renaissance period essay

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Renaissance Art

By: History.com Editors

Updated: September 20, 2019 | Original: October 15, 2010

Known as the Renaissance, the period immediately following the Middle Ages in Europe saw a great revival of interest in the classical learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome. Against a backdrop of political stability and growing prosperity, the development of new technologies–including the printing press, a new system of astronomy and the discovery and exploration of new continents–was accompanied by a flowering of philosophy, literature and especially art. 

The style of painting, sculpture and decorative arts identified with the Renaissance emerged in Italy in the late 14th century; it reached its zenith in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, in the work of Italian masters such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. In addition to its expression of classical Greco-Roman traditions, Renaissance art sought to capture the experience of the individual and the beauty and mystery of the natural world.

Origins of Renaissance Art

The origins of Renaissance art can be traced to Italy in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. During this so-called “proto-Renaissance” period (1280-1400), Italian scholars and artists saw themselves as reawakening to the ideals and achievements of classical Roman culture. Writers such as Petrarch (1304-1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) looked back to ancient Greece and Rome and sought to revive the languages, values and intellectual traditions of those cultures after the long period of stagnation that had followed the fall of the Roman Empire in the sixth century.

Did you know? Leonardo da Vinci, the ultimate "Renaissance man," practiced all the visual arts and studied a wide range of topics, including anatomy, geology, botany, hydraulics and flight. His formidable reputation is based on relatively few completed paintings, including "Mona Lisa," "The Virgin of the Rocks" and "The Last Supper."

The Florentine painter Giotto (1267?-1337), the most famous artist of the proto-Renaissance, made enormous advances in the technique of representing the human body realistically. His frescoes were said to have decorated cathedrals at Assisi, Rome, Padua, Florence and Naples, though there has been difficulty attributing such works with certainty.

Early Renaissance Art (1401-1490s)

In the later 14th century, the proto-Renaissance was stifled by plague and war, and its influences did not emerge again until the first years of the next century. In 1401, the sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti (c. 1378-1455) won a major competition to design a new set of bronze doors for the Baptistery of the cathedral of Florence, beating out contemporaries such as the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and the young Donatello (c. 1386- 1466), who would later emerge as the master of early Renaissance sculpture.

The other major artist working during this period was the painter Masaccio (1401-1428), known for his frescoes of the Trinity in the Church of Santa Maria Novella (c. 1426) and in the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine (c. 1427), both in Florence. Masaccio painted for less than six years but was highly influential in the early Renaissance for the intellectual nature of his work, as well as its degree of naturalism.

Florence in the Renaissance

Though the Catholic Church remained a major patron of the arts during the Renaissance–from popes and other prelates to convents, monasteries and other religious organizations–works of art were increasingly commissioned by civil government, courts and wealthy individuals. Much of the art produced during the early Renaissance was commissioned by the wealthy merchant families of Florence, most notably the Medici family .

From 1434 until 1492, when Lorenzo de’ Medici–known as “the Magnificent” for his strong leadership as well as his support of the arts–died, the powerful family presided over a golden age for the city of Florence. Pushed from power by a republican coalition in 1494, the Medici family spent years in exile but returned in 1512 to preside over another flowering of Florentine art, including the array of sculptures that now decorates the city’s Piazza della Signoria.

High Renaissance Art (1490s-1527)

By the end of the 15th century, Rome had displaced Florence as the principal center of Renaissance art, reaching a high point under the powerful and ambitious Pope Leo X (a son of Lorenzo de’ Medici). Three great masters– Leonardo da Vinci , Michelangelo and Raphael–dominated the period known as the High Renaissance, which lasted roughly from the early 1490s until the sack of Rome by the troops of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Spain in 1527. 

Leonardo (1452-1519) was the ultimate “Renaissance man” for the breadth of his intellect, interest and talent and his expression of humanist and classical values. Leonardo’s best-known works, including the “Mona Lisa” (1503-05), “The Virgin of the Rocks” (1485) and the fresco “The Last Supper” (1495-98), showcase his unparalleled ability to portray light and shadow, as well as the physical relationship between figures–humans, animals and objects alike–and the landscape around them.

