what is epic poetry essay

Definition of Epic

An epic is a long narrative poem that is elevated and dignified in theme , tone , and style . As a literary device, an epic celebrates heroic deeds and historically (or even cosmically) important events. An epic usually focuses on the adventures of a hero who has qualities that are superhuman or divine, and on whose very fate often depends on the destiny of a tribe, nation, or sometimes the whole of the human race. The Iliad , the Odyssey , and the Aeneid are considered the most important epics in western world literature, although this literary device has been utilized across regions and cultures.

Epic comes from the ancient Greek term  epos , meaning story , word, poem. The  Epic of Gilgamesh is considered by many scholars to be the oldest surviving example of a work of literature. This epic, traced back to ancient Mesopotamia in approximately 2100 BC, relays the story of Gilgamesh, an ancient king descended from the gods. Gilgamesh undergoes a journey to discover the secret of immortality.

Characteristics of an Epic

Though the epic is not a frequently used literary device today, its lasting influence on poetry is unmistakable. Traditionally, epic poetry shares certain characteristics that identify it as both a literary device and poetic form. Here are some typical characteristics of an epic:

• written in formal, elevated, dignified style
• third-person narration with an omniscient narrator
• begins with an invocation to a muse who provides inspiration and guides the poet
• includes a journey that crosses a variety of large settings and terrains
• takes place across long time spans and/or in an era beyond the range of living memory
• features a central hero who is incredibly brave and resolute
• includes obstacles and/or circumstances that are supernatural or otherworldly so as to create almost impossible odds against the hero
• reflects concern as to the future of a civilization or culture

Famous Examples of Literary Epics

Epic poems can be traced back to some of the earliest civilizations in human history, in Europe and Asia, and are therefore some of the earliest works of literature as well. Literary epics reflect heroic deeds and events that reveal significance to the culture of the poet. In addition, epic poetry allowed ancient writers to relay stories of great adventures and heroic actions. The effect of epics was to commemorate the struggles and adventures of the hero to elevate their status and inspire the audience .

Here are some famous examples of literary epics:

• The Iliad  and  The Odyssey : epic poems attributed to Homer between 850 and 650 BC. These poems describe the events of the Trojan War and King Odysseus’s return journey from Troy and were initially conveyed in the oral tradition.
• The  Mahābhārata: an epic poem from ancient India composed in Sanskrit.
• The Aeneid : epic poem composed in Latin by Virgil, a Roman poet, between 29 and 19 BC. This is a narrative poem that relates the story of Aeneas, a Trojan descendent and forebear to the Romans.
• Beowulf : an epic poem was written in Old English between 975 and 1025 AD. It is not attributed to an author, but is known for the conflict between Beowulf , a Scandinavian hero, and the monster Grendel.
• The  Nibelungenlied: the epic narrative poem was written in Middle High German, c. 1200 AD. Its subject is Siegfried, a legendary hero in German mythology.
• The Divine Comedy : epic poem by Dante Alighieri and was completed in 1320. Its subject is a detailed account of Dante as a character traveling through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven.
• The Faerie Queene : an epic poem by Edmund Spenser published in 1590 and given to Elizabeth I. This poem features an invocation of the muse and is the work in which Spenser invented the verse form later known as the Spenserian stanza .
• Paradise Lost : written by John Milton in blank verse form and published in 1667. Its subject is the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden as well as the fallen angel Satan.

Difference Between Epic and Ballad

Both epic and ballad works date back to ancient history and were passed down from one generation to another through oral poetry. However, these literary devices feature significant differences. An epic is an extended narrative poem composed with elevated and dignified language that celebrates the acts of a legendary or traditional hero. A ballad is also a narrative poem that is adapted for people to sing or recite and intended to convey sentimental or romantic themes in short stanzas, usually quatrains with repeating rhyme scheme . Ballads typically feature common, colloquial language to represent day-to-day life, and they are designed to have universal appeal to humanity as a group. Epic works, however, focus on a certain culture, race, nation, or religious group whose victory or failure determines the fate of an entirety of a nation or larger group but not all of humanity.

Characters in Epic Poetry

An epic poem can have several characters but the main character is always a historical figure or a legendary hero. Such heroes are of noble birth, having superhuman capabilities, with supernatural elements to help them out in difficult situations. He could be an unparalleled warrior, demonstrating superhuman capabilities before superhuman foes. Other characters could be all and sundry, animals , gods and goddesses, and some other superhumans but not equal to the legendary hero. Its classical examples are Odyssey and Illiad . Paradise Lost is the best example of an epic in English Literature.

Features of Main Character in Epic Poetry

The main traits of the central character of an epic are as follows.

• The hero is of a noble birth such as Odysseus.
• He could have superhuman capabilities.
• He is a good traveler and travels to foreign lands.
• He is a matchless warrior and could fight supernatural beings.
• He is a cultural legend and people sing in his praise.
• He is a humble, sympathetic and compassionate fellow.
• He surmounts all obstacles including supernatural foes.

Structure of Epic Poetry

There are several important points in the structure of an epic poem.

• The first line states the theme of the poem such as in Paradise Lost .
• The poem invokes a Muse that has inspired and instructed the poet to write the poem.
• The poem opens from the middle or In Medias Res  and then states the main events.
• The poem includes lists or catalogs of characters, armies, or ships.
• The poem includes long speeches of the main warriors.
• The poem has extended metaphors and extended similes written in iambic pentameter .

Use of Supernatural Characters in Epic Poems

Epic poems often comprise supernatural characters. Some have gods and goddesses such as in Gilgamesh and Odyssey . They help heroes in difficult times. Some have demons and monsters with whom heroes battle and win. Some epics have other supernatural elements with whom the heroes come into contact and win such as Cyclops in Odyssey. Some have mythical creatures such as Eris, Thetis, Enkidu, and Shamas in Gilgamesh.

Origin of Epic Poetry

Gilgamesh is perhaps the earliest known epic that has survived the ravages of time. It is a Sumerian poem of King Gilgamesh and has been traced back to 3,000 BC. It is stated to have the records of King Gilgamesh. Following that, Mahabharta , the ancient Indian epic, was written in 300BC and comprises more than 200,000 verses, the longest epic. Odyssey, Illiad, Paradise Lost, Ramayana, and Shahnameh are some other popular epics of different regions.

Examples of Epics in Literature

Modern readers may consider any lengthy tale of an ancient hero who embarks on a significant journey to be an epic work. However, though this type of heroic story is common in various forms of literature, prose narratives aren’t considered part of the realm of the epic tradition. It’s rare for modern poets to choose epic as a literary device; however, epic poetry remains one of the most influential forms of literature.

