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199+ Physical Science Research Topics [Updated 2024]

Physical science, a branch of natural science, delves into the fundamental principles that govern the physical world around us. From the microscopic world of atoms and molecules to the vast expanse of the cosmos, physical science encompasses a wide array of phenomena. In this blog, we will embark on a journey through the realms of physical science research topics, exploring captivating topics that continue to push the boundaries of human knowledge.

Top Reasons To Study Physical Science Research Topics

Table of Contents

• Foundation of Scientific Understanding: Studying physical science research topics provides a foundational understanding of the fundamental principles that govern the natural world. This knowledge serves as the basis for advancements in various scientific disciplines.
• Innovation and Technological Advancements: Research in physical science drives innovation and leads to technological breakthroughs. From the development of new materials to cutting-edge technologies, the insights gained contribute to the advancement of human civilization.
• Solving Real-World Problems: Physical science research addresses real-world challenges, such as climate change, pollution, and energy sustainability. By understanding the underlying physical processes, researchers can develop solutions to mitigate environmental issues and improve quality of life.
• Interdisciplinary Applications: Physical science is inherently interdisciplinary, fostering collaboration between different scientific fields. This cross-disciplinary approach allows researchers to tackle complex problems that require expertise from physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.
• Space Exploration and Astrophysics: Physical science plays a crucial role in space exploration. Studying astrophysics, for example, enables us to comprehend the universe’s origins, explore other planets, and understand the conditions necessary for life beyond Earth.
• Medical Advancements: Physical science research contributes significantly to medical advancements. Techniques like imaging technologies, materials science applications in medical devices, and understanding the physics of biological processes drive progress in healthcare.
• Technological Tools and Instrumentation: Advances in physical science research lead to the development of sophisticated tools and instruments. These tools, ranging from high-resolution imaging devices to powerful particle detectors, enhance our ability to observe, measure, and understand the physical world.
• Environmental Stewardship: Research in physical science informs strategies for environmental conservation and sustainable development. By studying Earth’s systems, researchers can propose solutions for mitigating the impact of human activities on the environment.
• Career Opportunities and Skill Development: A background in physical science opens up diverse career opportunities. Whether in academia, industry, or research institutions, individuals with expertise in physical science are well-equipped with analytical and problem-solving skills sought after in various professional settings.
• Contributions to Fundamental Knowledge: Engaging in physical science research contributes to the expansion of humanity’s fundamental knowledge. Through curiosity-driven exploration, researchers uncover new phenomena, deepen our understanding of the universe, and pave the way for future discoveries that can shape the course of scientific inquiry.

199+ Physical Science Research Topics: Category Wise

Physics research topics, classical mechanics.

• Analysis of chaotic behavior in classical mechanical systems.
• Application of classical mechanics in engineering design.
• Investigation of non-linear dynamics in classical systems.

Quantum Mechanics

• Quantum teleportation and its implications for communication.
• Development of quantum algorithms for solving complex problems.
• Quantum information processing and its potential impact on cryptography.

Astrophysics

• Exploration of exoplanets and their potential habitability.
• Understanding the dynamics of galactic collisions.
• Study of the cosmic microwave background radiation for insights into the early universe.

Nuclear Physics

• Investigation of nuclear fusion as a sustainable energy source.
• Study of exotic nuclei and their properties.
• Applications of nuclear physics in medical imaging and treatment.

Condensed Matter Physics

• Research on topological insulators and their unique properties.
• Development of new materials with superconducting properties.
• Study of quantum phase transitions in condensed matter systems.

Chemistry Research Topics

Organic chemistry.

• Development of new methods for asymmetric synthesis.
• Investigation of the chemistry of natural products for drug discovery.
• Design and synthesis of organic photovoltaic materials.

Inorganic Chemistry

• Study of catalytic processes using transition metal complexes.
• Exploration of metal-organic frameworks for gas storage and separation.
• Bioinorganic chemistry and its role in biological systems.

Physical Chemistry

• Development of advanced spectroscopic techniques for molecular analysis.
• Study of chemical kinetics and reaction mechanisms.
• Computational chemistry for predicting molecular properties.

Earth Science Research Topics

• Seismic imaging of Earth’s interior and its implications for tectonic processes.
• Investigation of magnetic anomalies in the Earth’s crust.
• Understanding the dynamics of earthquakes and their prediction.

Meteorology

• Climate modeling and the impact of human activities on global climate.
• Research on extreme weather events and their causes.
• Study of atmospheric aerosols and their effects on weather patterns.

Oceanography

• Exploration of deep-sea ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Investigation of ocean acidification and its impact on marine life.
• Analysis of ocean currents and their role in climate regulation.

Materials Science Research Topics

• Nanotechnology applications in medicine for targeted drug delivery.
• Development of flexible and transparent electronics.
• Study of self-healing materials for enhanced durability.

Biomaterials

• Design of biocompatible materials for medical implants.
• Investigation of biomimetic materials inspired by natural structures.
• Development of smart materials with responsive properties.

Solid-State Physics

• Exploration of novel electronic and magnetic properties in solid-state materials.
• Study of quantum dots and their applications in optoelectronics.
• Investigation of topological insulators for quantum computing.

Environmental Science Research Topics

Pollution control.

• Development of advanced technologies for air pollution control.
• Remediation of contaminated water using nanomaterials.
• Monitoring and mitigation of soil pollution.

Renewable Energy

• Advancements in solar cell technology for efficient energy conversion.
• Research on next-generation batteries for energy storage.
• Harnessing energy from ocean currents and waves.

Sustainable Development

• Assessment of the environmental impact of urbanization.
• Sustainable agriculture practices for food security.
• Integration of renewable energy sources into smart grids.

Interdisciplinary Research Topics

Scientific instrumentation.

• Development of high-resolution electron microscopes for nanoscale imaging.
• Advancements in X-ray crystallography for structural analysis.
• Miniaturization of scientific instruments for space exploration.

Artificial Intelligence in Scientific Research

• Machine learning applications in predicting chemical reactions.
• Optimization of experimental designs using AI algorithms.
• Automated analysis of astronomical data for celestial object discovery.

Cross-disciplinary Collaborations

• Collaboration between physicists and biologists for cancer research.
• Integration of materials science and engineering for novel device fabrication.
• Joint efforts in climate science involving meteorologists and geophysicists.

Emerging Trends in Physical Science Research

Quantum computing.

• Development of quantum algorithms for optimization problems.
• Quantum machine learning for data analysis.
• Error correction techniques in quantum computing.

Advanced Imaging Techniques

• Super-resolution imaging for studying cellular structures.
• Development of in vivo imaging techniques for medical diagnostics.
• Imaging the dynamics of chemical reactions at the atomic scale.

High-Energy Particle Detectors

• Search for new particles beyond the Standard Model of particle physics.
• Application of particle detectors in medical imaging.
• Development of lightweight and portable particle detectors for space exploration.

Mass Spectrometry

• Advances in mass spectrometry for proteomics and metabolomics.
• Imaging mass spectrometry for spatial mapping of biomolecules.
• Integration of mass spectrometry with other analytical techniques for comprehensive analysis.

Miscellaneous Physical Science Research Topics

• The role of dark matter in the evolution of the universe.
• Investigation of the Higgs boson and its implications for particle physics.
• Research on the formation and dynamics of planetary rings.
• Theoretical modeling of the behavior of plasmas in fusion reactors.
• Study of magnetic reconnection in astrophysical and laboratory plasmas.
• Application of lasers in precision measurements and quantum optics.
• Analysis of the impact of space weather on Earth’s magnetosphere.
• Development of space-based telescopes for astronomy and astrophysics.
• Investigation of gravitational waves and their sources in the universe.
• Research on the effects of microgravity on biological organisms.
• Development of regenerative medicine techniques in space environments.
• Study of the long-term effects of space travel on the human body.
• Exploration of the interactions between light and matter in quantum optics.
• Application of quantum dots in advanced display technologies.
• Investigation of quantum coherence and entanglement in complex systems.
• Development of environmentally friendly and sustainable packaging materials.
• Study of the properties and applications of metamaterials.
• Exploration of the physics of soft matter and complex fluids.
• Research on the dynamics of wildfires and their ecological impact.
• Investigation of the role of aerosols in climate change.
• Analysis of the influence of land-use changes on local and regional climates.
• Development of advanced sensors for environmental monitoring.
• Study of the impact of ocean circulation on marine ecosystems.
• Exploration of the microbial diversity in extreme environments.
• Application of virtual reality in simulating complex physical systems.
• Research on the use of augmented reality in education and training.
• Development of immersive technologies for scientific visualization.
• Investigation of the role of epigenetics in cellular processes.
• Study of the physics of protein folding and misfolding.
• Application of CRISPR technology in genetic engineering.
• Development of bio-inspired robotics for medical applications.
• Exploration of swarm intelligence and collective behavior in robotics.
• Study of the biomechanics of human movement and sports.
• Research on the physics of musical instruments and acoustics.
• Development of innovative musical interfaces and technologies.
• Exploration of the psychological and physiological effects of music.
• Investigation of the physics of fluid dynamics in aviation.
• Study of the aerodynamics of unconventional aircraft designs.
• Application of advanced materials in aerospace engineering.
• Development of advanced imaging techniques for medical diagnostics.
• Study of the physics of medical ultrasound and its applications.
• Exploration of novel therapies in medical physics.
• Research on the physics of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
• Investigation of new contrast agents for medical imaging.
• Development of portable and low-cost medical imaging technologies.
• Study of the physics of phase transitions in materials.
• Exploration of the properties and applications of 2D materials.
• Application of materials science in the design of energy-efficient buildings.
• Investigation of the physics of earthquakes and fault mechanics.
• Research on the monitoring and prediction of volcanic eruptions.
• Exploration of the physics of landslides and slope stability.
• Study of the physics of the human eye and vision.
• Development of advanced ophthalmic imaging technologies.
• Exploration of the role of optics in virtual and augmented reality.
• Development of quantum sensors for precision measurements.
• Study of the quantum properties of light and its applications in communication.
• Investigation of the physics of magnetic materials and spintronics.
• Exploration of the quantum behavior of electrons in nanoscale systems.
• Development of quantum information processing using solid-state devices.
• Study of the physics of fluid dynamics in microscale systems.
• Exploration of the behavior of fluids in confined geometries.
• Application of microfluidics in biotechnology and medical diagnostics.
• Investigation of the physics of superconductivity and its applications.
• Research on high-temperature superconductors for practical applications.
• Exploration of unconventional superconducting materials.
• Development of advanced techniques for 3D printing of materials.
• Study of the physics of additive manufacturing processes.
• Exploration of novel materials for 3D printing applications.
• Investigation of the physics of atmospheric chemistry.
• Research on the interactions between pollutants and atmospheric components.
• Exploration of strategies for air quality improvement.
• Study of the physics of laser-induced plasma and its applications.
• Development of laser-based technologies for material processing.
• Exploration of the physics of laser-matter interactions in extreme conditions.
• Application of artificial intelligence in predicting and controlling epidemics.
• Development of AI algorithms for drug discovery and personalized medicine.
• Exploration of the ethical implications of AI in healthcare.
• Study of the physics of dark energy and dark matter in the universe.
• Exploration of alternative theories of gravity and their cosmological implications.
• Investigation of the large-scale structure of the universe.
• Research on the physics of quantum communication and cryptography.
• Development of quantum key distribution systems for secure communication.
• Exploration of the fundamental principles of quantum information theory.
• Study of the physics of neutron stars and pulsars.
• Investigation of the astrophysical origin of cosmic rays.
• Exploration of the properties and behavior of black holes.
• Study of the physics of quantum entanglement and its applications.
• Exploration of the quantum nature of time and space.
• Investigation of the physics of complex networks in diverse systems.
• Research on the dynamics of social networks and information spread.
• Exploration of emergent behavior in networked systems.
• Study of the physics of climate change and its impact on ecosystems.
• Development of strategies for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
• Exploration of the role of human activities in altering the Earth’s climate.
• Investigation of the physics of earthquakes and seismic hazards.
• Study of the dynamics of fault systems and earthquake prediction.
• Exploration of the impact of earthquakes on infrastructure and communities.
• Development of advanced techniques for remote sensing of the Earth.
• Study of the physics of satellite-based observation systems.
• Exploration of the role of remote sensing in environmental monitoring.
• Investigation of the physics of turbulence in fluid flows.
• Research on the control and manipulation of turbulent flows.
• Exploration of the applications of turbulence modeling in engineering.
• Study of the physics of neuronal networks and brain dynamics.
• Development of neuroimaging techniques for studying brain function.
• Exploration of the role of neural networks in learning and memory.
• Investigation of the physics of gene expression and regulation.
• Study of the dynamics of cellular processes in living organisms.
• Exploration of the physics of genetic mutations and their consequences.
• Development of advanced imaging techniques for studying cellular structures.
• Study of the physics of cellular transport and trafficking.
• Exploration of the role of physical forces in cellular processes.
• Investigation of the physics of protein folding and misfolding.
• Research on the dynamics of protein-protein interactions.
• Exploration of the role of physical forces in protein function.
• Study of the physics of fluid dynamics in biological systems.
• Development of computational models for simulating biological fluid flows.
• Exploration of the biomechanics of tissues and organs.
• Investigation of the physics of ecological systems and biodiversity.
• Study of the dynamics of ecosystems in response to environmental changes.
• Exploration of the physics of population dynamics and community structure.
• Development of advanced techniques for non-invasive medical diagnostics.
• Exploration of the role of imaging in personalized medicine.
• Investigation of the physics of biological membranes and lipid bilayers.
• Research on the dynamics of membrane proteins and their functions.

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in physical science research is a game-changer. AI algorithms can analyze vast datasets, identify patterns, and even propose novel hypotheses. 

In physics and chemistry, AI is used for simulating complex systems, optimizing experimental designs, and accelerating the discovery of new materials.

Advancements in Experimental Techniques

Technological advancements continually push the boundaries of experimental techniques. From powerful particle accelerators to high-resolution imaging devices, researchers have access to tools that were once thought impossible. 

These advancements not only deepen our understanding of the physical world but also pave the way for groundbreaking discoveries.

The complexity of contemporary scientific challenges requires collaboration across disciplines. Physicists, chemists, biologists, and engineers are joining forces to tackle issues such as climate change, disease, and energy sustainability. 

Cross-disciplinary collaborations foster innovation by combining expertise from diverse fields.

In conclusion, physical science research topics are a dynamic and ever-evolving field that continues to unravel the mysteries of the universe. From the microscopic world of particles to the vast expanses of space, researchers across various disciplines are pushing the boundaries of human knowledge. 

The exploration of classical mechanics, quantum phenomena, chemistry, Earth science, and interdisciplinary topics is essential for addressing the challenges of the present and unlocking the possibilities of the future. As we stand on the precipice of new discoveries, the importance of continued research and collaboration cannot be overstated. 

The fascinating journey into the realms of physical science research beckons, offering the promise of deeper insights, technological advancements, and a more profound understanding of the world we inhabit.