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) drew on the human body for inspiration and created works on a vast scale. He was the dominant sculptor of the High Renaissance, producing pieces such as the Pietà in St. Peter’s Cathedral (1499) and the David in his native Florence (1501-04). He carved the latter by hand from an enormous marble block; the famous statue measures five meters high including its base. Though Michelangelo considered himself a sculptor first and foremost, he achieved greatness as a painter as well, notably with his giant fresco covering the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, completed over four years (1508-12) and depicting various scenes from Genesis.

Raphael Sanzio, the youngest of the three great High Renaissance masters, learned from both da Vinci and Michelangelo. His paintings–most notably “The School of Athens” (1508-11), painted in the Vatican at the same time that Michelangelo was working on the Sistine Chapel –skillfully expressed the classical ideals of beauty, serenity and harmony. Among the other great Italian artists working during this period were Sandro Botticelli, Bramante, Giorgione, Titian and Correggio.

Renaissance Art in Practice

Many works of Renaissance art depicted religious images, including subjects such as the Virgin Mary, or Madonna, and were encountered by contemporary audiences of the period in the context of religious rituals. Today, they are viewed as great works of art, but at the time they were seen and used mostly as devotional objects. Many Renaissance works were painted as altarpieces for incorporation into rituals associated with Catholic Mass and donated by patrons who sponsored the Mass itself.

Renaissance artists came from all strata of society; they usually studied as apprentices before being admitted to a professional guild and working under the tutelage of an older master. Far from being starving bohemians, these artists worked on commission and were hired by patrons of the arts because they were steady and reliable. Italy’s rising middle class sought to imitate the aristocracy and elevate their own status by purchasing art for their homes. In addition to sacred images, many of these works portrayed domestic themes such as marriage, birth and the everyday life of the family.

Expansion and Decline

Over the course of the 15th and 16th centuries, the spirit of the Renaissance spread throughout Italy and into France, northern Europe and Spain. In Venice, artists such as Giorgione (1477/78-1510) and Titian (1488/90-1576) further developed a method of painting in oil directly on canvas; this technique of oil painting allowed the artist to rework an image­–as fresco painting (on plaster) did not–and it would dominate Western art to the present day. 

Oil painting during the Renaissance can be traced back even further, however, to the Flemish painter Jan van Eyck (died 1441), who painted a masterful altarpiece in the cathedral at Ghent (c. 1432). Van Eyck was one of the most important artists of the Northern Renaissance; later masters included the German painters Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) and Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/98-1543).

By the later 1500s, the Mannerist style, with its emphasis on artificiality, had developed in opposition to the idealized naturalism of High Renaissance art, and Mannerism spread from Florence and Rome to become the dominant style in Europe. Renaissance art continued to be celebrated, however: The 16th-century Florentine artist and art historian Giorgio Vasari, author of the famous work “Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects” (1550), would write of the High Renaissance as the culmination of all Italian art, a process that began with Giotto in the late 13th century.

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Renaissance Period Essay

The Renaissance is one of the most fascinating periods in European history. It was a time of great rebirth and cultural flowering, as well as political and social change.

The Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century and spread to the rest of Europe over the following two centuries. This period marked a dramatic change from the preceding Middle Ages. People began to value individualism and reason more than tradition and religion. Art and literature flourished, as did scientific discoveries.

During the Renaissance, Europeans made significant advances in mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and anatomy. The Printing Press was invented, which allowed for widespread dissemination of knowledge. New ideas about government and society emerged, including concepts such as democracy and human rights.

The French term renaissance means “rebirth.” The Renaissance was a period in European history that took place between 1300 and 1600, according to modern historians. Significant changes occurred during the Italian Renaissance, which is when I began studying art.

The Renaissance was a time of significant innovation and change. This era was characterized by substantial contrasts with the Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages, the church dominated politics and had a primarily agricultural economy. Exploration and learning came close to being halted entirely.

Renaissance means rebirth, everything starts to reborn during Renaissance. means people were full of energy and ambitions. They wanted to achieve something great in their life. This era was different from the Middle Ages in many ways such as art, literature, science, religion, and ways of thinking.

In the Renaissance, artists used light and shadow to give more realistic depictions of their subjects. Renaissance painters also began using a technique called perspective to create the illusion of depth on a two-dimensional surface. Renaissance writers created works that celebrated individual achievement and humanity’s potential for greatness.