Here are some examples of epic poems in literature:

Example 1:  Inferno (first canticle of  The Divine Comedy  by Dante Alighieri)

i am the way into the city of woe, I am the way into eternal pain, I am the way to go among the lost. Justice caused my high architect to move, Divine omnipotence created me, The highest wisdom, and the primal love. Before me there were no created things But those that last forever—as do I. Abandon all hope you who enter here.

This passage is from the first canticle of Dante’s  Divine Comedy ,  Inferno , in which the character Dante makes a journey through Hell guided by the ancient Roman poet, Virgil. As Dante approaches the Gate of Hell, he finds these lines inscribed. The poetic lines represent the “ voice ” of Hell in telling Dante and the reader of Hell’s nature, origin, and purpose. This indicates the pathway of what is to come for Dante on his journey through the epic poem. The inscription describes Hell as a city, structured as a contained geographical area bound by walls and harboring a population of souls suffering various levels and means of torment. This is a parallel for the canticle  Paradiso and its portrayal of Heaven, which is described by Virgil as the city of God.

In addition, the inscription warns that Hell is a place of eternal woes, pain, and loss. Dante witnesses God’s intense punishment of those who sin, lending to Dante’s journey an otherworldly setting that crosses a span of time and memory. The last line of the inscription is an example of the elevated language and tone of Dante’s epic poem. Dante’s character, as well as the reader, are told to “abandon all hope” upon entering the gate of Hell, implying there is no escape from the Inferno with hope intact. Dante’s epic poem is one of the most influential works in the history of literature.

Example 2: Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto

This dog won’t hunt. This horse won’t jump. You get the general drift. However, he keeps on trying, but the fire won’t burn, the kindling is wet, and the faint glow of the ember is weak and dying. He has no other choice then but to let It go and take a nap on the ground there, lying Next to her—for whom Dame Fortune has more Woes and tribulations yet in store.

Ariosto’s epic poem of 1532 is an interpretation of the battles between the Saracen invaders and the Franks. Orlando Furioso is a brave warrior tasked to save his people, indicating a heroic character who is courageous and resolute. However, he suffers from a period of madness due to the seductions of Angelica. This circumstance represents an obstacle for the hero to overcome as a means of fulfilling his journey and destiny in ensuring the salvation of his people. The pairing of valiant duty and passionate love is common in epic poetry. In Ariosto’s work, Furioso ultimately recognizes passion as a weakness not befitting of a knight and he, therefore, returns to placing the importance of duty before any other action.

Example 3: Don Juan by Lord Byron

Between two worlds life hovers like a star, ‘Twixt night and morn, upon the horizon’s verge. How little do we know that which we are! How less what we may be! The eternal surge Of time and tide rolls on, and bears afar Our bubbles; as the old burst, new emerge, Lash’d from the foam of ages; while the graves Of Empires heave but like some passing waves.

Some poets, including Alexander Pope, wrote mock-epics to satirize heroic verse and its elevated stature which became epic works of their own. In “Don Juan,” Byron utilizes the elements of epic as a literary device to reinvent the story of the title character from the Spanish legend of “Don Juan.” However, in Byron’s work, the story of Don Juan is reversed. Rather than portraying the infamous character as a womanizer, he is presented as someone who is easily seduced by women. This allows Byron as a poet to satirize the legend and character of Don Juan in addition to the epic form of poetry as well.

However, though Byron’s epic poem is satirical, it is also masterful in its sixteen cantos of ottava rima or eighth rhyme . “Don Juan” features 16,000 lines in which Byron cleverly utilizes elevated language and tone as a nod to traditional epic poetry, but also intersperses a vulgar style of writing as well to subvert the epic tradition.

Synonyms of Epic

The distant synonyms for epic are a heroic poem, saga, legend, lay, romance , myth , history, chronicle, folk tale, long story, and long poem.

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What Is an Epic? Definition, Usage, and Literary Examples

Epic definition.

An epic (eh-PIC) poem is a long, typically novel-length, poetic work. It is a type of  narrative poem , which tells a story, typically in third-person  point of view , through the typical conventions of  poetry . The conventions include  rhyme ,  meter , or some other aural device, and they are used to make the tale more engaging and memorable. Epics tend to follow a hero who represents a perfect citizen of their culture. These stories are of cultural, historical, and religious importance.

The History of the Epic Poem

Epic poetry has roots in oral tradition, which predates the written word and was the way culture and history were preserved. Although a cuneiform version (character-based inscriptions) of  The Epic of Gilgamesh  was written between 1300 and 1000 BC, the story may have been told as early as 2150 BC. It was likely court singers who performed and passed down the story, preserving it until it finally appeared in written form.

The Trojan Epics

Homer, author of the epic poems  The Iliad  and  The   Odyssey , was likely a court singer or a bard. Little is known about his personal history; some scholars hold that Homer couldn’t have been just one person. His epics brought to life the stories of the Trojan War, though certainly the adventures of Achilles and Odysseus were told long before 700 BC, the rough date of Homer’s works.

Virgil, a Roman poet, took inspiration from the Homeric epics and penned  The Aeneid , an epic poem in dactylic hexameter. It too told the story of the Trojan War and its aftermath. This is perhaps the first well-known epic that was first written, rather than an orally told story that was eventually passed down.

Other Early Epics

Epics are stories that distill entire histories and cultures into something tangible and engaging. They deal with themes and archetypes that everyone recognizes. With cultural pride, people could see themselves in the humanity of these  poems ’ heroes while aspiring to their divinity.

The   Mahābhārata  is the longest poem in history. It tells the story of ancient India, the Kurukshetra War, and the fates of two families. The poem started as a tale (or perhaps several) told to entertain audiences. It was recorded in Sanskrit around 400 BC and now stands as an important source of Hindu beliefs and history.

The well-known  Beowulf  was a long-sung Germanic tale that found its way to the printed page between the 8th and 11th centuries. It follows the life of the heroic Beowulf and his encounters with monsters on his way to becoming a king.

Two of the most notable English epic poems are  Paradise Lost  by John Milton and  Idylls of the King  by Alfred Lord Tennyson, written in 1663 and 1885 respectively.  Paradise Lost  concerns the biblical creation and fall of man, while Tennyson’s epic recounts tales of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.

The Criteria for an Epic Poem

Because epics predate the written word, not every criterion is met in the older works. But, there are several common aspects worth noting.

Story Elements

The epic poem is told by a third-person  omniscient  narrator, meaning they can see everything that occurs in the epic’s universe, including the thoughts and actions of all the characters. The story begins  in media res —Latin for “in the middle of things”—so the narrator often begins by summing up any rising action that occurred before the poem’s beginning. The hero is also introduced in the beginning, as is the main theme or moral.