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• Published: 28 November 2019

Physics education research for 21 st century learning

• Lei Bao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3348-4198 1 &
• Kathleen Koenig 2  

Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research volume  1 , Article number:  2 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

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Education goals have evolved to emphasize student acquisition of the knowledge and attributes necessary to successfully contribute to the workforce and global economy of the twenty-first Century. The new education standards emphasize higher end skills including reasoning, creativity, and open problem solving. Although there is substantial research evidence and consensus around identifying essential twenty-first Century skills, there is a lack of research that focuses on how the related subskills interact and develop over time. This paper provides a brief review of physics education research as a means for providing a context towards future work in promoting deep learning and fostering abilities in high-end reasoning. Through a synthesis of the literature around twenty-first Century skills and physics education, a set of concretely defined education and research goals are suggested for future research, along with how these may impact the next generation physics courses and how physics should be taught in the future.

Introduction

Education is the primary service offered by society to prepare its future generation workforce. The goals of education should therefore meet the demands of the changing world. The concept of learner-centered, active learning has broad, growing support in the research literature as an empirically validated teaching practice that best promotes learning for modern day students (Freeman et al., 2014 ). It stems out of the constructivist view of learning, which emphasizes that it is the learner who needs to actively construct knowledge and the teacher should assume the role of a facilitator rather than the source of knowledge. As implied by the constructivist view, learner-centered education usually emphasizes active-engagement and inquiry style teaching-learning methods, in which the learners can effectively construct their understanding under the guidance of instruction. The learner-centered education also requires educators and researchers to focus their efforts on the learners’ needs, not only to deliver effective teaching-learning approaches, but also to continuously align instructional practices to the education goals of the times. The goals of introductory college courses in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines have constantly evolved from some notion of weed-out courses that emphasize content drilling, to the current constructivist active-engagement type of learning that promotes interest in STEM careers and fosters high-end cognitive abilities.

Following the conceptually defined framework of twenty-first Century teaching and learning, this paper aims to provide contextualized operational definitions of the goals for twenty-first Century learning in physics (and STEM in general) as well as the rationale for the importance of these outcomes for current students. Aligning to the twenty-first Century learning goals, research in physics education is briefly reviewed to provide a context towards future work in promoting deep learning and fostering abilities in high-end reasoning in parallel. Through a synthesis of the literature around twenty-first Century skills and physics education, a set of concretely defined education and research goals are suggested for future research. These goals include: domain-specific research in physics learning; fostering scientific reasoning abilities that are transferable across the STEM disciplines; and dissemination of research-validated curriculum and approaches to teaching and learning. Although this review has a focus on physics education research (PER), it is beneficial to expand the perspective to view physics education in the broader context of STEM learning. Therefore, much of the discussion will blend PER with STEM education as a continuum body of work on teaching and learning.

Education goals for twenty-first century learning

Education goals have evolved to emphasize student acquisition of essential “21 st Century skills”, which define the knowledge and attributes necessary to successfully contribute to the workforce and global economy of the 21st Century (National Research Council, 2011 , 2012a ). In general, these standards seek to transition from emphasizing content-based drilling and memorization towards fostering higher-end skills including reasoning, creativity, and open problem solving (United States Chamber of Commerce, 2017 ). Initiatives on advancing twenty-first Century education focus on skills that converge on three broad clusters: cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, all of which include a rich set of sub-dimensions.

Within the cognitive domain, multiple competencies have been proposed, including deep learning, non-routine problem solving, systems thinking, critical thinking, computational and information literacy, reasoning and argumentation, and innovation (National Research Council, 2012b ; National Science and Technology Council, 2018 ). Interpersonal skills are those necessary for relating to others, including the ability to work creatively and collaboratively as well as communicate clearly. Intrapersonal skills, on the other hand, reside within the individual and include metacognitive thinking, adaptability, and self-management. These involve the ability to adjust one’s strategy or approach along with the ability to work towards important goals without significant distraction, both essential for sustained success in long-term problem solving and career development.

Although many descriptions exist for what qualifies as twenty-first Century skills, student abilities in scientific reasoning and critical thinking are the most commonly noted and widely studied. They are highly connected with the other cognitive skills of problem solving, decision making, and creative thinking (Bailin, 1996 ; Facione, 1990 ; Fisher, 2001 ; Lipman, 2003 ; Marzano et al., 1988 ), and have been important educational goals since the 1980s (Binkley et al., 2010 ; NCET, 1987 ). As a result, they play a foundational role in defining, assessing, and developing twenty-first Century skills.

The literature for critical thinking is extensive (Bangert-Drowns & Bankert, 1990 ; Facione, 1990 ; Glaser, 1941 ). Various definitions exist with common underlying principles. Broadly defined, critical thinking is the application of the cognitive skills and strategies that aim for and support evidence-based decision making. It is the thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions (Halpern, 1999 ). It is the “reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 1993 ). Critical thinking is recognized as a way to understand and evaluate subject matter; producing reliable knowledge and improving thinking itself (Paul, 1990 ; Siegel, 1988 ).

The notion of scientific reasoning is often used to label the set of skills that support critical thinking, problem solving, and creativity in STEM. Broadly defined, scientific reasoning includes the thinking and reasoning skills involved in inquiry, experimentation, evidence evaluation, inference and argument that support the formation and modification of concepts and theories about the natural world; such as the ability to systematically explore a problem, formulate and test hypotheses, manipulate and isolate variables, and observe and evaluate consequences (Bao et al., 2009 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ). Critical thinking and scientific reasoning share many features, where both emphasize evidence-based decision making in multivariable causal conditions. Critical thinking can be promoted through the development of scientific reasoning, which includes student ability to reach a reliable conclusion after identifying a question, formulating hypotheses, gathering relevant data, and logically testing and evaluating the hypothesis. In this way, scientific reasoning can be viewed as a scientific domain instantiation of critical thinking in the context of STEM learning.

In STEM learning, cognitive aspects of the twenty-first Century skills aim to develop reasoning skills, critical thinking skills, and deep understanding, all of which allow students to develop well connected expert-like knowledge structures and engage in meaningful scientific inquiry and problem solving. Within physics education, a core component of STEM education, the learning of conceptual understanding and problem solving remains a current emphasis. However, the fast-changing work environment and technology-driven world require a new set of core knowledge, skills, and habits of mind to solve complex interdisciplinary problems, gather and evaluate evidence, and make sense of information from a variety of sources (Tanenbaum, 2016 ). The education goals in physics are transitioning towards ability fostering as well as extension and integration with other STEM disciplines. Although curriculum that supports these goals is limited, there are a number of attempts, particularly in developing active learning classrooms and inquiry-based laboratory activities, which have demonstrated success. Some of these are described later in this paper as they provide a foundation for future work in physics education.

Interpersonal skills, such as communication and collaboration, are also essential for twenty-first Century problem-solving tasks, which are often open-ended, complex, and team-based. As the world becomes more connected in a multitude of dimensions, tackling significant problems involving complex systems often goes beyond the individual and requires working with others who are increasingly from culturally diverse backgrounds. Due to the rise of communication technologies, being able to articulate thoughts and ideas in a variety of formats and contexts is crucial, as well as the ability to effectively listen or observe to decipher meaning. Interpersonal skills can be promoted by integrating group-learning experiences into the classroom setting, while providing students with the opportunity to engage in open-ended tasks with a team of peer learners who may propose more than one plausible solution. These experiences should be designed such that students must work collaboratively and responsibly in teams to develop creative solutions, which are later disseminated through informative presentations and clearly written scientific reports. Although educational settings in general have moved to providing students with more and more opportunities for collaborative learning, a lack of effective assessments for these important skills has been a limiting factor for producing informative research and widespread implementation. See Liu ( 2010 ) for an overview of measurement instruments reported in the research literature.

Intrapersonal skills are based on the individual and include the ability to manage one’s behavior and emotions to achieve goals. These are especially important for adapting in the fast-evolving collaborative modern work environment and for learning new tasks to solve increasingly challenging interdisciplinary problems, both of which require intellectual openness, work ethic, initiative, and metacognition, to name a few. These skills can be promoted using instruction which, for example, includes metacognitive learning strategies, provides opportunities to make choices and set goals for learning, and explicitly connects to everyday life events. However, like interpersonal skills, the availability of relevant assessments challenges advancement in this area. In this review, the vast amount of studies on interpersonal and intrapersonal skills will not be discussed in order to keep the main focus on the cognitive side of skills and reasoning.

The purpose behind discussing twenty-first Century skills is that this set of skills provides important guidance for establishing essential education goals for modern society and learners. However, although there is substantial research evidence and consensus around identifying necessary twenty-first Century skills, there is a lack of research that focuses on how the related subskills interact and develop over time (Reimers & Chung, 2016 ), with much of the existing research residing in academic literature that is focused on psychology rather than education systems (National Research Council, 2012a ). Therefore, a major and challenging task for discipline-based education researchers and educators is to operationally define discipline-specific goals that align with the twenty-first Century skills for each of the STEM fields. In the following sections, this paper will provide a limited vision of the research endeavors in physics education that can translate the past and current success into sustained impact for twenty-first Century teaching and learning.

Proposed education and research goals

Physics education research (PER) is often considered an early pioneer in discipline-based education research (National Research Council, 2012c ), with well-established, broad, and influential outcomes (e.g., Hake, 1998 ; Hsu, Brewe, Foster, & Harper, 2004 ; McDermott & Redish, 1999 ; Meltzer & Thornton, 2012 ). Through the integration of twenty-first Century skills with the PER literature, a set of broadly defined education and research goals is proposed for future PER work:

Discipline-specific deep learning: Cognitive and education research involving physics learning has established a rich literature on student learning behaviors along with a number of frameworks. Some of the popular frameworks include conceptual understanding and concept change, problem solving, knowledge structure, deep learning, and knowledge integration. Aligned with twenty-first Century skills, future research in physics learning should aim to integrate the multiple areas of existing work, such that they help students develop well integrated knowledge structures in order to achieve deep leaning in physics.

Fostering scientific reasoning for transfer across STEM disciplines: The broad literature in physics learning and scientific reasoning can provide a solid foundation to further develop effective physics education approaches, such as active engagement instruction and inquiry labs, specifically targeting scientific inquiry abilities and reasoning skills. Since scientific reasoning is a more domain-general cognitive ability, success in physics can also more readily inform research and education practices in other STEM fields.

Research, development, assessment, and dissemination of effective education approaches: Developing and maintaining a supportive infrastructure of education research and implementation has always been a challenge, not only in physics but in all STEM areas. The twenty-first Century education requires researchers and instructors across STEM to work together as an extended community in order to construct a sustainable integrated STEM education environment. Through this new infrastructure, effective team-based inquiry learning and meaningful assessment can be delivered to help students develop a comprehensive skills set including deep understanding and scientific reasoning, as well as communication and other non-cognitive abilities.

The suggested research will generate understanding and resources to support education practices that meet the requirements of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), which explicitly emphasize three areas of learning including disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and practices (National Research Council, 2012b ). The first goal for promoting deep learning of disciplinary knowledge corresponds well to the NGSS emphasis on disciplinary core ideas, which play a central role in helping students develop well integrated knowledge structures to achieve deep understanding. The second goal on fostering transferable scientific reasoning skills supports the NGSS emphasis on crosscutting concepts and practices. Scientific reasoning skills are crosscutting cognitive abilities that are essential to the development of domain-general concepts and modeling strategies. In addition, the development of scientific reasoning requires inquiry-based learning and practices. Therefore, research on scientific reasoning can produce a valuable knowledge base on education means that are effective for developing crosscutting concepts and promoting meaningful practices in STEM. The third research goal addresses the challenge in the assessment of high-end skills and the dissemination of effective educational approaches, which supports all NGSS initiatives to ensure sustainable development and lasting impact. The following sections will discuss the research literature that provides the foundation for these three research goals and identify the specific challenges that will need to be addressed in future work.

Promoting deep learning in physics education

Physics education for the twenty-first Century aims to foster high-end reasoning skills and promote deep conceptual understanding. However, many traditional education systems place strong emphasis on only problem solving with the expectation that students obtain deep conceptual understanding through repetitive problem-solving practices, which often doesn’t occur (Alonso, 1992 ). This focus on problem solving has been shown to have limitations as a number of studies have revealed disconnections between learning conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills (Chiu, 2001 ; Chiu, Guo, & Treagust, 2007 ; Hoellwarth, Moelter, & Knight, 2005 ; Kim & Pak, 2002 ; Nakhleh, 1993 ; Nakhleh & Mitchell, 1993 ; Nurrenbern & Pickering, 1987 ; Stamovlasis, Tsaparlis, Kamilatos, Papaoikonomou, & Zarotiadou, 2005 ). In fact, drilling in problem solving may actually promote memorization of context-specific solutions with minimal generalization rather than transitioning students from novices to experts.

Towards conceptual understanding and learning, many models and definitions have been established to study and describe student conceptual knowledge states and development. For example, students coming into a physics classroom often hold deeply rooted, stable understandings that differ from expert conceptions. These are commonly referred to as misconceptions or alternative conceptions (Clement, 1982 ; Duit & Treagust, 2003 ; Dykstra Jr, Boyle, & Monarch, 1992 ; Halloun & Hestenes, 1985a , 1985b ). Such students’ conceptions are context dependent and exist as disconnected knowledge fragments, which are strongly situated within specific contexts (Bao & Redish, 2001 , 2006 ; Minstrell, 1992 ).

In modeling students’ knowledge structures, DiSessa’s proposed phenomenological primitives (p-prim) describe a learner’s implicit thinking, cued from specific contexts, as an underpinning cognitive construct for a learner’s expressed conception (DiSessa, 1993 ; Smith III, DiSessa, & Roschelle, 1994 ). Facets, on the other hand, map between the implicit p-prim and concrete statements of beliefs and are developed as discrete and independent units of thought, knowledge, or strategies used by individuals to address specific situations (Minstrell, 1992 ). Ontological categories, defined by Chi, describe student reasoning in the most general sense. Chi believed that these are distinct, stable, and constraining, and that a core reason behind novices’ difficulties in physics is that they think of physics within the category of matter instead of processes (Chi, 1992 ; Chi & Slotta, 1993 ; Chi, Slotta, & De Leeuw, 1994 ; Slotta, Chi, & Joram, 1995 ). More details on conceptual learning and problem solving are well summarized in the literature (Hsu et al., 2004 ; McDermott & Redish, 1999 ), from which a common theme emerges from the models and definitions. That is, learning is context dependent and students with poor conceptual understanding typically have locally connected knowledge structures with isolated conceptual constructs that are unable to establish similarities and contrasts between contexts.

