indian politics essay introduction

Indian Politics Essay

500 words essay on indian politics.

Politics, simply speaking, refers to the activities surrounding a country’s governance. In the context of a large democratic country like India, politics becomes really complicated. This Indian politics essay will throw light on the politics of India.

Indian Politics Essay

Background of Indian Politics

Politics in India, like any other democratic country, involves the ruling party and the opposition. In India, the formation of political parties has taken place on the basis of ideology. Moreover, the Indian political parties belong to the left and the right political spectrum.

Leftist politics rely on the values of secularism , liberalism, and rebelliousness. In contrast, rightist politics favour the values of being pro-government, orderly, conservative, and traditional.

There are no definitions of left-right politics anywhere in the Indian constitution. Furthermore, these terms were given by commentators, authors, and journalists. Also, it has been witnessed in India that some politicians can change their political party and ideology.

Indeed for a stable democracy , it is necessary that both political ideologies, the right and left, operate side by side. As such, some times, the country may be under rightist influence while leftist ideals may dominate at another time. The two major political parties in India, BJP and Congress, clearly demonstrate the two different political spectrums of right and left respectively.

Problem with Indian Politics

For a democracy to work properly there must be a proper demarcation between the political ideologies. However, in India, the demarcation between these ideologies tends to get blurry, thereby resulting in the superimposition of one ideology over the other. This is certainly not an indication of a mature democracy.

The political system of India suffers due to the clash of different political ideologies. Furthermore, such clashes can turn out to be quite ugly. Most noteworthy, such clashes are detrimental to the development of the country as a whole.

Various other problems affect Indian politics like hatred, injustice, corruption, greed, and bigotry. Due to all these problems, Indian politics is called a dirty game. Such problems can also force many intellectual and eminent individuals to stay away from Indian politics.

Sometimes the Indian politicians may choose a political party, not because of the ideological stance, but rather due to the winning probability in the elections. This is a really sad reality of Indian politics. Moreover, it shows that such politicians care more about their own personal interests rather than the interests of the common people.

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Conclusion of Indian Politics Essay

Indian politics is a colourful drama and, according to some, its the great circus of the country. Despite such negative connotations, no one can doubt the enormously important role that politics has played in India. Most noteworthy, it is a crucial aspect of Indian democracy.

FAQs For Indian Politics Essay

Question 1: How many political parties are there in India?

Answer 1: According to the latest publication from the Election Commission of India, the total number of registered political parties in India is 2698. Furthermore, out of the registered political parties, 8 are national parties, 52 are state parties, and 2638 remain unrecognised. Also, registered parties that contest elections must have a symbol of their own that is approved by the EC.

Question 2: What are the two most powerful political parties in India?

Answer 2: The two most powerful political parties in India are the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Indian National Congress or Congress or INC. Furthermore, BJP is the leading right-wing party while Congress is the leading centrist/leftist party in India.

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Indian Politics Essay

India is the largest democracy in the world, with over 133.92 Crores people of different cultures and religions. Cultural aspects of north India are completely different from that of down south. Similarly, central India has its own distinct cultural and linguistic heritage, which is completely different from north east or far west, for that matter. Considering the huge cultural and religious diversity of India it is quite natural that every region has its own political representative.

This in turn makes Indian politics complicated than the western democracies with a single religion and culture in majority. A politician in India can only be successful when he/she manages to garner the support of different religions, cultures as well as caste. Politics in India isn’t easy and provides a quite challenging environment to even the most adept politicians.

Long and Short Essay on Indian Politics in English

Here we have given short and long essay on Indian Politics of varying lengths to help you with the topic in your exam.

You can use any Indian Politics essay for your exams/assignments, essay writing, debate competitions or other similar occasions.

After going through the essays you will get an insight of Indian politics and its structure.

You will also appreciate the diversity of India and the role that the politics plays in making the voices of people heard.

Short Essay on Indian Politics – Essay 1 (200 words)

India is a democratic country. The political leaders and parties in India come into power by voting system. Indian citizens above the age of 18 years acquire the right to vote and elect their leaders. However, although it is a government by the people, to the people and for the people, the common man still suffers a great deal. This is because there is a lot of corruption within the political system of our country.

Most of our political leaders are known to be corrupt. Their corrupt practices often come to limelight however they are seldom punished for the same. Such a mindset and behaviour of our politicians is affecting the country adversely. This is hampering the growth and development of the country to a vast extent. The common man of the country is suffering the most due to the corrupt Indian politics. On the other hand, the ministers are misusing their power and position to further their interests.

A huge amount of tax is being levied on the general public. Instead of using this money to develop the country, corrupt politicians are filling their bank accounts with it. This is the reason why we have not developed as much as we should have since independence.

The Indian political system must be changed for good to bring about a positive change in the society.

Essay on Indian Politics and Politicians – Essay 2 (300 words)

Introduction

India enjoys a democratic set up that gives the general public the right to vote and elect government. While this type of political system is strong and sound with clearly defined laws, in India it has been a prey to corrupt politicians ever since its inception.

The Need for Educated Ministers

In India, almost anyone can contest elections and come to power. The person contesting the elections must be a citizen of India and should be minimum 25 years of age. Apart from this, there are few other very simple clauses to contest elections in our country.

It is strange that there is no minimum education criterion to run the government in our country. It is ironic that the nation has witnessed many uneducated and non deserving candidates rising to higher powerful levels in politics purely on the basis of money and muscle strength. We cannot expect our country to grow in the right direction when the power is in the hands of such politicians.

There is a dire need to elect educated politicians for the development of our country. We can exercise NOTA if none of the politicians contesting the elections is well-qualified and worthy of the position.

Corruption at the Chore of Indian Politics

Most of the politicians are corrupt. They misuse their power to further their interests rather than serving the country. Every now and then there is news about ministers and their family members being involved in illegal practices and scams. Since they are in power they do not fear anyone and get away with the crime.

It is the common man who is suffering due to these corrupt politicians and their corrupt practices.

India, as a nation can prosper only if our political system is improved. We need educated, sincere and hard working politicians who work for the betterment of our country and not for their personal good.

Essay on Indian Political System – Essay 3 (400 words)

India is a federal parliamentary democratic republic. It is known to be world’s largest democracy. This Indian political system came into being in August 1947 as the country got freedom from the British rule. The constitution of India was written soon after and came into force on 26 th January 1950. It has seen several amendments since then. These changes have been brought about for the good of the society after a lot of consideration.

The Political Set up of India

The President of India is the head of the state in our country while the Prime Minister is the head of the government. We have an upper house referred to as the Rajya Sabha and a lower house called the Lok Sabha. The members of these houses are known as the Members of Parliament (MP). Here is a brief about these parliamentary houses:

There are a total of 545 members in the Lok Sabha.
543 Lok Sabha members are elected by the general public of the country through election. 2 Lok Sabha members are elected directly by the President of the country from the Anglo Indian Community.
Among other requirements, one must be 25 years of age in order to be eligible for Lok Sabha membership.

Rajya Sabha

There are a total of 245 members in the Rajya Sabha.
233 members of the Rajya Sabha are elected from States and Union Territories. 12 members are nominated by the President.
A candidate must be at least 30 years old in order to become a Rajya Sabha member.

The Members of Parliament is an essential part of the Indian political system and have the power to take many political decisions collectively.

Political Parties and Formation of Government

India has numerous political parties that contest the elections. The party that gets majority of votes comes into power. The government of India is formed for a total of five years.

For years, the Indian National Congress and the Bhartiya Janata Party were the main political parties in the country that gave a tough competition to each other during elections. However, the recently formed Aam Aadmi Party headed by Arvind Kejriwal is now giving them a tough race.

The Indian political system largely suffers from corruption. Though the constitution of our country has clearly defined laws, the ministers are exempted from it for most part. They work as per their will and the general public suffers because of their corrupt means. The political system of the country needs serious reforms to ensure proper growth and development of the country.

Essay on Politics and Corruption – Essay 4 (500 words)

The terms, politics and corruption can be used synonymously when it comes to the Indian political system. It would be no exaggeration to say that the Indian political system is corrupted to the core.

Politics and Corruption

India is a land full of corrupt politicians who think about nothing but juggling more and more money by corrupt means. They work for their own benefit rather than the benefit of their country. The cases of the Indian politicians being involved in various kinds of scams have come forward many a times and these are a proof how they are bluffing the general public of the country to further their selfish motives.

Our leaders make numerous promises to the general public before coming to the power but forget about the same as they gain power. This happens in every election. The poor public gets fooled by the corrupt ministers each time. They vote for the politicians based on the promises they make in the hope of a better future. However, they are disheartened each time. Their problems remain unheard and they continue to live miserably.

Time to Bring About Change

The people of India need to wake up and realize that the political system will continue to stay as corrupt as it is till the time they allow it to be. They must realize that they are being befooled by the corrupt ministers time and again. The corrupt practices of the ministers are having negative repercussions on the entire society. The rise in the prices of petrol, diesel, food items and other commodities is all a result of the corruption in the system. Unequal wealth distribution and slow economic growth of the country is also because of the corrupt practices of our leaders.

It is unfortunate that willingly or unwillingly, the general public is becoming a party to the corrupt practices. One of the clear examples of this is bribery. While we allege the ministers and government officials of bribery we forget that we also promote the same by giving bribery at various places just to get our work done quickly and smoothly.

It is time for us to stand united to drive corruption out of our country. The only way to bring about a positive change in the political system is to raise voice unanimously. We need to realize that our strength lies in our unity and we must use it to improve the system.

Let the History Repeat itself

Just as the Indians stood united against the British, we must come together once again with the same dedication and feeling of patriotism to fight against corruption and the corrupt politicians. We must all think above our petty issues and work for a bigger cause. It is time to bring about reforms and stop the corrupt practices of the people in power. If our ancestors could struggle and sacrifice so much for our better future then why can’t we do the same?

The politicians of India are eating the country like parasites. Instead of complaining and yet being a part of this corrupt system, we must now act upon breaking it. We, Indians must unite to bring about reforms by ending corruption.

Long Essay on Women in Indian Politics – Essay 5 (600 words)

Indian society has always been male dominated. Women were restricted to the household chores for centuries. However, they are now being educated and exploring different fields. Women of our country are making a mark in different domains and Indian politics is one of them. The parliament of India has a good number of women members and the number is increasing with each election.

Women Politicians in India

Some Indian women who have made a mark in the field of Indian politics include:

Indira Gandhi

Indira Gandhi was the first female Prime Minister of India. She had a keen interest in Indian politics and helped her father Jawahar Lal Nehru, the first Indian Prime Minister, with his political agendas. She became the Congress President in 1959 and went on to become the third Prime Minister of the country in 1966. She dominated the political scene during her tenure and was known for taking many hard decisions.

Her persona was so strong that she was named the ‘Woman of the Millennium’ in an online poll done by BBC.

Mamata Banerjee

Mamta Banerjee, the Chief Minister of West Bengal has proved to be stronger and wiser than many male politicians. She believed in herself and thus gathered the courage to separate from the Indian National Congress and form a party of her own in 1998. She is the founder of the All India Trinamool Congress (AITMC or TMC). She held many positions of prominence in the Indian politics before becoming the West Bengal Chief Minister. She is popular among the people of West Bengal who regard her as their Didi (elder sister).

She made a place in the list of 100 Most Influential People in the World in Time Magazine’s 2012 edition.

Jayalalithaa

Jayalalithaa was known for her dynamic personality. She was extremely popular among the people of Tamil Nadu. Her popularity can very well be ascertained by the fact that she was elected as the Chief Minister of the state for five terms. People of Tamil Nadu regarded her as a mother figure. She was fondly called Amma. She is also remembered by the name Puratchi Thalaivi meaning revolutionary leader.

It was found that she had accumulated massive assets by indulging in corrupt practices owing to which she was sentenced to imprisonment for four years. Many people came out to show their discontentment against this verdict. They did so by setting themselves on fire or hanging themselves.

Pratibha Patil

Pratibha Patil served as the 12 th President of India. She came to power in the year 2007 and successfully completed her term in 2012.

She has served numerous roles in the Indian politics and has years of experience in the field. She began her political career at the age of 27 when she got elected to the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly for the Jalgaon constituency. She went on to become the member of the Rajya Sabha and also served as a Member of Parliament for the Lok Sabha.

Sushma Swaraj

Sushma Swaraj is a well educated lady who served as a lawyer in the Supreme Court of India before joining the Indian politics. She is a popular leader of the Bhartiya Janta Party. She has served as the president of the party. She has been elected as the Member of Parliament seven times and thrice as the Member of the Legislative Assembly.

She has been serving as the Minister of External Affairs of India since May 2014. She had also served many other roles in the Indian politics.

India is lucky to have been blessed with such strong and dynamic women who have held positions of prominence in the Indian politics. They have set an example for the other woman to be confident, follow their dreams and work hard.

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Understanding the Basics of Indian Politics and the Electoral Process

Introduction

Indian politics is a fascinating blend of diverse cultures, ideologies, and socio-economic backgrounds. With its rich history and vibrant democracy, India’s political landscape is a complex tapestry that plays a pivotal role in shaping the nation’s trajectory. At the heart of this dynamic system lies the electoral process, a cornerstone of Indian democracy. In this blog, we will delve into the fundamental aspects of Indian politics and the electoral process that drives it.

Diversity and Pluralism in Indian Politics: India is a land of diversity, home to various religions, languages, and cultures. This diversity is reflected in its political landscape, where numerous parties and ideologies coexist. Major national parties, such as the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), represent contrasting ideologies, while regional parties cater to specific states and local concerns.
The Structure of Government: India follows a federal parliamentary democratic system. The President of India is the head of state, while the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Parliament consists of two houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The Lok Sabha members are directly elected by the people, and the Rajya Sabha members are elected by the state legislatures.
The Electoral Process: The electoral process in India is a multi-stage affair that includes general elections to the Lok Sabha, state legislative assembly elections, and local body elections. General elections are held every five years, and voters elect representatives to the Lok Sabha using the First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) system, where the candidate with the most votes wins.
The Role of the Election Commission: The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an autonomous body responsible for overseeing the electoral process. It ensures free and fair elections by supervising the registration of political parties, updating voter lists, monitoring campaign finances, and enforcing the Model Code of Conduct.
Voter Registration and Identification: The strength of Indian democracy lies in its vast voter base. Citizens aged 18 and above are eligible to vote after registering with the Election Commission. Voter identification is facilitated through Voter ID cards, which serve as a crucial document during elections.
Political Parties and Alliances: Political parties play a pivotal role in Indian politics. They formulate policies, contest elections, and work to represent the interests of the people. Often, parties form alliances with other parties to create broader coalitions, especially during general elections, to strengthen their chances of forming a government.
Campaigning and Media Influence: Election campaigning in India is a lively affair, involving rallies, speeches, and media outreach. Social media platforms have also become influential in recent years. The role of media in shaping public opinion cannot be underestimated, as it plays a crucial role in disseminating information about candidates and parties.
The Significance of State Elections: State legislative assembly elections are as crucial as general elections, as they determine the leadership and policies within individual states. These elections often reflect local sentiments and concerns, leading to different parties holding power at the state and central levels.

The Indian political landscape is a fascinating blend of diversity, ideologies, and democratic values. The electoral process is the cornerstone of this vibrant democracy, where citizens exercise their right to choose their representatives. Understanding the basics of Indian politics and the electoral process is essential for appreciating the complexities and nuances that shape the nation’s governance and direction. As India continues to evolve, its democratic principles and political dynamics will remain instrumental in shaping its future.

Indian Polity and Governance – Constitution, Political System, Panchayat Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc.

Last updated on August 30, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

India is a vast landscape with cultural, linguistic, and geographical diversity.

One element that binds India as a nation together is its polity and governance structure.

The Indian political system is connected with the threads of history, culture, and the aspirations of its people.

From the remarkable Constitution that serves as the guiding light to the intricate Panchayat Raj system, this blog post delves into the multifaceted aspects of Indian polity and governance, encompassing the Constitution, the political system, Panchayat Raj, public policy, and rights issues.

Table of Contents

Indian Polity – The Political System

Polity means political system.

Indian Polity means the Indian Political System.

The Indian state has three organs – (1) legislature (which makes laws), (2) executive (which implements laws) and (3) judiciary (which interprets laws).

India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic, republic.

Indian Political system derives its origin from the historical underpinnings , however, its present structure owes to the Indian Constitution .

India’s political system is federal in nature, with a union of states and territories.

At the Center – the Parliament, consisting of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People), is the legislative body responsible for making laws. The President, elected by an Electoral College, is the ceremonial head of the state. The Prime Minister, the head of government, leads the executive branch.

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At the state level – the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly make law. The governor is the ceremonial head of each state (provinces). The Chief Minister leads the executive branch.

India’s vibrant multi-party democracy ensures that voices from various sections of society are heard.

Know more about Indian Polity …

Governance – The Administrative Framework

Governance in India is a dynamic process that involves the management, administration, and regulation of the nation’s affairs.

India is a democracy. The real power lies with people. However, people elect representatives to make laws.

At the executive level, there are political executives (elected) and permanent executives or bureaucrats (selected).

Rooted in the principles of democracy, governance encompasses various levels of decision-making, from the central government to state administrations and local bodies.