During the Renaissance, Europeans became more interested in studying classical texts from Greece and Rome. Renaissance scholars rediscovered the writings of Aristotle, who had a major influence on scientific thought during this time. The Renaissance was also a time of religious reform. Protestant leaders such as Martin Luther challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. They believed that people could have a personal relationship with God without the help of priests.

This period of time was also a time of exploration and discovery. European explorers such as Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama sailed to new parts of the world in search of wealth and new trade routes. The Renaissance was an exciting time to be alive! There were many changes happening and people were eager to learn and explore new things.

During the Renaissance period, society was revolutionized into a society that became more and more dominated by central political institutions with an urban commercial mentality. Furthermore, people’s interest overcame their anxiety, and many individuals began to explore the new world. Many rich Italian cities, such as Florence, Ferrara, Milan, and Venice, started the Renaissance.

Some of the most famous Renaissance artists were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Renaissance art was often very detailed and realistic. Renaissance architects also designed beautiful buildings, such as the Florence Cathedral and St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

Renaissance scholars studied ancient Greek and Roman texts and came up with new ways of thinking about the world. They believed that people could improve their lives through education and hard work. This period is known as the rebirth or Renaissance because many new things were invented or discovered during this time.

The Renaissance was a time of rebirth for Europe’s culture, art, politics, and economy following the Middle Ages. The term “Renaissance” is used to describe a period that spanned roughly the 14th century to the 17th century.

It also saw the development of new technologies in fields such as banking, navigation and printing. Renaissance thinkers championed humanism – an emphasis on the value of the individual – and scientific inquiry, laying the groundwork for the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century.

The Renaissance was a time of great creativity and change. Artistic movements like the Renaissance Mannerist and Baroque evolved, as did architectural styles like Gothic and Renaissance. In literature, Dante Alighieri, Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare were among the most famous authors of the period.

Science advanced with discoveries such as Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion and Harvey’s discovery of blood circulation. Banking became more sophisticated with the invention of double-entry bookkeeping, and exploration expanded with the discovery of new continents.

Despite its many achievements, the Renaissance was not without its problems. Inequality and social unrest increased, as did religious tensions. The period also saw a number of devastating natural disasters, including the Black Death pandemic and the Great Fire of London. Nevertheless, the Renaissance remains one of the most significant periods in European history. It heralded a new era of creativity, intellectualism and progress that would have a lasting impact on the world.

Artisans discovered that mathematics and art could be combined to make their measurements more accurate and ensure that an item was adequately supported both logically and proportionally.

Painters, in order to make their works “a window into the world,” frequently attempted but rarely succeeded. Artists also studied how light hits objects and how our eyes perceive light. Oil paint was introduced as a new type of paint. This permitted the artist to create texture, combine hues, and give themselves more time for adjustments before it dried.

Renaissance artists also started to create paintings with perspective. This gave the illusion of depth and made their paintings more realistic.

The Renaissance was a time when people were questioning everything that had been done in the past and looking for new ways to do things. They started to explore the world around them and learn about other cultures. This was also a time of great advances in science and technology. People began to use reason and observation instead of relying on what they were told by the church. The Renaissance was a time of great change and progress.

The Renaissance Period was a time of rebirth and new beginnings in European history. It was a time when people started to question the old ways of thinking and explore new ideas. This led to many advancements in art, science, and other fields. The Renaissance Period is often considered to be one of the most important times in human history.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Music in the renaissance.

ex "Kurtz" Violin

Andrea Amati

Double Virginal

Hans Ruckers the Elder

Cornetto in A

possibly Georg Voll

Sixtus Rauchwolff

Claviorganum

Lorenz Hauslaib

Tenor Recorder

Rectangular Octave Virginal

Rebecca Arkenberg Department of Education, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

Music was an essential part of civic, religious, and courtly life in the Renaissance. The rich interchange of ideas in Europe, as well as political, economic, and religious events in the period 1400–1600 led to major changes in styles of composing, methods of disseminating music, new musical genres, and the development of musical instruments. The most important music of the early Renaissance was composed for use by the church—polyphonic (made up of several simultaneous melodies) masses and motets in Latin for important churches and court chapels. By the end of the sixteenth century, however, patronage had broadened to include the Catholic Church, Protestant churches and courts, wealthy amateurs, and music printing—all were sources of income for composers.