Additionally, this idea of fragmentation is demonstrated through many studies on student problem solving in physics and other fields. It has been shown that a student’s knowledge organization is a key aspect for distinguishing experts from novices (Bagno, Eylon, & Ganiel, 2000 ; Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981 ; De Jong & Ferguson-Hesler, 1986 ; Eylon & Reif, 1984 ; Ferguson-Hesler & De Jong, 1990 ; Heller & Reif, 1984 ; Larkin, McDermott, Simon, & Simon, 1980 ; Smith, 1992 ; Veldhuis, 1990 ; Wexler, 1982 ). Expert’s knowledge is organized around core principles of physics, which are applied to guide problem solving and develop connections between different domains as well as new, unfamiliar situations (Brown, 1989 ; Perkins & Salomon, 1989 ; Salomon & Perkins, 1989 ). Novices, on the other hand, lack a well-organized knowledge structure and often solve problems by relying on surface features that are directly mapped to certain problem-solving outcomes through memorization (Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989 ; Hardiman, Dufresne, & Mestre, 1989 ; Schoenfeld & Herrmann, 1982 ).

This lack of organization creates many difficulties in the comprehension of basic concepts and in solving complex problems. This leads to the common complaint that students’ knowledge of physics is reduced to formulas and vague labels of the concepts, which are unable to substantively contribute to meaningful reasoning processes. A novice’s fragmented knowledge structure severely limits the learner’s conceptual understanding. In essence, these students are able to memorize how to approach a problem given specific information but lack the understanding of the underlying concept of the approach, limiting their ability to apply this approach to a novel situation. In order to achieve expert-like understanding, a student’s knowledge structure must integrate all of the fragmented ideas around the core principle to form a coherent and fully connected conceptual framework.

Towards a more general theoretical consideration, students’ alternative conceptions and fragmentation in knowledge structures can be viewed through both the “naïve theory” framework (e.g., Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982 ; Vosniadou, Vamvakoussi, & Skopeliti, 2008 ) and the “knowledge in pieces” (DiSessa, 1993 ) perspective. The “naïve theory” framework considers students entering the classroom with stable and coherent ideas (naïve theories) about the natural world that differ from those presented by experts. In the “knowledge in pieces” perspective, student knowledge is constructed in real-time and incorporates context features with the p-prims to form the observed conceptual expressions. Although there exists an ongoing debate between these two views (Kalman & Lattery, 2018 ), it is more productive to focus on their instructional implications for promoting meaningful conceptual change in students’ knowledge structures.

In the process of learning, students may enter the classroom with a range of initial states depending on the population and content. For topics with well-established empirical experiences, students often have developed their own ideas and understanding, while on topics without prior exposure, students may create their initial understanding in real-time based on related prior knowledge and given contextual features (Bao & Redish, 2006 ). These initial states of understanding, regardless of their origin, are usually different from those of experts. Therefore, the main function of teaching and learning is to guide students to modify their initial understanding towards the experts’ views. Although students’ initial understanding may exist as a body of coherent ideas within limited contexts, as students start to change their knowledge structures throughout the learning process, they may evolve into a wide range of transitional states with varying levels of knowledge integration and coherence. The discussion in this brief review on students’ knowledge structures regarding fragmentation and integration are primarily focused on the transitional stages emerged through learning.

The corresponding instructional goal is then to help students more effectively develop an integrated knowledge structure so as to achieve a deep conceptual understanding. From an educator’s perspective, Bloom’s taxonomy of education objectives establishes a hierarchy of six levels of cognitive skills based on their specificity and complexity: Remember (lowest and most specific), Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create (highest and most general and complex) (Anderson et al., 2001 ; Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956 ). This hierarchy of skills exemplifies the transition of a learner’s cognitive development from a fragmented and contextually situated knowledge structure (novice with low level cognitive skills) to a well-integrated and globally networked expert-like structure (with high level cognitive skills).

As a student’s learning progresses from lower to higher cognitive levels, the student’s knowledge structure becomes more integrated and is easier to transfer across contexts (less context specific). For example, beginning stage students may only be able to memorize and perform limited applications of the features of certain contexts and their conditional variations, with which the students were specifically taught. This leads to the establishment of a locally connected knowledge construct. When a student’s learning progresses from the level of Remember to Understand, the student begins to develop connections among some of the fragmented pieces to form a more fully connected network linking a larger set of contexts, thus advancing into a higher level of understanding. These connections and the ability to transfer between different situations form the basis of deep conceptual understanding. This growth of connections leads to a more complete and integrated cognitive structure, which can be mapped to a higher level on Bloom’s taxonomy. This occurs when students are able to relate a larger number of different contextual and conditional aspects of a concept for analyzing and evaluating to a wider variety of problem situations.

Promoting the growth of connections would appear to aid in student learning. Exactly which teaching methods best facilitate this are dependent on the concepts and skills being learned and should be determined through research. However, it has been well recognized that traditional instruction often fails to help students obtain expert-like conceptual understanding, with many misconceptions still existing after instruction, indicating weak integration within a student’s knowledge structure (McKeachie, 1986 ).

Recognizing the failures of traditional teaching, various research-informed teaching methods have been developed to enhance student conceptual learning along with diagnostic tests, which aim to measure the existence of misconceptions. Most advances in teaching methods focus on the inclusion of inquiry-based interactive-engagement elements in lecture, recitations, and labs. In physics education, these methods were popularized after Hake’s landmark study demonstrated the effectiveness of interactive-engagement over traditional lectures (Hake, 1998 ). Some of these methods include the use of peer instruction (Mazur, 1997 ), personal response systems (e.g., Reay, Bao, Li, Warnakulasooriya, & Baugh, 2005 ), studio-style instruction (Beichner et al., 2007 ), and inquiry-based learning (Etkina & Van Heuvelen, 2001 ; Laws, 2004 ; McDermott, 1996 ; Thornton & Sokoloff, 1998 ). The key approach of these methods aims to improve student learning by carefully targeting deficits in student knowledge and actively encouraging students to explore and discuss. Rather than rote memorization, these approaches help promote generalization and deeper conceptual understanding by building connections between knowledge elements.

Based on the literature, including Bloom’s taxonomy and the new education standards that emphasize twenty-first Century skills, a common focus on teaching and learning can be identified. This focus emphasizes helping students develop connections among fragmented segments of their knowledge pieces and is aligned with the knowledge integration perspective, which focuses on helping students develop and refine their knowledge structure toward a more coherently organized and extensively connected network of ideas (Lee, Liu, & Linn, 2011 ; Linn, 2005 ; Nordine, Krajcik, & Fortus, 2011 ; Shen, Liu, & Chang, 2017 ). For meaningful learning to occur, new concepts must be integrated into a learner’s existing knowledge structure by linking the new knowledge to already understood concepts.

Forming an integrated knowledge structure is therefore essential to achieving deep learning, not only in physics but also in all STEM fields. However, defining what connections must occur at different stages of learning, as well as understanding the instructional methods necessary for effectively developing such connections within each STEM disciplinary context, are necessary for current and future research. Together these will provide the much needed foundational knowledge base to guide the development of the next generation of curriculum and classroom environment designed around twenty-first Century learning.

Developing scientific reasoning with inquiry labs

Scientific reasoning is part of the widely emphasized cognitive strand of twenty-first Century skills. Through development of scientific reasoning skills, students’ critical thinking, open-ended problem-solving abilities, and decision-making skills can be improved. In this way, targeting scientific reasoning as a curricular objective is aligned with the goals emphasized in twenty-first Century education. Also, there is a growing body of research on the importance of student development of scientific reasoning, which have been found to positively correlate with course achievement (Cavallo, Rozman, Blickenstaff, & Walker, 2003 ; Johnson & Lawson, 1998 ), improvement on concept tests (Coletta & Phillips, 2005 ; She & Liao, 2010 ), engagement in higher levels of problem solving (Cracolice, Deming, & Ehlert, 2008 ; Fabby & Koenig, 2013 ); and success on transfer (Ates & Cataloglu, 2007 ; Jensen & Lawson, 2011 ).

Unfortunately, research has shown that college students are lacking in scientific reasoning. Lawson ( 1992 ) found that ~ 50% of intro biology students are not capable of applying scientific reasoning in learning, including the ability to develop hypotheses, control variables, and design experiments; all necessary for meaningful scientific inquiry. Research has also found that traditional courses do not significantly develop these abilities, with pre-to-post-test gains of 1%–2%, while inquiry-based courses have gains around 7% (Koenig, Schen, & Bao, 2012 ; Koenig, Schen, Edwards, & Bao, 2012 ). Others found that undergraduates have difficulty developing evidence-based decisions and differentiating between and linking evidence with claims (Kuhn, 1992 ; Shaw, 1996 ; Zeineddin & Abd-El-Khalick, 2010 ). A large scale international study suggested that learning of physics content knowledge with traditional teaching practices does not improve students’ scientific reasoning skills (Bao et al., 2009 ).

Aligned to twenty-first Century learning, it is important to implement curriculum that is specifically designed for developing scientific reasoning abilities within current education settings. Although traditional lectures may continue for decades due to infrastructure constraints, a unique opportunity can be found in the lab curriculum, which may be more readily transformed to include hands-on minds-on group learning activities that are ideal for developing students’ abilities in scientific inquiry and reasoning.

For well over a century, the laboratory has held a distinctive role in student learning (Meltzer & Otero, 2015 ). However, many existing labs, which haven’t changed much since the late 1980s, have received criticism for their outdated cookbook style that lacks effectiveness in developing high-end skills. In addition, labs have been primarily used as a means for verifying the physical principles presented in lecture, and unfortunately, Hofstein and Lunetta ( 1982 ) found in an early review of the literature that research was unable to demonstrate the impact of the lab on student content learning.

About this same time, a shift towards a constructivist view of learning gained popularity and influenced lab curriculum development towards engaging students in the process of constructing knowledge through science inquiry. Curricula, such as Physics by Inquiry (McDermott, 1996 ), Real-Time Physics (Sokoloff, Thornton, & Laws, 2011 ), and Workshop Physics (Laws, 2004 ), were developed with a primary focus on engaging students in cognitive conflict to address misconceptions. Although these approaches have been shown to be highly successful in improving deep learning of physics concepts (McDermott & Redish, 1999 ), the emphasis on conceptual learning does not sufficiently impact the domain general scientific reasoning skills necessitated in the goals of twenty-first Century learning.

Reform in science education, both in terms of targeted content and skills, along with the emergence of knowledge regarding human cognition and learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 ), have generated renewed interest in the potential of inquiry-based lab settings for skill development. In these types of hands-on minds-on learning, students apply the methods and procedures of science inquiry to investigate phenomena and construct scientific claims, solve problems, and communicate outcomes, which holds promise for developing both conceptual understanding and scientific reasoning skills in parallel (Trowbridge, Bybee, & Powell, 2000 ). In addition, the availability of technology to enhance inquiry-based learning has seen exponential growth, along with the emergence of more appropriate research methodologies to support research on student learning.

Although inquiry-based labs hold promise for developing students’ high-end reasoning, analytic, and scientific inquiry abilities, these educational endeavors have not become widespread, with many existing physics laboratory courses still viewed merely as a place to illustrate the physical principles from the lecture course (Meltzer & Otero, 2015 ). Developing scientific ideas from practical experiences, however, is a complex process. Students need sufficient time and opportunity for interaction and reflection on complex, investigative tasks. Blended learning, which merges lecture and lab (such as studio style courses), addresses this issue to some extent, but has experienced limited adoption, likely due to the demanding infrastructure resources, including dedicated technology-intensive classroom space, equipment and maintenance costs, and fully committed trained staff.

Therefore, there is an immediate need to transform the existing standalone lab courses, within the constraints of the existing education infrastructure, into more inquiry-based designs, with one of its primary goals dedicated to developing scientific reasoning skills. These labs should center on constructing knowledge, along with hands-on minds-on practical skills and scientific reasoning, to support modeling a problem, designing and implementing experiments, analyzing and interpreting data, drawing and evaluating conclusions, and effective communication. In particular, training on scientific reasoning needs to be explicitly addressed in the lab curriculum, which should contain components specifically targeting a set of operationally-defined scientific reasoning skills, such as ability to control variables or engage in multivariate causal reasoning. Although effective inquiry may also implicitly develop some aspects of scientific reasoning skills, such development is far less efficient and varies with context when the primary focus is on conceptual learning.

Several recent efforts to enhance the standalone lab course have shown promise in supporting education goals that better align with twenty-first Century learning. For example, the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE) labs involve a series of tasks designed to help students develop the “habits of mind” of scientists and engineers (Etkina et al., 2006 ). The curriculum targets reasoning as well as the lab learning outcomes published by the American Association of Physics Teachers (Kozminski et al., 2014 ). Operationally, ISLE methods focus on scaffolding students’ developing conceptual understanding using inquiry learning without a heavy emphasis on cognitive conflict, making it more appropriate and effective for entry level students and K-12 teachers.

Likewise, Koenig, Wood, Bortner, and Bao ( 2019 ) have developed a lab curriculum that is intentionally designed around the twenty-first Century learning goals for developing cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal abilities. In terms of the cognitive domain, the lab learning outcomes center on critical thinking and scientific reasoning but do so through operationally defined sub-skills, all of which are transferrable across STEM. These selected sub-skills are found in the research literature, and include the ability to control variables and engage in data analytics and causal reasoning. For each targeted sub-skill, a series of pre-lab and in-class activities provide students with repeated, deliberate practice within multiple hypothetical science-based scenarios followed by real inquiry-based lab contexts. This explicit instructional strategy has been shown to be essential for the development of scientific reasoning (Chen & Klahr, 1999 ). In addition, the Karplus Learning Cycle (Karplus, 1964 ) provides the foundation for the structure of the lab activities and involves cycles of exploration, concept introduction, and concept application. The curricular framework is such that as the course progresses, the students engage in increasingly complex tasks, which allow students the opportunity to learn gradually through a progression from simple to complex skills.

As part of this same curriculum, students’ interpersonal skills are developed, in part, through teamwork, as students work in groups of 3 or 4 to address open-ended research questions, such as, What impacts the period of a pendulum? In addition, due to time constraints, students learn early on about the importance of working together in an efficient manor towards a common goal, with one set of written lab records per team submitted after each lab. Checkpoints built into all in-class activities involve Socratic dialogue between the instructor and students and promote oral communication. This use of directed questioning guides students in articulating their reasoning behind decisions and claims made, while supporting the development of scientific reasoning and conceptual understanding in parallel (Hake, 1992 ). Students’ intrapersonal skills, as well as communication skills, are promoted through the submission of individual lab reports. These reports require students to reflect upon their learning over each of four multi-week experiments and synthesize their ideas into evidence-based arguments, which support a claim. Due to the length of several weeks over which students collect data for each of these reports, the ability to organize the data and manage their time becomes essential.

Despite the growing emphasis on research and development of curriculum that targets twenty-first Century learning, converting a traditionally taught lab course into a meaningful inquiry-based learning environment is challenging in current reform efforts. Typically, the biggest challenge is a lack of resources; including faculty time to create or adapt inquiry-based materials for the local setting, training faculty and graduate student instructors who are likely unfamiliar with this approach, and the potential cost of new equipment. Koenig et al. ( 2019 ) addressed these potential implementation barriers by designing curriculum with these challenges in mind. That is, the curriculum was designed as a flexible set of modules that target specific sub-skills, with each module consisting of pre-lab (hypothetical) and in-lab (real) activities. Each module was designed around a curricular framework such that an adopting institution can use the materials as written, or can incorporate their existing equipment and experiments into the framework with minimal effort. Other non-traditional approaches have also been experimented with, such as the work by Sobhanzadeh, Kalman, and Thompson ( 2017 ), which targets typical misconceptions by using conceptual questions to engage students in making a prediction, designing and conducting a related experiment, and determining whether or not the results support the hypothesis.