Epic poetry can be a helpful tool in understanding the religious and moral beliefs of a people at a point in history. The story’s hero protagonist is the embodiment of a culture’s ideals; the seemingly insurmountable obstacles they face often represent cultural challenges or concerns identified by the author.

Epic poems often take place in the far-distant past. They are sweeping tales with flowery language and long speeches. Readers are taken all around the world of the epic. This often includes visits to the underworld or some other form of afterlife, as death and mortality are common themes. Readers can expect to see the protagonist interact with deities or other religious figures who can alter the course of events. A character will often make a dramatic plea for the deities’ help.

The Hero’s Journey

This type of story—a classic structure of an epic poem—has pervaded literature, art, and popular culture since  Gilgamesh  (if not before). The story begins by introducing the reader to life as it always has been. From there, the hero is called into action, which is initially refused. The final ordeal is the most difficult and dangerous task the hero faces, though they end up rising to the occasion and setting things right.

Look at the classic animated film  The Lion King . It begins by showcasing the “circle of life,” wherein animals are accustomed to the predator and prey dynamic. This is best depicted by the celebration of birth of Simba, a lion cub whose father Mufasa is King of the Pride Lands. Simba is the hero of this tale. His call to action comes when Mufasa is tragically killed in a plot by his brother (and Simba’s uncle) Scar. Because Scar leads Simba to believe the young cub had caused his father’s death, Simba retreats to the desert. There, he encounters a meerkat (Timon) and warthog (Pumbaa) who guide him through his adolescence in the grasslands. In the rising action, Simba is reunited with his childhood friend Nala, who tells him that he must return to save the Pride Lands because Scar has taken over and made things miserable. Simba initially refuses, until an encounter with his father’s ghost convinces him to confront his fears and accept his responsibilities. Simba returns home and battles his uncle to reclaim his rightful place on the throne. With Scar’s defeat, Simba completes his hero’s journey and saves his home.

Poetic Elements

Some type of  rhythm ,  rhyme , or other poetic device is usually employed in an epic poem. This is likely due to its history in oral tradition, which used poetic techniques to keep the tales easy to remember and recite.

Meter  is the rhythmic structure of a poem based on the number and arrangement of stressed syllables in a line of poetry. Old English meter, as in  Beowulf , used strong stresses, long pauses, and lots of alliteration. Ancient Latin and Greek poetry used dactylic hexameter. This type of meter is based around a dactyl, a metrical foot comprised of one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables.  The Iliad ,  The Odyssey ,  The Aeneid , and the works of Ovid are composed in this meter.

While this meter might not work as well in English, Longfellow used it in his epic poem “ Evangeline .” He was harshly criticized for it, as it sounds sing-songy and unnatural. Consider the first couple lines, where the stressed syllables are bolded for emphasis:

This  is the  for est pri me val. The  mur muring  pines  and the

Bear ded with  moss , and in  gar ments  green , indis tinct  in the

Rhyme scheme  can be a major component of epic poetry. Italian poet Dante Alighieri invented the terza rima rhyme scheme in his  Divine Comedy  trilogy. This form is written in tercets—blocks of three lines—with an interweaving rhyme scheme. In the first tercet, the first and third lines rhyme; in the second tercet, the first and third lines rhyme with the first tercet’s second line; the third tercet’s first and third lines rhyme with the second tercet’s second line of the second tercet; and so on. While this works well in Italian, where most words end in vowel sounds, it is not so easily reproduced in English.

After the 16th century, most English epic poetry was written in blank, or unrhymed, verse using iambic pentameter This is considered the meter that comes closest to natural English speech; Shakespeare wrote most of his plays in this style. Each line of iambic pentameter contains five feet that include an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. These lines from John Milton’s  Paradise Lost  are an example, with the stressed syllables bolded for emphasis:

Re ceive  thy  new  Pos sess or:  one  who  brings

A  mind  not  to  be  chang’d  by  place  or  time.

Common Characters in Epic Poems

Most epics have a central epic hero. This character is often of noble or divine birth. They have naturally gifted skill sets, if not outright supernatural powers. Though the heroes are legends in their homelands at the beginning of the story, they remain humble and focused on the monumental task at hand. This hero often has a loved one they’ll be reunited with at their quest’s end. This supporting character embodies purity and fidelity. Another character is a guide or companion who helps the hero through their journey by providing company and  perspective .

Of course, not every character aids the hero. Most epic poems have a “shadow,” a character who shares some of the hero’s characteristics but whose shortcomings the hero must avoid to complete their quest. In Tennyson’s  Idylls of the King , Lancelot is King Arthur’s shadow, as the former’s weakness stands in opposition of Arthur’s purity. Some characters are purely oppositional, such as the “threshold guardian.” In  The Odyssey , when Odysseus finally arrives home, he is met with Penelope’s many suitors. To reclaim his rightful station, he must fight them.

Post-19th Century Epic Poems

In the late 19th century, literature was influenced by humanism, an ideology that emphasizes the individual over the prescription of church and state. Epic poets wrote works that centered themselves and rebelled against a culture rather than celebrating it.

In his 1855 opus,  Song of Myself , Walt Whitman purposefully breaks many rules of the epic poem by writing in first person and  free verse . But, he fits many other epic criteria. The story begins  in media res . He’s on a hero’s journey of self-discovery, though the world he travels through and the supernatural beings he encounters are internal. In lieu of a traditional guide, mentor, or deity character, Whitman turns to his own mind for aid. He conjures up images to facilitate understanding for himself and others.

In 1937’s  In Parenthesis , David Jones draws from his military experiences to convey the feelings of isolation created by combat. He relates this to the overall human experience, inviting the reader to ask more questions and use wars and other injustices as an opportunity to explore their own virtue.

In 1950, Chilean poet Pablo Neruda published  Canto General , a re-appropriation of Western history from a Hispanic perspective. He asserts himself and his culture in a realm previously dominated by white people of Western-European descent.

Notable Epic Poets

Many of the earlier epic poems cannot be attributed to an author, and an epic can be an author’s entire life’s work, but here are some poets known for writing epics.