The early fifteenth century was dominated initially by English and then Northern European composers. The Burgundian court was especially influential, and it attracted composers and musicians from all over Europe. The most important of these was Guillaume Du Fay (1397–1474), whose varied musical offerings included motets and masses for church and chapel services, many of whose large musical structures were based on existing Gregorian chant. His many small settings of French poetry display a sweet melodic lyricism unknown until his era. With his command of large-scale musical form, as well as his attention to secular text-setting, Du Fay set the stage for the next generations of Renaissance composers.

By about 1500, European art music was dominated by Franco-Flemish composers, the most prominent of whom was Josquin des Prez (ca. 1450–1521). Like many leading composers of his era, Josquin traveled widely throughout Europe, working for patrons in Aix-en-Provence, Paris, Milan, Rome, Ferrara, and Condé-sur-L’Escaut. The exchange of musical ideas among the Low Countries, France, and Italy led to what could be considered an international European style. On the one hand, polyphony or multivoiced music, with its horizontal contrapuntal style, continued to develop in complexity. At the same time, harmony based on a vertical arrangement of intervals, including thirds and sixths, was explored for its full textures and suitability for accompanying a vocal line. Josquin’s music epitomized these trends, with Northern-style intricate polyphony using canons, preexisting melodies, and other compositional structures smoothly amalgamated with the Italian bent for artfully setting words with melodies that highlight the poetry rather than masking it with complexity. Josquin, like Du Fay, composed primarily Latin masses and motets, but in a seemingly endless variety of styles. His secular output included settings of courtly French poetry, like Du Fay, but also arrangements of French popular songs, instrumental music, and Italian frottole.

With the beginning of the sixteenth century, European music saw a number of momentous changes. In 1501, a Venetian printer named Ottaviano Petrucci published the first significant collection of polyphonic music, the Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A . Petrucci’s success led eventually to music printing in France, Germany, England, and elsewhere. Prior to 1501, all music had to be copied by hand or learned by ear; music books were owned exclusively by religious establishments or extremely wealthy courts and households. After Petrucci, while these books were not inexpensive, it became possible for far greater numbers of people to own them and to learn to read music.

At about the same period, musical instrument technology led to the development of the viola da gamba , a fretted, bowed string instrument. Amateur European musicians of means eagerly took up the viol, as well as the lute , the recorder , the harpsichord (in various guises, including the spinet and virginal), the organ , and other instruments. The viola da gamba and recorder were played together in consorts or ensembles and often were produced in families or sets, with different sizes playing the different lines. Publications by Petrucci and others supplied these players for the first time with notated music (as opposed to the improvised music performed by professional instrumentalists). The sixteenth century saw the development of instrumental music such as the canzona, ricercare, fantasia, variations, and contrapuntal dance-inspired compositions, for both soloists and ensembles, as a truly distinct and independent genre with its own idioms separate from vocal forms and practical dance accompaniment.

The musical instruments depicted in the studiolo of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino (ca. 1479–82; 39.153 ) represent both his personal interest in music and the role of music in the intellectual life of an educated Renaissance man. The musical instruments are placed alongside various scientific instruments, books, and weapons, and they include a portative organ, lutes, fiddle, and cornetti; a hunting horn; a pipe and tabor; a harp and jingle ring; a rebec; and a cittern .

From about 1520 through the end of the sixteenth century, composers throughout Europe employed the polyphonic language of Josquin’s generation in exploring musical expression through the French chanson, the Italian madrigal, the German tenorlieder, the Spanish villancico, and the English song, as well as in sacred music. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation directly affected the sacred polyphony of these countries. The Protestant revolutions (mainly in Northern Europe) varied in their attitudes toward sacred music, bringing such musical changes as the introduction of relatively simple German-language hymns (or chorales) sung by the congregation in Lutheran services. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525/26–1594), maestro di cappella at the Cappella Giulia at Saint Peter’s in Rome, is seen by many as the iconic High Renaissance composer of Counter-Reformation sacred music, which features clear lines, a variety of textures, and a musically expressive reverence for its sacred texts. The English (and Catholic) composer William Byrd (1540–1623) straddled both worlds, composing Latin-texted works for the Catholic Church, as well as English-texted service music for use at Elizabeth I ‘s Chapel Royal.