Another challenge for inquiry labs is the assessment of skills-based learning outcomes. For assessment of scientific reasoning, a new instrument on inquiry in scientific thinking analytics and reasoning (iSTAR) has been developed, which can be easily implemented across large numbers of students as both a pre- and post-test to assess gains. iSTAR assesses reasoning skills necessary in the systematical conduct of scientific inquiry, which includes the ability to explore a problem, formulate and test hypotheses, manipulate and isolate variables, and observe and evaluate the consequences (see www.istarassessment.org ). The new instrument expands upon the commonly used classroom test of scientific reasoning (Lawson, 1978 , 2000 ), which has been identified with a number of validity weaknesses and a ceiling effect for college students (Bao, Xiao, Koenig, & Han, 2018 ).

Many education innovations need supporting infrastructures that can ensure adoption and lasting impact. However, making large-scale changes to current education settings can be risky, if not impossible. New education approaches, therefore, need to be designed to adapt to current environmental constraints. Since higher-end skills are a primary focus of twenty-first Century learning, which are most effectively developed in inquiry-based group settings, transforming current lecture and lab courses into this new format is critical. Although this transformation presents great challenges, promising solutions have already emerged from various research efforts. Perhaps the biggest challenge is for STEM educators and researchers to form an alliance to work together to re-engineer many details of the current education infrastructure in order to overcome the multitude of implementation obstacles.

This paper attempts to identify a few central ideas to provide a broad picture for future research and development in physics education, or STEM education in general, to promote twenty-first Century learning. Through a synthesis of the existing literature within the authors’ limited scope, a number of views surface.

Education is a service to prepare (not to select) the future workforce and should be designed as learner-centered, with the education goals and teaching-learning methods tailored to the needs and characteristics of the learners themselves. Given space constraints, the reader is referred to the meta-analysis conducted by Freeman et al. ( 2014 ), which provides strong support for learner-centered instruction. The changing world of the twenty-first Century informs the establishment of new education goals, which should be used to guide research and development of teaching and learning for present day students. Aligned to twenty-first Century learning, the new science standards have set the goals for STEM education to transition towards promoting deep learning of disciplinary knowledge, thereby building upon decades of research in PER, while fostering a wide range of general high-end cognitive and non-cognitive abilities that are transferable across all disciplines.

Following these education goals, more research is needed to operationally define and assess the desired high-end reasoning abilities. Building on a clear definition with effective assessments, a large number of empirical studies are needed to investigate how high-end abilities can be developed in parallel with deep learning of concepts, such that what is learned can be generalized to impact the development of curriculum and teaching methods which promote skills-based learning across all STEM fields. Specifically for PER, future research should emphasize knowledge integration to promote deep conceptual understanding in physics along with inquiry learning to foster scientific reasoning. Integration of physics learning in contexts that connect to other STEM disciplines is also an area for more research. Cross-cutting, interdisciplinary connections are becoming important features of the future generation physics curriculum and defines how physics should be taught collaboratively with other STEM courses.

This paper proposed meaningful areas for future research that are aligned with clearly defined education goals for twenty-first Century learning. Based on the existing literature, a number of challenges are noted for future directions of research, including the need for:

clear and operational definitions of goals to guide research and practice

concrete operational definitions of high-end abilities for which students are expected to develop

effective assessment methods and instruments to measure high-end abilities and other components of twenty-first Century learning

a knowledge base of the curriculum and teaching and learning environments that effectively support the development of advanced skills

integration of knowledge and ability development regarding within-discipline and cross-discipline learning in STEM

effective means to disseminate successful education practices

The list is by no means exhaustive, but these themes emerge above others. In addition, the high-end abilities discussed in this paper focus primarily on scientific reasoning, which is highly connected to other skills, such as critical thinking, systems thinking, multivariable modeling, computational thinking, design thinking, etc. These abilities are expected to develop in STEM learning, although some may be emphasized more within certain disciplines than others. Due to the limited scope of this paper, not all of these abilities were discussed in detail but should be considered an integral part of STEM learning.

Finally, a metacognitive position on education research is worth reflection. One important understanding is that the fundamental learning mechanism hasn’t changed, although the context in which learning occurs has evolved rapidly as a manifestation of the fast-forwarding technology world. Since learning is a process at the interface between a learner’s mind and the environment, the main focus of educators should always be on the learner’s interaction with the environment, not just the environment. In recent education developments, many new learning platforms have emerged at an exponential rate, such as the massive open online courses (MOOCs), STEM creative labs, and other online learning resources, to name a few. As attractive as these may be, it is risky to indiscriminately follow trends in education technology and commercially-incentivized initiatives before such interventions are shown to be effective by research. Trends come and go but educators foster students who have only a limited time to experience education. Therefore, delivering effective education is a high-stakes task and needs to be carefully and ethically planned and implemented. When game-changing opportunities emerge, one needs to not only consider the winners (and what they can win), but also the impact on all that is involved.

Based on a century of education research, consensus has settled on a fundamental mechanism of teaching and learning, which suggests that knowledge is developed within a learner through constructive processes and that team-based guided scientific inquiry is an effective method for promoting deep learning of content knowledge as well as developing high-end cognitive abilities, such as scientific reasoning. Emerging technology and methods should serve to facilitate (not to replace) such learning by providing more effective education settings and conveniently accessible resources. This is an important relationship that should survive many generations of technological and societal changes in the future to come. From a physicist’s point of view, a fundamental relation like this can be considered the “mechanics” of teaching and learning. Therefore, educators and researchers should hold on to these few fundamental principles without being distracted by the surfacing ripples of the world’s motion forward.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

American Association of Physics Teachers

Investigative Science Learning Environment

Inquiry in Scientific Thinking Analytics and Reasoning

Massive open online course

New Generation Science Standards

• Physics education research

Science Technology Engineering and Math

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The research is supported in part by NSF Awards DUE-1431908 and DUE-1712238. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Bao, L., Koenig, K. Physics education research for 21 st century learning. Discip Interdscip Sci Educ Res 1 , 2 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0007-8

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161+ Great Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students

Looking for great physical science research topics for high school students to make your study better with them? If yes, here we give all of them that are really best for you. Have you ever wondered about the forces shaping our universe? Well, that’s what physical science is all about! Just think about exploring things like magnets, electricity, atoms, and motion—these all are the building blocks of our physical world.

In this exciting article, we’re diving into the captivating world of physical science research . It’s like being a detective, discovering the secrets of how things move on, why they stick together, and what makes them change. You might think science is all about complicated formulas and equations, but high school students can have a blast exploring these physical science research topics, too!

Have you ever wondered why some objects float on water while others sink? Or how roller coasters zip around loops without falling? These are the kinds of secrets that physical science solves, from understanding the power of the smallest particles to exploring the immense forces shaping galaxies. “There is no limit to the number of questions that we can ask.” or the discoveries we can make. Well, let’s look at some of the great topics in physical science research.

You May Also Like: Biology Research Topics for High School

Table of Contents

What Is Good Physical Science Research Topics?

Good physical science research topics are like the best-exploring part of the world of science! Because it has exciting questions, scientists ask and investigate to learn more about how our world works. These physical science topics cover everything that makes up matter, including the vastness of space filled with stars and galaxies.

For Example, exploring topics like how electricity flows through circuits, why some materials conduct heat better than others, or how gravity keeps our feet firmly on the ground. These are just a few examples of the awesome things scientists study in physical science. The best physical science research topics for high school students and others are ones that interest you. It offers opportunities to explore, experiment, and discover new things. 

How Can I Choose Perfect Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students?

Choosing the perfect physical science research topics for high school students can be an exciting adventure! Here are six to seven steps to help you find the ideal subject:

1. Explore Your Interests

Start by thinking about what truly fascinates you in the world of physical science research topics for high school students. Is it space, electricity, magnets, or even chemical reactions? Consider what makes you curious and eager to learn more.

2. Research Various Topics

Dive into books, articles, and online resources that discuss physical science research topics for high school students. Find lists or databases with potential ideas. Explore different areas like physics, chemistry, astronomy, and more.

3. Consider Practicality

Think about the resources available to you. Will you need specific equipment or materials for your chosen topic? Ensure it’s something feasible and doable within your school or home environment.

4. Brainstorm and Narrow Down

Make a list of potential topics that catch your attention. Then, slowly narrow down the list based on your interest level and feasibility.

5. Consult Teachers or Mentors

Talk to your science teacher or a mentor about your potential topics. They might offer guidance or suggest ideas based on their experience and knowledge.

6. Test Your Idea

Before finalizing, try to create a simple hypothesis or conduct a small experiment related to your chosen topic. It will give you a taste of what to expect and if it truly intrigues you.

7. Finalize Your Topic

After considering all these aspects, choose the physical science research topic for high school students or college ones that align best with your interests, available resources, and feasibility. 

Difference Between Physical Science Research And Social Science Research

Here’s a table outlining the key differences between Physical Science Research and Social Science Research:

List of Great & Interesting Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students

These are the most interesting physical science research topics for high school students.

Best and Latest Physical Science Research Topics

• Quantum Computing and its Applications
• Next-Generation Batteries for Sustainable Energy Storage
• Harnessing Fusion Power for Clean Energy Production
• Understanding and Predicting Extreme Weather Events
• The Search for Extraterrestrial Life and Habitable Planets
• Developing New Materials with Advanced Properties
• Exploring the Dark Matter and Dark Energy Mysteries
• Precision Engineering of Biological Systems
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for Innovation
• The Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystems and Human Health
• The Role of Quantum Mechanics in Biological Processes
• Developing New Methods for Quantum Simulation and Computing
• Understanding the Physics of Consciousness and the Human Brain
• Exploring the Potential of Antimatter for Energy Production
• The Search for New Fundamental Particles and Forces

Cool Physical Science Research Ideas For 5th Grade

• DIY Hovercraft
• Exploring Static Electricity
• Simple Circuit Construction
• Testing Conductors and Insulators
• Magnetism Exploration
• Simple Pulley System
• Density Tower Creation
• Solar Oven Construction
• String Telephone Experiment
• Absorbency of Materials Test

Good Physical Science Research Topics For 8th Graders

• Investigating the Relationship Between Surface Area and Rate of Chemical Reactions
• Understanding the Effects of Different Factors on the Strength of Electromagnets
• Exploring the Relationship Between Temperature and Electrical Conductivity in Solutions
• Investigating Newton’s Laws of Motion Using Simple Experiments
• Studying the Behavior of Waves in Different Media
• Understanding the Properties and Behavior of Different States of Matter
• Exploring the Principles of Optics and Light Reflection
• Investigating the Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Heat Transfer
• Understanding the Principles of Wave Propagation
• Exploring the Relationship Between Frequency and Pitch in Sound Waves
• Investigating the Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Simple Machines
• Studying the Relationship Between Mass and Gravity
• Understanding the Principles of Static Electricity
• Exploring the Behavior of Electrons in Circuits
• Investigating the Effects of Different Variables on Projectile Motion
• Understanding the Factors Affecting the Rate of Evaporation
• Exploring the Principles Behind Simple Machines like Pulleys and Levers
• Investigating the Effects of Different Substances on Ice Melting
• Studying the Factors Affecting the Growth of Crystals
• Understanding the Properties and Behavior of Electromagnetic Waves

Most Interesting Physical Science Research Topics For 12 Grade

• Quantum Computing and its Practical Applications
• What are the real-world applications of quantum computing?
• Nanotechnology: Innovations and Future Prospects
• How does nanotechnology revolutionize various industries?
• Fusion Reactors: Feasibility and Energy Potential
• What are the challenges and possibilities of fusion reactors for energy production?
• Climate Change Mitigation Strategies and Innovations
• What novel technologies or strategies can mitigate the impacts of climate change?
• The Human Brain: Understanding Complexity and Advancements in Neuroscience
• How do advancements in neuroscience contribute to understanding the human brain’s complexities?
• Materials Science Innovations: Metamaterials and Their Applications
• How can metamaterials revolutionize industries like telecommunications or medicine?
• Dark Matter and Dark Energy: Unraveling Cosmic Mysteries
• What progress has been made in understanding the nature of dark matter and dark energy?
• Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering: Ethical Considerations and Advancements
• What ethical dilemmas surround advancements in biotechnology and genetic engineering?
• Artificial Intelligence: Ethical Frameworks and Technological Progress
• How can ethical frameworks be integrated into the development of artificial intelligence?
• Quantum Mechanics in Biology: Implications for Life Sciences
• How does quantum mechanics influence biological processes and potential applications in medicine or biotechnology?