The Indian political system is characterized by a multi-tiered structure that facilitates decentralization, with power shared between the Union and State governments. This complex framework is guided by the Constitution of India, which outlines the roles and responsibilities of different branches of government and upholds the fundamental rights and freedoms of its citizens.

As India continues to evolve as a global player, its governance strives to strike a balance between tradition and progress, inclusivity and efficiency, and the aspirations of its diverse population.

Know more about Governance …

The Indian Constitution: The fundamental law of the land

At the heart of India’s polity lies its Constitution, a remarkable document that reflects the vision of the nation’s founding fathers.

Adopted on January 26, 1950, the Constitution of India enshrines the values of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

It establishes a democratic framework with a division of powers among the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary, ensuring a system of checks and balances.

Over the years, the Indian Constitution has demonstrated its adaptability to changing times and societal needs. Amendments have been made to reflect evolving priorities while preserving the core principles. This capacity for change has allowed the Constitution to remain relevant and effective in a rapidly evolving world.

Know more about Indian Constitution …

Panchayat Raj: Empowering Local Governance

A unique feature of Indian governance is the Panchayat Raj system.

Enshrined in the Constitution’s 73rd and 74th Amendments, it empowers local self-governance at the grassroots level.

Panchayats (village councils) and Municipalities play a pivotal role in rural and urban development, ensuring community participation and decentralization of power.

This system promotes effective governance by addressing local issues with the involvement of the people.

Know more about Panchayat Raj …

Public Policy: Bridging Aspirations and Reality

Public policy formulation and implementation are crucial for addressing the diverse needs of the population.

The government’s policies impact various sectors, including education, healthcare, infrastructure, and the economy. Initiatives like “ Make in India ,” “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan,” and “ Digital India ” showcase India’s commitment to progress and development.

Effective policy implementation requires collaboration between the government, civil society, and the private sector.

Know more about the Public Policy of India …

Rights Issues: Striving for Social Justice

Rights encompass a wide range of freedoms, privileges, and protections that individuals are inherently entitled to by virtue of being human.

Despite progress, our society still grapples with numerous rights issues.

Discrimination based on race, gender, religion, and economic status continues to persist.
Gender inequality deprives millions of women of their rights and opportunities.
The LGBTQ+ community faces challenges to their rights and acceptance.
Marginalized communities often confront unequal access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.
Environmental degradation threatens the right to a sustainable future.

These issues are not isolated; they intersect and amplify one another, underscoring the complexity of the fight for rights.

India’s journey towards a just society involves addressing rights issues, particularly those concerning marginalized and vulnerable communities.

The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights such as the right to equality, freedom of speech, and the right to life.

Additionally, affirmative action policies, as enshrined in the Constitution’s provisions for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes, aim to uplift historically disadvantaged groups.

Know more about Rights Issues…

Challenges and Future Prospects

While India’s polity and governance framework has achieved significant milestones, challenges persist. Corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, and socioeconomic disparities demand continuous attention. Additionally, maintaining the delicate balance between cultural diversity and national unity remains a constant endeavour.

The future of Indian polity and governance is promising, with technology-driven innovations, increased public awareness, and a growing emphasis on inclusive and sustainable development. Strengthening institutions, promoting transparency, and fostering citizen engagement will play a pivotal role in shaping the nation’s trajectory.

How to study Indian Polity and Governance?

Readers may note that this article on the Indian Polity and Governance is just an overview of the topic. There is a lot more to learn about Indian Polity and Governance.

We recommend the below sources to learn the subject.

Join ClearIAS Video Course (Prelims cum Mains).
Go through ClearIAS notes on Indian Polity and Governance.
Read books on Indian Polity .

Indian polity and governance are a testament to the nation’s commitment to democracy, unity, and progress.

The Constitution acts as a guiding compass, while the political system, Panchayat Raj, public policies, and rights issues collectively contribute to the nation’s growth.

As India treads the path of development, it is imperative to uphold the principles of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity to create a society that truly reflects the aspirations of its diverse populace.

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Introduction: Politics in india—an overview

Princeton School of Public and International Affairs

Research output : Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Chapter

The study of Indian politics constitutes an exciting area of scholarship. This collection brings together some of the leading and emerging scholars of Indian politics to reﬂect on their respective areas of specialization. Each contribution is a self-suﬃcient essay that introduces readers-be they specialists or new to the subject-to a speciﬁc topic and provides references to facilitate further pursuit of the subject. These contributions ‘speak’ in the voice of the authors. Many of the essays here are not only distillations of prior scholarship, but also point to new directions of thinking and research. We (the editors of the volume) are responsible for inviting the contributors, but since this is a Handbook, we have not tried to impose any artiﬁcial unity; the contributions represent a variety of normative and theoretical standpoints. The minimal unity of the volume comes from the organization of the subject matter. In this introductory chapter we provide an overview of the subject-politics in India-and point to where and how individual essays of the collection ﬁt within the broader scheme. The collection is organized around four major themes: Three themes in Indian politics, namely political change, political economy, and the diversity of regional developments, as well as the theme of the changing role of India in the world. We discuss each of these issues in a highly abbreviated fashion below. Among the political changes on which we focus are: How and why democracy in India put down ﬁrm roots on the one hand, but why, on the other hand, the quality of governance offered by India’s democracy continues to be low, especially below the national level. The interrelated political economy themes that we discuss concern the acceleration of economic growth since the mid-1980s, worsening inequalities, the persistence of poverty, and the growing power of business groups. A discussion of political and economic changes in select states provides an inkling of why progress across Indian states continues to be uneven. Finally, we touch on the issue of India’s international relations, both in its neighborhood and vis-à-vis global powers. Democracy has put down ﬁrm roots in India but the quality of government that India’s democracy provides continues to be quite poor. Brief schematic comments on both these trends-democratic consolidation but poor governance-may be helpful at the outset for introducing the subject, as well as for situating speciﬁc essays in this volume within the broader study of political change in India.

All Science Journal Classification (ASJC) codes

General Social Sciences

Access to Document

10.4324/9780203075906-7

Fingerprint

political change Social Sciences 100%
India Social Sciences 87%
politics Social Sciences 69%
democracy Social Sciences 67%
political economy Social Sciences 43%
governance Social Sciences 32%
global power Social Sciences 32%
regional development Social Sciences 27%

T1 - Introduction

T2 - Politics in india—an overview

AU - Kohli, Atul

AU - Singh, Prerna

PY - 2013/1/1

Y1 - 2013/1/1

N2 - The study of Indian politics constitutes an exciting area of scholarship. This collection brings together some of the leading and emerging scholars of Indian politics to reﬂect on their respective areas of specialization. Each contribution is a self-suﬃcient essay that introduces readers-be they specialists or new to the subject-to a speciﬁc topic and provides references to facilitate further pursuit of the subject. These contributions ‘speak’ in the voice of the authors. Many of the essays here are not only distillations of prior scholarship, but also point to new directions of thinking and research. We (the editors of the volume) are responsible for inviting the contributors, but since this is a Handbook, we have not tried to impose any artiﬁcial unity; the contributions represent a variety of normative and theoretical standpoints. The minimal unity of the volume comes from the organization of the subject matter. In this introductory chapter we provide an overview of the subject-politics in India-and point to where and how individual essays of the collection ﬁt within the broader scheme. The collection is organized around four major themes: Three themes in Indian politics, namely political change, political economy, and the diversity of regional developments, as well as the theme of the changing role of India in the world. We discuss each of these issues in a highly abbreviated fashion below. Among the political changes on which we focus are: How and why democracy in India put down ﬁrm roots on the one hand, but why, on the other hand, the quality of governance offered by India’s democracy continues to be low, especially below the national level. The interrelated political economy themes that we discuss concern the acceleration of economic growth since the mid-1980s, worsening inequalities, the persistence of poverty, and the growing power of business groups. A discussion of political and economic changes in select states provides an inkling of why progress across Indian states continues to be uneven. Finally, we touch on the issue of India’s international relations, both in its neighborhood and vis-à-vis global powers. Democracy has put down ﬁrm roots in India but the quality of government that India’s democracy provides continues to be quite poor. Brief schematic comments on both these trends-democratic consolidation but poor governance-may be helpful at the outset for introducing the subject, as well as for situating speciﬁc essays in this volume within the broader study of political change in India.

AB - The study of Indian politics constitutes an exciting area of scholarship. This collection brings together some of the leading and emerging scholars of Indian politics to reﬂect on their respective areas of specialization. Each contribution is a self-suﬃcient essay that introduces readers-be they specialists or new to the subject-to a speciﬁc topic and provides references to facilitate further pursuit of the subject. These contributions ‘speak’ in the voice of the authors. Many of the essays here are not only distillations of prior scholarship, but also point to new directions of thinking and research. We (the editors of the volume) are responsible for inviting the contributors, but since this is a Handbook, we have not tried to impose any artiﬁcial unity; the contributions represent a variety of normative and theoretical standpoints. The minimal unity of the volume comes from the organization of the subject matter. In this introductory chapter we provide an overview of the subject-politics in India-and point to where and how individual essays of the collection ﬁt within the broader scheme. The collection is organized around four major themes: Three themes in Indian politics, namely political change, political economy, and the diversity of regional developments, as well as the theme of the changing role of India in the world. We discuss each of these issues in a highly abbreviated fashion below. Among the political changes on which we focus are: How and why democracy in India put down ﬁrm roots on the one hand, but why, on the other hand, the quality of governance offered by India’s democracy continues to be low, especially below the national level. The interrelated political economy themes that we discuss concern the acceleration of economic growth since the mid-1980s, worsening inequalities, the persistence of poverty, and the growing power of business groups. A discussion of political and economic changes in select states provides an inkling of why progress across Indian states continues to be uneven. Finally, we touch on the issue of India’s international relations, both in its neighborhood and vis-à-vis global powers. Democracy has put down ﬁrm roots in India but the quality of government that India’s democracy provides continues to be quite poor. Brief schematic comments on both these trends-democratic consolidation but poor governance-may be helpful at the outset for introducing the subject, as well as for situating speciﬁc essays in this volume within the broader study of political change in India.

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What Is the Role of Women in Indian Politics? Growing Stronger…

May 21, 2009 • 10 min read.

While India exults after yet another peacefully concluded election, one question remains: What is the role of women in Indian politics? The answer is both big and small. Typical of India, it contains contradictions. On the one hand, India ranks lower than the UAE in terms of the number of women in Parliament. On the other, India has elected 59 women as Members of Parliament, the highest since Independence. The country should work towards empowering women economically -- through microfinance programs -- and also encourage greater participation of women leaders in panchayats, or village councils, writes author Shoba Narayan in this opinion piece.

Public Policy

India should work towards empowering women economically — through microfinance programs — and also encourage greater participation of women leaders in panchayats, or village councils, writes author Shoba Narayan in this opinion piece.

The ink-stained polls of the world’s largest democracy have delivered their verdict and India waits with bated breath to learn whether Prime Minister Manmohan Singh’s second administration will be different than the first. While India exults after yet another peacefully concluded election, one question remains: What is the role of women in Indian politics? The answer is both big and small. Typical of India, it contains contradictions.

On the one hand, India falls in the lowest quartile with respect to the number of women in parliament (9.1%). Even the UAE, with 22.5%, has more women representatives, according to the UN’s 2008 survey of women in politics. That said, the recently concluded 15 th Lok Sabha elections have delivered a record 59 women as members of Parliament, the highest since independence, raising their parliamentary participation to 10.9%. Seventeen of these women are under 40. And representation of women leaders at the grassroots level in India is nearly 50%, especially since the passing of the 73 rd amendment in 1992, which allotted one-third of all seats to women. The panchayati raj, that bedrock of rural government, has fostered more and more women participants and leaders. (A panchayat is a five-person elected village council.) Some states, like Karnataka, had inducted women into rural politics even before it was mandated by the constitution. Several states, including Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Bihar and most recently, Uttarkhand, have allotted not just the required 33% of panchayat seats for women but increased it to 50%.

Beating the Odds

The rise of Indian women as panchayat leaders is a spectacular achievement given that India has one of the worst records with respect to the way it treats the female sex. Malnourished, suppressed, uneducated, violated and discriminated against, Indian women have the odds stacked against them. Even birth is a hurdle, thanks to widespread female infanticide in rural areas. But for every Saroja who will be married at 13 because her mother, a devadasi (prostitute) in Chikanahalli Village, Karnataka, cannot afford to pay a dowry, there is a Lakshmi, who is serving her second-term as the panchayat leader of Kadinamala village in Kotagiri district. There is a Kenchamma of Nereleke gram panchayat in rural Karnataka, who survived life threats during her two terms as council leader. An illiterate Dalit, Kenchamma could not read or write. Perhaps as a result of her personal travails, she made sure that she brought education to all the children in her village, including a disabled child.

Talking to these women is a lesson in humility. Instead of the outrage and anger that urban feminists project, these women panchayat leaders speak with clear-minded realism about opportunities and costs. For many women, attending a panchayat meeting means sacrificing a day’s wage. It means assuming leadership for the first time in their lives and then subsuming it at home to serve in-laws and husband. For Kenchamma, it meant leaving her one-year-old son to other caregivers while she learned the ropes of politics.

Ask these women about political reform, and their answers reflect concerns that every women and mother can relate to. They focus on three things: healthcare, education, and the funds to make these two things happen . Kenchamma, a trained midwife, established health camps to improve awareness among the villagers. She also knew from personal experience that, often, it is the mothers who neglect their health the most. Simplistic as it seems, solving health and education is a common thread among panchayat leaders, whether they are men or women. The third concern is figuring out how to save or raise enough money to accomplish their goals.

Most villagers — in India and across the world — either don’t go to banks or don’t have access to them. Instead, they borrow from each other, buy jewelry and save in what Melinda Gates calls, “risky and inefficient ways” in a recent piece she wrote in Newsweek. For most of these villagers, a child’s illness, even something as treatable as malaria, can wipe out several months of savings, sending a family spiraling deeper into debt. The answer, according to the Gates Foundation — no slouch when it comes to solving global problems in an accountable manner — is “bringing safe financial service to the doorsteps of the poor.” As a means to that end, the Foundation has pledged $350 million for microfinance, whose beneficiary is primarily women.

Microfinance and Economic Empowerment

Geeta, 32, would be a typical candidate. An orphan at age three, Geeta was raised by her elder sister. She didn’t go to school and was married to an alcoholic uncle when she was a teenager. Today, she works as a housemaid in Bangalore to feed her family of four: Her husband, her two sons and herself. Geeta’s life goal is to educate her two sons. But she lives in a cycle of debt — borrowing to repay past loans, to make annual school payments for her sons, to cover family events like weddings and every time someone in the family falls sick. Geeta, it so happens, works in my house.

Two years ago, Geeta heard about Janalakshmi , a microfinance company, from some women in her neighborhood. She joined a group of women and borrowed Rs. 30,000 (about $600) with the understanding that they would help each other not default on interest payments and take turns reaping the benefits of the loan. Each group has a leader who guarantees the interest payment to the microfinance institution and in turn, the leader invites women she trusts into the group so that they can borrow larger amounts. For now, Geeta’s microfinance loan is only allowing her to pay back her previous debts, but she dreams of the day when she can borrow enough money for a down payment on a home.

More and more entities are recognizing the power of micro-loans and how they can elevate an entire segment of society. And the route to the underserved is frequently through women, thanks to models based on Grameen Bank and others. Chennai-based Equitas, for instance, only works with women. In March, The Indus Entrepreneurs (TiE) launched Stree Shakti, a platform for training women entrepreneurs at all levels of Indian society. Goldman Sachs’s ambitious “10,000 Women” program aims to train and develop women entrepreneurs across the globe by pairing them with resources in the West. In all these cases, women serve as the lynchpin for programs, whether they are rural Self Help Groups (SHG) or global programs that aspire to foster entrepreneurship.

Microfinance is not the only answer to solving the poor’s problems but it is one good way to help women help themselves. Women self-help groups are burgeoning all across India, and study after study shows that they successfully impact women and bring them out of poverty. In an article that appeared in the December 2007 issue of UNDP’s Poverty in Focus , researchers Ranjula Bali Swain and Fan Yang Wallentin of Uppsala University in Sweden examine the link between microfinance and women’s empowerment using household sample data collected from five states in India in 2000 and 2003. Their results “strongly demonstrate” that there is a clear link between women’s participation in a Self Help Group (SHG) and their empowerment.

The good news, at least in India, is that these microfinance initiatives are reaching bigger swathes of the underserved. The Indian School of Microfinance for Women (ISMW), for instance, goes one step deeper into the problem. Based in Ahmedabad and chaired by social activist and SEWA founder Ela Bhatt, the school recognizes that borrowing money is only one part of the triangle. Among other things, the school teaches women how to deal with the money they borrow through capacity building workshops, networking and providing knowledge resources. Simply put, it takes Goldman Sachs’s global vision for women entrepreneurs and translates it into a deeper regional focus. The school’s website lists ‘hand-holding’ as one of its goals. Participants of micro-credit schemes are taught financial planning and investing techniques that they can use on the ground and in their business.