• Dante Alighieri,  The Divine Comedy
• Hesiod,  Works and Days ,  Theogony
• Homer,  The Iliad ,  The Odyssey
• Kālidāsa,  Kum ā rasambhava ,  Raghuvaṃśa
• Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,  Evangeline  and others
• John Milton,  Paradise Lost ,  Paradise Regained
• Ovid,  Metamorphoses
• Percy Bysshe Shelly,  Queen Mab  and others
• Edmund Spenser,  The Faerie Queene
• Alfred Lord Tennyson,  Idylls of the King
• Walt Whitman,  Song of Myself
• Virgil,  The Aeneid

Examples of Epic Poetry

1. Virgil,  The Aeneid

Inspired by the works of Homer, Virgil composed an epic poem also based around the Trojan War. Virgil’s work follows the hero Aeneas, the mythological ancestor of the Roman people, as his Trojan fleet searches for a place where they can settle. At the outset, the reader finds Aeneas speaking to his companion Achates, trying to make sense of the ruins of war:

Pensive he stood, and with a rising tear,

“What lands, Achates, on the earth, but know

Our labours? See our Priam! Even here

Worth wins her due, and there are tears to flow,

And human hearts to feel for human woe.

2. Dante Alighieri,  Inferno

The epic  Inferno  is written in first person, so it reads almost like autobiography. The protagonist Dante encounters the ghost of his hero, Virgil, at the end of the first canto (or verse). Virgil calls Dante to action, inviting him to embark on a journey through Hell and Purgatory to the Kingdom of God:

Therefore I judge it best that you should choose

To follow me, and I will be your guide

Away from here and through an eternal place:

To hear the cries of despair, and to behold

Ancient tormented spirits as they lament

In chorus the second death they must abide.

3. Okot p’Bitek,  Song of Lawino

Like Walt Whitman, Ugandan poet p’Bitek didn’t conform to the formality of certain poetic forms. The entire poem is an invocation of sorts: Lawino’s husband, Ocol, has taken a new wife who conformed to Western influence. Lawino begs Ocol—and, metaphorically, the entirety of liberated Africa—to preserve and celebrate his Acholi culture, rather than surrender to the Western ways.

I do not like dusting myself

with powder:

The thing is good on pink skin

Because it is already pale

But when a black woman has

She looks as if she has dysentery;

4. Giannina Braschi,  Empire of Dreams

Born in Puerto Rico, Braschi weaves a complex Valentine to her new home, New York City, where she finally settled after living all over Europe.  Empire of Dreams  takes readers on a journey, from the narrator’s subconscious to the Empire State Building through alternate realities. Braschi explores issues of gender, race, capitalism, immigration, and mortality—all while clowns and shepherds roam the streets and characters morph into each other. Much of the work is composed in prose poetry, which lends itself to the flowing pace:

Shepherds have invaded New York. They have conquered New York. They have colonized New York. The special of the day in New York’s most expensive restaurant is golden acorn. It’s an egg. It’s an apple. It’s a bird. Fish. Melody. Poetry. And epigram. Now there is only song. Now there is only dance. Now we do whatever we please. Whatever we please. Whatever we damn well please.

Further Resources on Epic Poems

Harvard University’s  Center for Hellenic Studies  published a thorough exploration of ancient epic poetry, covering the major players from Ancient Greece to India.

Poets.org  offers a brief history on the form and provides several examples for readers.

Qwiklit offers a list of the  20 greatest epics  in history.

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What is Epic Poetry?: A brief history & explanation

What is epic poetry? We’re going to define epic poetry, briefly discuss the long history of epic poetry, and review what makes an epic poem.

The oldest known story in human history is not a novel, play, or even a folk tale—the oldest piece of literature known is a poem, an epic poem, to be precise. The Epic of Gilgamesh is a poem written in the earliest known civilization, ancient Sumer, almost 3000 years ago. This epic poem was the ancient world’s version of a modern day blockbuster.  So, what is epic poetry?

Storytelling is a tradition that is as old as civilization. For thousands of years, epic poetry was the dominant form of entertainment. So, in this article, we will look at what makes an epic poem, its features,  its significance, its place in history, and how an epic poem is different from other forms of poetry and storytelling. 

Let’s get into it! 

What is an Epic Poem? 

An epic poem is a book-length work of fiction, written in verse and retelling the heroic deeds of an extraordinary person or group of people. Epic poetry is one of the oldest forms of storytelling. The word epic derives from the ancient Greek epos meaning word or poem. One of the earliest known epics, The Epic of Gilgamesh, dates to 2100 BCE.

Epic poems tell the stories of heroic, often superhuman, protagonists such as gods, demi-gods, or other extraordinary characters. These heroes’ fates are often tied to the future of their nation, tribe, or people. 

For example, The Iliad, an ancient Greek epic, features Achilles, whose mother dipped him in the River Styx, making him immortal. Achilles fights in the Trojan war on the side of the Greeks, and he is their champion. He is like a mascot for the Greeks, making it all the more devesting when he dies. 

Epic Poetry Definition 

An epic poem is a book-length narrative, told in verse, that usually recounts the heroic adventures of extraordinary characters. 

What are the characteristics of Epic Poetry? 

Epic poetry is written in a formal, elevated style — These poems take place across a vast setting and feature diverse terrains — The plot often involves supernatural elements — Use of a third person, the omniscient narrator — Poems transmit culture and traditions across generations — Plots often detail myths, histories, or religious tales — The story centers around the feats, strength, or courage of an epic hero. 

The heroes of epic poetry are extraordinary individuals who possess superhuman capabilities. These characters are legendary figures who inspire fear and respect through their incredible prowess.

Characteristics of the Epic Hero 

• Supernatural or noble birth- these heroes are born of noble or divine parents
• Strength- they possess otherworldly power or talent
• Supernatural aid- epic heroes often rely on magical assistance such as Odysseus calling on Athena for advice.
• Courage- these characters are not afraid of a challenge and often lead in battle
• Arrogance- epic heroes are often used to winning and will ignore their character flaws. This ignorance can lead to their downfall in some cases. 

Examples of Epic Heroes 

Gilgamesh, Epic of Gilgamesh 

Gilgamesh is the king of Uruk. He is described as two parts god and one part man. Early in the poem, Gilgamesh is a brutal king who enslaves his people. The gods create Enkidu, a primitive man equal to Gilgamesh in strength. The two men battle but eventually become friends and battle the gods together. 

Rama, Ramayana 

Prince Rama is an incarnation of the god Vishnu. He is a virtuous character who is loved by his people but finds himself exiled by his stepmother. In exile, his bride, Sita, is kidnapped by king Ravana and Rama gathers an army of monkeys to rescue her. 

Siegfried, The Nibelungenleid

Siegfried is a figure of enormous strength and courage. He is a prince who also possesses a magic cloak that grants him extraordinary power and invisibility. He does battle with and slays a dragon. 

Invocation of the Muse 

In Greek mythology, the muses were goddesses of the arts, such as music and poetry. Ancient poets believed these goddesses could inspire writers and musicians by lending their creative gifts. 

