting informed consent b. Keeping participants from physical harm c. Maintaining consent forms d. Having full anonymity rather than just confidentiality

92. Which of the following is a type of criterion–related validity evidence? a. Concurrent evidence b. Predictive evidence c. Internal consistency d. Both a and b are correct answers

93. The actual population of study participants selected from a larger population is known as: a. Target population b. Accessible population c. Population d. Cluster

94. Sampling criteria may be used by Nurse to develop the desired sample. Characteristics those must be present for a subject to be included in the sample is called: a. Inclusion criteria b. Exclusion criteria c. Representativeness d. Consent

95. Selection of sample in this study is an important step in doing research. A good sample is: a. One that includes both male and female nurses b. One that shows a balance in the number of nurses from hospital and school c. One that is representative of the population from which it was selected d. One that can be manipulated and controlled

96. A study in which we see the nurse’s level of education is classified in which level of measurement? a. Nominal-scale b. Ordinal scale c. Interval scale d. Ratio-scale

97. Which one of the following supports “reasoning moves from general to specific situation or conclusion”? a. Scientific reasoning b. Deductive reasoning c. Inductive reasoning d. None of the above

98. Which one of the following is a type of nonparametric test? a. t-test b. Chi-squire c. z-test d. f-test

99. Which one of the following is consists of rules for assigning numbers to objects to represent quantities of attributes? a. Reliability b. Measurement c. Measurement error d. Validity

100. Following are the elements of research critique EXCEPT ONE; a. Methodological dimensions b. Practical dimensions c. Ethical dimensions d. Interpretive dimensions