While microfinance works to eradicate poverty, the next generation of Indian leaders, including Rahul Gandhi, has made social sectors its calling card. The rural development portfolio, which traditionally was one of the less-prized posts, has now vaulted to the top of the pecking order, thanks in large part to the Gandhi family which has aligned itself with the aam admi (poor people) in both its campaigning and future promises. When Manmohan Singh was asked in a recent television interview if he had any regrets about areas that he couldn’t concentrate on in his first term that he would focus on in his second term, he said, “I’d like to work on agriculture, education and rural health.”

Reforming Education

Panchayat women leaders have been especially active in bringing education to their villages even though they are frequently held hostage by caste politics and quotas. Rural education is a quagmire of poor policies that nobody in government seems to have the will to change. The recent Administrative Reforms Commission repeats a long-standing recommendation that the selection of school teachers in rural schools be delegated to each panchayat instead of making it state-wide and therefore subject to caste-based selection. Deploying state-selected teachers to rural schools in areas where they have no caste-based affiliation makes it a losing proposition from the get-go, according to some experts. Detractors contend that delegating teacher-selection to each panchayat will make it subject to bribes and corruption. But as one official in the Administrative Reforms Commission put it, small-scale rural corruption (with some accountability) is better than the large-scale corruption (with no local accountability.)

Panchayat leaders who don’t have a say in the kind of teachers their village-schools attract end up focusing on infrastructure and other issues within their purview. Women panchayat leaders talk about building separate bathrooms for girls, which studies have shown will reduce the number of female drop-outs after puberty. They bring safe drinking water to their students. All these are not just palliatives, but are necessary developments in rural education.

It is easy to be cynical about yet another federal election that promises improvements to local government and to the lot of women. This time may be different, not just because of the number of women in parliament and the panchayats , but also because Rahul Gandhi, a rising star in Congress politics, is tapped to oversee the rural government portfolio. One can only hope that the Gandhi scion will free the portfolio of its state-level stranglehold and pass along more power to the people. Non-partisan economists have long called for decentralized local governance as the only way to speed up the impact of reforms. To that, I would add two other objectives: wider access to micro-loans as an enabler, and genuinely empowering women in local governments to succeed.

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Essay on Indian Politics

Politics is like playing a game, as in-game there are many players or teams but the winner is one. In the same way, different political parties contest in an election and the winning party is the ruling party. It is necessary for the formation of the Governing body in the nation and its working. The Indian political system functions according to the constitution. Corruption, greed, poverty, illiteracy has been deteriorating Indian Politics.

Short and Long Essay on Indian Politics in English

Brief information about Indian Politics is provided in the form of a long essay which will be helpful to the students of classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and university students.

Indian Politics Essay 10 Lines (100 – 150 Words)

1) Politics plays an important role in choosing the government.

2) The ruling, as well as the opposition party, forms Indian politics.

3) Indian politics plays a vital role in ensuring the smooth functioning of the government.

4) In India, different political parties are supporting different leaders.

5) The people involved in politics are termed, politicians.

6) Indian politics consists of state and central government bodies.

7) Corruption, greed, selfishness, etc reflects the black side of Indian politics.

8) Due to wrong practices, Indian politics is turning dirty.

9) Political parties make us aware of the policies and their achievements.

10) Indian National Congress, Bhartiya Janata Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, etc are some famous political parties in India.

Short Essay on Indian Politics (250 words)

Introduction

Government, its formation, and smooth working are the most important things in democratic nations. It can only be possible by politics. Politics has a major role in the formation and smooth functioning of the government. Politics can be referred to as the system of governance that is essential for making people abide by the rules and laws in the nation.

India is stated as the largest democracy in the world. There is a parliamentary type of government in India where the powers are vested in the Prime minister and the President is the nominal head of the state. Indian politics comprises the ruling party as well as the opposition party. In other words, it can be said that Indian politics represents the people of India. The politicians representing the different political parties come from the common people of India. They are elected by the process of elections.

Polity System in India

There is a dual polity system in India. It consists of central government and state governments. They have to work according to the Indian constitution. The powers and limitations of the central and state government are well defined in the constitution of India. The Supreme Court is the supreme authority of the judicial system in India.

Weakening of Indian Politics

The excessive corruption, greed, injustice, and hatred have given a bad name to Indian politics. At present, there are more than 100 political parties in existence in India. Most of the politicians have forgotten their duty towards the nation and people and are involved in doing corrupt politics. They use power and wealth to win the elections. In this way, Indian politics and democracy is weakened and deteriorated.

There have been great leaders in Indian politics who have served the nation in past. The fate of Indian politics can only be changed if the people of the nation become aware of their powers and rights. The right decision of the people can help in bringing the revolution into Indian politics.

Long Essay on Indian Politics and Politicians (500 – 600 Words)

Indian politics is related to the attaining or transfer of power from one political party to another after elections. The successful formation of government is possible due to Indian politics. The government helps in the proper functioning and development of the country. Indian National Congress won the first general election in 1951 after Independence and ruled for many years. It was succeeded by different ruling parties till 2014 when Bhartiya Janta Party became the ruling party by majority after winning the elections of 2014 and 2019.

Parliamentary Form of Government in India

India is a secular democratic country. There is the existence of a parliamentary form of government in India. In this type of government, the real head of the country becomes Prime Minister with whom all the powers are vested. The president is called the nominal head of the country.

The people of the country are free to select the representative of their choice. Every citizen of the country above 18 years of age has the right to vote. The government is formed for a period of five years.

Political Parties in Indian Politics

India has become a democratic nation after its independence from British rule. Democracy is related to the concept of government to be formed by the choice of people. Political parties are groups that are formed by the different sections and regions. Numerous political parties were formed after independence. The parties are designated as National and State political parties.

It is essential for a political party either national or State to have a symbol as a sign of their party. Symbols for the political parties are necessary as people can easily recognize the party and can vote properly. The political parties need to be registered with the Election Commission of India. The different political parties make people aware of the different programs and policies. They also tell about the achievements made by their party in the ruling period by arranging rallies and campaigns in order to ask for votes.

The different political parties in the Indian Political system are Bharatiya Janata Party, Congress Party, Samajwadi Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, Aam Aadmi Party, etc.

Negative Phase of Indian Politics

There are a lot of problems existing in Indian politics. They need to be ended for the betterment and development of the nation.

The most important factor which is weakening Indian politics is corruption. The process of paying bribes for the completion of wrong deeds but presented in the right manner. There is a lot of corruption in government jobs. Every year most of the recruitments are done on the basis of depositing excessive money to the politicians. This is darkening the future of bright students and the country too. The politicians also bribe people to get their votes.
The politicians before the election are so polite and shower a bundle of promises and policies. The scenario changes after they win the election. They do not care about people and the problems faced by them. They are busy in money-making and exercising the power for their own benefit.
The right person could never win the elections because of the already existing powerful politicians. They win the election by applying different tactics. They distribute money and alcohol to the public. The poor people are in need of money therefore they are easily trapped in fake promises of such politicians.
The politicians of the ruling party never want to lose power and control. They continuously spread fake rumours, talk rubbish about them, and bribe media to spread false information. This way false information spread in the public, paving the way for the existing party to win again.
Most of the political parties are having insufficient youth participation. There are leaders of old age and they are still in power serving the public. The reality is that they could not walk properly neither could read nor see in an efficient manner. The parties are carrying these personalities because of their personal interest. These people must be replaced by young leaders with a lot of potentials.

Indian politics is a mixture of good, bad, and worst experiences. The people are granted power in a democratic country to form the government of their choice. This choice must be made in a rational way so that the development of the nation would be possible in a fair manner.

FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions

Ans . Politics is termed a set of activities that are necessary for governing the nation or state. It is the exercise of power.

Ans . India is a democratic nation with a parliamentary form of government. The president is the nominal head and real powers are vested in Prime Minister.

Ans . There are 545 seats in Lok Sabha and 250 seats in Rajya Sabha.

Ans . The Rajya Sabha consists of 250 members, 238 representing the states and union territories while 12 members are nominated by the President of India.

Ans . Politicians after winning the election misuse the power and make a lot of money and develop businesses instead of fulfilling the demands of people and solving their issues.

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The Indian Political Parties Research Paper

Introduction, india — overview of the country and its politics, multi-party system, political parties in india, population diversity and the party system dilemma, the idea of democracy in relation to political parties, works cited.

The system of political parties underwent drastic changes since the country gained its independence and became a democratic republic. The old parties transformed in their modern versions while plenty of new parties appeared as well. The dilemma in the multi-party system is caused by the caste system and population diversity.

The Republic of India is a seventh largest country in the world by its geographical borders and the second most populated country (“India Country Profile — Overview”, 2015, par. 1). The population of the country comprises more than one billion people. India is also known for being the most populated democracy in the world (“India Country Profile — Overview”, 2015, par. 2). The country is newly industrialized. Despite its economic flourishing, it stills faces the urgent problems of poverty, malnutrition, terrorism, and improper governance (“India Country Profile — Overview”, 2015, par. 4).

India is a federal parliamentary constitutional republic with Pranab Mukherjee being a current president. The President is the head of the state while the Prime Minister is the head of the government (“Types of Governments”, n.d., par. 1). The Constitution is the primary law of the country that defines all regulations.

Currently, India has a multi-party system. There are numerous national and regional political parties. A local party has the authority in one particular state. A party should represent at least four different states to become national (“Types of Governments”, n.d., par. 1). The primary mission of all political parties is to serve and protect interests of the nation in various aspects.

A political party is an organized group of people who share the same political opinion and follow the common aim in the controlling of the country (Hofmeister and Grabow, 2011, 8). The most important function of every party is to represent the interests of the citizens among the political elite.

Besides, political parties handle the achievement of better economic, political, educational, and other prospects of the country (Hofmeister and Grabow, 2011, 15). A multi-party system is the final type of party system in the country. In this kind of the system, several parties exist in the government, and none of them receives the majority of seats. Some dominance is usually achieved with the help of coalitions (Hofmeister and Grabow, 2011, 8).

The multi-party system has both advantages and disadvantages. The first plus refers to the fact that voters have many options (Caramani, 2014, 224-225). A variety of political parties presupposes the numerous political principles. As a result, the citizen can find the party that meets his or her personal opinions (Barrington, 2012, 264). The second advantage relates to increasing chances to represent the interests of different minorities more effectively.

The third positive reason — fewer chances of the development of dictatorship (Barrington, 2012, 264-265). Nevertheless, the multi-party system has several disadvantages as well. First, no party can receive the majority of seats in the multi-party system. Consequently, the coalition is the must in such a situation. Different parties have to join their votes to form alliances (Caramani, 2014, 224-225). These coalitions are fragile and unstable, and it impedes the general political environment in the country.

Second, small extreme parties often become significant constituents of the government. Extreme parties face no difficulty in gaining the necessary amount of votes (Barrington, 2012, 264). Then, some other major party may need their votes to form the coalition. In such a way, extreme parties may rule the country. Finally, the excessive variety of political parties leads to the disparities of interests and activities (Barrington, 2012, 264-265).

Historical background of the development of the multi-party system

The party system in India has changed drastically in the last two decades. Politicization of people from less privileged groups of society became the most significant change in the current system. The nature of the relationship between country and its citizens has also altered (Kesalu, 2013, 56-57). It is necessary to have an insight into the evolution of the Indian party system in pre and post-independence years.

The party system of India commences with the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1882. The Congress became popular among people as far as it represented the interests of the indigenous population and became the primary opposing force to the British imperialism (Rana, 2014, par. 3). The political activity of the Congress during the pre-independence period should be divided into three stages.

The first period (1885-1905) was characterized by the privileged dominance of the Congress. The next phase occurred since 1905 until 1916 (Kesalu, 2013, 58-59). The opinions between political representatives became diverse. Some of them believed that the country would gain independence through persuasion while others were intended to fight for their rights.

During the third stage (1916-1945), the Indian Independence Movement took place (Kesalu, 2013, 58-59). As a result, the British governor and General of India announced the separation of the British India into India and Pakistan. On August 15 in 1947, the Indian Independence Act was signed (Kesalu, 2013, 59).

Since that time, the Indian post-independence era began. The Congress became the leading political party due to its active participation in the independence movement (Kesalu, 2013, 59). Nevertheless, many political parties had already existed in the country. They comprised four major political groups that were interested in the gaining of votes in the first general election. The first group included the Congress, the Socialist Party, and Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party.

Marxist parties and the Communist Party of India represented the second group (Kesalu, 2013, 60). Religious, political parties formed the third group. They were Bharatiya Jan Sangh (BJS), Ram Rajya Parishad, and Hindu Mahasabha. Regional parties like Akali Dal, Jharkhand party, and Tamilnadu Congress formed the fourth group. Despite this variety, the Congress became the dominant political party and remained its domination until 1967 (Kesalu, 2013, 60).

In 1967, the fourth general election showed that the Congress’s authority declined. The regional parties popularized the idea of the decentralization of power. Congress’ organizational abilities were weak, and citizens lost trust in it (Kesalu, 2013, 60). In 1980, numerous parties appeared. Bharatiya Janata Party was established in 1980.

The activity of BJP made it the principal rival of the Congress. More often large parties were divided into smaller regional representatives. The coalition era began in 1989 (Kesalu, 2013, 60-61). The democratization of the society led to the increasing formation of various political parties that formed a unique diversity of the Indian multi-party system. All these parties represented interests of different ethnic, social, and religious groups.

Current typology of political parties

There are almost one thousand registered political parties in India and 50 of them have the status of National or State parties (Dutt, 2006, 62). All national and state parties are recognized while other parties are known as not recognized. It also should be noted, that there are two houses of parliament in India. Rajya Sabha or the Upper House serves the interests of the separate states. Lok Sabha or the Lower House is formed to monitor and fulfill the needs of all people on the national level (Dutt, 2006, 51).

There are six recognized national parties. They are Bharatiya Janata Party, Indian National Congress, Communist Party of India (Marxist), Communist Party of India, Bahujan Samai Party, and National Congress Party (Dutt, 2006, 62). Almost fifty parties are State parties.

Some of them are All India Forward Bloc, Indian Union Muslim League, Sikkim Democratic Front, Zoram Nationalist Party and others. There are also unrecognized parties that affect the politics in India to some extent — Lok Satta Party, Manipur Peoples Party, Jana Sena Party, and many others (Dutt, 2006, 62-65).

The caste system as the factor that impedes Indian multi-party system

The role of castes is a significant factor that predetermines the functioning of the multi-party system. There are more than three thousand castes in India. Their number varies in different regions (Shan, 2004, 5). In general, they are divided into four groups. They are the learned people, the warriors, agriculturalists and traders, and those who serve (“The Caste System”, n.d., par. 5). Castes are hereditary. It means that one belongs to the high or low caste since birth.

The Indian Constitution abolishes the caste system. Despite this fact, every political party makes use of the caste system. This tradition has a long history, and that is why it is deeply rooted in all aspects of social and political life (“The Caste System”, n.d., par. 10). No sphere limits the impact of caste. In the political life, it commences with the electoral process.

For instance, the Communist Party of India always chooses the representative from the most influential caste as the candidate for elections (Gulabsingh and Palekar, 2014, 2). The problem is that the most prominent representative is not always the most capable person in the party. Such an individual is interested in his caste enrichment. Thus, such an approach to choosing candidates is one of the factors that comprise the dilemma in the party system.

Gulabsingh and Palekar (2014) also write that “when a ministry is formed in the State or at the Centre, caste considerations are always kept in mind. Every chief minister tries to ensure that all dominant castes in the State are adequately represented in his council of ministers” (2). This fact also exemplifies the injustice in the multi-party system.

Sub-castes are also known as “jati”. They represent smaller localized groups within the particular large caste (Johnson and Johnson, n.d., par. 1-3). They are essential for receiving the needed minority of votes by the party.

The candidate from the sub-caste knows the primary concern of people, their problems, desires, traditions, and ways of life. It is easy to use all this information to create a campaign that will attract the attention of the target group. Parties can create distinct banners or advertisements that reflect the interests of this or that group and gain the favor of the voters.

Another crucial aspect that affects Indian party system is the great diversity of the population. When there are many representatives from various social and ethnic groups, there is an immense number of interests. This situation is directly connected to the multi-party system. However, it is necessary to examine the dilemma of the multi-party system through the several perspectives of diversity.

Indian political culture and its manifestation through multi-party system

The population is divided into elite and masses (Hoveyda, 2010, 14). These two groups participate in the political process and represents different types of political culture. These kinds of political culture enhance the divergence of opinion within the party system as well. Indian political culture is heterogeneous.

It is divided into the elite culture and mass culture. Hoveyda (2010) writes that “elites are associated with liberal education and related values, institutions of the representative government and values of citizenship; while the masses are viewed as traditional, regional and conservative, though also oriented towards modern values and institutions” (15). There are differences between elite culture and mass culture that impede the successful development of the country.

Military and civil bureaucracy, educated intelligentsia, and political leaders comprise the elite political culture. Mass culture consists of traditional castes, and it is more interested in the local and regional levels of governance (Hoveyda, 2010, 15-16). Mass culture became widely spread due to the processes of democratization and the policy of power decentralization. These aspects increased the level of involvement of people from various social strata in the governmental activities.

On the one hand, the formation of political parties by different people was a good sign of democracy and the efficient implementation of the multi-party system. On the contrary, it increased the inequality between people. Thus, those who belonged to wealthy castes could become involved in politics and increase their status and financial resources while others remained in the same disadvantageous position (Hoveyda, 2010, 16).