Many epic poems will start with a preamble where the poet will appeal to their muse. The poet will ask the muse to help them compose the poem. This invocation also acts as a prologue and will preview the significant events of the poem. 

In practical terms, the invocation is a way of foreshadowing events of the plot for the audience and hooking their interest. You can think of the invocation as the ancient version of the cold open or a way to preview the story’s action. 

Here is an example of the invocation of the muse from The Odyssey: 

“Tell me, muse, of the man of many ways, who was driven far journeys, after he had sacked Troy’s sacred citadel. many were they whose cities he saw, whose minds he learned of, many the pains he suffered in his spirit on the wide sea, struggling for his own life and the homecoming of his companions.” The Odyssey, Homer

History of the Epic Poem

Epic poetry dates back to the earliest known civilizations, and the form is still used today. These epic poems were prevalent across several geographically and culturally diverse societies. 

Summarian Epics 

Some of the earliest known epic poetry originated in the Middle East and told stories of legendary kings who ruled over Mesopotamia lands. Three of the first epic heroes in recorded history are Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and Gilgamesh. It’s believed that many of these early epic heroes, such as Gilgamesh, are based on real kings. 

Out of these early Summarian epics, the Epic of Gilgamesh is the most influential. The Epic of Gilgamesh consists of five poems and tells the story of King Gilgamesh as he battles and then befriends the primitive man, Enkidu. The two men embark on adventures together, and after Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh takes on an unsuccessful quest for immortality. 

Greek and Latin Epics 

Asian and Middle Eastern traditions heavily influenced Greek epics. The Greek and Middle Eastern cultures, such as the Hittites, were economic trade partners. This eastern influence is seen in early Greek epics such as The Theogony, which parallels the Hittite Hurrian myth. The Iliad and Odyssey also borrow some aspects from the Epic of Gilgamesh. 

The early Roman poet Livius Andronicus translated the Odyssey from Greek into Latin verse. The Roman poet Virgil began writing the unfinished epic Aeneid during the first century. Virgil borrowed heavily from the Greek poet Homer in his work. 

Indian Epics 

Some of the earliest Indian epics were written in Sanskrit. The two primary Sanskrit epics are Ramayana and Mahabharata. Together these two epics compose the canon of Hindu scripture. 

The Ramayana tells the story of Prince Rama. Scholars believe it dates somewhere between the 4th and 7th centuries BCE by the poet Valmiki. The Ramayana is not only a poem, but it is instructive of Hindu ideals. 

Characters in the Ramayana represent ideal Hindul versions of fathers, servants, and kings. Rama is also an ideal character. Not only is Rama an avatar of the god Vishnu, but his life is a model of the dharma. 

Japanese Epics

The most influential Japanese epic is the Medieval poem, Heike Monogatari or The Tale of the Heike. This poem is based on the real-life historical struggles between the Taira and Minamoto families, which plunged Japan into civil war for many years. 

The Heike Monogatari is as important to Japanese culture as the Iliad is to the west. The poem is written in verse and chanted with the accompaniment of a four-stringed lute. A central theme of the poem is the impermanence of all things. 

We can’t discuss the history of epic poetry without discussing Beowulf. This piece is one of the oldest known Old English epic poems. An unknown poet wrote Beowulf in the tradition of the Germanic heroic legend during the 11th century. However, many scholars believe that poets were reciting the epic as early as the 8th-century. 

Beowulf tells the story of the warrior, Beowulf, and three battles with monsters throughout his life. The King of the Danes, Hrothgar, calls on Beowulf for help after the monster Grendel attacks his mead hall. Beowulf battles and kills the beast with his bare hands. 

Beowulf would later fight Grendel’s mother, become king of the Geats, and battle with a dragon.    

Folk Epic and Literary Epic: The Two Types of Epics 

A Folk Epic is also known as a Primary Epic. These epics were not written down but passed down orally over several generations. This oral tradition meant that their narrative would change over time. 

Eventually, poets would try to preserve these Folk Epics by writing them down. The poems would often change based on who was recording them. Authorship of Folk Epics is usually unknown. Folk Epics represent ideas and mythology of the culture of their origin rather than the ideas of a single author. 

Examples of Folk Epics: 

• The Odyssey
• Nibelungenlied
• The Epic of Gilgamesh

Literary Epic 

Literary Epics are also known as Secondary Epics or Art Epics. These poems are written by a single author and use the conventions and style of Folk Epics. Literary Epics usually have a tighter structure and narrative than Folk Epics. This conciseness is because Folk Epics pass down orally. However, a single poet will write and publish a literary epic.  

Examples of Literary Epics 

• The Divine Comedy by Dante
• Paradise Lost by John Milton
• Don Juan by Lord Byron
• The Cantos by Ezra Pound 

Examples of Epic Poetry 

We’ve talked a lot about many of these texts, but I encourage you to read them. Lucky for us, most of these text are old enough that they are decidedly within the public domain. So, I’ve linked the text of fourteen well-known epic poems below. check them out!

• Read The Epic of Gilgamesh
• Read Ramayana
• Read Mahabharat
• Read The Iliad by Homer
• Read The Odyssey by Homer
• Read Aeneid by Virgil
• Read The Nibelungenlied
• Read Beowulf
• Read Heike Monogatari
• Read Metamorphoses by Ovid
• Read Paradise Lost by John Milton
• Read Don Juan by Lord Byron
• Read The Cantos I by Ezra Pound
• Read The Divine Comedy by Dante

The Difference Between an Epic Poem and Ballad

Both Ballads and Epics are narrative poems written to tell a story. However, epic poems are long-form and written in an elevated, formal style, while ballads are in short verse. Ballads use a rhyme scheme called a quatrain. 

Read more about rhyme schemes here. 

Another critical difference between epic poems and ballads is theme and subject matter. Epic poems deal with cultural legends, morality, and the deeds of a superhuman hero. 

Ballads focus on universal themes that are either romantic or tragic. Ballads use short verses so people can sing or recite these poems easily. 

Ballads use simple, colloquial language, while epic poems use an elevated style of speech. Epics and ballads are both poems with a long history passed down from generation to generation. Ballads, like epics, often have unknown authorship. 

Wrapping up

As you can see, epic poetry is one of the most effective forms of storytelling, as old as civilization, yet still popular today. We see the legacy of epic poems in modern superhero films like Batman or the Marvel Universe. Larger-than-life characters perform superhuman feats in these stories and defend virtues like truth and justice. But, remember, before there was an Ironman, there was Gilgamesh, Prince Rama, and Achilles. 

If you enjoyed this article check you should check out my other articles on story structure like Dan Harmon’s Story Circle or The Hero’s Journey! Or, if you’re more into poetry, then I’ve got a section dedicated to poetry right here!