Sixteenth-century humanists studied ancient Greek treatises on music , which discussed the close relationship between music and poetry and how music could stir the listener’s emotions. Inspired by the classical world, Renaissance composers fit words and music together in an increasingly dramatic fashion, as seen in the development of the Italian madrigal and later the operatic works of Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643). The Renaissance adaptation of a musician singing and accompanying himself on a stringed instrument, a variation on the theme of Orpheus, appears in Renaissance artworks like Caravaggio’s Musicians ( 52.81 ) and Titian ‘s Venus and the Lute Player ( 36.29 ).

Arkenberg, Rebecca. “Music in the Renaissance.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renm/hd_renm.htm (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Rebecca Arkenberg

• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Violins .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Keyboards .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Organs .” (October 2002)

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Causes and Effects of The Renaissance

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Causes of the renaissance, effects of the renaissance.

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The Renaissance Period

The term Renaissance comes from the French word “rebirth. ” The Renaissance was a period of European history, considered by modern scholars that occurred between 1300 and 1600. Many dramatic changes happened during the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a period of new inventions and beliefs. This period of time was drastically different from the Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages the church had most of the power and its economy was based primarily on agriculture. Exploration and learning was almost put to a stop.

During the Renaissance days, society was transformed into a society which became more and more dominated by central political institutions with an urban commercial attitude. Also, people’s curiosity overcame their fear and many people started to venture out and explore the new world. New schools and colleges became more and more common. The Renaissance was started by many rich Italian cities, such as Florence, Ferrara, Milan, and Venice. Because these cities were very wealthy, many merchants started to spend money on different things, such as painting, learning, new banking techniques, and new systems of government.

These things gave rise to a new type of scholar, the humanist. Humanism was a subject concerned with humankind and culture . They studied various things such as Latin, Greek language, literature and philosophy. Music and mathematics were also studied as well. The Renaissance gave way to new forms of painting, art and sculpture. During the Renaissance, artists were no longer treated as mere artisans, as they had been to the medieval past, but for the first time emerged as independent personalities and were treated with respect and were even compared to poets and writers .

Many artisans merged mathematics with art, in order to become more precise in their measurements and to make sure an object was supported both rationally and proportionally. As a result painters tried and often succeeded into making their paintings “a window to the world. ” Artists also studied the way light hits objects and the way our eyes perceive light. A new kind of paint called oil paint was used. This allowed the artist to create texture, mix colors, and allow more time for corrections they had to make before it dried.

The printing press was probably the most important advance in technology. Europeans first used movable metal type to print a book. On small pieces of metal they engraved single letters of the alphabet. These could then be arranged and rearranged to form words and sentences. Johan Gutenberg is usually given credit for the first book printed which was a copy of the Bible. By the 1500’s printing presses were pretty much a common thing. The printing press had many effects on the world. First of all, it made books much easier to come by, which made them cheaper.

That meant common people could afford them. As a result, literacy became more widespread, in contrast to the Middle Ages where usually monks and church officials were the only people able to read. Second, since many more people were able to read, they wanted to read subjects other than religious or scientific work. So books on other subjects were published as well . Also many books were published in languages other than Latin, such as English, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Italian. And third, it meant that scholars had better access to one another’s work.

They could also read the great works of the ancient and medieval periods. The Renaissance also had an effect on the general society. Many people became interested in politics. Also, people became interested in the world outside of their towns. Many became explorers, merchants, and mapmakers. Religion especially changed during the Renaissance. In the Middle ages people were primarily concerned with serving the church and getting to heaven. But the increase in arts and education gave people something to look forward to, and a life worth living .

So, people based their lives around various other things besides the church. Because of the increase in literacy people learned that the Catholic Church only told the people what they wanted them to hear. This caused many people to break away from the church and form Protestant religions. The Renaissance produced many great minds such as Leonardo da Vinci . Although he was not regarded as a genius, he had numerous works of art such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper . He also is now regarded as a great inventor. He is credited for coming up with the idea of the helicopter.