One more distinctive feature of mass political culture refers to the dominance of caste, religious, provincial, and linguistic factors. All these features of mass culture differ it from the elite culture. Consequently, their goals are not the same and cannot be achieved with the help of each other.

Thus, the elite political culture emphasizes the significance of developing the country on the national and global level (Hoveyda, 2010, 16-17). Such a plan includes the formation of the advanced infrastructure system, the representation of state schemes, and economic growth. The mass political culture needs support in the form of subsidized services, water, or electricity (Hoveyda, 2010, 16-17).

It is obvious that political orientations of the elite and mass political cultures are far from being the same. Some voters are more interested in having enough water. That is why they will vote for parties from the mass political culture. Other people realize the necessity to develop the overall economy of the country.

In this case, they will vote for parties from the elite political culture. What is more significant, the parties themselves are not ready to achieve any consensus. They focus only on their goals. The coalitions are not of great assistance in this case. Though parties combine their votes, it is still not enough for the political stability within the country (Hoveyda, 2010, 17).

Ethnic diversity and its relation to the dilemma

India is a home for representatives from many dissimilar religious, ethnic, and social classes of people. Such aspect as ethnicity can also shed the light on the problem of the country’s multi-party system. A particular attention should be paid to the notion of the political secularism.

The so-called “ethinification” of the party system means the intentional direction of political parties to receive support from the particular ethnic group (Huber and Suryanarayan, 2014, 5).

Elites can use ethnicity as a target to attract as many voters as possible and form the necessary coalition. Such schemes work well in countries where it is challenging to receive the majority of seats by one party (Huber and Suryanarayan, 2014, 2). It is obvious that such plan is of great advantage for Indian political parties. Religious beliefs are significant constituents that comprise the ethnicity of every individual in the country.

Hinduism is the most widespread religion in India (Ghosh, 2015, par. 2). More than eighty percent of all population in India are Hindus. Muslims comprise ten percent while Christianity — almost three percent (Ghosh, 2015, par. 2). The primary problem with Hinduism refers to the fact that there is no universal religion. People from different religious minorities proclaim themselves Hindus. There are Hindu and Muslim political parties in the country (Ghosh, 2015, par. 5).

The key concern between them has a religious background. The Bharatiya Janata Party is the largest party that directly demonstrates its Hindus roots and follows the policy of the Hindu nationalism (Dutt, 2006, 62). The results of elections prove the religion-based politics. It has been found out that only a few votes for the BJP are observed in regions where the Muslim population is prevailing.

Secularism has become a popular trend in many Western societies. The idea of separation the government from the religious organizations became widespread due to several reasons Maclure and Taylor, 2011, 11-12). First, the Church can impede the scientific progress and forbid to conduct particular types of researches. Second, the necessity to be under the patronage of the church does not appeal to many individuals.

Consequently, the religion got detached and became a private affair of everyone (Maclure and Taylor, 2011, 11). The role of religion in the Indian society should not be underestimated. No secularist tendencies take place in the country due to the significance of worship. Faith has always been a prominent stimulus for the national awakening. Thus, Gandhi inspired people with the idea of political freedom with the help of religious texts (Moradian and Whiteshouse, 2000, par. 20-25).

The idea of democracy in India is a controversial issue. The country proclaims itself the largest democracy in the world. The concept of democracy is interconnected with the activity of political parties in India. Political parties are often regarded as both “heroes and villains of the country’s democratic experiment” (Diamond and Gunther, 2001, 206). All citizens of India strongly support the idea of democracy. Nevertheless, the democracy is still more like an illusion rather than the reality in the country.

It is also worthwhile mentioning the research conducted by Rudolph and Rudolph. The authors investigate the new dimensions of Indian democracy since the 1990s. They have pointed out five primary aspects that reflect the achievement of justice in the Indian society. The issues that are related to political parties include the modification of the party system, the rise of states, and the coalition government. India has a federal system that assists in maintaining peaceful coexistence of people from various ethnic and cultural groups.

The federal system of India can be compared to the European Union countries rather that to the U.S.’s states (Rudolph and Rudolph, 2002, 53-54). This statement is proved by the fact that there are particular correspondences between them. The residents of England and Italy, for instance, as well as Hindu and Tamils speak different languages and share some history.

They have different socioeconomic profiles and various cultural heritage (Rudolph and Rudolph, 2002, 54). Considering all these factors, both India and European Union promote peaceful living among the residents of states.

The transformation into the multi-party was the second manifestation of the Indian democracy. The end of the ruling of one dominant party symbolized the appearance of new features of the country (Rudolph and Rudolph, 2002, 54-55). As a result, people from all social classes, ethnic, and religious groups became able to form the political parties and represent the interests of their minorities.

The third representation of democracy refers to the establishment of the coalition government (Rudolph and Rudolph, 2002, 55). Coalitions are inevitable in the country where the number of political parties makes it impossible to gain the majority of seats by one particular party. Thus, parties unite to become more valuable and possess more power. Besides, the aim of every coalition government is to reduce the risks of extremism (Rudolph and Rudolph, 2002, 55).

For instance, BJP commenced its political activity as the party whose primary concern was Hindu nationalism. Due to the lack of power, the party had to look for partners. One secular party from South India became the partner of BJP and, in such a way decreased the possibility of the excessive concentration on Hindu nationalism issues (Rudolph and Rudolph, 2002, 55-56).

The country experienced recent rapid economic growth. However, this growth has not influenced the standard of living of people. Residents of India are destitute. The general income per capita is below the threshold (“Effects of Poverty in India: Between Injustice and Exclusion”, 2013, par. 1). Such a situation resembles the features of the dictatorship but not of the democracy.

India has an immense number of ethnic minorities that have different languages, culture, traditions, and beliefs. Besides, the cases of inter-community violence are usual thing in India. People belong to different castes, and this is the major differentiator of the whole society until nowadays. Religious conflicts can occur as well. Also, the level of corruption in the country is not like it should be in democratic societies (Oldenburg, 2007, 5-7).

These distinctive characteristics of India explain the necessity to have the multi-party system. On the one hand, various political parties should represent such socio-cultural diversity. Otherwise, it will be impossible to take into account the interests of all people. Democracy presupposes the rule of masses through the representatives. The only possible option, in this case, is to employ a multi-party system (Oldenburg, 2007, 7).

On the other hand, there are many flaws in the system. The first problem refers to the fair play in the election. There are no evidence that elections are fair and not corrupted (Oldenburg, 2007, 7-8). Besides, many people in India are still illiterate or have the inadequate education. They cannot make profound decisions due to the lack of knowledge and ability to comprehend the situation. When the parties are already chosen, their promises, in most cases, remain just promises (Oldenburg, 2007, 8).

All these issues undermine the idea of democracy in the Indian multi-party system. Oldenburg has conducted research and examined that corruption in courts is a typical practice. For instance, many politicians are accused of participating in some illegal activity. Nevertheless, none of them was convicted in the commitment of the crime (Oldenburg, 2007, 9). Democracy is impossible in such conditions.

India is the second most populated country in the world with the most diverse society. The party system of the country has changed drastically since independence. India started as the country with one dominant party, the Indian National Congress, and gradually developed the multi-party system. Such a transformation of the government is a direct manifestation of the democratization.

However, such factors as the caste system and the population diversity influence the implementation of the multi-party system significantly. On the one hand, the multi-party system is the best option for the country with such diversity. On the contrary, the caste inequalities and ethnic diversity make it impossible to achieve any consensus among parties.

Barrington, Lowell. Comparative Politics: Structure and Choices . Boston: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Caramani, Daniele. Comparative Politics . Oxford: OUP, 2014. Print.

Diamond, Larry and Richard Gunther. Political Parties and Democracy . Baltimore: JHU Press, 2001. Print.

Dutt, Sagarika. India in a Globalized World . Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006. Print.

Effects of Poverty in India: Between Injustice and Exclusion 2013.

Gulabsingh, Sandeep and Sana Palekar. “The Role of Caste in Indian Politics.” Research Directions 1.8 (2014): 1-3. Print.

Ghosh, Abantika. Census: Hindu Share Dips Below 80%, Muslims Share Grows but Slower . 2015.

Hofmeister, Wilhelm and Karsten Grabow. Political Parties . Singapore: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, 2011. Print.

Hoveyda, Abbas. Indian Government and Politics . Delphi: Pearson Education India, 2010. Print.

Huber, John and Pavithra Suryanarayan. Ethnic Inequality and the Ethnification of the Political Parties: Evidence from India . 2014. PDF File.

India Country Profile — Overview 2015.

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Kesalu, Satri. “Genesis and Evaluation of Political Parties in India.” International Research Journal of Social Sciences 2.2 (2013): 56-62. Print.

Maclure, Jocelyn and Charles Taylor. Secularism and Freedom of Conscience . Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2011. Print.

Moradian, Meneejeh and David Whiteshouse. Gandhi and the Politics of Nonviolence . 2000.

Oldenburg, Philip. “India’s Democracy: Illusion or Reality?” Education About Asia 12.13 (2007): 5-11. Print.

Rana, Kamal. Growth of Party System in India . 2014.

Rudolph, Susanne and Lloyd Rudolph. “New Dimensions of Indian Democracy.” Journal of Democracy 13.1 (2002): 52-66. Print.

Shan, Ghanshyam. Caste and Democratic Politics in India . London: Anthem Press, 2004. Print.

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Hindu Nationalism and Indian Politics: with an Introduction by Pratap Bhanu Meht

The rise and growth of Hindu nationalism is the salient feature of contemporary Indian politics. This omnibus brings together the best scholarship on Hindu nationalism, its organizational forms, political strategies, ideological claims, social base, and its relationship to other variants of nationalism. Meticulously researched and lucidly written, each of the three books included here, provides a wealth of empirical material and theoretical insights on this phenomenon.

Pratap Bhanu Mehta's thought-provoking introduction, especially written for this volume, examines the idea of Hindu nationalism and situates the three books in the present context.

While complementing each other, the volumes offer a powerful and persuasive analysis of the politics of Hindutva and its prospects. John Zavos' The Emergence of Hindu Nationalism in India traces its origins in the early part of the twentieth century, and enumerates the different political idioms and organizational strategies it employed. Thomas Blom Hansen's The Saffron Wave places it in the modern context and reflects on the relationship between Hindu nationalism and other forms of nationalism and democracy. Christophe Jaffrelot and Thomas Blom Hansen in The BJP and the Compulsions of Politics in India bring together scholarly studies on the BJP's political strategies in the context of electoral politics. The book analyses the party's political trajectories at the regional as well as the national level and the specific challenges it faces. At a time when the political resilience of Hindu nationalism is again in focus, these works will engage both the scholar and the general reader. This omnibus is a unique resource for students of modern history and politics, as also for policy-makers, analysts, and journalists.

Essay on Indian Politics in English for Children and Students

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Long and Short Essay on Indian Politics in English

Here we have given short and long essay on Indian Politics of varying lengths to help you with the topic in your exam.

You can use any Indian Politics essay for your exams/assignments, essay writing, debate competitions or other similar occasions.

After going through the essays you will get an insight of Indian politics and its structure.

You will also appreciate the diversity of India and the role that the politics plays in making the voices of people heard.

Short Essay on Indian Politics – Essay 1 (200 words)

The Indian political system must be changed for good to bring about a positive change in the society.

Essay on Indian Politics and Politicians – Essay 2 (300 words)

Introduction

The Need for Educated Ministers

Corruption at the Chore of Indian Politics

It is the common man who is suffering due to these corrupt politicians and their corrupt practices.

Essay on Indian Political System – Essay 3 (400 words)

The Political Set up of India

There are a total of 545 members in the Lok Sabha.
543 Lok Sabha members are elected by the general public of the country through election. 2 Lok Sabha members are elected directly by the President of the country from the Anglo Indian Community.
Among other requirements, one must be 25 years of age in order to be eligible for Lok Sabha membership.

Rajya Sabha

There are a total of 245 members in the Rajya Sabha.
233 members of the Rajya Sabha are elected from States and Union Territories. 12 members are nominated by the President.
A candidate must be at least 30 years old in order to become a Rajya Sabha member.

The Members of Parliament is an essential part of the Indian political system and have the power to take many political decisions collectively.

Political Parties and Formation of Government

India has numerous political parties that contest the elections. The party that gets majority of votes comes into power. The government of India is formed for a total of five years.

Essay on Politics and Corruption – Essay 4 (500 words)

The terms, politics and corruption can be used synonymously when it comes to the Indian political system. It would be no exaggeration to say that the Indian political system is corrupted to the core.

Politics and Corruption

Time to Bring About Change

Let the History Repeat itself

Long Essay on Women in Indian Politics – Essay 5 (600 words)

Women Politicians in India

Some Indian women who have made a mark in the field of Indian politics include:

Indira Gandhi

Her persona was so strong that she was named the ‘Woman of the Millennium’ in an online poll done by BBC.

Mamata Banerjee

She made a place in the list of 100 Most Influential People in the World in Time Magazine’s 2012 edition.

Jayalalithaa

Pratibha Patil

Pratibha Patil served as the 12 th President of India. She came to power in the year 2007 and successfully completed her term in 2012.

Sushma Swaraj

She has been serving as the Minister of External Affairs of India since May 2014. She had also served many other roles in the Indian politics.

Speech on Politics in India

Politics and Religion in India: An Analysis Introduction

The simple thesis is of this paper is that religion and politics were never purely or completely separated in India, in spite of the contributions of modernity and hence it is necessary to strive hard to separate them as secularism seems to be more viable in a pluralistic context. While working towards this direction, it may also be asked how best positive religious insights can guide political wisdom. To derive at this point, I shall attempt a sketchy and graphic historical development of the process of secularization leading to the formulation of secularism and secular state. While attempting to do so, I shall also highlight the never-ceasing influence of religion on politics and how politicization of religion takes place. To prove the thesis I shall analyze the role of Congress party, emergence of Muslim League and religious interest organizations leading to the formation of BJP. Considerable space shall be devoted for the patterns in which BJP attempts to subscribe to communal politics. Before concluding the analysis the areas and issues that need to be considered and addressed can be underlined. 1 Traditional Society The ideological component in traditional societies was provided almost entirely by religion; secular political ideologies did not exist, and the legitimacy of the ruler was based on religious ideas. The religiopolitical system was an integrated system in which ruler, clergy, religious ideology, religious norms of behaviour, and coercive governmental power were combined in order to maximize the stability of society. 1 It is also often true that "in the intricately woven fabric of traditional systems, the political functions of the clergy were no less important than the religious role of the king." 2 In general, the sway of religion over politics was noteworthy in traditional societies because religion is a mass phenomenon, politics is not; but religion can be used to make politics meaningful. Religious values are also an important influence on political culture, and predispose individuals and societies toward certain patterns of political life. 3 The preponderance of religion over politics in specific in the traditional societies has been challenged in the modern society. Here there is a conscious, but often unsuccessful, attempt to distinguish between religion and the other aspects of life. To understand this phenomenon it shall be appropriate to circumscribe modern period.

Related Papers

Abbad Kamal

Sabah Mofidi

The studies on various societies and the recent changes in some countries show that religion whether as a social structure or an important part of culture, still has some important social functions. This book has followed the use of religion in politics in a society still traditional but with a secular state. It is an attempt to understand why religion is important in politics and politicians still use it. For this purpose, India as a context of the study has been examined. The study tries to find out the reasons for the continuous relevance of religion in the Indian political arena. It clarifies the different aspects of political function of religion in contemporary India and the political groups or leaders who have made an effective use of this function. It also tries to explore the impact of the new situation in post-independence India on the political functions of religion in the country. The book, originally written in 2013 as a PhD thesis, which mentions a possible Abrahamic agreement between Islamic, Jewish and Christian states (p. 62), similar to what was later happened in 2020 under Abraham Accords between USA, Israel and Arab countries. It is available upon request.

International Journal of Contemporary Issues

This article has examined the political function of religion in elections. It has tried to answer the following questions: How has the electoral function of religion been in contemporary India? Which political groups or parties in India have made an effective use of and gained an advantage of the political function of religion in elections? For this purpose, the function of parties and politicians during elections in pre and post-independence India has been regarded. The findings shows that using the religious motions in politics during post independence until the early 21st century has continued and in comparison with pre-independence it has been enhanced, though being a secular state. As India has still a traditional society with variety of religions, using political function of religion has been prevalent.

International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences

In the modern age without fundamentalism as a middle stage, reaching the level of political religion is not possible even in religious and traditional society. Without making a space or field by fundamentalists and against modernity, the forming of theocratic state and using the political function of religion by religio-political groups is difficult. Maybe the relationship between religious fundamentalism and political religion is so obvious that it triggers questions as; is political religion possible without fundamentalist reaction in this modern era of traditional society? Does every fundamentalist movement lead to theocratic state? How is the relationship between religious fundamentalism and political religion? Or in the other words, what is the requirement or main factor of emergence of political religion? This article tries to answer these questions and clarify the priority of fundamentalism, as a requirement for political religion in modern age. However, it is possible for a traditional society to remain with a secular state. We can relatively witness the separation between religion and state but not separation of religion from politics. So, a traditional society in itself will not suffice in attaining a full-fledged political religion and religious government; and hence the need of fundamentalism becomes the crux of the hour.