Continued reading on epic poems: 

Heike Monogatari- Britannica.com 

The Ramayana- Asian Highlights

How to Write an Invocation of the Muse- Pen & the Pad

Three Types of Epics- Differenttypes.net

Published by John

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The Genre of Epic Literature and Poetry

A Blend of Narrative Fiction and History Found World Wide

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Epic poetry, related to heroic poetry, is a narrative art form common to many ancient and modern societies. In some traditional circles, the term epic poetry is restricted to the Greek poet Homer's works The Iliad and The Odyssey and, sometimes grudgingly, the Roman poet Virgil's The Aeneid . However, beginning with the Greek philosopher Aristotle who collected "barbarian epic poems," other scholars have recognized that similarly structured forms of poetry occur in many other cultures.

Two related forms of narrative poetry are "trickster tales" that report activities of very clever disrupter beings, human and god-like both; and "heroic epics," in which the heroes are ruling class, kings and the like. In epic poetry, the hero is an extraordinary but also an ordinary human being and although he may be flawed, he is always brave and valorous.

Characteristics of Epic Poetry

The characteristics of the Greek tradition of epic poetry are long-established and summarized below. Almost all of these characteristics can be found in epic poetry from societies well outside of the Greek or Roman world.

The content of an epic poem always includes the glorious deeds of heroes ( Klea andron in Greek), but not just those types of things—the Iliad included cattle raids as well. 

All About the Hero

There is always an underlying  ethos  that says that to be a hero is to always be the best person he (or she, but mainly he) can be, pre-eminent beyond all others, primarily physical and displayed in battle. In Greek epic tales, intellect is plain common sense, there are never tactical tricks or strategic ploys, but instead, the hero succeeds because of great valor, and the brave man never retreats.

Homer's greatest poems are about the " heroic age ", about the men who fought at Thebes and Troy (a. 1275–1175 BCE), events that took place about 400 years before Homer wrote the Illiad and Odyssey. Other cultures' epic poems involve a similarly distant historic/legendary past.

The powers of the heroes of epic poetry are human-based: the heroes are normal human beings who are cast on a large scale, and although gods are everywhere, they only act to support or in some cases thwart the hero. The tale has a believed historicity , which is to say the narrator is assumed to be the mouthpiece of the goddesses of poetry, the Muses, with no clear line between history and fantasy.

Narrator and Function

The tales are told in a mannerly composition : they are often formulaic in structure, with repeated conventions and phrases. Epic poetry is performed , either the bard sings or chants the poem and he is often accompanied by others who act out the scenes. In Greek and Latin epic poetry, the meter is strictly dactylic hexameter; and the normal assumption is that epic poetry is long , taking hours or even days to perform.

The narrator has both objectivity and formality , he is seen by the audience as a pure narrator, who speaks in the third person and the past tense. The poet is thus the custodian of the past. In Greek society, the poets were itinerant who traveled throughout the region performing at festivals, rites of passage like funerals or weddings, or other ceremonies.

The poem has a social function , to please or entertain an audience. It is both serious and moral in tone but it doesn't preach.

Examples of Epic Poetry

• Mesopotamia : Epic of Gilgamesh
• Greek: The Iliad, The Odyssey
• Roman: The Aeneid
• India: Loriki, Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata, Ramayana
• German: The Ring of the Nibelung, Roland
• Ostyak: The Song of the Golden Hero
• Khirghiz: Semetey
• English : Beowulf, Paradise Lost
• Ainu: Pon-ya-un-be, Kutune Shirka
• Georgia: The Knight in the Panther
• East Africa: Bahima Praise Poems
• Mali: Sundiata
• Uganda: Runyankore

Source: Hatto AT, editor. 1980. Traditions of Heroic and Epic Poetry . London: Modern Humanities Research Association.

• What Is Narrative Poetry? Definition and Examples
• The Life and Work of Homer
• Heroic Couplets: What They Are and What They Do
• What Did "Kleos" Mean for the Ancient Greeks?
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• Classic Works of Literature for a 9th Grade Reading List
• The Myth of Gilgamesh, Hero King of Mesopotamia
• List of Characters in 'The Iliad'
• 'The Odyssey' Quotes Explained
• Early Greek Poets Chronology
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Epic is a long, often book-length, narrative in verse form that retells the heroic journey of a single person, or group of persons. 

Discover more poetic terms .

History of the Epic Form

The word "epic" comes from Latin epicus and from Greek epikos, meaning "a word; a story; poetry in heroic verse." The elements that typically distinguish epics include superhuman deeds, fabulous adventures, highly stylized language, and a blending of lyrical and dramatic traditions, which also extend to defining heroic verse.

Many of the world’s oldest written narratives are in epic form, including the Babylonian Gilgamesh , the Sanskrit Mahâbhârata , Homer ’s Iliad and Odyssey , and Virgil ’s Aeneid . Both of Homer’s epics are composed in dactylic hexameter, which became the standard for Greek and Latin oral poetry. Homeric verse is characterized by the use of extended similes and formulaic phrases, such as epithets, to fill out the verse form. Greek and Latin epics frequently open with an invocation to the muse, as is shown in the opening lines of The Odyssey . 

Over time, the epic has evolved to fit changing languages, traditions, and beliefs. Some epics of note include Beowulf , Edmund Spenser ’s The Faerie Queene ,  John Milton ’s Paradise Lost , and Elizabeth Barrett Browning ’s Aurora Leigh . The epic has also been used to formalize mythological traditions in many cultures, such as the Norse mythology in Edda and Germanic mythology in Nibelungenlied , and more recently, the Finnish mythology of Elias Lönnrot’s Kalevala . 

In the twentieth century and beyond, poets expanded the epic genre further with a renewed interest in the long poem with the canto . Examples such as  The Cantos by Ezra Pound , Maximus by Charles Olson ,  The Anniad  by Gwendolyn Brooks ,  The Battlefield Where the Moon Says I Love You by Frank Stanford , The Iovis Trilogy  by Anne Waldman , and Paterson by William Carlos Williams  all push and pull at the boundaries of the genre, re-envisioning the epic through the lens of modernism .

Featured Poets

The following poets, as well as many others, are known for their work in the epic form.

Dante Alighieri :  The author of  La Commedia  ( The Divine Comedy ), Dante Alighieri was born Durante Alighieri in Florence, Italy, in 1265.

Anne Carson : A poet, playwright, and classicist, Carson is the author of numerous genre-defying works that borrow from the epic form, including  The Autobiography of Red .

Nazim Hikmet :  Born in 1902 in what was then the Ottoman Empire, Hikmet went on to write multiple epic works, including  Human Landscapes from My Country: An Epic Novel in Verse .