He dissected corpses to learn more about the human anatomy. Another great man was a German monk, Martin Luther . He taught Biblical studies at the University of Wittenberg. Luther’s beliefs challenged the church although many people agreed with his ideas. He was eventually excommunicated from the Catholic church and became a Protestant. In conclusion, the Renaissance was a time of new awakening in Europe . It includes the general loss of power by the church, an increase in literacy and education, and an exploration period.

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Humanism of Renaissance Era Essay

Introduction, the meaning of humanism, the influential humanists.

Bibliography

The Western history of humanism traces its origin from the 16 th century renaissance period when thinkers suddenly deviated from the Platonic perception of the universe to Aristotelian realism. Focus shifted to the importance of human as the central being in the universe. This paper discusses humanism as conceived in the renaissance era and the influential personalities whose works sustained it.

Humanism stems from a philosophic reflection that was majorly practiced by thinkers in the West, though some thinkers also came from the East. The underlying crux of their thought was the essence of the human person in the universe. Consequently, thoughts were advanced on the primary end of human life as working for the happiness of humans on the earth. [1] They propounded the thought of enjoying, developing, and availing to human beings the copious material, spiritual, and cultural goods extracted from the natural world.

The profundity of the implications of this gesture is indescribable yet congenial and common sensical. It is this human-centered theory of life that is referred to as humanism [2] . Humanism as a philosophy therefore, emanates from the enduring need of human beings to make their lives significant, “integrate their personalities around some clear, consistent, and compelling views of existence, and to seek definite and reliable methods in the solution of their problems. [3]

In the previous medieval era before the renaissance period, the thought system revolved around the Church as a custodian of immaterial truths. Platonic philosophy, precisely the concept of world of forms, had dominated the medieval era that subjected the human body, as a shadow of a real body in the world of forms, to little or no attention at all. [4]

However, towards the end of 16 th century there was a paradigm shift towards Aristotelianism that advocated the importance of the actual object of reality from which Plato had abstracted his ideas. [5]

Humanism consequently, developed as the central theme of the renaissance period. Scholars shifted their focus to the human person whose needs were to be satisfied instead of spending much time on ideal truths promulgated by the Church. Even though God was retained into the picture, people became inquisitive about their beliefs attempting to replace ridiculous teachings of the Church with more plausible theories such as the Copernicus revolution.

There were many scholars from a plethora of fields who shaped the renaissance era, but this paper will be limited to a few of them. They include Francesco Petrarca, Niccolo Machiavelli, Baldassare, Dante, Boccaccio, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, and Cervantes.

Francesco Petrarca has been referred to as the “Father of Humanism” due to the spectacular work he did to the modern Italian language. He was a prolific writer with a bias on poetry using the Latin language to do most of his writings. Petrarca’s poems included Canzoniere and Trionfi, which he wrote in his native Italian language. [6]

Among the scholarly works he wrote in Latin are Secretum, a secretive manuscript fraught with guilt, which is an account of his imaginary talk with St. Augustine of Hippo; Rerum Memorandum Libri, which details cardinal virtues; De Vita Solitaria, an exaltation of solitary life; Itinerarium, among other works. Using the knowledge of Cicero’s letters, he compiled his letters into two copies of books: Epistolae familiars and Seniles [7] .

Niccolo Machiavelli is credited for his political masterpiece, The Prince, in which he gave a completely different conception of a government. The book was originally written in Italian, his vernacular, a tradition that characterized writers in the renaissance era. Using the term ‘state’ (status) to ground the jurisdiction of a prince, Machiavelli unknowingly bequeathed the subsequent eras with a term that would be used to refer to political territories [8] .

In The Prince, Machiavelli gives different types of princedoms totally unrelated to the Aristotelian models of democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, et cetera. He uses the terms ‘tyrant’ and ‘prince’ interchangeably and describes personalities that he should adopt depending on the state of their subjects. Machiavelli made a greater impact with his book on the political dynamics that would follow his generation.

Baldassare Castiglione also stands out as one of the gifted renaissance writers with his fictional debut, The Book of Courtier, written in his native Italian. In this book, Baldassare organizes a chain of dialogue between the courtiers of the Duke of Urbino, when he was a member of this court [9] .