Logos i Ethos

Karol Jasiński

Thomas J Altmeppen

SKIREC Publication- UGC Approved Journals

Religion which has always appealed to human nature's unalterable laws and particularly its existential desires and afflictions is no doubt one of the oldest and most deep-rooted institutions on Earth. It is a divine reflection of mankind's craving and effort to interrogate and understand the reasons of creation of the universe, the meaning of life on Earth and the life after death. Religion, as the most outstanding basis of tradition, law and politics at the same time, obviously deserves to be the most vigorous founding body of the society, as well as the individuals' ontological resource of peace and security provided with its heavenly, celestial knowledge references. Hence, having an important influence on forming the individuals' worldview in general and correspondingly their political perception and identities, it is widely taken into consideration as an efficient factor before all else in the processes of academic studies and scientific researches on political issues such as political attitude, voting behaviour and electoral behaviour. Various theories or models have been produced concerning the relationship between religious belief and political behaviour so far. However, among all those others particularly " Sociological Model " and " Psycho-Social Model " (Michigan Model) are much more related to the issue. Thus, the relationship between them was examined in the light of those two models in this article.

Journal of Appl ied Environmental and Biological Sciences

Dr. Husnul Amin

This paper attempts to examine critically the active role of religion in Indian politics in the years 1990-2010. Constitutionally, India is a secular state and does not claim any religion as her official religion. Despite having such a status, her attitude towards religious minorities is indomitable. This anomaly has provided Hindutva to play a key role in her politics. This role of Hindutva became prominent especially in the last two decades. The most significant departure from secularism is observed in the 1990s that set the stage for the rise of the right wing political parties. They have used Hindutva as an instrument of populism in their electoral campaigns. This became evident more and more in the emergence of the BJP as one of the major political parties on Indian political scene. This research attempts to analyze that how the emerging role of religion in the mainstream politics in India threatens the viability of India as a secular state. Besides, this also attempts to analyze how historically this role of religion in Indian politics has implications for minorities especially in the years 1990-2010. Descriptive-analytical method is being used to substantiate the questions.

Acta Ethnographica Hungarica

Gábor Barna

Walisongo: Jurnal Penelitian Sosial Keagamaan

This article discusses the position of religion in politic that has relation to leadership. The main argumentation of this research is religion will constantly become a political power and social movement. In one side the research has different opinion from the integration politic paradigm and secular that proposed by Hasan al-Bannā and 'Alī Abd. al-Rāziq, but in another side, it has reinforced the two paradigms. By using literature study and descriptive method and philosophical historical approach, it indicates Is-lam will constantly exist and has influence in the political process. Although Islam is not depending on politic and on the contrary. Islam and politic are both integrated dimension of life, so both are not able to be separated from social politic dynamics. Artikel ini membahas kedudukan agama dalam politik yang ber-kaitan dengan kepemimpinan. Argumentasi utama penelitian ini adalah bahwa agama tetap akan menjadi kekuatan politik dan gerakan sosial. Di satu sisi penelitian ini berbeda pendapat den-gan paradigma politik integrasi dan sekuler yang dikemukakan oleh Hasan al-Bannā dan 'Alī Abd. al-Rāziq, namun di sisi lain memperkuat kedua paradigma tersebut. Dengan menempuh studi kepustakaan dan menggunakan metode deskriptif serta pendekat-an filosofis dan historis, penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa Islam akan tetap eksis dan berpengaruh dalam proses politik. Hakikat Islam meskipun tidak bergantung pada politik dan begitu pula

Essay on Politics for Students in English

Politics is a hugely important domain in the world and it has a profound impact on the functioning as well as the policies of the governments. Politics has an effect on all types of government including democratic, autocratic, monarchical, theocratic and others. The government is responsible for making decisions on different matters of public interest, issuing orders for the public health, directing the citizens towards development and growth, and performing a wide range of other related functions.

There are numerous definitions of what politics means. Politics can be described as the disagreement between the various groups on what they like. One of the broad definitions of politics, which is widely agreed, is the art of governance. The government is the entity having the legal authority of regulating people’s actions. The word politics is usually used for defining how the countries are governed and how the governments make the rules and the laws.

Defining laws and regulations that tell people what they can or cannot do is one of the ways in which the government leads the people. These regulations and laws are enacted by the government for ensuring order and protection in the society. Beyond the laws, the government might also regulate the citizens and the functioning of the country in other ways. Most of the countries have specific groups or political parties for expressing their views and policies.

The political parties form a consensus on the common policies or path that they should take in communicating their ideas or policies to the people. These parties support legislative bills or reforms and the candidates based on the agenda agreed upon by the members. The election is usually contested or fought between the opposite political parties of different spectrum.

One of the conventional explanations of politics refers to politics being conducted within the system of checks and balances for avoiding misuse of political power. The several institutions that exist within the governing system include the legislative body that is responsible for making laws, executive body that imposes them, and judiciary that interprets them thus providing a powerful and well-rounded political spectrum.

If you want to study in detail about politics and its various concepts of applications for your essay in English then you can refer to it on the Vedantu website or app. Vedantu is a leading learning platform with a wide range of learning resources, tutorials, solutions, reference notes, and sample questions papers with solutions for students of different branches.

Short Politics Essay in English

Politics, in general, is the platform by which people create, maintain, and change the laws that govern their lives. As a result, conflict and collaboration are inextricably connected in politics. On the one hand, the presence of conflicting views, competing expectations, competing needs, and competing interests is expected to result in conflict over the rules under which people live.

Politics is fascinating because everyone has a different perspective on life and its rules. They have differing opinions about how they should live. What money should go to whom? What is the best way to disperse power to help the powerless? Is it better for society to be built on collaboration or conflict? And so forth. They also talk about how such disputes can be resolved. What is the best way to make decisions as a group? In what conditions does who have a say? How much say should each person have in decisions? The list goes on.

This, according to Aristotle, made politics the "master science," which he described as "the action by which human beings strive to better their lives and build and contribute to a Good Society." Politics is, first and foremost, a social practice. It's still a conversation, but the parties have reduced it to a monologue.

Any effort to grasp the sense of the word "politics" must always grapple with two major issues. The first is the different connotations that this word has in everyday speech. Unlike economics, geography, history, and biology, which most people think of as academic subjects, few people approach politics without preconceptions. The second, more complicated issue is that even well-respected authorities cannot agree about what politics is all about. It has infiltrated nearly every aspect of society.

Hence, we can say that the exercise of authority, the sacred science of governance, the making of unified decisions, the distribution of limited resources, the art of deceit and exploitation, and so on are all terms used to describe politics.

FAQs on Essay on Politics

1. How do we define politics?

Politics is the collection of activities connected with community decision-making or other types of power relations between individuals, such as resource allocation or status.

2. Name the Various national-level political parties in india.

There are several national-level political parties in India. The major ones include:

All India Trinamool Congress(AITC)

Bahujan Samaj Party(BSP)

Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)

Communist Party of India(CPI)

Communist Party of India(Marxist)

Indian National Congress(INC)

National People’s Party(NPP)

Nationalist Congress Party(NCP)

3. What is the definition of politics?

Politics has numerous definitions and explanations. In the basic broad term politics can be defined as the art of governance through a collection of activities that are associated with society, decision-making, and power relations between the individuals, like status or resource allocation. The concept of politics is very important in the governance of a country and it is an important topic related to public life that the students must learn about.

4. Which are the different major political parties in India?

There are several major political parties in India. Some of these political parties include All India Trinamool Congress (AITMC), Indian National Congress (INC), Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), Communist Party of India (Marxist), Communist Party of India (CPI), and National People’s Party (NPP) amongst a host of others. Each of these political parties have their own political manifesto based on which they conduct their operations.

5. Why is politics an important subject for students to learn?

Politics is related to day-to-day functioning of a country or a society and thus it is important for students to learn and be well informed about it. Politics includes vital policies and decisions that have a direct impact on people and as a responsible citizen it is crucial for students to have a basic grasp of developments in the country that charts out the future path of the nation.

6. How can I prepare for an essay on politics?

If you want to write an essay on politics then you would need to prepare well by understanding the definitions and various other aspects related to politics. One of the ways you can do this is by learning and reading about politics on the internet. You can also find a detailed essay on politics for students in English at Vedantu. This essay incorporates all the important points and provides an excellent guide on how the essay should be done.

7. How can I download the English essay on politics from Vedantu?

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Essay on Election in India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Election in India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Election in India

Introduction.

Elections in India symbolize the democratic nature of the country. They provide citizens the right to choose their leaders.

The Election Commission, an autonomous body, conducts elections. Adults aged 18 and above can vote.

Types of Elections

India has three types of elections: Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and State Legislative Assemblies.

Significance

Elections ensure people’s participation in governance. They uphold the principle of equality as every vote counts.

Elections in India are a powerful tool for people to express their views and choose their government.

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Speech on Election in India

250 Words Essay on Election in India

India, the world’s largest democracy, has a multi-tiered system of government, reflecting its federal structure. The heart of this democratic setup lies in its elections, a robust process that enables citizens to exercise their right to vote and choose their representatives.

Electoral System

India follows a parliamentary system of government, which is federal in structure with unitary features. The President of India is the constitutional head, while real power resides with the Prime Minister. Elections in India occur at national, state, and local levels. The Election Commission of India, an autonomous constitutional authority, is responsible for administering election processes.

Electoral Process

Elections in India follow the first-past-the-post system. In this system, the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins, irrespective of whether they secure a majority. This system has been criticized for not accurately reflecting the voters’ will, leading to discussions about potential alternatives like proportional representation.

Challenges and Reforms

Elections in India face numerous challenges, including electoral fraud, voter intimidation, and money power. The Election Commission has introduced several reforms to combat these issues, such as Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter-Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs). However, the effectiveness of these measures remains a subject of debate.

Despite the challenges, elections in India symbolize the strength and vitality of its democracy. They represent the voice of over a billion people, making them a significant global event. Continuous efforts are required to improve the electoral process and ensure that it remains free, fair, and inclusive.

500 Words Essay on Election in India

Introduction to indian elections.

Elections in India are a grand affair, often referred to as the “festival of democracy.” They represent the democratic ethos and constitutional principles that the nation is built upon. The Indian election system is a complex process, with multiple layers of representation, from local to national levels.

Structural Framework

India follows a federal structure of governance, though the election process is largely centralized. The Election Commission of India (ECI), an autonomous constitutional authority, is responsible for administering election processes in the country. Elections are conducted at different levels: Panchayat (village level), Municipal (city level), State (provincial level), and Lok Sabha (national level).

The electoral process begins with the delimitation of constituencies, which are geographical territories from which candidates are elected. Each constituency represents a seat in the respective legislative body. The ECI maintains an electoral roll, a list of all eligible voters, which is updated periodically.

Voting System

India follows the ‘First Past The Post’ (FPTP) system. In this system, the candidate receiving the highest number of votes in a constituency is declared the winner, irrespective of the vote share. While FPTP allows for clear winners, it has been criticized for not truly reflecting the proportional representation of voters’ choices.

Role of Political Parties

Political parties play a crucial role in Indian elections. They are the primary vehicles for political mobilization and policy debate. The two main national parties are the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), but regional parties also wield significant influence, reflecting India’s diverse socio-cultural fabric.

Challenges in Indian Elections

Despite the robustness of the electoral system, Indian elections face several challenges. These include issues of money and muscle power, electoral violence, and the misuse of state machinery. Further, the problem of criminalization in politics, with many candidates facing serious criminal charges, undermines the democratic ethos.

Reforms and the Way Forward

The ECI has introduced several reforms to address these challenges. The use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and the introduction of Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) have improved the transparency and integrity of the process. The NOTA (None of the Above) option empowers voters to reject all candidates.

However, further reforms are needed. These could include state funding of elections to curb the misuse of money power, stronger laws to prevent criminalization in politics, and perhaps a shift towards a system of proportional representation to better reflect the diversity of voter preferences.

Indian elections, with their scale and complexity, are a testament to the country’s vibrant democracy. Despite the challenges, they offer a platform for the expression of popular will and the peaceful transition of power. They are a reminder of the power of the ballot, and the responsibility that comes with it, in shaping the future of the world’s largest democracy.

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Investigating political polarization in India through the lens of Twitter

Anindita borah.

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam India

Sanasam Ranbir Singh

Associated data.

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to sensitivity of information but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Social media plays a pivotal role in shaping communication among political entities. Substantial research has been carried out for examining the impact of politicians’ social media usage and interactions on political polarization. Analysing political polarization is particularly significant for fragmented political systems like India where collaboration between parties is essential for winning support in parliament. Different topics of discussion between political entities may induce different levels of polarization. This study aims to examine the presence of polarization on Twitter social media platform with respect to different topics of political discussions among Indian politicians. The investigation is based upon two conflicting notions about social media in influencing political polarization. The first notion regards social media as a medium for interaction between different ideological users. The second opinion on the other hand focuses on prevalence of selective exposure in social media leading to polarization. The study will investigate the use of Twitter for forming communication ties in and between parties and the extent of divergence of opinions during political discourse. The investigation performs social network analysis and content analysis of the tweets posted by Indian politicians during some major events in India from 2019 to 2021. For an unbiased topic-specific analysis of polarization, some important topics related to Indian government policies, national security and natural disaster events have been considered. The findings of the study suggest that Twitter not only opens up communication spaces to Indian political users but also makes online political discussions among them polarized. Moreover, the extent of polarization varies with respect to topics of political discussions. Polarization is more for controversial and debatable topics than non-controversial ones.

Introduction

Political polarization has become an important subject of deliberation owing to its negative implications on democratic societies. A polarized population is often divided into different groups of same size having opposing polarities or opinions. There has been a constant debate regarding the presence of political polarization on social media due to its growing popularity and usage among the politicians, parties and masses. Politicians use social media platforms for propagating their political views and for supporting or engaging in debates with other politicians. Social media might enable information flow by facilitating direct communication and exchange of ideas between the political entities, but might also induce polarization. Degree of polarization on social media depends on the topics of political discussions to a great extent. Different topics involve different levels of compliance and disagreement that may either unite the political groups or move them far apart. It is fundamental to understand how activities of Indian politicians on social media with respect to different topics influence political polarization.

Among all the social media platforms, Twitter is the most pivotal online places extensively used for political debates. This study focuses on Twitter because of its worldwide popularity, majority of the Indian politicians are having Twitter handles and the data is easily accessible. The primary aim of this study is therefore, to investigate the presence of polarization among Indian politicians on Twitter during political discussions. To investigate the existence of political polarization on social media platforms, this study analyses the usage of Twitter by Indian politicians during some of the major events in India.

Research questions and hypotheses

Political polarization is a diverse field of research and its investigation in a single dimension may not be sufficient. In order to examine the existence of political polarization on social media, the analysis must be done from different perspectives. This study will therefore, investigate Indian political polarization based on its two broad characteristics: pattern of interaction and opinion divergence. For an unbiased analysis, political polarization will be examined with respect to several topics of political discussions related to some important events in India. The following research questions have been formulated for investing polarization on social media platform Twitter:

Social media on one hand can promote flow of information, ideas and opinions among the political entities and on the other hand, can also induce political polarization. An important question in this regard is whether the political entities use Twitter to communicate with members having different ideologies or their interaction is restricted to only like-minded peers. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how Twitter is affecting the formation of communication ties within and across parties and whether it leads to polarization. The amount of participation and interaction among the politicians varies depending on the topics of political discourse. In this context, the first research question will focus on the way communication ties are formed within and between parties with respect to different topics and whether this leads to polarization. While interacting on Twitter, the politicians make connections with each other, forming complex social network structures. These network structures demonstrate the flow of information and the connections in the networks reflect the sharing of content among politicians.

There are two basic modes of interaction in Twitter: (a) mention , in which one user can mention another user in response to his/her tweets and (b) retweet , in which one user can share or forward another user’s tweets. To identify the pattern of interaction with respect to topics of discussion, this study will analyse the formation of communication ties as well as the degree of polarization among Indian politicians from their mention and retweet networks on different topics.

Existing research on social media polarization demonstrated the presence of cross-ideological exchange in Twitter networks. Mention networks reflect the communication behaviour of political candidates as well as their cross-party interactions. The cross-party connections however, varies based on the layers in which the interaction takes place. In accordance with the first research question and the findings of existing research, the following hypotheses have been formulated:

Mention networks of politicians reflect more cross-party interactions than retweet networks during political discussions

Selective exposure prevails only in retweet networks of politicians and not in mention networks during political discussions

Social media allow the political entities to articulate and express different opinions which often leads to conflict in their sentiments and views towards an issue . According to social scientists, this divergence in opinion leads to increased polarization among the political entities. In order to reach an agreement regarding the possible solutions about an issue, the political entities must recognize their opponent’s views as valid despite being conflicting. However, refuting their opponents view as invalid or improper might make the political discussions on crucial issues more polarized. The second research question will therefore, try to investigate the extent of divergence of opinions among the political entities with respect to topics of political debate. Selective exposure during political debates has been identified as a major factor influencing the disagreement among politicians. Retweet relations represent agreement among the politicians on their published content. Retweet networks represent the similarity between the interests of the communities. Considering, the retweet relation to be a form of agreement between users and selective exposure a factor influencing opinion divergence, the following hypothesis have been formulated:

Interconnected communities in retweet networks are more similar to each other in terms of opinion

Literature contains ample endeavours intensifying on the phenomenon of political polarization on social media. However, very limited studies can be found concerning the emergence of polarization among political elites on Twitter or other platforms. Study of elite polarization is essential as it eventually gives rise to mass polarization or polarization among the general public. Existing studies investigated polarization either in terms of selective exposure or opinion polarization but not as a whole. Investigating polarization in a single dimension may not be sufficient. Moreover, none of the studies have performed a topic-based analysis on polarization, even though topics of political discourse play a significant role in influencing polarization. The growing polarization in Indian politics has become an important research issue for the political scientists and social media activities of political candidates may prove to be an important indicator for measuring polarization. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first attempt towards the investigation of Indian political polarization over Twitter with respect to different topics of political discussions.