Great Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students List

• Investigating the Relationship Between Surface Area and Chemical Reactions Rates
• Understanding the Effects of Different Factors on Electromagnet Strength
• Exploring Temperature and Electrical Conductivity in Solutions
• Studying Newton’s Laws of Motion via Experiments
• Analyzing Wave Behavior in Different Media
• Understanding States of Matter Properties and Behavior
• Optical Principles and Light Reflection Exploration
• Efficiency of Heat Transfer and Factors Affecting It
• Principles of Wave Propagation
• Relationship Between Frequency and Sound Pitch
• Factors Affecting Simple Machine Efficiency
• Mass and Gravity Relationship Study
• Static Electricity Principles Investigation
• Behavior of Electrons in Circuits
• Projectile Motion and Variable Effects
• Evaporation Rate and Influencing Factors
• Principles Behind Pulleys and Levers in Machines
• Effects of Various Substances on Ice Melting
• Factors Affecting Crystal Growth
• Properties and Behavior of Electromagnetic Waves

List of Physical Science Research Topics For Students

• Quantum Computing and its Real-World Applications
• Renewable Energy Sources: Advancements and Challenges
• Genetic Engineering in Agriculture: Improving Crop Yield
• Astrophysics: Exploring Black Holes and their Characteristics
• Advancements in Material Science: Graphene, Metamaterials, and Beyond
• Climate Change: Impact on Global Ecosystems and Mitigation Strategies
• Artificial Intelligence in Scientific Research and Predictive Modeling
• Fusion Reactors: Potential for Clean Energy Production
• Biomechanics: Understanding Human Movement and Performance
• The Role of Mathematics in Physical Sciences and Predictive Modeling
• Optical Physics: Light, Optics, and Applications
• The Physics of Sound: Waves, Frequencies, and Applications
• Chemical Kinetics: Rates of Chemical Reactions and Influencing Factors
• Electromagnetic Radiation: Properties and Applications
• Understanding Nuclear Physics and Its Real-World Implications
• Exploring Energy Transfer and Conversion Mechanisms
• The Physics of Fluids: Behavior, Applications, and Implications
• Quantum Mechanics: Fundamental Concepts and Real-World Applications
• Electricity and Magnetism: Principles, Phenomena, and Applications

Creative Physical Science Research Topics For College Students

• Quantum Computing: Developing Practical Applications
• Nanotechnology in Medicine: Targeted Drug Delivery Systems
• Advanced Battery Technologies for Renewable Energy Storage
• CRISPR Technology: Enhancing Precision in Genetic Engineering
• Astrophysics: Gravitational Waves and Their Implications
• Metamaterials: Designing Materials with Unique Properties
• Climate Engineering: Strategies for Mitigating Climate Change
• Artificial Intelligence in Scientific Discovery and Innovation
• Fusion Energy: Progress and Challenges Towards Sustainable Fusion Reactors
• Biomechanics and Robotics: Enhancing Prosthetics and Exoskeletons
• Quantum Entanglement: Applications in Communication and Computing
• Materials Science: Innovations in Smart and Adaptive Materials
• Neural Engineering: Advancements in Brain-Machine Interfaces
• Plasma Physics: Applications in Energy and Space Exploration
• Biophotonics: Applications in Medical Imaging and Diagnostics
• Advanced Materials for Water Purification and Desalination
• Quantum Sensors: Enhancing Precision in Measurement
• The Physics of Cancer: Advancements in Cancer Detection and Treatment
• Emerging Technologies in Solar Energy Harvesting
• Sustainable Chemistry: Green Synthesis and Environmentally Friendly Processes

Examples of Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students Quantitative

• Effects of Temperature on the Rate of Chemical Reactions
• Relationship Between Surface Area and Reaction Rates
• Correlation Between Light Intensity and Photosynthesis Rate in Plants
• The Impact of Different Factors on Seed Germination Time
• Comparative Analysis of Magnet Strength in Different Materials
• Investigating the Efficiency of Different Solar Panel Designs
• Quantifying the Effects of Various Substances on Rust Formation
• Analyzing the Relationship Between Friction and Motion
• The Relationship Between Pressure and Volume of Gases
• Exploring the Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound in Various Media
• Studying the Factors Affecting the Boiling Point of Liquids
• Quantifying the Effects of Different Variables on Wave Speed
• Analyzing the Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Heat Transfer
• Investigating the Behavior of Pendulums under Varying Conditions
• Understanding the Effects of Different Variables on Evaporation Rates

Other Ultimate Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students List

Here are the good Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students.

Physics Research Paper Topics Ideas

• Quantum teleportation and its potential applications in communication.
• Investigating the physics of phase transitions in matter.
• Understanding the concept of time crystals and their properties.
• Analyzing the principles of nuclear fusion as a clean energy source.
• Investigating the physics behind the behavior of gravitational waves.
• Studying the properties of Bose-Einstein condensates in ultra-cold atoms.
• Exploring the physics behind the phenomenon of sonoluminescence.
• Investigating the principles of chaos theory and its applications.
• Understanding the physics behind magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
• Analyzing the physics of fluid dynamics and its applications.

Chemistry Research Topics For Students

• Investigating the chemistry of alternative fuels and their efficiency.
• Understanding the chemistry of batteries and their future development.
• Analyzing the principles of green chemistry for sustainable practices.
• Exploring the chemistry behind pharmaceutical drug delivery systems.
• Studying the chemistry of food preservation techniques.
• Investigating the chemistry of fermentation in brewing and winemaking.
• Understanding the chemistry of perfumes and fragrance synthesis.
• Analyzing the principles of crystallography in material science.
• Studying the chemistry of soil composition and its impact on agriculture.
• Investigating the chemistry behind the flavors in food and beverages.

Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students In Earth Science

• Investigating the impact of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems.
• Understanding the geological processes behind the formation of mountains.
• Analyzing the role of volcanoes in shaping the Earth’s surface.
• Exploring the physics of earthquakes and predicting seismic activity.
• Studying the impact of climate change on glacier retreat.
• Investigating the chemistry of soil pollution and remediation methods.
• Understanding the formation and behavior of tornadoes and hurricanes.
• Analyzing the effects of deforestation on local climates and biodiversity.
• Studying the physics behind the Earth’s magnetic field and its changes.
• Investigating the role of plate tectonics in shaping continents.

Astronomy & Astrophysics Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students

• Exploring the potential for space tourism and its challenges.
• Investigating the physics behind the formation of planetary rings.
• Understanding the concept of wormholes and their theoretical existence.
• Analyzing the properties of pulsars and their use in astronomy.
• Studying the physics of cosmic microwave background radiation.
• Investigating the impact of space debris on satellite operations.
• Understanding the formation and evolution of galaxies.
• Analyzing the potential for terraforming other planets for human habitation.
• Studying the physics behind the expansion of the universe.
• Investigating the properties of quasars and their significance in astronomy.

Physical Science Research Topics For Materials Science

• Investigating the properties and applications of carbon nanotubes.
• Understanding the principles behind photovoltaic cells for solar energy.
• Analyzing the behavior of shape-memory alloys in different conditions.
• Exploring the potential of metamaterials in controlling light and sound.
• Studying the properties of superconducting materials at different temperatures.
• Investigating the applications of graphene in electronics and medicine.
• Understanding the chemistry and physics of ceramic materials.
• Analyzing the principles behind the durability of materials in extreme environments.
• Studying the properties of biodegradable materials and their applications.
• Investigating the role of materials science in developing wearable technology.

Biophysics Science Research Topics

• Investigating the physics of DNA and its implications in genetics.
• Understanding the mechanics of cell division and growth.
• Analyzing the physics behind the functioning of the human eye.
• Exploring the biomechanics of human gait and movement.
• Studying the physics of brain waves and their significance.
• Investigating the principles of biomimicry in engineering.
• Understanding the physics of muscle contraction and relaxation.
• Analyzing the role of physics in understanding cardiac dynamics.
• Studying the physics behind the mechanics of human joints.
• Investigating the physics of hearing and the human auditory system.

Environmental Science Research Topics

• Exploring the potential of carbon capture and storage technologies.
• Investigating the impact of microplastics on aquatic ecosystems.
• Understanding the physics of air pollution dispersion in urban areas.
• Analyzing the effectiveness of natural disaster preparedness strategies.
• Studying the physics of alternative transportation systems (hyperloop, maglev, etc.).
• Investigating the role of renewable energy in mitigating climate change.
• Understanding the impact of deforestation on global carbon cycles.
• Analyzing the physics behind water desalination processes.
• Studying the chemistry of pollutants in freshwater systems.
• Investigating the environmental impact of urbanization on local climates.

Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students In Energy Science

• Investigating the principles of energy harvesting from ambient sources.
• Understanding the physics of nuclear reactors and nuclear energy.
• Analyzing the potential of biofuels as a renewable energy source.
• Exploring the advancements in hydrogen fuel cell technology.
• Studying the physics behind energy storage systems.
• Investigating the physics of thermoelectric materials for energy conversion.
• Understanding the principles of wave and tidal energy generation.
• Analyzing the efficiency of geothermal energy extraction techniques.
• Studying the potential of kinetic energy harvesting from human motion.
• Investigating the physics of electromagnetic induction in power generation.

Mathematical Physics Topics

• Exploring the mathematics of chaos theory and fractals.
• Investigating the applications of differential geometry in physics.
• Understanding the mathematical principles of string theory.
• Analyzing the role of topology in condensed matter physics.
• Studying the applications of complex analysis in quantum mechanics.
• Investigating the mathematical foundations of quantum field theory.
• Understanding the role of group theory in particle physics.
• Analyzing the applications of numerical methods in physics simulations.
• Studying the mathematics of non-Euclidean geometries in relativity theory.
• Investigating the applications of information theory in quantum mechanics.

Scientific Method & Experimentation Topics

• Exploring the process of data analysis and interpretation in scientific research.
• Investigating the role of peer review in the validation of scientific studies.
• Understanding the importance of control groups in experimental design.
• Analyzing the challenges and advantages of cross-disciplinary research.
• Studying the principles behind computer modeling and simulations in physics.
• Investigating the role of uncertainty and error analysis in scientific measurements.
• Understanding the ethics of animal testing in scientific research.
• Analyzing the significance of double-blind experiments in psychology and medicine.
• Studying the evolution of scientific instruments and their impact on research.
• Investigating the historical development of the scientific method.

Interdisciplinary Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students

• Exploring the connections between physics and music composition.
• Investigating the application of physics in the restoration of historical artifacts.
• Studying the physics of architectural design and structural stability.
• Analyzing the relationship between physics and artificial intelligence.
• Understanding the physics of culinary techniques in cooking.
• Investigating the interdisciplinary approach to sports performance optimization.
• Studying the physics behind fashion and textile technology.
• Analyzing the role of physics in the design of amusement park rides.
• Exploring the connections between physics and psychology in perception.
• Investigating the interdisciplinary applications of physics in healthcare.

Laboratory Techniques & Instrumentation Topics

• Understanding the principles of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM).
• Exploring the applications of atomic force microscopy (AFM) in materials science.
• Investigating the functionality of mass spectrometers in chemical analysis.
• Studying the principles behind gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).
• Analyzing the use of X-ray diffraction in determining crystal structures.
• Understanding the applications of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
• Investigating the principles of optical tweezers in manipulating particles.
• Exploring the functionalities of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy.
• Studying the use of spectrophotometry in quantitative analysis.
• Investigating the principles behind laser spectroscopy techniques.

Space Exploration & Technology Topics

• Analyzing the challenges and benefits of human colonization on Mars.
• Investigating the potential for mining resources from asteroids.
• Understanding the physics behind space propulsion systems.
• Exploring the technologies for space debris mitigation and cleanup.
• Studying the physics of space telescopes and their capabilities.
• Investigating the principles behind ion propulsion for deep space missions.
• Understanding the challenges of long-term space habitation and sustainability.
• Analyzing the advancements in satellite technology for Earth observation.
• Studying the physics of planetary rovers and their exploration capabilities.
• Investigating the potential for interstellar travel and its challenges.

Quantum Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students

• Exploring the applications of quantum algorithms in computing.
• Investigating the principles behind quantum teleportation experiments.
• Understanding the physics of quantum encryption and secure communication.
• Analyzing the role of quantum entanglement in quantum information theory.
• Studying the potential applications of topological quantum computing.
• Investigating the physics behind quantum tunneling phenomena.
• Understanding the principles of quantum error correction codes.
• Analyzing the implications of quantum superposition in quantum mechanics.
• Studying the physics of quantum annealing and its optimization applications.
• Investigating the potential of quantum networks for global communication.

Historical & Milestone Discoveries

• Exploring the experiments leading to the discovery of the Higgs boson.
• Investigating the contributions of women in the history of physics.
• Understanding the impact of key discoveries in the field of electromagnetism.
• Analyzing the experiments leading to the discovery of radioactivity.
• Studying the historical development of atomic theory and its evolution.
• Investigating the role of the Michelson-Morley experiment in physics.
• Understanding the significance of the double-slit experiment in quantum mechanics.
• Analyzing the contributions of ancient civilizations to early scientific knowledge.
• Studying the historical development of the laws of thermodynamics.
• Investigating the experiments that led to the understanding of the photoelectric effect.

Futuristic & Cutting-Edge Research Topics

• Exploring the potential of quantum internet and its global implications.
• Investigating the advancements in biotechnology for human enhancement.
• Understanding the challenges and possibilities of terraforming Mars.
• Analyzing the potential of building space elevators for orbital access.
• Studying the development of materials for advanced space habitats.
• Investigating the feasibility of time crystals for quantum computing.
• Exploring the implications of artificial intelligence in scientific discovery.
• Understanding the challenges and ethics of gene editing technologies.
• Analyzing the potential of fusion rockets for interstellar travel.
• Studying the advancements in brain-computer interfaces for communication.

Social Impacts & Policies in Physical Science

• Investigating the role of science education in fostering scientific literacy.
• Understanding the policies and regulations on renewable energy adoption.
• Analyzing the ethical considerations in genetic engineering research.
• Exploring the impact of scientific misinformation on public perception.
• Studying the societal implications of space exploration and colonization.
• Investigating the role of science diplomacy in international relations.
• Understanding the ethics of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
• Analyzing the socioeconomic impacts of technological advancements.
• Studying the role of citizen science in advancing scientific knowledge.
• Investigating the policies and regulations on space exploration and utilization.

Citizen Science & DIY Projects

• Exploring citizen science projects in monitoring air quality.
• Investigating DIY experiments to understand concepts of electromagnetism.
• Studying the role of amateur astronomers in discovering celestial objects.
• Analyzing citizen-driven initiatives in environmental conservation.
• Understanding DIY projects in constructing renewable energy prototypes.
• Investigating crowd-sourced data in understanding climate patterns.
• Studying community-driven experiments in biodiversity monitoring.
• Analyzing DIY projects for building simple telescopes or spectroscopes.
• Exploring citizen science initiatives in monitoring light pollution.
• Investigating DIY projects in creating simple robotics or drones.

What Is Physical Science Research Techniques?

Physical science research encompasses various techniques used to investigate and explore natural phenomena, matter, and energy. Some common research techniques in physical sciences include:

• Experimentation: Conducting controlled experiments to test hypotheses and observe the outcomes. This involves designing procedures, collecting data, and analyzing results.
• Observation: Systematically observing and recording natural phenomena, often using instruments or sensors to gather data. This can include astronomical observations, weather monitoring, etc.
• Data Collection and Analysis: Collecting quantitative or qualitative data through experiments, surveys, or observations. Analyzing this data using statistical or mathematical methods to draw conclusions.
• Modeling and Simulation: Developing mathematical or computer models to simulate physical systems or processes. These models help in predicting behaviors or understanding complex systems.
• Instrumentation: Using specialized instruments and tools such as microscopes, telescopes, spectrometers, and sensors to measure, observe, or analyze physical properties or events.
• Quantitative Measurements: Utilizing instruments to measure physical properties like length, mass, temperature, and time with accuracy and precision.
• Theory Development: Creating or modifying theories and frameworks to explain observed phenomena and predict future outcomes. This involves rigorous analysis and critical thinking.
• Collaborative Research: Working with peers, mentors, or teams to share ideas, resources, and expertise to conduct comprehensive research studies.
• Literature Review: Reviewing existing literature, scientific papers, and research articles to understand the current state of knowledge in a particular field and identify gaps for further investigation.
• Peer Review and Publication: Sharing research findings with the scientific community through peer-reviewed publications, conferences, or presentations.

Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students PDF

Following are the Physical Science Research Topics For High School Students PDF:

Examples of Physical Science Research Titles

Here are examples of physical science research titles:

What Are Some Original Research Topics In Physics For A High School Student?