A cool mind, melodious voice exuding elegant and courageous words, is the picturesque created by the author as attributed to the courtier. However, the courtier is expected to have a warrior spirit, have good knowledge of the humanities, classics, and be athletic [10] . This piece of writing has remained the undisputed account of the renaissance court life owing to its usage at the time as a manual of perfect courtier.

Dante Alighieri wrote his poem The Divine Comedy during the medieval era. The work has been praised as a masterpiece of Italian literature earning its position using Tuscan dialect that is the standard Italian. Dante creatively allegorizes the afterlife in a typical medieval world view as conceived by the Church. He divides the poem in three sections, namely: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso [11] . In the poem, Dante describes his journey from hell through purgatory to heaven, which figuratively depicts the soul’s path to God. [12]

Giovanni Boccaccio is another prolific writer whose collection of novels, The Decameron, has made him one of the influential writers in the medieval period. In The Decameron, Boccaccio describes how the Black Death ( Bubonic Plague) brought a bevy of seven women and three men together as they flee the villas of Florence which was the epicenter of the plague.

The book details the physical, social, and psychological effects that the plague had on the people of that region. It combines tragedy and love in a more articulate manner with a degree of allegorism. For instance, the seven women are said to represent the four cardinal and the three theological virtues while the three men represent the tripartite division of the soul. [13]

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola is credited for having written a literary masterpiece that extolled the power of human intellect and wittingly expressing the centrality of humans’ relation to the divine. His Oration on the Dignity of Man forcefully and polemically articulates the endeavor to focus all attention on the capabilities of human.

In this writing, Pico combined Aristotelianism, Platonism, Hermeticism, and Neoplatonism, thus, giving it a humanistic outlook. Human vocation is portrayed as a mystical vocation realizable in three stages: moral transformation; intellectual research, and identity with the absolute reality. [14]

Miguel de Cervantes was a Spanish writer of the renaissance era popular known by his novel, Don Quixote, which is the most influential literary work of the Spanish Golden Age. The novel is divided in two parts where the first part narrates stories revolving around two main characters.

The best known of such stories is El Curioso Impertinente where Anselmo is preoccupied by the temptation of testing his wife’s faithfulness and trapping her with his friend Lothario [15] . However, the scenario turned out to be disastrous to all the players. In the second part of the novel, Cervantes does acknowledge his critics concerning the digressions he made in the first part.

Humanism that characterized the renaissance period focused on the human capacity for greater intellectual growth that makes his relationship with God central. Consequently, the needs of man become so special and needed to be satisfied. During this period literature emerged as a medium of expressing the human social activities. Many writers with powerful creativity authored literary works that have remained the trademark of this period such as Pico’s Oration and Machiavelli’s The Prince.

• Alighieri, Dante & Appelbaum, Stanley. The divine comedy: selected cantos. Chicago, IL: Courier Dover Publications, 2000.
• Bloom, Harold. Miguel de Cervantes. Boston, MA: Infobase Publishing, 2005.

Bori, P. Cesare. The Italian Renaissance. An Unfinished Dawn ?Pico Della Mirandola. Web.

• Byfield, Ted. God in Man, A.D. 1300 to 1500: But Amid Its Splendors, Night Falls on Medieval Christianity. New York, NY: Christian History Project, 2010.

Canning, Ferdinand & Schiller, Scott. Studies in Humanism. Detroit, Michigan: Elibron.com, 1998.

Castiglione, Baldassare. The Book of the Courtier. Florida, USA: Courier Dover Publications, 2003.

Davies, Tony. Humanism. New York, NY: Routledge, 1997, p. 128; and Reese, W. Curtis. The meaning of humanism. London, UK: Prometheus Books.

Frost, Martin. The Book of the Courtier: Renaissance Man: Polymath. Web.

Garber, Daniel & Ayer, Michael. The Cambridge history of seventeenth-century philosophy: Volume 1, Volume 2. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Heidegger, M. The meaning of “Humanism”. New York, NY: Hulton Press, 1949.

• Hetherington, c. Stephen. Reality? Knowledge? Philosophy!: an introduction to metaphysics and epistemology. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press, 2003.
• Kleinhenz, Christopher & Barker, W. John. Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia, Volume 2. New York, NY: Routledge, 2001.

Lamont, Corlis. The Philosophy of Humanism . New York, NY: Humanist Press. Web.

Mary, Julia & Ady, Cartwright. New York, NY: John Murray, 1908.