Homer : Credited with composing  The Iliad  and  The Odyssey , Homer is arguably the greatest poet of the ancient world. Historians place his birth sometime around 750 BC.

John Milton : Born in London in 1608, Milton published multiple epic poems, including  Paradise Lost  and  Samson Agonistes .

Virgil :  Publis Vergilius Maro, most famously the author of the Aeneid , was born in northern Italy in 70 B.C.E.

Anne Waldman :  Born in New Jersey in 1945, Anne Waldman is known for her work in mythopoetics and is the author of the feminist epic  The Iovis Trilogy .

“By the time WWII broke out, H. D. was at the height of her idiosyncratic powers.... In  Trilogy , her epic poem in three parts, written during World War II, she enters another phase of her writing—putting her visionary impulses to new uses. H. D. reports on war-torn London—not envisions, not invents or ennobles, but reports. The life of a bombed civilian city is of first importance; the speaker is one of its civilians.” —“ Shot Through with Brightness: The Poems of H. D. ”

“Milton cannot be said to have contrived the structure of an epic poem, and therefore owes reverence to that vigour and amplitude of mind to which all generations must be indebted for the art of poetical narration, for the texture of the fable, the variation of incidents, the interposition of dialogue, and all the stratagems that surprise and enchain attention. But, of all the borrowers from Homer, Milton is perhaps the least indebted.” —“ Blank Verse and Style: On John Milton ”

“Because epics, narrative poetry, and the voices that one grows up hearing were created by men, Notley says, female poets have suppressed what the female mind must have been like before the existence of the forms invented by men.... She writes, ‘there might be recovered some sense of what the mind was like before Homer, before the world went haywire & women were denied participation in the design & making of it....’ In this light, the quoted, collage-like aspect of her epic poem is particularly interesting, as if she's saying the female epic voice can only be quoted, but not generated whole.” —“ Finding the Female Voice: Alice Notley’s Poems and Collages ”

“Some of these long poems are epic (Waldman) and some anti-epic (Schuyler). Some are lyric sequences (Forché), some are hybrid texts (Waldman, Rankine, Williams), and some are book-length single poems with or without sections (Notley, Carson, Mayer, Sikelianos). Some are written in form (Koestenbaum) or look like prose (Stein) or read like a novel (Nelson). The form seems almost compelled to subvert (often by assimilating) genre categories. Still, long poems have more in common than just length, and the fact of their length alone is meaningful.” —Rachel Zucker, “ An Anatomy of the Long Poem ”

Related Poetic Terms

Oral-Formulaic Method :  “Milman Parry (1902–1935) and his student Albert Lord (1912–1991) discovered and studied what they called the oral-formulaic method... referred to as ‘ oral-traditional theory, ’ ‘ the theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition, ’ and the ‘ Parry-Lord theory. ’ Parry used his study of Balkan singers to address what was then called the ‘ Homeric Question, ’ which circulated around the questions of ‘ Who was Homer? ’ and ‘ What are the Homeric poems? ’ ”—Edward Hirsch,  A Poet's Glossary

Poetic Contest : “The poetic contest, a verbal duel, is common worldwide. It has been documented in a large number of different poetries as a highly stylized form of male aggression, a model of ritual combat, an agonistic channel, a steam valve, a kind of release through abuse. The poetic contest may be universal because it provides a socially acceptable form of rivalry and battle.” —Edward Hirsch,  A Poet's Glossary

Verse Novel :  “A novel in poetry. A hybrid form, the verse novel filters the devices of fiction through the medium of poetry. There are antecedents for the novelization of poetry in long narrative poems, in epics, chronicles, and romances, but the verse novel itself, as a distinct nineteenth-century genre, is different than the long poem that tells a story because it appropriates the discourse and language, the stylistic features of the novel as a protean form.” —Edward Hirsch,  A Poet's Glossary

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Literary Tools Rooted in Epic Literature 🧸

Because an epic poem is, well, epic, it comes as no surprise the traditional literary tools such as simile , take on a whole new form and meaning in an epic. It also comes as no surprise that specific literary devices have been named and identified as examples of epic literature.

Out with the old, in with the new …

An Epic Simile is still a simile in that it is a comparison between two unlike things using the words “like” or “as.” What makes it epic is that the simile is no longer contained to one or two lines. In fact, the comparison may continue for many lines, stanzas, or even pages. Literally, pages.

Epic poems are so long and so complex that writers need to include an Epic Catalog :, an actual listing of people, places, objects, or other things that are just to keep them straight. Epic catalogs are widely recognized as one of the most striking features of epic literature.

Epic Conventions refers to specific elements common to the epic genre . This includes the Hero’s Journey as well as specific elements such as the supernatural or mystical, mythological, the presence of a hero , the grand quest , superhuman abilities, and great deeds.

The Epic Hero is the main character, the star, the grand champion and is usually male (yes, it’s not PC, but you must consider the time periods of most epics). He is typically a larger-than-life figure who often possesses a divine ancestry and/or superhuman powers or abilities. He may be the protagonist or simply a main character, but he’s the star of the show and the one to follow.

A final tricky technique which may be found in epic literature is the Epic Inversion . The technique is not common and is usually defined as an inversion of the Homeric epi c, or technique used to reverse the order of events in an epic, often to create suspense or surprise.

Given the complexity and popularity of the idea of epic poetry, it stands to reason writers will continue to try and recreate something resembling the classic epic. And who knows, with the advent of new technologies, they might even be able to succeed.

Translating the Epic to the Big Screen 🎥

While attempting to translate the epic poem into film, modern cinema does fairly well. The issue is what is perceived to be derived from epic literature. However, with that being said, director Wolfgang Peterson did a wonderful job of capturing the essence and grandiose of Homer’s battle descriptions in T he Iliad and The Odyssey in his 2004 film, Troy . Check out the scene below.

Often Confused With …/R elated literary devices 👥

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Learning is not the product of teaching. Learning is the product of the activity of learners.

How To Write Epic Poetry

Epic poetry is a type of poetry that tells a story. It is often long and descriptive, and can be used to tell the story of a hero or a battle. If you want to learn how to write epic poetry, here are a few tips:

1. Choose a good topic. Epic poetry is often about heroic deeds or great battles, so choose a topic that interests you.

2. Start with a strong opening. The opening of your poem should capture the reader’s attention and make them want to read more.

3. Write in a descriptive style. Epic poetry is often rich in detail, so take your time to describe your characters and setting.

4. Use strong language. Epic poetry is often powerful and dramatic, so use strong verbs and adjectives to create a powerful effect.