Selecting an original research topic in physics for a high school student can be exciting! Here are some ideas to get you started, categorized by area:

Mechanics & Motion

• Investigating the efficiency of different methods for launching rockets
• Testing the limits of friction on various surfaces under different conditions
• Exploring the relationship between the shape of an object and its air resistance
• Analyzing the factors affecting the stability of a self-balancing robot
• Building and testing a model of a perpetual motion machine (to disprove its feasibility)

Electromagnetism & Optics

• Designing a solar panel that optimizes light absorption for specific wavelengths
• Investigating the feasibility of using piezoelectric materials to generate electricity
• Comparing the efficiency of different LED colours in light transmission through different materials
• Building a miniature telescope with improved resolution or specific light-filtering capabilities
• Studying the optical properties of unusual materials like metamaterials or bioluminescent organisms

Thermodynamics & Energy

• Testing the effectiveness of different insulation materials in preventing heat loss
• Developing a model for predicting the energy output of a specific renewable energy source
• Investigating the feasibility of using thermoelectric materials to generate electricity from waste heat
• Analyzing the energy consumption of common household appliances and proposing ways to improve efficiency
• Exploring the potential of biofuels or microbial fuel cells as sustainable energy sources

Nuclear Physics & Astrophysics

• Building and testing a simple model of a nuclear reactor to understand its basic principles
• Analyzing the relationship between the mass and luminosity of stars (using publicly available data)
• Investigating the potential impact of cosmic rays on climate change or other terrestrial phenomena
• Studying the feasibility of using space-based solar power to beam energy back to Earth
• Exploring the potential applications of quantum mechanics in astrophysics (e.g., dark matter detection)

Top Chemical And Physical Science Research Colleges

Choosing the right college for your chemical and physical science research journey is crucial. Here’s a table highlighting some of the top institutions globally known for their exceptional research programs and academic rigor:

Good Topics For A Physical Science Research Paper

Here’s a table outlining good topics for a physical science research paper:

Conclusion 

Exploring physical science research topics offers high school students an invaluable opportunity to delve into the fascinating realms of the natural world. These topics serve as gateways to unraveling the mysteries of matter, energy, and the universe. Engaging in such research not only fosters curiosity but also nurtures critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Through investigating these topics, students embark on a journey of discovery, where they can explore diverse fields such as quantum mechanics, materials science, astrophysics, and more. These inquiries not only expand their scientific knowledge but also encourage them to ask probing questions, conduct experiments, analyze data, and draw insightful conclusions.

Furthermore, these research topics allow students to appreciate the practical applications of scientific principles in everyday life, from renewable energy advancements to understanding climate change’s impact on our planet. They encourage interdisciplinary thinking, highlighting the interconnectedness of various scientific disciplines and inspiring innovative solutions to global challenges.

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Physical and Materials Sciences, Energy and the Environment

Economic and environmentally sustainable technologies will require new approaches to chemical science and technology; Stanford scientists are leading this charge with the molecular design of materials that can be produced economically with minimal environmental impact, but which are also designed to ensure that they can be recovered, reused and reintegrated at the end of their useful life. Powered by an exceptional and diverse array of institutes, centers and training programs, Stanford scientists are developing new physical tools, new materials and new strategies to relate atomic and molecular behavior to the macroscopic behavior of materials, the interaction of light with matter, and the dynamics and energetics of bond rearrangements that are critical to new energy conversion technologies.

• Physical Science, Analysis and Measurement .  Stanford chemists are pioneering new ways to quantify measurements of atomic and molecular behavior, and to access the properties of matter at size scales ranging from single molecules to macroscopic materials, and time scales from picoseconds to hours. Our scientists are driving these advances with emerging experimental and theoretical approaches that can interrogate matter with extraordinary sensitivity and precision.  Stanford chemists are studying the design and use of new analytical tools that promise to revolutionize trace chemical analyses, for example revealing biomolecules within a cell; the dynamics of chemical reactions, such as the electrostatic forces behind enzyme function; and ultrafast processes, including split-second changes in molecular shape that alter function.
• Sustainable Materials .  Stanford chemists lead at the forefront of synthesizing and studying novel materials originating from renewable resources.  We are developing groundbreaking electrochemical strategies for catalytically extracting electrons from chemical fuels and injecting those electrons into carbon dioxide as a means of storing chemical energy. We are creating new chemical intermediates from sunlight and carbon dioxide that allow for the synthesis of commodity chemicals through new routes with minimal carbon footprint.
• Energy.    Stanford chemists are developing new materials to power economical and clean energy cycles that can be available to all. We synthesize new materials that can capture sunlight and transform it into electricity, materials that can store and deliver that energy as needed, and materials that can miminize electricity waste by producing more efficient lighting and better indoor thermal management. Through extensive collaborations, Stanford chemists are involved in every step of realizing these technologies, from material design and fundamental property measurements to device fabrication and evaluation under operating conditions.
• Theory.    Stanford chemists are developing new computational techniques and theories that allow unprecedented insights into electronic characteristics of materials, as well as cutting-edge atomistic simulations of molecular behavior from the simplest of atomic species up to molecular dynamics of complex living systems. These collective technologies allow us to address electron dynamics and molecular behaviors which are often not experimentally accessible, while also informing new directions in experimental studies and identifying new chemical reactions. Ongoing studies examine how the behavior of individual molecules translates into macroscopic properties as well as how natural and synthetic materials can be integrated and used in energy conversion technologies.
• Nanomaterials and nanoelectronics.   Stanford chemists are developing nanostructured wiring schemes and self-assembly methods for the construction of whole circuits of wired molecules.  Ongoing efforts include solid-state and soft biological materials with well-defined atomic structures, creating new materials for novel chemical and environmental sensors.
• Catalysis.    Stanford chemists are designing new catalysts inspired by natural enzymes, creating the building blocks for novel approaches to chemical synthesis that will enable greener technologies and industrial production.

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Good Scientific Practice and Ethics in Sports and Exercise Science: A Brief and Comprehensive Hands-on Appraisal for Sports Research

Nitin kumar arora.

1 Department of Intervention Research in Exercise Training, German Sport University Cologne, 50933 Cologne, Germany

2 Department of Physiotherapy, University of Applied Sciences, 44801 Bochum, Germany

Golo Roehrken

Sarah crumbach.

3 Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management, German Sport University Cologne, 50933 Cologne, Germany

Ashwin Phatak

4 Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, 50933 Cologne, Germany

Berit K. Labott

5 Institute of Sport Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany

André Nicklas

Pamela wicker.

6 Department of Sports Science, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany

Lars Donath

Associated data.

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Sports and exercise training research is constantly evolving to maintain, improve, or regain psychophysical, social, and emotional performance. Exercise training research requires a balance between the benefits and the potential risks. There is an inherent risk of scientific misconduct and adverse events in most sports; however, there is a need to minimize it. We aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the clinical and ethical challenges in sports and exercise research. We also enlist solutions to improve method design in clinical trials and provide checklists to minimize the chances of scientific misconduct. At the outset, historical milestones of exercise science literature are summarized. It is followed by details about the currently available regulations that help to reduce the risk of violating good scientific practices. We also outline the unique characteristics of sports-related research with a narrative of the major differences between sports and drug-based trials. An emphasis is then placed on the importance of well-designed studies to improve the interpretability of results and generalizability of the findings. This review finally suggests that sports researchers should comply with the available guidelines to improve the planning and conduct of future research thereby reducing the risk of harm to research participants. The authors suggest creating an oath to prevent malpractice, thereby improving the knowledge standards in sports research. This will also aid in deriving more meaningful implications for future research based on high-quality, ethically sound evidence.

1. Introduction

Historical milestones of ethical and scientific misconduct in research.

Until the early 19th century, ‘truth’ was fundamentally influenced by cults, religion, and monarchism [ 1 ]. With the ‘enlightenment’ of academicians, clinicians and researchers in the 19th century [ 2 ], scientific research started to impact the lives of people by providing balanced facts, figures and uncertainties, thereby leading to a better explanation for reality (i.e., evidence vs. eminence). However, dualistic thinking was still interfering with the newer rationalized approach as the estimation of reality by scientific estimation was still being challenged by the dogmatic view of real truth [ 3 ].

Over the last decades, researchers underestimated the importance of good ethical conduct [ 4 ] in human research by misinterpreting the probabilistic nature of scientific reasoning. Scientific research had constantly been exploited for personal reputations, political power, and terror [ 3 ]. The ‘Eugenics program’ originating from the Nazi ideology is an unsettling example of ethical failure and scientific collapse. As part of this program, scientific research was being exploited to justify unwanted sterilization (0.5 million) [ 5 ] and mass-killing (0.25 million) [ 6 ] for the sake of selection and elimination of ‘unfit genetic material’. In 1955, more than 200,000 children were infected with a Polio vaccine that was not appropriately handled as per the recommended routines [ 7 ]. Likewise, the thalidomide disaster of 1962 led to limb deformities and teratogenesis in more than ten thousand newborn children [ 8 ]. Considering the aforementioned unethical practices and misconduct, there is a strong need to comply with and re-emphasize the importance of ethics and good scientific practice in humans and other species alike.

In the process of evolution of scientific research, the Nuremberg code laid the foundation for developing ethical biomedical research principles (e.g., the importance of ‘voluntary and informed consent’) [ 9 ]. Based on the Nuremberg code and the previously available medical literature, the first ethical principles (i.e., Declaration of Helsinki) were put into practice for safe human experimentation by the World Medical Association in 1964. This declaration proved to be a cornerstone of medical research involving humans and emphasized on considering the health of the patients as the topmost priority [ 10 ]. The year 1979 could also be seen as an important milestone, as the ‘Belmont report’ was introduced that supported the idea: ‘the interventions and drugs have to eventually show beneficial effects’. The Belmont report suggests that the recruitment, selection and treatment of participants needs to be equitable. It also highlights the importance of providing a valid rationale for testing procedures to prevent and minimize the risks or harms to the included participants [ 11 ].

As a result of the introduction of ethical principles, it became evident that research designs and results should be independent of political influence and reputational gains. There should also be no undeclared conflicts of interest [ 12 ]. Interestingly, sports and exercise science emerged as politically meaningful instruments for showing power during the Cold War (i.e., Eastern socialism versus Western capitalism) [ 13 ]. Researchers were either being manipulated or sometimes not even published to reduce awareness about the negative effects of performance-enhancing substances [ 14 , 15 ]. Even though these malpractices were strictly against the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki [ 14 ], these were prevalent globally, thereby contributing to several incidents of doping in sports [ 16 ]. To further minimize unethical research practices, the Good Clinical Practice (GCP) Standards were presented in 1997 to guide the design of clinical trials and formulation of valid research questions [ 17 ]. However, some authors criticise the Good Clinical Practice standards as not being morally sufficient to rule out personal conflicts of interest when compared to the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki [ 18 ].

Nowadays, professional development and scientific reputation in the research community are related to an increase in the number of publications in high-ranked journals. However, the increasing number of publications gives very little information about the scientific quality of the employed methods, as some of the published papers either contain manipulated results [ 19 ] or methods that could not be replicated [ 12 ]. Moral and ethical standards are widely followed by sports researchers as evidenced by the applied methods that are mostly safe, justified, valuable, reliable and ethically approved. However, the ethical approval procedures, the dose and the application of exercise training vary greatly between studies and institutions. The review by Kruk et al., 2013 [ 20 ] provides a balanced summary of the various principles based on the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki. GCP standards of blinding (subjects and outcome assessors), randomization, and selection are not consistently considered and are sometimes difficult to follow due to limited financial and organizational resources. There is a prevalent trend in the publication of positive results in the scientific community, as negative results often fail to pass editorial review [ 21 ]. Additionally, certain unethical research practices have been observed, such as the multiple publication of data from a single trial (referred to as “data slicing”), the submission of duplicate findings to multiple journals, and instances of plagiarism [ 22 ]. These limitations negatively affect the power, validity, interpretability and applicability of the available evidence for future research in sports and exercise science. Previous research showed that, if used systematically, lifestyle change and exercise interventions can prove to be one of the most efficient strategies for obtaining positive health outcomes [ 23 ] and longevity [ 24 ]. Hence, the present article recommends avoiding malpractices and using the underlying ethical standards to balance risks and benefits along with preventing data manipulation and portrayal of false-positive results.

2. Codes of Conduct in Sport Research

All the available codes, declarations, statements, and guidelines aim at providing frameworks for conducting ethical research across disciplines. These frameworks generally cover the regulative, punitive, and educational aspects of research. Codes of ethical conduct not only outline the rules and recommendations for conducting research but also outline punishments in case of non-compliance or misconduct. Hence, these ethical codes and guidelines should be considered the most important educational keystones for researchers as these frameworks allow scientists to design and conduct their studies in a better way. Declarations and guidelines are regularly updated to accommodate newer information and corrections. Thus, one also needs to be flexible when using these guidelines as these reflect ongoing scientific and societal development.

Codes and declarations in sport and exercise science regulate both quantitative and qualitative research and include information about human and animal rights, research design and integrity, authorship and plagiarism. We will categorize these guidelines based on the individuals whom guidelines aim to protect (e.g., participants or researchers).

Legal codes and norms of a country are inherently binding to the researchers and institutions who are conducting the research and do not require ratification from the researching individual or organization. These laws can include data storage, child protection, intellectual property rights, or medical regulations applicable to a specific study. However, ethics codes not only cater to the questions of legality but also include moral parameters of research like conducting ‘true’ research. Likewise, if the codes are drafted by a research organization, everyone conducting research for this particular organization is supposed to follow these codes.

Researchers have the responsibility to assess which codes, and standards are relevant to their field of research depending on the country, participants, and research institution ( Table 1 ). This can be confirmed by the academic supervisors or the scientific ethics board of the research institution. While there is a growing number of codes and guidelines for different research fields, it is important to consider that none of these can cater to the needs of every single research design alone. For example, the Code of Ethics of the American Sociological Association (ASA) states: “Most of the Ethical Standards are written broadly in order to apply to sociologists in varied roles, and the application of an Ethical Standard may vary depending on the context” [ 25 ]. Hence, as ethical standards are not exhaustive, scientific conduct that is not specifically addressed by this Code of Ethics is not necessarily ethical or unethical [ 25 ].

Detailed overview of Codes, Declarations, Statements and Guidelines relevant for sports and exercise science research.

It is crucial to recognize the purpose of an ethics code rather than just following it for ticking boxes. Understanding the aims and limitations of an ethics code will allow for a more meaningful application of the underlying principles to the specific context without ignoring the potential limitations of a study. Unintentional transgressions can occur through subconscious bias, fallacies, or human errors. However, the unintentional errors can be mitigated by following the streamlined process of research conception, method development and study conduct following approval from the Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), Ethical Research Commissions (ERCs), supervisors, and peers. In case of intentional errors, the punitive aspect needs to come into action and the transgressors might need to be investigated and sanctioned, either by the research organizations or by law.

3. Differences between Drug and Exercise Trials

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are regarded as the highest level of evidence [ 26 , 27 ]. For both the cases (exercise vs. drug studies), RCTs primarily aim at investigating the dose-response relationships and obtaining causal relationships [ 28 ]. Drug trials compare one drug to other alternatives (e.g., another drug, a placebo, or a treatment as usual). Likewise, exercise trials often compare one mode of exercise to another exercise or no exercise interventions (e.g., usual care, waitlist control, true control, etc.), ideally under caloric, workload or time-matched conditions. However, placebo or sham trials are still rare in sports and exercise research due to their challenging nature [ 29 ]. The following quality requirements should be fulfilled for conducting high-quality exercise trials: (a) ensure blinding of assessors, participants and researchers; (b) placebo/sham intervention (if possible), and (c) adequate randomization and concealed allocation.