The remaining paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 elucidates some existing studies on political polarization. The description of the data used and the methodology adopted for this study is illustrated in Sect. 3 . The findings and observations of the analysis are discussed in greater detail in Sect. 5 . The study is finally summarized and concluded in Sect. 6 .

Related work

Several studies can be found in the literature that investigated political polarization over social media. First study towards the same was performed by Adamic and Glance ( 2005 ) to identify the pattern of interaction among the conservative and liberal blogs. They performed network analysis and identified a clustered structure between the hyperlinks of blogs with opposing ideologies. Conover et al. ( 2011 ) did a similar study to identify the extent of polarization among the Twitter users during 2010 U.S. congressional elections. The authors pointed out that users tend to endorse or retweet their politically aligned peers more than users having opposite polarities. Morales et al. ( 2015 ) measured the extent of polarization among the masses based on Twitter conversations about the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez. They employed network structures and statistical modelling techniques and identified that the distance between users posting similar contents is comparatively very less. An analysis on user roles during polarized conversations was performed by Recuero et al. ( 2019 ). They pointed out that contents shared in one group are not shared in other groups. Weber et al. ( 2013 ) analysed Egyptian polarization among the Secular and Ismalists users over Twitter. They identified the followers of Egyptian Muslim to be more tightly connected than the Secularists. Olivares et al. ( 2019 ) used opinion distribution as the basis for analysing political polarization during second round of the 2017 Chilean elections. They identified the Twitter conversation to be highly polarized that was continuously increasing till the day of voting.

Garimella et al. carried out several studies on elite polarization in their works in Garimella and Weber ( 2017 ); Garimella et al. ( 2018 ). They performed a temporal analysis of polarization for eight years among the presidential candidates and their parties in Garimella and Weber ( 2017 ). The findings suggest a growth of nearly 10–20% in polarization over the course of 8 years. In Garimella et al. ( 2018 ), through network analysis they pointed out that the retweet networks of polarized discussions have a well-defined structure. Cherepnalkoski and Mozetič ( 2016 ) investigated the community structure of European Parliament members for a period of one year. Their emphasis was primarily on retweet networks. They identified that the retweeting behaviour of the European parliament members is biased towards the members of their own political group. Del Valle and Bravo ( 2018 ) carried out a detailed study on the Twitter networks of Catalan Parliamentarians to analyse the extent of polarization between them. They discovered more cross-ideological interactions in the mention network than the retweet network and the level of polarization is observed to be highest in the relation network. They performed another study in Esteve Del Valle et al. ( 2021 ) about polarization in the Twitter mention networks of the Dutch Member of Parliaments. They identified high degree of cross-party interactions in their mention networks suggesting that the MPs extensively use social media for discussions among different parties. van Vliet et al. ( 2020 ) studied polarization across 26 European Free Trade Association countries by analysing their network of interaction during political discourse. They observed cross-party interactions and cross-national differences in the way of engagement of the political entities.

Political polarization is also analysed using models of opinion dynamics in the literature. Models of opinion dynamics attempt to identify the change in opinion of users in a network with respect to their neighbours. The most popular theoretical model used for analysing the phenomenon of opinion formation is the averaging model. The DeGroot model is a well-known example of averaging models DeGroot ( 1974 ). The model analyses the formation of consensus with the update in individual opinions based on the average of the neighbourhood. User’s opinion is basically updated using the mean of neighbouring opinions. Friedkin and Johnsen ( 1990 ) further extended the model by considering consensus as well as disagreement, thus including both innate and expressed opinion of a user. Several studies employed the existing models of opinion dynamics to study the phenomenon of polarization. Ghezelbash et al. ( 2019 ) utilized the DeGroot model to study polarization in cooperative networks. Alvim et al. ( 2021 ) employed the concepts of DeGroot model to establish the fact that polarization might not vanish in case of weakly connected graphs.

Data and methods

This section discusses the data collected for the study and the methodologies used for analysis. To perform a topic-wise analysis of Indian political polarization on social media, politicians tweets based on some major events in India are collected. Important topics related to government policies, natural disaster and national security during the last 2 years have been considered. The data has been collected from the Twitter handles of 823 politicians belonging to the major national and state political parties of India. Twitter handles of most active politicians have been considered. Table Table1 1 elicits the number of members from each political party whose data has been collected.

Number of members considered from political parties

India has witnessed some important events during 2019 and 2020 in terms of government policy formulation, national security and natural disaster management. For an unbiased study on Indian political polarization, topic-specific Twitter data has been collected related to all the major events. Among government policies, the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) during 2019 and the recent Farm Bills have been considered. Indian parliament passed CAA in 2019 for granting the eligibility of citizenship to religious minorities in countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Three acts of Farm Bills were passed by parliament of India in 2020 as per which intra- and inter-state farmer’s produce trade is allowed beyond the physical premises of Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC). Topics related to national security like Balakot airstrikes of 2019 and India China Stand-Off in 2020 have been considered for the study. In 2019, Indian warplanes conducted a bombing raid against an alleged terrorist training camp in Balakot, Pakistan. In 2020, Indian and Chinese troops got engaged in skirmishes and face offs along the Sino-Indian border leading to several casualties of soldiers on both sides. Apart from these topics, the recent natural disaster of COVID-19 has also been considered. Initially identified in Wuhan, China, the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) has spread exponentially throughout the world affecting millions of lives. India is among the worst affected countries due to COVID-19 in terms of mortality and number of cases. The nation has suffered extensive economic, political and social crisis due to this sudden outbreak.

For collecting topic-specific data, the most popular hashtags capturing a particular topic of interest have been manually identified. For analysing the data, a hybrid approach of social network analysis and content analysis has been adopted. Table Table2 2 elicits the statistics of data collected for this study. The statistics depict the number of tweets collected for a particular topic, the number of politicians participating in the political discussions about the topic and the number of hashtags considered for collecting topic-specific tweets.

Data statistics

The Twitter activities of Indian politicians were monitored from 2019 to 2020. The Twitter search API has been used to select the tweets posted by the politicians on important topics on natural disaster, national security and government policies during that duration. The collected tweets are then used for constructing social networks and identifying communities in those networks. The communication flow among the communities and their opinions on the selected topics is then analysed. The process of identifying the interaction patterns of communities and their opinions on the topics consists of two steps. Initially, the network of politicians mentioning and retweeting each other is constructed and the densely connected communities are identified. Secondly, the content published by the communities is analysed to identify the convergence and divergence in opinions within and across communities. Figure Figure1 1 illustrates the proposed methodology and roadmap for this study. The detailed methodology for analysing the pattern of interaction and convergence and divergence of opinions of the communities is discussed below:

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Proposed roadmap for the study

Pattern of interaction

The first line of research in this study is based on identifying the pattern of interaction and formation of communication ties among the political candidates. Twitter interactions among the politicians using mentions and retweet induce different network structures. The structure of networks also varies with respect to the topics of discussion. These network structures reflect the mechanism underlying the formation of communication ties between the politicians. Employing social network analysis for solving a broad range of political issues has been widely accepted. Concepts of social network analysis can be used to identify the factors influencing the formation of ties in political networks and the nature and meaning of those ties. A social network analysis approach has therefore been, adopted to examine the pattern of interactions in Twitter political networks of Indian politicians. The degree of party polarization in the politicians interaction networks(retweet and mention) is examined using network visualization and network polarization analysis. The interaction patterns of politicians and its effect on polarization can be determined based on the following analysis of Twitter interaction networks:

Politicians on social media often tend to interact and share their ideas more with their own party people while discussing any topic of interest. Communities identified in the political networks can reveal the existence of selective exposure and polarization based on their size, content and level of interconnections. Hence, the first step towards investigating the existence of selective exposure and polarization is identification of distinct communities in the Twitter mention and retweet networks.

From the topic-specific Twitter data, networks of politicians participating in discussions are mapped and the connections are created based on their mention and retweet relationships. Open source network exploration software Gephi is used for network visualization for anticipating the retweet and mention network structures Bastian et al. ( 2009 ). Each node in the network represents a politicians Twitter account and an edge between 2 nodes reflects the relationship (mention or retweet) between the politicians. For better visualization, only those politicians or nodes are considered that received a minimum of 5 mentions and retweets.

To measure the level of interconnectedness and information flow among the identified communities, modularity of the network is computed using Newman’s measurement of modularity Newman ( 2004 ). Measurement of modularity has been used to analyse the strength of divisions of the communities identified in the networks. Modularity values range from 0 to 1. Higher modularity values indicate the communities to be more distinct or separated. Studies reveal that networks having modularity value higher than 0.6 shows little or no increase in the separation of communities. For this study, value of 0.6 and above has been considered as higher modularity, between 0.4 and 0.6 medium modularity and values less than 0.4 as low modularity. A higher value of modularity indicates the presence of selective exposure, where the communities are more exposed to their own content rather than the contents posted by users in other communities.

The degree of cohesiveness among the politicians at the party level is examined by computing the network density of the retweet and mention networks. The value of network density varies from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates absence of any ties while 1 indicates that all ties are connected.

Communities reveal significant information regarding polarization. Once the communities are identified in the politicians interaction networks, it is essential to identify the extent to which these communities are polarized and closely associated with each other. Hence, it is crucial to examine the degree of polarization and homophily within and across the communities. This can be done by comparing the number of connections formed within and across those communities or groups. Several measures are identified as indicators of selective exposure and polarization.

The degree of party polarization and homophily has been computed using the measure of external–internal index (E–I index), developed by Krackhardt and Stern ( 1988 ). E–I index is a measure of relative density of internal ties within a group with respect to the number of external ties across the group. The value of the index ranges from –1 representing complete homophily to +1 indicating that all connections are external to the group. Cross-community interactions have been analysed to verify the extent of polarization. The cross-ideological interaction ratio measure developed by Conover et al. ( 2011 ) has been modified to calculate the cross-community interaction ratio. Cross-community interaction has been computed as the ratio between the observed and expected number of connections between nodes belonging to different groups or communities. Let C 1, C 2 and C 3 be 3 communities in a network. If K C 1 is the total number of connections arising from community C 1 and U C 1 , U C 2 and U C 3 are the number of users in community C 1, C 2 and C 3, then the expected number of connections from C 1 to C 2 is computed as:

Interest and opinion on political issues

The second research question of this study focuses on agreement and disagreement among Indian politicians on political issues. Retweet relations signify agreement between users on posted contents. Hence, for analysing the pattern of agreement and disagreement of the politicians on different issues, the retweet networks constructed in the previous phase have been considered. The process of identifying common interest and leaning of the politicians involves 3 steps. Densely connected communities in the retweet networks of politicians are initially identified. Secondly, the content shared by the communities is analysed to identify their common interest. Finally, the sentiment of the communities is obtained to identify their sentiment towards respective topics of political discussion.

To identify common interest and leaning of the politicians on various issues, it is essential to analyse their posted tweet contents and the hashtags used. The similarity between the contents published by the communities and the hashtags used reveal their shared interest. The hashtag similarity between communities is initially computed based on Jaccard similarity. Jaccard Similarity computes the number of common hashtags between two communities C i and C j with respect to their total hashtags. The Jaccard Similarity between communities C i and C j is computed as:

where H ( x ) represents the number of hashtags in community x .

The tweet content similarity is calculated using cosine similarity. Term Frequency Inverse Document Frequency (TFIDF) approach has been used to identify the importance of a term in a set of documents and cosine similarity has been used to obtain the similarity between that set of documents. To examine the content similarity of the communities, a standard text mining approach has been adopted:

For each community C i , where i ϵ { 1 , . . . , N } , document D i is created containing the content published by all the users of C i .
The set of terms used by communities C 1 , . . . . , C N is obtained from documents D 1 , . . . . , D N and the term frequency of each term t is computed. Term Frequency T F i ( t ) for a term t signifies its number of appearances in a document D i .
The document frequency DF ( t ) for each term t is calculated, that represents the number of documents in which t appears.
A Bag of Words (BoW) vector is constructed for each document D 1 , . . . . , D N , where each value in the vector is the value of a term t from the set of terms: TFIDF i ( t ) = T F i ( t ) · log N D F ( t ) .
The cosine similarity between each document D 1 , . . . . , D N , represented by vectors is computed. Each document D i represents a community C i and the similarity between documents is considered as the similarity between the respective communities. The cosine similarity between documents D i and D j is computed as: CosSim ( D i , D j ) = D i · D j ‖ D i ‖ ∗ ‖ D j ‖ .

This analysis for identifying the sentiment similarity is done in 2 steps. Initially, the sentiment polarity of the tweets are identified using TextBlob. The tweets having polarity value between –1 to 0 are considered as positive tweets, value of 0 as neutral tweets and value between 0 and 1 as positive tweets. To identify the communities having similar sentiments, the sentiment similarity among each community is identified based on the common hashtags shared. Instead of considering the sentiment score, the average number of positive, negative and neutral tweets in each community has been considered. The following approach has been proposed to compute the hashtag-based sentiment similarity between communities:

For each topic, identify the set of common hashtags C HT between communities C i and C j .
Identify the average number of positive tweets P T avg ( C i ) and P T avg ( C j ) , for communities C i and C j based on C HT .
Identify the average number of negative tweets N T avg ( C i ) and N T avg ( C j ) , for communities C i and C j based on C HT .
Identify the average number of neutral tweets N T T avg ( C i ) and N T T avg ( C j ) , for communities C i and C j based on C HT .
Compute similarity between C i and C j as: Sim ( C i , C j ) = | P T avg ( C i ) - P T avg ( C j ) | + | N T avg ( C i ) - N T avg ( C j ) | + | N T T avg ( C i ) - N T T avg ( C j ) |

Twitter data of Indian politicians related to some important topics of discussion have been collected initially. Separate datasets are then generated for each topic based on the presence of selected hashtags in the tweets. Each dataset is then mapped onto a network using network analysis techniques based on the relationships among the politicians. Analysis has been done to explore the two research questions of this study as discussed next. The results have been discussed for each topic-specific dataset separately.

To visually observe the level of polarization of Indian politicians on the considered topics of discussion, the mention and retweet networks are initially generated. Force Atlas algorithm in Gephi visualization tool has been used to analyse and cluster the networks into sub-groups. The nodes are coloured based on their party affiliation. Each identified community represents a political party and is named from C 1 to C 7. The communities identified are represented using different colours as follows: C 1 (BJP) = Violet, C 2 (INC) = Green, C 3 (AITMC) = Light Blue, C 4 (AAP) = Orange, C 5 (SP) = Pink, C 6 (RJD) = Red, C 7 (SS)= Dark Blue. Figures Figures2 2 and and3 3 depict the mention and retweet networks generated for all the topics. The statistics for mention and retweet networks generated for all topics are illustrated in Table Table3 3 .

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Mention networks on all topics

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Retweet networks on all datasets

Network statistics of interaction networks on all topics

Do politicians form distinct communities while contributing to a particular topic?

The mention networks generated for Indian politicians formed distinct communities while engaging in political discussions on all the considered topics. The COVID-19 mention network shown in Fig. Fig.2a, 2 a, contains 524 nodes and 1370 edges. Seven distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 72.3% of the entire network. Remaining 27.7% of the network contains 8 small communities containing 2–18 nodes. Only communities within 72.2% of the networks have been considered for visualization. 3 large communities are identified: one with 178 users linked by 385 connections ( C 1), second with 112 users linked by 291 connections ( C 2) and the third with 72 users with 176 connections ( C 3). These three major communities constituted nearly 69.1% of the total connected users and 62.2% of the total connections in the network. The mention network on Citizenship Amendment Act shown in Fig. Fig.2b, 2 b, contains 256 nodes and 517 edges. Seven distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 78.2% of the entire network. A single large community is identified containing 86 users linked by 165 connections ( C 1). The Farm Bill mention network in Fig. Fig.2c 2 c contains 285 nodes and 515 edges. The 6 communities identified in the mention network constitute nearly 74.6% of the entire network. 2 large communities are identified in the mention network. The largest community ( C 1) comprises of 105 users linked by 232 connections and the second community ( C 2) contains 85 users connected by 115 links. These 2 communities together constituted nearly 71.6% of the total connected users in the network. The mention network shown in Fig. Fig.2d, 2 d, contains 164 nodes and 327 edges. Seven distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 75.6% of the entire network. A single large community is identified containing 86 users linked by 165 connections ( C 1). The mention network shown in Fig. Fig.2e, 2 e, contains 114 nodes and 324 edges. Six distinct communities are identified in the network accounting for nearly 78.3% of the entire network. 2 large communities are identified: one with 58 users ( C 1) and second with 42 users ( C 2). These two major communities constituted nearly 79.1% of the total connected users. From Fig. Fig.2, 2 , it can be observed that the mention networks of all the datasets contain more number of cross-ideological and cross-party connections.