Miller, David & Coleman, Janet. The Blackwell encyclopedia of political thought. New York, Wiley-Blackwell, 1991.

• Paetow, J. Louis. A guide to the study of medieval history for students, teachers, and libraries. California, USA: University of California, 1917.
• Tyre, Michelin. Italy, Volume 1992. New York, NY: Michelin Apa Publications, 2007.

Viroli, Maurizio. Machiavelli. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Zimmerman, Dean. Oxford studies in metaphysics, Volume 2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006.

• Canning, Ferdinand & Schiller, Scott. Studies in Humanism. Detroit, Michigan: Elibron.com, 1998; and Heidegger, M. The meaning of “Humanism”. New York, NY: Hulton Press, 1949.
• Davies, Tony. Humanism. New York, NY: Routledge, 1997, p. 128; and Reese, W. Curtis. The meaning of humanism. London, UK: Prometheus Books, 1973.
• Lamont, Corlis. The Philosophy of Humanism. New York, NY: Humanist Press.
• Zimmerman, Dean. Oxford studies in metaphysics, Volume 2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006; and Garber, Daniel & Ayer, Michael. The Cambridge history of seventeenth-century philosophy: Volume 1, Volume 2. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
• Miller, David & Coleman, Janet. The Blackwell encyclopedia of political thought. New York, Wiley-Blackwell, 1991; and Viroli, Maurizio. Machiavelli. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998.
• Castiglione, Baldassare. The Book of the Courtier. Florida, USA: Courier Dover Publications, 2003; and Mary, Julia & Ady, Cartwright. New York, NY: John Murray, 1908.
• Frost, Martin. The Book of the Courtier: Renaissance Man: Polymath.
• Bori, P. Cesare. The Italian Renaissance. An Unfinished Dawn ?Pico Della Mirandola.
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• Chicago (N-B)

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Issues of Mannerism

This essay about Mannerism explores the enigmatic period sandwiched between the High Renaissance and Baroque era. It elucidates how Mannerist artists departed from classical norms, embracing distortion and symbolism to convey complex emotions and ideas. Despite facing criticism for its deviation from tradition, Mannerism’s influence on subsequent art movements is profound. The essay underscores the significance of Mannerism in challenging conventional notions of beauty and harmony, inviting viewers to contemplate the interplay between reality and imagination in artistic expression.

How it works

Diving into the realm of Mannerism feels akin to stepping into a labyrinth of artistic expression, where every twist and turn reveals a new facet of complexity and intrigue. This enigmatic period, nestled between the grandeur of the High Renaissance and the theatricality of the Baroque era, challenges conventional notions of beauty and harmony, inviting us to explore the boundaries of creativity and individuality.

At the heart of Mannerist art lies a departure from the conventions of its predecessors. Gone are the symmetrical compositions and idealized forms of the Renaissance masters; in their place, we find a world of elongated figures, exaggerated gestures, and surreal landscapes.

Artists such as Parmigianino and Jacopo da Pontormo embraced distortion as a means of expressing inner emotions and psychological depth, giving rise to a new language of visual symbolism.

Yet, Mannerism is not merely a rejection of tradition; rather, it represents a bold experimentation with form and content. The works of artists like El Greco and Tintoretto blur the boundaries between reality and imagination, inviting viewers to contemplate the elusive nature of truth and perception. In their hands, art becomes a vehicle for introspection and intellectual inquiry, challenging us to see the world through a different lens.

Despite its avant-garde sensibilities, Mannerism was not without its detractors. Critics of the time derided its departure from classical ideals as decadent and self-indulgent, dismissing its innovations as mere affectation. Yet, as we look back on this period with fresh eyes, we recognize the profound influence it has had on the course of art history. From the dynamic compositions of the Baroque to the emotive brushwork of the Romantic era, the legacy of Mannerism continues to reverberate through the ages.

In the end, Mannerism remains a testament to the power of artistic expression to transcend boundaries and challenge conventions. As we navigate the intricacies of its works, we are reminded that beauty lies not in perfection, but in the fearless pursuit of truth and authenticity. In unraveling the mysteries of Mannerism, we embark on a journey of discovery, where each brushstroke tells a story and every composition invites us to see the world anew.

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