3.1. Blinding

The term ‘blinding’ (or ‘masking’) involves keeping several involved key persons unaware of the group allocation, the treatment, or the hypothesis of a clinical trial [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. The term blinding and also the types of blinding (single, double, or triple blind) are being increasingly used and accepted by researchers but there is a lack of clarity and consistency in the interpretation of those terms [ 33 , 35 , 36 ]. Blinding should be conducted for participants, health care providers, coaches, outcome assessors, data analysts, etc. [ 31 , 33 , 34 , 37 ]. The blinding process helps in preventing bias due to differential treatment perceptions and expectations of the involved groups [ 28 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 38 , 39 , 40 ].

Previous research has shown that trials with inadequately reported methods [ 41 ] and non-blinded assessors [ 42 ] or participants [ 43 ] tend to overestimate the effects of intervention. Hence, blinding serves as an important prerequisite for controlling the methodological quality of a clinical trial, thereby reducing bias in assessed outcomes. Owing to this reason, most of the current methodological quality assessment tools and reporting checklists have dedicated sections for ‘blinding’. For example, three out of eleven items are meant for assessing ‘blinding’ in the PEDro scale [ 44 ]; the CONSORT checklist for improving the reporting of RCTs also includes a section on ‘blinding’ [ 45 ]. In an ideal trial, all participants involved in the study should be ‘blinded’ [ 30 ]. However, choosing whom to ‘blind’ also depends on and varies with the research question, study design and the research field under consideration. In the case of exercise trials, blinding is either not adequately done or poorly reported [ 36 , 46 ]. The lack of reporting might be the result of a lack of awareness of the blinding procedures rather than the poor methodological conduct of the trial itself [ 34 ]. Hence, blinding is not sufficiently addressed in exercise, medicine and psychology trials [ 47 , 48 ] due to lacking knowledge, awareness and guidance in these scientific fields leading to an increased risk of bias [ 48 ].

Blinding of participants is difficult to achieve and maintain [ 34 , 39 , 40 , 49 ] in exercise trials as the participants would usually be aware of whether they are in the exercise group or the control (inactive) group [ 31 , 39 , 50 ]. Likewise, the therapists are also generally aware of the interventions they are delivering [ 51 ], and the assessors are aware of the group allocation because it is common in sports sciences that researchers are involved in different parts of research (recruiting, assessment, allocation, training, data handling analysis) due to limited financial resources. Thus, the adequacy of blinding is usually not assessed as it is often seen as ’impossible’ in exercise trials.

Consequently, we strongly recommend using independent staff for testing, training, control and supervision to improve possibilities of blinding of the individuals involved in the study [ 39 ]. Researcher also need to decide if it is methodologically feasible and ethically acceptable to withhold the information about the hypothesis and the study aims [ 52 ] from assessors and participants. This needs to be considered, addressed and justified before the trial commences (i.e., a priori). While reporting methods of exercise trials, it is important not only to describe who was blinded but also to elaborate the methods used for blinding [ 33 , 48 ]. This helps the readers and research community to effectively evaluate the level of blinding in the trial under consideration [ 33 , 53 ]. Furthermore, if blinding was carried out, the authors can also include the assessment of success of the blinding procedure [ 33 , 54 ]. Readers can access more information about the various possibilities for blinding using the following link ( http://links.lww.com/PHM/A246 accessed on 10 October 2022) [ 36 ].

3.2. “Placebo” (or Sham Intervention)

‘Placebo’ is an important research instrument used in pharmacology trials to demonstrate the true efficacy of a drug by minimizing therapy expectations of the participants [ 55 ]. As the term placebo is generally used in a broad manner, precise definitions are difficult. Placebo is used as a control therapy in clinical trials owing to their comparable appearance to the ‘real’ treatment without the specific therapeutic activity [ 56 ]. In an ideal research experiment, it would not be possible to differentiate between a placebo and an intervention treatment [ 57 , 58 ]. The participants should not be aware of the treatment group either, because it can lead to the knowledge of whether they received a placebo or the investigated drug [ 57 ]. A review of clinical trials comparing ‘no treatment’ to a ‘placebo treatment’ concluded that the placebo treatment had no significant additional effects overall but may produce relevant clinical effects on an individual level [ 59 ]. As outlined previously, the placebo effect is rarely investigated in sports and exercise studies. It is generally investigated using nutritional supplements, ergonomic aids, or various forms of therapy in the few existing studies [ 60 ]. Placebos have been shown to have a favorable effect on sports performance research [ 61 ], implying that these could be used for improving performance without using any additional performance-enhancing drugs [ 62 ].

However, it is quite difficult to have an adequate placebo in exercise intervention studies, as there is currently no standard placebo for structured exercise training [ 28 ]. For exercise training interventions, a placebo condition is defined as “an intervention that was not generally recognized as efficacious, that lacked adequate evidence for efficacy, and that has no direct pharmacological, biochemical, or physical mechanism of action according to the current standard of knowledge” [ 63 ]. As a result, using a placebo in exercise interventions is often seen as impractical and inefficient [ 57 , 58 ]. As the concept of blinding is also linked to the use of a placebo, it is usually difficult to implement in exercise trials.

When it comes to exercise experiments, an active control group is considered to be more effective than a placebo group [ 10 , 28 ]. In other cases, usual care or standard care can also be used as the control intervention [ 28 ]. In exercise trials, instead of using the term ‘placebo treatment’, the terms “placebo-like treatment” or “sham interventions” should be applied [ 64 , 65 ]. Previous recommendations by other researchers [ 61 ] also underpin our rationale.

3.3. Randomization and Allocation Concealment

Group allocation in a research study should be randomized and concealed by an independent researcher to minimize selection bias [ 66 ]. Randomization procedures ensure that the differences in treatment outcomes solely occur by chance [ 28 , 67 ]. Several methods for randomization are available; however, methods such as stratified randomization are being increasingly popular as they ensure equal distribution of participants to the different groups based on several important characteristics [ 66 ]. Other types of randomization, such as cluster randomization, may be appropriate when investigating larger groups, for example, in multicenter trials [ 28 ].

Since researchers are frequently involved in all phases of a trial (recruitment, allocation, assessment and data processing), randomization should usually be conducted by someone who is not familiar with the project’s aims and hypotheses. In studies with a large number of participants, the interaction between subjects and assessors can significantly impact the results [ 68 ]. The randomization procedure used in the clinical trial should be presented in scientific articles and project reports so that readers can understand and replicate the process if needed [ 66 ]. Based on the aforementioned aspects, exercise trials are not easily comparable to drug trials and the differences lead to difficulties in conducting scientifically conceptualized exercise trials. However, researchers should strive for quality research by using robust methods and providing detailed information on blinding, randomization, choice of control groups, or sham therapies, as appropriate. Researchers should critically evaluate the risk-benefit ratio of exercise so that the positive impacts of exercise on health can be derived and the cardiovascular risks associated with exercise could be minimized [ 69 ].

4. Key Elements of an Ethical Approval in Exercise Science

As previously described, ethical guidelines are needed to protect study participants from potential study risks and increase the chances of attaining results that ease interpretation. Therefore, a prospective ethical approval process is required prior to the recruitment of the participants [ 70 ]. This practice equally benefits the participants by safeguarding them against potential risks and the practitioners who base their clinical decisions on research results. Research results from a study with a strong methodology will enable informed and evidence-based decision making. If the methodology of a research project contains some major flaws, it will negatively affect the practical applicability of the observed results [ 71 ]. Various journal reviewers provide suggestions to reject manuscripts without any option to resubmit if no ethical approval information is provided. This demonstrates the importance of ethical approval and proper scientific conduct in research [ 70 ].

The following key elements need to be addressed in an ethical review proposal: Introduction, method, participant protection, and appendix. These key elements should be detailed in a proposal with at least three crucial characteristics addressed in each section ( Figure 1 ). This hands-on framework would help to expedite the process of decision-making for members of the ethics committee [ 72 ].

Overview 4 × 3 short list for outlining ethical approval in sport and exercise science.

The ‘introduction’ section should start with a general overview of the current state of research [ 4 ]. Researchers need to describe the rationale of the proposed study in an easy and comprehensible language considering the current state of knowledge on that topic [ 4 ]. The description helps to provide a balanced summary of the risks and benefits associated with the interventions in the proposed study. The novelty of the stated research question and the underlying hypothesis must be justified. If the proposed study fails to expand the current literature on the topic under consideration, conducting the study would be a ‘waste’ of time and financial resources for researchers, participants, and funding agencies [ 73 ]. Hence, ethical approvals should not be given for research projects that fail to provide novelty in the approach to the respective research area. The introduction should also include information on funding sources including the name of the funding partner, duration of monetary/resource support, and any potential conflicts of interest. If no funding is available, authors should declare that ‘This study received no funding’ [ 70 ].

The subsequent ‘methods’ section should include detailed information about the temporal and structural aspects of the study design. Researchers should justify the used study design in a detailed manner [ 4 , 28 ]. Multiple research designs can be utilized for addressing a specific research question, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and single-case trial designs [ 74 , 75 ]. However, a valid rationale should be provided for choosing a randomized cross-over trial design when the gold standard of randomized control trials is also feasible. Readers are advised to refer to the framework laid down by Hecksteden et al., 2018, for extensive information on this section [ 28 ]. Researchers should also provide a broad, global and up-to-date literature-based justification for their interventions or methods employed in the study. For instance, if the participants are asked to consume supplements, the recommendations for the dose needs to be explained based on prior high-quality studies and reviews for that supplement [ 4 ]. The criteria for subject selection (inclusion and exclusion criteria) and sample size estimation need to be explained in detail to allow replication of the study in the future [ 76 ]. Lacking sample size estimations is only acceptable in rare cases and requires detailed explanations (e.g., pilot trials, exploratory trials to formulate a hypothesis, acceptability trials). Moreover, sufficient details should be provided for the measuring devices used in the study and a sound rationale should be provided for the choice of that particular measuring device and the measured parameters [ 4 ].

The section on ‘participant protection’ deals with potential risks (physical and psychological adverse outcomes) and benefits to the participants. The focus should be adjusted to the study population under consideration. For example, while conducting a study on a novel weight training protocol with elite athletes, all information and possible effects on the athletes’ performance need to be considered, as their performance level is their ‘human capital’ [ 4 ]. The investigators also need to provide information on the individuals responsible for different parts of the study, i.e., treatment provider, outcome assessor, statistician, etc. In some cases, externally qualified personnel are needed during the examination process. For example, a physician might be needed for blood sampling or biopsies and this person should also be familiar with the regulations and procedures to avoid risk to the participants due to a lack of experience in this area. Prior experience and qualifications are required for conducting research with vulnerable groups, such as children, the elderly and pregnant females. Williams et al. (2011) summarized essential aspects of conducting research studies with younger participants [ 77 ]. Overall, the personnel should be blinded to the details of the group allocation and participants, if possible [ 30 ]. The study applicants also need to provide information about the planned compensation and the follow-up interventions. Harriss and colleagues suggested that the investigators are not expected to offer the treatments in case of injury to the participants during the study (except first aid) [ 70 ]. However, this recommendation is not usually documented and translated into research practice.

The ‘appendix’ section should contain relevant details about the following: consent, information to the participants and a declaration of pre-registration. The information to the participant and the consent forms need to be documented in an easy to understand language. A brief summary of the purpose of the study and the tasks to be performed by the participants should also be added. Then, a concise but comprehensive overview of the potential risks and benefits is needed. The next section should include information for participants: the participants’ right to decline participation without any consequence and the right to withdraw their consent at any time without any explanation. The regulations for the storage, sharing and retention of study data need to be detailed [ 70 ]. The names and institutional affiliations of all the researchers along with the contact information of the project manager should be listed. A brief overview of the study’s aim, tasks, methods and data acquisition strategies should be described. Finally, consent is needed for processing the recorded personal data [ 70 ]. The last section of the ‘appendix’ must include a declaration of pre-registration (e.g., registration in the Open Science Framework or trial registries) to avoid alterations in the procedure afterward and facilitate replication of study methods [ 78 ].

5. Study Design and Analysis Models

The process of conceptualizing an exercise trial might involve various pitfalls at every stage (hypothesis formulation, study design, methodology, data acquisition, data processing, statistical analysis, presentation and interpretation of results, etc.). Thus, the entire ‘design package’ needs to be considered when constructing an exercise (training) trial [ 28 ]. Formulation of an adequate and justified research question is the essential aspect before starting any research study. Formulating a good research question is pivotal to achieve adequate study quality [ 79 ]. According to Banerjee et al., 2009 [ 80 ], “a strong hypothesis serves the purpose of answering major part of the research question even before the study starts”. As outlined in previous sections, ethical research aspects must be taken into account while framing the research question to protect the privacy and reduce risks to the participants. The confidentiality of data should be ascertained and the participants should be free to withdraw from the study at any time. The authors should also avoid deceptive research practices [ 79 ].

Hecksteden et al., 2018, suggested that RCTs can be regarded as the gold standard for investigating the causal relationships in exercise trials [ 28 ]. However, it is sometimes not feasible to conduct RCTs in the field of sports science due to logistical issues, such as smaller sample sizes and blinding the location of the study (e.g., schools, colleges, clinics, etc.). In this case, alternative study designs such as cluster-RCTs, randomized crossover trials, N-of-1 trials, uncontrolled/non-randomized trials, and prospective cohort studies can be considered [ 81 ]. Considering the complex nature of exercise interventions, the Consensus on Exercise Reporting Template (CERT) has been developed to supplement the reporting and documentation of randomized exercise trials [ 81 ]. Adherence to these templates might help to improve the ethical proposal reporting standards when designing new RCTs.

A recent comment, in the journal ‘Nature’, highlights the importance of using the right statistical test and properly interpreting the results. According to the paper, the results of 51 percent of articles published in five peer-reviewed journals were misinterpreted [ 82 ]. Frequentist statistics and p -values are popular summaries of experimental results but there is a scope for misinterpretation due to the lack of supplementary information with these statistics. For instance, authors tend to draw inferences about the results of a study based on certain ‘ threshold p-values ’ (generally p < 0.05) [ 83 ]. However, with an increase in sample size, the p -value tends to come closer to zero regardless of the effect size of the intervention [ 83 ]. With the rise of larger datasets and thus potentially higher sample sizes, the p -value threshold becomes questionable. A call for action has recently been raised by more than 800 signatories to retire statistical significance and to stop categorizing results as being statistically significant or non-significant. Recently, researchers suggested using confidence intervals for improving the interpretation of study results [ 82 ]. Although alternative methods such as magnitude-based inference (MBI) exists, there is scarce evidence that MBI has checked the use of p -value and hypothesis testing by sports researchers [ 84 ]. MBI tends to reduce the type II error rate but it increases the type I error rate by about two to six times the rate of standard hypothesis testing [ 85 ]. In the next paragraphs, we focus on the commonly used practices within the frequentist statistics domain.