The retweet networks also formed distinct communities similar to mention networks. The COVID-19 retweet network in Fig. Fig.3a, 3 a, contains 359 nodes and 576 edges. Similar to the mention network, 7 distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network as well that constitute around 78.4% of the entire network. Two large distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network. The largest community contains 134 users linked by 236 connections ( C 1) while the second network includes 98 users connected by 142 connections ( C 2). The 2 large communities together accounted for nearly 64.6% of the total connected users and 65.6% of the total connections. The Citizenship Amendment Act retweet network in Fig. Fig.3b, 3 b, contains 125 nodes and 136 edges. Similar to the mention network, 7 distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network as well that constitute around 75.3% of the entire network. As observed in Fig. Fig.3c, 3 c, the retweet network on Farm Bill contains 115 nodes with 156 edges. Seven distinct communities were identified in the network. The communities are completely separated and disjoint from each other with connections only between 3 communities: C 1, C 3 and C 7. Users in communities C 4 and C 6 formed separate connections while retweeting their community users. Communities C 1 and C 2 formed the majority accounting for 62.7% of total users in the network. The Balakot Airstrikes retweet network in Fig. Fig.3d, 3 d, contains 75 nodes and 96 edges. Similar to the mention network, 7 distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network that constitute around 74.8% of the entire network. The retweet network in Fig. Fig.3e, 3 e, contains 86 nodes and 105 edges. Six distinct communities have been identified in the retweet network that constitute around 71.4% of the entire network. One large community has been identified in the retweet network that contains 46 users with 62 connections ( C 1). The single large community accounted for nearly 54.6% of the total connected users.

What is the level of interconnectedness and information flow among the communities during discussions?

The level of interconnectedness and information flow among the communities are identified using the measurements of modularity and network density. The modularity value of the mention network of COVID-19 is observed to 0.524, that suggests medium modularity and the network to be medium separated. As discussed previously, modularity values between 0.4 and 0.6 have been considered to be medium modularity for the networks. The retweet network on the other hand, has a high modularity of 0.757. For Citizenship Amendment Act, the modularity value of the mention network is observed to be 0.519, suggesting medium modularity and medium separation. The retweet network on the other hand, has a high modularity of 0.794. The mention network on Farm Bills has a moderate modularity value of 0.483 while the retweet network has a high modularity value of 0.814. The mention network is therefore, highly interconnected having many cross-community interactions. The retweet network on the other hand, is more separated forming distinct clusters and have lesser number of cross-community interactions. The modularity value of Balakot Airstrikes mention network is observed to 0.582, suggesting medium modularity while the retweet network has a high modularity of 0.837. The modularity of the mention network of India China Stand-Off is observed to have a low value of 0.283. The retweet network on the other hand, has a high modularity of 0.732. The medium modularity of mention network on all topics indicates medium level of separation among the communities while the high modularity of retweet network suggests the presence of selective exposure to a great extent.

The mention network of COVID-19 has a density of 0.326 indicating that there is 32% chance of forming all the possible connection in the network. On the other hand, retweet network has a density of 0.085 suggesting a chance of only 8% of forming all possible connections. The mention network for COVID-19 is well-connected while the retweet network is loosely connected. Mention network of Citizenship Amendment Act has a density of 0.253 indicating that there is 25% chance of forming all the possible connections in the network. On the other hand, retweet network has a density of 0.073 suggesting a chance of only 7% of forming all possible connections. Density of mention network of Farm Bills is 0.216 while retweet network has a value of 0.048. This indicates that there are 21% chances of forming all the possible connections in the mention network while the chance is only 4.8% in case of retweet networks. The mention network of Balakot Airstrikes has a density of 0.286 indicating 28% chance of forming all the possible connections in the network. On the other hand, retweet network has a density of 0.063 suggesting a chance of only 6% of forming all possible connections. The mention network on India China Stand-Off has a density of 0.289 indicating that there is 28.9% chance of forming all the possible connection in the network while retweet network has a density of 0.056 suggesting only 5.6% chances of forming all possible connections. The results on network density reveals that mention network is well-connected than retweet network and selective exposure is present more in case of retweet than mention network. The amount of information flow is therefore, more in case of mention network than retweet networks.

What is the extent of party polarization and cross-community interaction during topical discussions?

To further assess the existence of selective exposure in the interaction networks of Indian politicians, the level of intra- and inter-party connections are identified. To examine party or community polarization during political discourse on the considered topics, the E–I index of both the interaction networks is computed. Table Table4 4 reports the rescaled E–I index values for the mention and retweet networks of all the topics. The E–I index values indicate the interaction networks to be polarized. The polarization values however, varies with the type of interaction. The degree of polarization is very high in case of retweet network while for the mention network, it is almost null.

E–I index of interaction networks on all topics

To investigate the degree of polarization in every community, E–I index is computed for each community separately. The plots in Figs. Figs.4 4 and and5 5 report the E–I index of each community for the mention and retweet networks of all topics. E–I index values between 0.2 and 0.5 have been considered as medium cross-party interactions while above 0.5 has been regarded as high cross-party interactions. For the mention network of COVID-19, the results reveal that only community C 4 and C 5 have a negative value (− 0.146 and − 0.275), indicating them to be highly homophilic. Rest of the 5 communities have shown high to moderate level of cross-party interactions and are therefore, less polarized. The degree of polarization is highest for community C 6 while lowest for community C 2. For Citizenship Amendment Act mention network, community C 1 and C 7 have been found to be highly polarized while other communities are less polarized. In the Farm Bill mention network, Community C 2 has the highest number of cross-party interactions. Community C 1 has been identified to be homophilic, mentioning own party politicians more. For the mention network of Balakot Airstrikes, only community C 1 has a negative value and hence high homophily. Rest of the 6 communities have shown high to moderate level of cross-party interactions with less polarization. In the Indian China Stand-Off mention network, all the communities have a positive value except community C 1, indicating C 1 to be homophilic. Community C 2 has the highest number of cross-party interactions.

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E–I index of communities in the mention networks of all topics

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E–I index of communities in the retweet networks of all topics

The analysis of retweet networks has revealed a complete different scenario. All the communities from C 1 to C 7 in COVID-19 retweet network have been found to be homophilic and polarized. Communities C 2, C 3 and C 5 have been found to be less homophilic while community C 1 has shown slightly higher homophily. Community C 6 and C 7 have been identified to be completely homophilic indicating that all ties are internal to the communities. Similarly for Citizenship Amendment Act, all the communities from C 1 to C 7 have been found to be homophilic and polarized. Communities C 2 and C 3 have been found to be less homophilic while other communities have been identified to be completely homophilic. All the communities for Farm Bills have high polarization, with community C 2, C 4, C 5 and C 6 being completely polarized. In the retweet network of Balakot Airstrikes and India China Stand-Off, all the communities from C 1 to C 7 have been found to be homophilic and polarized. For Balakot Airstrikes, communities C 2, C 3, C 5 and C 6 while for India China Stand-Off, community C 4, C 5 and C 7 have shown complete homophily.

In order to examine the amount of cross-community interactions, the interaction ratio within and across community is computed. For mention network, the observed and expected number of links between the communities is identified and the cross-community interaction ratio is computed accordingly. Table Table5 5 depicts the ratio between observed and expected number of connections between politicians belonging to different political communities on COVID-19. From the table, it can be observed that the amount of cross-community mentions is more for most of the communities. Community C 6 and C 7 however have more intra-community mentions. The politicians are more likely to interact with the members of their own community during retweets. The amount of interaction in both mention and retweet networks is more within community and less across community. A value of 0 between 2 communities indicates that there are no interactions within those communities. Largest communities C 1 and C 2 have received the highest amount of cross-community mentions and retweets. Interestingly, the number of incoming mentions is more than outgoing mentions for these communities. For the smallest communities C 6 and C 7, the amount of cross-community mentions is very less and there are no cross-community retweets.

Cross-community interaction on COVID-19

Table Table6 6 depicts the cross-community interaction ratio for Citizenship Amendment Act. It can be observed that the amount of cross-community mentions is more for most of the communities. Community C 1 and C 7 however have more intra-community mentions. Community C 1 has received the highest amount of cross-community mentions. Except communities C 2 and C 3, there are no cross-community retweets. The cross-community interaction ratio for Farm Bill is illustrated in Table Table7. 7 . Community C 1 has received the highest number of external mentions among all the communities followed by C 2. The mention network on Farm Bills has only 6 communities. Community C 6 has no mention on Farm Bills. Hence, the column representing the mention values for C6 is null. The retweet network has very high level of selective exposure. Community C 2, C 4, C 5 and C 6 has no cross-community retweets.

Cross-community interaction on citizenship amendment act

Cross-community interaction on farm bill

Table Table8 8 depicts the cross-community ratio for Balakot Airstrikes. The amount of interaction in retweet network is found to be more within community and less across community. Community C 1 has received the highest amount of cross-community mentions and retweets. For communities C 2, C 3, C 5 and C 6, there are no cross-community retweets. Cross-community ratio for India China Stand-Off is shown in Table Table9. 9 . From the table, it can be observed that the amount of cross-community mentions is more for all the communities except C 1. Largest community C 1 has received the highest amount of cross-community mentions and retweets. Apart from communities C 1, C 2 and C 3, there are no cross-community retweets among other communities.

Cross-community interaction on Balakot Airstrikes

Cross-community interaction on India China stand-off

To analyse the interest and opinion of the politicians on different issues, a content analysis approach has been adopted. The communities identified in the retweet network have been considered for analysis. The analysis is done in two phases. Initially, the tweet content similarity of all the communities on the considered topics is examined. In the next phase, sentiments of the tweets are identified and sentiment similarity among all the communities is computed.

Which communities share similar content on different political issues?

The similarity in contents of the communities is computed in two ways. The hashtag similarity between each community is computed based on Jaccard similarity. The tweet content similarity is then calculated based on cosine similarity between documents. The heatmap visualizations of the hashtag and tweet content similarities across communities are shown in Figs. Figs.6 6 and and7. 7 . Darker shades in the heatmap indicate higher similarity between communities. Since the similarity across own community is highest, the darkest shade can be seen diagonally.

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Hashtag similarity of communities for all topics

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Tweet content similarity of communities for all topics

Figure Figure6a 6 a depicts the hashtag similarity between communities on COVID-19. Communities C 1, C 2 and C 3 have been identified to be the most similar communities in terms of the hashtags shared. For communities C 4 and C 5, the most similar community is C 1 while for C 6 and C 7, it is community C 2. Figure Figure6b 6 b depicts the hashtag similarity between communities on Citizenship Amendment Act. Community C 1 is closest to C 3 followed by C 5 in terms of hashtags shared. Community C 2 is similar to C 1 and C 4, C 3 is similar to C 1 and C 7, C 4 is similar to C 3 and C 7. The hashtag similarity across each community on Farm Bill is illustrated in Fig. Fig.6c. 6 c. In terms of hashtags used, community C 4 has been identified to be most similar to C 1 while C 3 has been identified to be most similar to C 2 and vice versa. Figure Figure6d 6 d depicts the hashtag similarity between communities on Balakot Airstrikes. Communities C 1, C 3, C 5 and C 7 have been identified to be the most similar communities in terms of hashtags shared. For communities C 2, the most similar communities are C 4 and C 6 while for C 6, it is community C 2. Hashtag similarity on India China Stand-Off is illustrated in Fig. Fig.6e. 6 e. Communities C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 2 and C 3 in terms of the hashtags shared. For communities C 2, the most similar community is C 4 and C 7 while for C3, it is community C 5. C 4 is most similar to C 1 and C 2, C 5 is most similar to C 3 and C 7 is most similar to C 2.

Figure Figure7a 7 a represents the tweet content similarity between communities on COVID-19. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 2, C 3, C 4 and C 5. C 3 is the most similar community for C 6 while C 4 is the most similar community for C 7 in terms of the tweet content published. Figure Figure7b 7 b represents the tweet content similarity between communities. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 3, C 4 and C 6. C 2 is the most similar community for C 4, C 5 and C 7 while C 5 is the most similar community for C 2 in terms of the tweet content published. The hashtag similarity across each community on Farm Bill is illustrated in Fig. Fig.7c. 7 c. In terms of tweet content, community C 3 is most similar to C 5, C 2 is most similar to C 6 and C 1 is most similar to C 7. Figure Figure7d 7 d represents the tweet content similarity between communities on Balakot Airstrikes. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 5 and C 7. C 4 is the most similar community for C 2 while for C 4 it is C 2 and C 5. Tweet content similarity on India China Stand-Off is illustrated in Fig. Fig.7e. 7 e. Community C 1 has been found to be most similar to C 2 and C 3 and vice versa. C 7 is the most similar community for C 4 while for C 5 and C 7, the most similar community is C 2 in terms of the tweet content published.

Which communities have similar sentiments towards political issues?

The sentiments of the tweets on every topic posted by each community are initially evaluated. The average number of positive, negative and neutral tweets are identified. The heatmap visualization of sentiment similarities between communities is shown in Fig. Fig.8. 8 . The similarity is more if difference in value is less. Hence, a lower value indicates higher similarity. The similarity between each community is computed using the methodology discussed in Sect. 3.2 . The lesser the difference in the number of positive, negative and neutral tweets shared by the communities, the more similar the communities are. Therefore, the similarity across the same community has been identified as 0. The values can be observed diagonally in the heatmap. For COVID-19, as shown in Fig. Fig.8a, 8 a, both communities C 1 and C 2 are most similar to C 3, the level of similarity however is more between C 1 and C 3. Community C 4 is most similar to C 1, C 5– C 7, C 6– C 4 and C 7– C 5. As shown in Fig. Fig.8b 8 b for Citizenship Amendment Act, community C 3 is close to community C 1, C 4 and C 5 in terms of similarity. For C 2, the most similar community is C 4, for C 6 it is C 1 and for C 7 it is C 4. In case of Farm Bills as shown in Fig. Fig.8c, 8 c, for community C 1, the most similar community is C 7 and for C 2 it is C 4 and vice versa. Most similar community for C 3 is C 1 and for C 5 and C 6 it is C 7. The least similar community for C 1, C 3, C 5 and C 7 is C 2, for C 2 it is C 1 and for C 4 and C 6 it is C 3. Figure Figure8d 8 d illustrates the sentiment similarity for Balakot Airstrikes. For community C 1, most similar communities are C 3, C 4 and C 7, for C 2 it is C 5 and C 6, for C 3 it is C 1, C 5 and C 6, for C 4 it is C 1 and C 7. Community C 5 is most closest to C 2, C 3 and C 7, C 6– C 2 and C 3 and C 7– C 1, C 4 and C 5. For India China Stand-Off as shown in Fig. Fig.8e, 8 e, community C 1 and C 3 are most similar to each other, C 2 is most similar to C 5 and C 4 is most similar to C 1. Community C 5 is most similar to C 3 and C 7– C 5.

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Sentiment similarity of communities for all topics

This study investigates whether the online activities of Indian politicians on Twitter lead to polarization and how topics of political discussions influence the same. The paper performs an in-depth analysis of political polarization with respect to the pattern of interaction and opinions of the politicians on different political issues. This study is the first attempt to examine Indian political polarization on Twitter social media platform. We considered 5 major events in India during 2019 and 2020 and analysed the pattern of interaction of the politicians and their similarities and dissimilarities in opinion regarding those political events. This section provides a comparative analysis of the findings on all the 5 topics with respect to the hypotheses formulated for the study:

The analysis of the mention networks revealed different levels of cross-party interactions with respect to topics of political discussion. At the network level, for all the topics considered, clear evidence of cross-party interactions has been found in the mention networks of politicians. However, the degree of such interactions is different for different topics of political discourse. For COVID-19, the degree of cross-party interactions was identified to be high (E–I index = 0.263). Topics of government policies like Citizenship Amendment Act and Farm Bill revealed highest amount of cross-party interactions (0.316 and 0.378). The level of such cross-party interaction is lowest in case of national security issues Balakot Airstrikes and India China Stand-Off (0.163 and 0.184). The observations support the hypothesis formulated that mention networks reflect more cross-party interactions during political discussions. The findings of the study refute the existence of selective exposure in the mention networks of Indian politicians and also support the fact that social media opens up conversation spaces between politicians and political parties.

The degree of cross-party connections in the mention networks of Indian politicians has been found to be quite high than retweet networks. These findings are in line with some existing studies Conover et al. ( 2011 ); Del Valle and Bravo ( 2018 ); Esteve Del Valle et al. ( 2021 ); Chamberlain et al. ( 2021 ) that suggest the mention networks to be reflective of cross-party interactions. One possible reason for this could be the nature of different interaction networks of Twitter. Retweet networks are basically considered as support and endorsement networks while the mention networks are more indicative of a dialogical or communication network. The politicians use mention networks to engage with fellow politicians with different ideologies. Moreover, the intensity of cross-party interactions in the mention networks can be explained by the fact that politicians engage with one another through mentions either in agreement Del Valle et al. ( 2020 ) or in disapproval Laaksonen et al. ( 2017 ). This view can be supported from the findings of the analysis. The high intensity of cross-party interactions in controversial government policy topics is indicative of the fact that politicians are using mentions mostly as a means of criticism. The level of disagreement and criticism is more in case of controversial topical discussions like government policies and less for comparatively non-controversial topics of natural disaster and national security.