Frequentist statistical tests are categorized into parametric and non-parametric tests. Non-parametric tests do not require the data to be normally distributed, whereas parametric tests do [ 86 ]. The following factors help in deciding the appropriate statistical test: (a) type of dependent and independent variables (continuous, discrete, or ordinal); (b) type of distribution, if the groups are independent or matched; (c) levels of observations; and (d) time dependence. Readers can choose the right statistical tests based on the type of research data they are planning to use [ 87 , 88 ]. A recent publication outlined 25 common misinterpretations concerning p -values, confidence intervals, power calculations and key considerations while interpreting frequentist statistics [ 89 ]. We recommend sports researchers consider the listed warnings while interpreting the results of statistical tests.

Out of the various frequentist statistical methods, analysis of variances (ANOVA) is one of the most widely used tests to analyze the results of RCTs. It does not, however, provide an estimate of the difference between groups, which is usually the most important aspect of an RCT [ 90 ]. Linear models (e.g., t -tests) suffer from similar issues when analyzing categorical variables, which are a wider part of RCT analysis [ 91 ]. Type I errors (false positive, rejecting a null hypothesis that is correct) and Type II errors (false negative, failure to reject a false null hypothesis) are often discussed while interpreting RCT results [ 80 ]. Though it is not possible to completely eliminate these errors, there are ways to minimize their likelihood and report the statistics appropriately. The most commonly used methods for minimizing error rates include the following: (a) increasing the sample size; (b) adjusting for covariates and baseline differences [ 92 ]; (c) eliminating significance testing; and (d) reporting a confusion matrix [ 80 , 86 , 93 ].

Mixed logit models are potential solutions for some of the challenges listed above. They combine the advantages of random effects logistic regression analysis with the benefits of regression models [ 94 ]. In addition, mixed logit models, as part of the larger framework of generalized linear mixed models, provide a viable alternative for analyzing a wide range of outcomes. For increasing the transparency and interpretability of the observed results, mixed logit classification algorithms and evaluation matrices such as cross validation and presentation of a confusion matrix (type I and type II error rates) can be utilized [ 86 ]. Mixed logit models can also be utilized as predictive models rather just ‘inference testing’ models.

6. Limitations

Despite extensive efforts to incorporate empirical and current evidence regarding good scientific practice and ethics into this paper, it is possible that some literature may have been omitted. Nonetheless, the paper comprehensively covers key aspects of prevalent ethical misconducts and the standards that should be upheld to prevent such practices. As a result, readers can have confidence in the literature presented, which is based on a substantial body of existing evidence. Readers are also encouraged to engage in critical evaluation and to consider new approaches that could improve the overall scientific literature.

7. Conclusions

We highlighted the various pitfalls and misconduct that can take place in sports and exercise research. Individual researchers associated with a research organization need to comply with the highest available standards. They need to maintain an intact ‘moral compass’ that is unaffected by expectations and environmental constraints thereby reducing the likelihood of unethical behavior for the sake of publication quantity, interpretability, applicability and societal trust in evidence-based decision-making. To achieve these objectives, a Health and Exercise Research Oath (HERO) could be developed that minimizes the allurement to cheat and could be used by PhD candidates, senior researchers, and professors. Such an oath would prevent intentional or unintentional malpractices in sport and exercise research, thereby strengthening the knowledge standards based on ethical exercise science research. Overall, this will also improve the applicability and interpretability of research outcomes.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the financial support of the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the Open Access Publication Fund of Bielefeld University for the article processing charge.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; methodology, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; resources, P.W. and L.D.; data curation, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; writing—original draft preparation, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; writing—review and editing, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; visualization, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; supervision, P.W. and L.D.; project administration, L.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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The Ten Most Significant Science Stories of 2021

Thrilling discoveries, hurdles in the fight against Covid and advancements in space exploration defined the past year

Associate Editor, Science

Covid-19 dominated science coverage again in 2021, and deservedly so. The disease garnered two entries on this list of our picks for the most important science stories of the year. But other key discoveries and achievements marked the year in science too, and they deserve more attention. NASA and private companies notched firsts in space. Scientists discovered more about the existence of early humans. And researchers documented how climate change has impacted everything from coral reefs to birds. Covid-19 will continue to garner even more attention next year as scientists work to deal with new variants and develop medical advances to battle the virus. But before you let stories about those topics dominate your reading in 2022, it’s worth it to take a look back at the biggest discoveries and accomplishments of this past year. To that end, here are our picks for the most important science stories of 2021.

The Covid Vaccine Rollout Encounters Hurdles

Last year the biggest science story of the year was that scientists developed two mRNA Covid vaccines in record time. This year the biggest Covid story is that the rollout of those vaccines by Pfizer and Moderna, and one other by Johnson and Johnson, haven’t made their way into a large proportion of the United States population and a significant portion of the world. As of this writing on December 21 , roughly 73 percent of the U.S. population has received one dose, and roughly 61 percent of the U.S. population has been fully vaccinated. An incomplete rollout allowed for a deadly summer surge, driven by the highly contagious Delta variant . Experts pointed out that vaccination rates lagged due to widespread disinformation and misinformation campaigns . It didn’t help that some popular public figures —like Packers’ quarterback Aaron Rodgers , musician Nick Minaj , podcast host Joe Rogan and rapper Ice Cube —chose not to get vaccinated. Luckily, by November, U.S. health officials had approved the Pfizer vaccine for children as young as five, providing another barrier against the deadly disease’s spread, and Covid rates declined. But while the wall against the disease in the U.S. is growing, it is not finished. As cases surge as the Omicron variant spreads around the country, building that wall and reinforcing it with booster shots is critically important. In much of the rest of the world, the wall is severely lacking where populations haven’t been given decent access to the vaccine. Only 8 percent of individuals in low-income countries have received at least one dose of the vaccine, and a WHO Africa report from this fall said that on that continent, less than 10 percent of countries would hit the goal of vaccinating at least 40 percent of their citizens by the end of the year. Globally, less than 60 percent of the population has been vaccinated. The holes in vaccination coverage will allow the virus to continue to kill a large number of individuals, and allow an environment where possibly other dangerous variants can emerge.

Perseverance Notches Firsts on Mars

NASA took a huge step forward in exploring the Red Planet after the rover Perseverance landed safely on Mars in February. Scientists outfitted the vehicle with an ultralight helicopter that successfully flew in the thin Martian atmosphere , a toaster-sized device called MOXIE that successfully converted carbon dioxide to oxygen , and sampling elements that successfully collected rocks from the planet’s floor. All of the achievements will lend themselves to a better understanding of Mars, and how to investigate it in the future. The flight success will give scientists clues on how to build larger helicopters, the oxygen creation will help scientists come up with grander plans for conversion devices, and the rocks will make their way back to Earth for analysis when they are picked up on a future mission. In addition to the rover’s triumphs, other countries notched major firsts too. The United Arab Emirates Hope space probe successfully entered orbit around the planet and is studying the Martian atmosphere and weather. China’s Zhurong rover landed on Mars in May and is exploring the planet’s geology and looking for signs of water. With these ongoing missions, scientists around the world are learning more and more about what the planet is like and how we might better explore it, maybe one day in person.

Is “Dragon Man” a New Species of Human?

The backstory of the skull that scientists used to suggest there was a new species of later Pleistocene human—to join Homo sapiens and Neanderthals—garnered a lot of ink. After the fossil was discovered at a construction site in China nearly 90 years ago, a family hid it until a farmer gave it to a university museum in 2018. Since then, scientists in China pored over the skull—analyzing its features, conducting uranium series dating, and using X-ray fluorescence to compare it to other fossils—before declaring it a new species of archaic human. They dubbed the discovery Homo longi , or “Dragon Man.” The skull had a large cranium capable of holding a big brain, a thick brow and almost square eye sockets—details scientists used to differentiate it from other Homo species. Some scientists questioned whether the find warranted designation as a new species. “It’s exciting because it is a really interesting cranium, and it does have some things to say about human evolution and what’s going on in Asia. But it’s also disappointing that it’s 90 years out from discovery, and it is just an isolated cranium, and you’re not quite sure exactly how old it is or where it fits,” Michael Petraglia of the Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Initiative told Smithsonian magazine back in June. Other scientists supported the new species designation, and so the debate continues, and likely will until more fossils are discovered that help to fill in the holes of human history.

Climate Change Wreaks Havoc on Coral Reefs

Increasing natural disasters—forest fires, droughts and heat waves—may be the most noticeable events spurred by climate change; a warming Earth has helped drive a five-fold uptick in such weather-related events over the last 50 years according the a 2021 report by the World Meteorological Organization . But one of the biggest impacts wrought by climate change over the past decade has occurred underwater. Warming temps cause coral reefs to discard the symbiotic algae that help them survive, and they bleach and die. This year a major report from the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network announced that the oceans lost about 14 percent of their reefs in the decade after 2009, mostly because of climate change. In November, new research showed that less than 2 percent of the coral reefs on the Great Barrier Reef—the world’s largest such feature—escaped bleaching since 1998. That news came just two months after a different study stated that half of coral reefs have been lost since the 1950s , in part due to climate change. The reef declines impact fisheries, local economies based on tourism and coastal developments—which lose the offshore buffer zone from storms the living structures provide. Scientists say if temperatures continue to rise, coral reefs are in serious danger. But not all hope is lost—if humans reduce carbon emissions rapidly now, more reefs will have a better chance of surviving .

The Space Tourism Race Heats Up

This year the famous billionaires behind the space tourism race completed successful missions that boosted more than just their egos. They put a host of civilians in space. Early in July, billionaire Richard Branson and his employees flew just above the boundary of space—a suborbital flight—in Virgin Galactic’s first fully crewed trip. (But Virgin Galactic did delay commercial missions until at least late next year.) Just over a week after Branson’s mission, the world’s richest person, Jeff Bezos, completed Blue Origin’s first crewed suborbital flight with the youngest and oldest travelers to reach space. In October, his company Blue Origin repeated the feat when it took Star Trek actor William Shatner up. A month before that, a crew of four became the first all-civilian crew to circle the Earth from space in Elon Musk’s SpaceX Dragon capsule Resilience. More ambitious firsts for civilians are in the works. In 2022, SpaceX plans to send a retired astronaut and three paying passengers to the International Space Station. And beyond that, Bezos announced Blue Origin hopes to deploy a private space station fit for ten—called “Orbital Reef”—sometime between 2025 and 2030.

WHO Approves First Vaccine Against Malaria

In October, the World Health Organization approved the first vaccine against malaria. The approval was not only a first for that disease, but also for any parasitic disease. The moment was 30 years in the making, as Mosquirix—the brand name of the drug— cost more than $750 million since 1987 to develop and test. Malaria kills nearly a half million individuals a year, including 260,000 children under the age of five. Most of these victims live in sub-Saharan Africa. The new vaccine fights the deadliest of five malaria pathogens and the most prevalent in Africa, and is administered to children under five in a series of four injections. The vaccine is not a silver bullet; it prevents only about 30 percent of severe malaria cases. But one modeling study showed that still could prevent 5.4 million cases and 23,000 deaths in children under five each year. Experts say the vaccine is a valuable tool that should be used in conjunction with existing methods—such as drug combination treatments and insecticide-treated bed nets—to combat the deadly disease.

Discoveries Move Key Dates Back for Humans in the Americas

Two very different papers in two of the world’s most prestigious scientific journals documented key moments of human habitation in the Americas. In September, a study in Science dated footprints found at White Sands National Park to between 21,000 and 23,000 years ago. Researchers estimated the age of the dried tracks known as “ghost prints” using radiocarbon dating of dried ditchgrass seeds found above and below the impressions. Previously, many archaeologists placed the start of human life in the Americas at around 13,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age, based on tools found in New Mexico. The new paper, whose results have been debated , suggests humans actually lived on the continent at the height of the Ice Age. A month after that surprising find, a study in Nature published evidence showing that Vikings lived on North America earlier than previously thought. Researchers examined cut wood left by the explorers at a site in Newfoundland and found evidence in the samples of a cosmic ray event that happened in 993 C.E. The scientists then counted the rings out from that mark and discovered the wood had been cut in 1021 C.E. The find means that the Norse explorers completed the first known crossing of the Atlantic from Europe to the Americas.

Humans Are Affecting the Evolution of Animals

New research published this year shows that humans have both directly and indirectly affected how animals evolve. In probably the starkest example of humans impacting animal evolution, a Science study found a sharp increase in tuskless African elephants after years of poaching. During the Mozambican Civil War from 1977 to 1992, poachers killed so many of the giant mammals with tusks that those females without the long ivory teeth were more likely to pass on their genes. Before the war, 20 percent were tuskless. Now, roughly half of the female elephants are tuskless. Males who have the genetic make-up for tusklessness die , likely before they are born. And killing animals isn’t the only way humans are impacting evolution. A large study in Trends in Ecology and Evolution found that animals are changing shape to deal with rising temps. For example, over various time periods bats grew bigger wings and rabbits sprouted longer ears—both likely to dissipate more heat into the surrounding air. More evidence along those lines was published later in the year in Science Advances . A 40-year-study of birds in a remote, intact patch of Amazon rainforest showed 77 species weighed less on average, and many had longer wings, than they used to. Scientists said the changes likely occurred due to rising temperatures and changes in rainfall.

Antiviral Pills That Fight Covid Show Promising Results

Almost a year after scientists released tests showing the success of mRNA vaccines in fighting Covid, Merck released promising interim test results from a Phase III trial of an antiviral pill. On October 1, the pharmaceutical giant presented data that suggested molnupiravir could cut hospitalizations in half. Ten days later, the company submitted results to the FDA in hopes of gaining emergency use. In mid-November, the U.K. jumped ahead of the U.S. and granted approval for the treatment. By late November, advisers to the FDA recommended emergency authorization of the pill, though it was shown by this time to reduce death or disease by 30—not 50—percent. The drug should be taken —four pills a day for five days—starting within five days of the appearance of symptoms. It works by disrupting SARS-CoV-2’s ability to replicate effectively inside a human cell.

Molnupiravir isn’t the only viral drug with positive results. In November, Pfizer announced its antiviral pill, Paxlovid, was effective against severe Covid. By December, the pharmaceutical giant shared final results that it reduced the risk of hospitalization and death by 88 percent in a key group. News about both pills was welcome , as they are expected to work against all versions of the virus, including Omicron. Though the drugs aren’t as big of a breakthrough as the vaccines, a doctor writing for the New Yorker called them “the most important pharmacologic advance of the pandemic.” Many wealthy countries have already agreed to contracts for molnupiravir, and the Gates Foundation pledged $120 million to help get the pill to poor countries. If approved and distributed fast enough, the oral antivirals can be prescribed in places, like Africa, where vaccines have been lacking. The pills represent another crucial tool, in addition to masks and vaccines, in the fight against Covid.

The James Webb Space Telescope May Finally Launch

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Joe Spring is the associate digital science editor for Smithsonian magazine.