Moreover, interesting differences in the degree of polarization have been observed for different communities or political parties. For instance, in all the topics except COVID-19, mentions among the politicians of the largest community C 1 has been found to be more homophilic than other smaller communities. The largest community C 1 represents the party in power thus indicating that the party forming the government is more homophilic in terms of mentions than other parties. In addition to that, community C 1 has received the highest amount of mentions from other parties suggesting that the party in governance is also likely to receive higher cross-party mentions. This study reveals that the governing party politicians prefers to limit their political conversations within themselves while the opposing politicians tend to engage more with other parties. This is in line with the findings of Tromble ( 2018 ) that suggested the governing parties to be more engaging with their own party politicians and Esteve Del Valle and Borge Bravo ( 2018 ) that revealed the smaller parties to be less homophilic. Out of all the opposing parties, party or community C 2 and C 3 has been identified to have lowest homophily and more cross-party mentions. Interestingly, most of the outgoing mentions of C 2 is towards the governing community C 1, particularly during discussions on Citizenship Amendment Act and Farm Bills. Our analysis also reveals interesting association between the level of participation and number of mentions received. It has been observed that higher participation of politicians in political discussions increases their likelihood of being mentioned. This can be another reason for community C 1 receiving highest mentions as C 1 has shown highest participation from its members.

Figure Figure9 9 depicts the cross-party interactions among parties or communities across all topics. From Fig. Fig.9a, 9 a, it can be observed that highest cross-party interactions have taken place during the political discussions on Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act, two important policies framed by Indian government. Further analysis of the data revealed that the politicians have used mentions mostly for disapproving and debating about the respective topic of discussion. The intra-party mentions were mostly in support of a political party or politician while the cross-party mentions were mostly used as a form of disagreement. This can be one of the possible reasons for the debate on government policies getting highest cross-party mentions. Discussions on COVID-19 too received considerable amount of cross-party mentions, particularly for lockdown and migration of workers. Balakot airstrikes and India China Stand-Off being comparatively less controversial topics, received lowest number of cross-party mentions. Fig. Fig.9b 9 b elicits the degree of polarization of each community in terms of mentions for all the topics. Community C1 being the governing party has been found to be homophilic in all political discussions except COVID-19. Highest cross-party mentions have been identified for community C2 on all topics followed by community C3. However, for Balakot Airstrikes highest cross-party mention was from C3. Interestingly, some smaller communities like C5, C6 and C7 have been found to be homophilic during discussions on COVID-19 and Citizenship Amendment Act.

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Cross-party interactions on all topics

Analysis of the retweet networks disclosed patterns of selective exposure, suggesting that the politicians participated in fragmented interactions and formed separate groups during discussions. Retweets are a form of endorsement and the network is a representative of a support network. A politician retweeting another politician or party is an indication of his/her support or agreement towards the political party or politician. The retweet networks of politicians on all topics appeared to be highly divided and segregated. The degree of polarization, however was different for different topics. The rate of polarization is highest for Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act (– 0.521 and – 0.431) followed by Balakot Airstrikes and India China Stand-Off (− 0.326 and − 0.293). Least polarization has been observed in case of COVID-19 (− 0.193). The findings support the formulated hypothesis that selective exposure prevails in the retweet networks of Indian politicians. This further establishes the dual nature of social media that it not only open up conversation spaces to users but can also make the communication polarized.

At the network level, values of modularity also revealed the retweet networks to be highly segregated. The level of segregation is more for controversial topics of government policies like Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act in comparison to other less controversial topics. The intensity of polarization is also different for different communities. All the communities have been identified to be homophilic for all the topics. The extent of homophily is more for government policy topics followed by national security topics and COVID-19. The analysis revealed the presence of ’echo chambers’ in the retweet networks of politicians. Our findings are in line with some of the existing studies Conover et al. ( 2011 ); Del Valle and Bravo ( 2018 ); Himelboim et al. ( 2013 ) that disclosed the ’echo chamber’ view in the retweet networks.

Figure Figure10 10 elicits the pattern of selective exposure in the retweet networks of all topics. The comparative analysis of the degree of polarization and modularity in the retweet networks of the topics are depicted in Fig. Fig.10a. 10 a. The extent of polarization is highest for government policy related topics Farm Bill and Citizenship Amendment Act. A possible reason for this could be the fact that the governing party frames the policies and the opposing parties are in disagreement most of the time. As retweet basically signifies support and endorsement, the politicians usually support their own parties and people forming distinct groups. The extent of polarization further increases in case of controversial and debatable topics. The results on modularity reflect the same observations. The modularity values of retweet network are highest for government policy topics, suggesting the networks to be highly segregated. Figure Figure10b 10 b shows the E–I index of the retweet networks for all the communities. All the communities have been found to be highly homophilic. Some communities like C 6 and C 7 even found to be completely homophilic in most of the topics.

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Selective exposure in retweet networks on all topics

The communities identified in the retweet networks have been used for similarity computation. The similarity is computed based on three factors: hashtag usage, tweet content posted and average sentiment towards a topic. For calculating the average sentiment, instead of sentiment scores, average number of positive, negative and neutral tweets posted have been considered. In terms of hashtag usage, the similarity identified between the communities does not completely comply with the retweet network structure. Some polarized communities in terms of pattern of interaction have been found to be similar in their usage of hashtags particularly for COVID-19. One important reason for this could be the higher rate of participation of politicians from these communities. Larger communities therefore, have been identified to be more similar than smaller communities. This similarity however, is comparatively less for debatable topics of government policies. The use of similar hashtags basically reflects the amount of participation of the politicians and their interests rather than their opinion towards an issue. The retweet network structure is based on the pattern of interaction of the politicians. The observations indicate that the politicians belonging to different communities or parties are using similar hashtags even though they are not retweeting each other. This refutes the third hypothesis in terms of hashtag usage that only the connected communities in the retweet network are similar to each other.

Findings on tweet content similarity revealed that the content posted by politicians on a certain topic is directly related to their pattern of communication in the retweet networks. The interconnected communities in the retweet network have higher similarity in terms of tweet content published. For instance, content on COVID-19 posted by some of the large interconnected communities like C 1, C 2 and C 3 have been found to be similar. Similarly, for Farm Bill and Citizenship Amendment Act, the interconnected communities have been found to be more similar. Sentiment similarity observations have also revealed a similar trend. The overall sentiment of the interconnected communities on a specific topic has been found to be more similar. Tweet content published and the overall sentiment on that topic reflects the opinion of the politician towards that issue. Since retweet networks are a form of support network, a politician retweeting another politician signifies agreement and thus similar opinions. However, in contradiction to the hypothesis, there are some interesting and exceptional findings on tweet content and sentiment similarity. Some non-connected communities in the retweet networks have also been found similar to each other in terms of tweet content and sentiment. For instance, community C 1 and C 3 have been found to be quiet similar in their opinions on Citizenship Amendment Act despite being highly polarized in their retweet interactions. This may be due to the fact that some communities might not have retweeted each other but the content shared and the overall sentiment of the community for the topic might be same. Similarly, some interconnected communities have been found to be dissimilar in terms of their tweet content and sentiment. A possible explanation of this could be that few politicians of a community might have retweeted another community but the overall tweet content and sentiment of both the communities are different. Few differences identified in the results of polarization based on pattern of interaction and opinion divergence only partially supports the hypothesis that only interconnected communities in the retweet networks are similar.

To better understand the difference in results, a comparative analysis has been done on polarization identified between communities in terms of both pattern of interaction and opinion divergence. Table Table10 10 depicts the polarization between communities in terms of their pattern of interaction in the retweet networks. As already discussed, the amount of selective exposure in the retweet networks is very high and the network is therefore, highly polarized. From the table, it can be observed that most of the communities or parties are homophilic and tend to interact with their own community. This makes them polarized towards each other. Moreover, the extent of polarization is higher for debatable topics like Farm Bills and Citizenship Amendment Act. For these topics, since the overall degree of polarization is highest, almost all the communities are polarized towards each other. Smaller communities C 6 and C 7 have shown higher homophily and polarization for almost all the topics, suggesting that extent of homophily depends on the amount of participation. Politicians with lesser participation, retweets very less and whenever does, retweets only their own party politicians.

Polarization between communities in terms of pattern of interaction in retweet network

Table Table11 11 illustrates the polarization between communities in terms of opinion divergence. The combined results of tweet content and sentiment similarity have been used as it reflects the opinion of a politician towards an issue. From the table, it can be seen that the amount of polarization for each community is highest in case of government policy topics similar to polarization in terms of pattern of interaction. However, there are some differences in the number of polarized communities identified for each community. As discussed earlier, the difference in results might be due to two factors. Some non-connected communities might not have retweeted each other but may have posted similar tweet content and have similar opinion towards an issue. Similarly, among the interconnected communities, some politicians from one community might have retweeted another community, but the overall similarity in the tweet content and sentiment is very less. Thus, based on these findings, it can be concluded that polarization based on pattern of interaction and opinion divergence might be different. For ease of understanding, the main findings of this study are summarized in Table Table12 12 .

Polarization between communities in terms of opinion divergence

Summary of observations from the study

In this study, we have investigated the existence of Indian political polarization on Twitter social media platform based on two broad characteristics of polarization: pattern of interaction and opinion divergence. Social network analysis and content analysis methods have been used to analyse the tweets posted by Indian politicians during some major events in India from 2019 and 2020. The findings of the study illustrate that political polarization does exist on social media platforms like Twitter and the topic of political discourse plays an important role in the extent of polarization. High polarization exists between politicians and parties during retweets while for mention the polarization is almost null. Controversial and debatable topics are followed by higher level of polarization compared to less controversial topics. With respect to pattern of interaction, it has been identified that Indian politicians behave strategically on Twitter depending on the layer of communication. A clear tendency of homophily was observed in the retweet networks while mention networks basically includes cross-party connections. Same party mention reflects support and agreement while cross-party mention reflects disagreement. In terms of opinion divergence, it has been observed that pattern of interaction in retweet networks does not always reflect the similarity in interest and opinions among the politicians. Hashtag similarity is based on the amount of participation rather than interconnections in retweet network. Furthermore, findings on tweet content similarity and sentiment similarity revealed that interconnected communities in the retweet networks need not necessarily be similar in terms of opinion.

This study is topic specific and hence is limited to network analysis and content analysis of tweets of Indian politicians on selected topics. The results obtained therefore, might not be generalized to all political conversations on Twitter. Since follower information of politicians Twitter handle does not change with respect to topic, follower relations are not used in this study. As a future work, one can perform a more generalized study considering the follower relations along with mention and retweet. Moreover, the study has been done at the political party level, where the degree of polarization is examined across different parties. Another essential work direction could be the investigation of polarization at individual politicians level. Such examination could be helpful in identifying outliers in a political party. The analysis of opinion divergence carried out in the current study is based on retweet networks. Retweets indicate endorsement and support which better characterize the opinion difference among the politicians. Links between politicians in the mention network may not necessarily imply similar opinion. However, utilizing the mention networks as signed networks can be useful in identifying the same. The positive and negative sign of the edges between politicians in the mention network would indicate their exact sentiment or opinion towards each other.

Data availability

Declarations.

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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Indian Politics Essay in English for Students
FAQs For Indian Politics Essay. Question 1: How many political parties are there in India? Answer 1: According to the latest publication from the Election Commission of India, the total number of registered political parties in India is 2698. Furthermore, out of the registered political parties, 8 are national parties, 52 are state parties, and ...
Essay on Indian Politics
250 Words Essay on Indian Politics Introduction. Indian politics, a complex and multifaceted arena, is a vibrant blend of democratically elected representatives, political parties, and their ideologies. It is a reflection of the nation's diverse socio-cultural fabric, with its roots deeply entrenched in the democratic ethos of the world's ...
Indian Politics Essay for Students in English
In the given below Indian politics essay, one can read all about the Indian political system, it's functioning, and the problems faced by it. For India, political scenarios and events play an important role. The Various Shades of Indian Politics . India is the largest democracy in the world. Almost 1 out of every 6 humans in the world is an Indian.
Long and Short Essay on Indian Politics in English for Children and
Essay on Indian Politics and Politicians - Essay 2 (300 words) Introduction. India enjoys a democratic set up that gives the general public the right to vote and elect government. While this type of political system is strong and sound with clearly defined laws, in India it has been a prey to corrupt politicians ever since its inception.
Understanding the Basics of Indian Politics and the Electoral Process
Introduction. Indian politics is a fascinating blend of diverse cultures, ideologies, and socio-economic backgrounds. With its rich history and vibrant democracy, India's political landscape is a complex tapestry that plays a pivotal role in shaping the nation's trajectory. At the heart of this dynamic system lies the electoral process, a ...
Politics of India
Politics of India works within the framework of the country's Constitution. India is a parliamentary secular democratic republic in which the president of India is the head of state & first citizen of India and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. It is based on the federal structure of government, although the word is not ...
An Overview of Indian Politics: Dynamics, Challenges, and ...
Indian politics stands as a fascinating tapestry woven with diverse threads of culture, history, ideology, and governance. With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is the world's ...
Essay on Indian Politics
Short Essay on Indian Politics 200 Words in English. Below, we have provided a 200-word short essay on Indian politics is helpful to classes 1,2,3,4,5, and 6. students can make use of in test and examinations. Indian politics is a colourful drama and most famously called as the great circus of the country.
Indian Polity and Governance
Read to know more about Indian Polity and Governance. India is a vast landscape with cultural, linguistic, and geographical diversity. One element that binds India as a nation together is its polity and governance structure. The Indian political system is connected with the threads of history, culture, and the aspirations of its people.
Introduction: Politics in india—an overview
In this introductory chapter we provide an overview of the subject-politics in India-and point to where and how individual essays of the collection ﬁt within the broader scheme. The collection is organized around four major themes: Three themes in Indian politics, namely political change, political economy, and the diversity of regional ...
What Is the Role of Women in Indian Politics? Growing Stronger…
Even the UAE, with 22.5%, has more women representatives, according to the UN's 2008 survey of women in politics. That said, the recently concluded 15 th Lok Sabha elections have delivered a ...
Essay on Indian Politics
Long Essay on Indian Politics and Politicians (500 - 600 Words) Introduction. Indian politics is related to the attaining or transfer of power from one political party to another after elections. The successful formation of government is possible due to Indian politics. The government helps in the proper functioning and development of the ...
The Indian Political Parties
Some of them are All India Forward Bloc, Indian Union Muslim League, Sikkim Democratic Front, Zoram Nationalist Party and others. There are also unrecognized parties that affect the politics in India to some extent — Lok Satta Party, Manipur Peoples Party, Jana Sena Party, and many others (Dutt, 2006, 62-65).
PDF Issues in Indian Politics
POL4B02 : Issues in Indian Politics School of Distance Education, University of Calicut 1 MODULE 1 SOCIO ECONOMIC FACTORS IN INDIAN POLITICS The uniqueness of Indian social structure lies in its unity and amidst diversity. It is a unique blend of religions, cultures and racial groups. Hindus, the Muslims, the Christians, Sikhs,
Hindu Nationalism and Indian Politics: with an Introduction by Pratap
The rise and growth of Hindu nationalism is the salient feature of contemporary Indian politics. This omnibus brings together the best scholarship on Hindu nationalism, its organizational forms, political strategies, ideological claims, social base, and its relationship to other variants of nationalism. Meticulously researched and lucidly written, each of the three books included here ...
Essay on Indian Politics in English for Children and Students
Essay on Indian Political System - Essay 3 (400 words) Introduction. India is a federal parliamentary democratic republic. It is known to be world's largest democracy. This Indian political system came into being in August 1947 as the country got freedom from the British rule.
Politics and Religion in India: An Analysis Introduction
This paper attempts to examine critically the active role of religion in Indian politics in the years 1990-2010. Constitutionally, India is a secular state and does not claim any religion as her official religion. Despite having such a status, her attitude towards religious minorities is indomitable.
Essay on Politics for Students in English
Politics can be described as the disagreement between the various groups on what they like. One of the broad definitions of politics, which is widely agreed, is the art of governance. The government is the entity having the legal authority of regulating people's actions. The word politics is usually used for defining how the countries are ...
Indian Political Thought- An Advance Study
Indian Political Thought comprises Classical Thought, National Thought, and Modern Indian Thought. This course will provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of political thought in India from ancient times to the modern era. Course Duration: This course is designed for one academic semester or approximately 15 weeks.
Essay on Election in India
250 Words Essay on Election in India Introduction. India, the world's largest democracy, has a multi-tiered system of government, reflecting its federal structure. ... Political parties play a crucial role in Indian elections. They are the primary vehicles for political mobilization and policy debate. The two main national parties are the ...
Studies in Indian Politics
Restricted access Obituary First published December 5, 2023 pp. 353-354. xml GET ACCESS. Table of contents for Studies in Indian Politics, 11, 2, Dec 01, 2023.
Investigating political polarization in India through the lens of
Introduction. Political polarization has become an important subject of deliberation owing to its negative implications on democratic societies. ... The growing polarization in Indian politics has become an important research issue for the political scientists and social media activities of political candidates may prove to be an important ...

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