5. Tell a story. Epic poetry often tells a story, so make sure your poem has a clear plot and characters.

6. Use rhyme and meter. Epic poetry often uses rhyme and meter to create a musical effect.

7. Edit and revise. Epic poetry can be long and complex, so take the time to revise your poem and make sure it reads well.

How is epic poetry written?

Epic poetry is traditionally written in verse, and tells a long and complex story. It is often based on historical events or legends, and can be moral or religious in nature. The writing of epic poetry is a complex process, and it can take many years to write a successful epic poem.

The first step in writing an epic poem is to come up with a good story. The story should be interesting, and it should be easy to follow. It is also important to choose the right subject matter for an epic poem. The story should be something that is worth writing about, and it should be something that the writer is passionate about.

Once the story has been chosen, the next step is to come up with a plot. The plot should be well-organized, and it should move the story along at a good pace. The writer must also decide on the tone of the poem, and choose the right words to express it.

Once the plot and tone have been decided on, the writer can start writing the poem. The first few lines of the poem should capture the reader’s attention, and make them want to read on. The poem should also be well-paced, and the writer should make sure that there is something interesting happening on every page.

It takes a lot of hard work and dedication to write a successful epic poem. The writer must be willing to put in the time and effort, and they must also be willing to make changes to the story as needed. If the writer is passionate about their subject, and if they are willing to work hard, then they can create a masterpiece that will be remembered for years to come.

What are the 7 elements of an epic?

An epic is a long, narrative poem that tells the story of a heroic figure or group of figures. Epics often explore universal themes such as love, war, and betrayal. They are often told in a grand, sweeping style.

There are seven essential elements of an epic. These are:

1. A hero or heroine: The hero or heroine is the central character of the epic, and the story revolves around him or her. The hero is often larger-than-life, and embodies the qualities of courage, strength, and nobility.

2. A quest: The hero is often on a quest, a journey to fulfill a task or mission.

3. Epic battles: The hero often participates in epic battles against powerful enemies.

4. A larger-than-life setting: The setting of an epic is often grand and sweeping, often featuring majestic landscapes or ancient civilizations.

5. The clash of good and evil: The epic often explores the battle between good and evil, and the hero often represents the forces of good.

6. A moral or lesson: The epic often contains a moral or lesson, teaching readers about important values and virtues.

7. An emotional climax: The emotional climax of an epic is often a moment of great suspense or excitement, when the fate of the hero is in doubt.

How do you start an epic?

An epic is a long and complex story that usually tells the story of a hero or heroine who goes on a journey and faces many challenges. There are many different ways to start an epic, but some of the most common techniques include introducing the characters and setting, setting up the conflict, or starting with a dramatic event.

One of the most important things to keep in mind when starting an epic is to introduce the characters and setting in a way that engages the reader. The first few pages should be exciting and make the reader want to keep reading. You can do this by providing a lot of detail about the characters and their world, by showing the conflict that they are facing, or by starting with a dramatic event.

Another important element of an epic is the conflict. The conflict can be physical, emotional, or spiritual, and it should be something that the hero or heroine is struggling with. This can be a personal conflict, such as a battle between good and evil, or a conflict between the characters and their environment.

Finally, it is important to start the story with a bang. The first few pages should be exciting and make the reader want to keep reading. You can do this by providing a lot of detail about the characters and their world, by showing the conflict that they are facing, or by starting with a dramatic event.

How does an epic poetry begin?

Epic poetry typically begins with a invocation to the muse. The poet asks the muse to inspire him or her to write a great poem. The poet then describes the scene before him or her and introduces the main characters. The poet typically spends a great deal of time describing the characters’ physical appearance and their virtues. The poet then tells the story of the characters’ exploits, often ending with a moral lesson.

What is the beginning of an epic poem called?

Epic poems are long, narrative poems that recount the heroic deeds of a legendary figure or group of figures. They can be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome, where poets like Homer and Virgil wrote epics about the exploits of gods and heroes.

The beginning of an epic poem is called the exposition. This is where the poet introduces the characters and setting of the poem, as well as the main plot or conflict. In many ways, the exposition is like a miniature version of the entire poem, giving readers a taste of what’s to come.

Epic poems can be divided into three main sections: the introduction, the main body, and the conclusion. The introduction sets the scene and introduces the main characters; the main body tells the story of the epic; and the conclusion wraps up the story and brings the poem to a close.

Epic poems are often celebrated for their grand scope and sweeping narratives. They offer a glimpse into another time and place, and allow readers to explore the human experience in all its glory.

How do I write an epic poem?

There is no one answer to this question, as it depends on what you consider an epic poem to be. However, there are some general tips that may help you write an epic poem of your own.

First, you should start by brainstorming ideas and gathering inspiration. This may involve reading classic epic poems like The Odyssey or The Iliad, or simply looking for inspiration in nature, mythology, or your own life. Once you have a strong idea of what you want to write about, you can begin drafting your poem.

In terms of structure, an epic poem typically has three main parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The introduction should introduce your characters and setting, while the body is where the bulk of the action takes place. The conclusion should wrap up the story and leave the reader with a sense of closure.

As for style, it is typically best to adopt a formal, poetic tone. This may take some practice, but it is important to be precise with your words and use strong imagery to bring your story to life.

Ultimately, the most important thing is to simply have fun with it and let your creativity flow. If you enjoy writing, the process will be more enjoyable and the end result will be that much better.

What is the style of epic poetry?

Epic poetry is a type of poetry that tells a long and complex story. It usually has a heroic character who goes on a long journey and faces many challenges. The language and style of epic poetry is often very formal and ornate.

What are the 3 characteristics of epic poems?

The three common characteristics of epic poems are as follows:

1. They are long poems that recount the heroic deeds of a legendary hero or heroes.

2. They are often composed in an elevated style, and use formal language that is meant to be impressive and memorable.

3. They typically deal with serious, weighty themes such as war, love, and the human condition.

What are the 5 characteristics of an epic?

An epic is a long poem that tells the story of a heroic figure or event. The poem typically has five characteristics:

1. It is long.

2. It tells the story of a heroic figure or event.

3. It is written in a poetic form.

4. It is often inspired by a historical event or figure.

5. It is meant to be performed or read aloud.

What are the 7 characteristics of an epic hero?

An epic hero is a character in an epic poem who is larger than life and embodies the ideals of the culture. He is brave, strong, and intelligent. He often has a tragic flaw that leads to his downfall.

What are the 10 characteristics of an epic?

An epic is a long, narrative poem that tells the story of heroic deeds and events. The 10 characteristics of an epic poem are:

1. The poem should be long, with many episodes and a large cast of characters.

2. The story should be based on heroic deeds and events.

3. The poem should be written in an elevated style, using elevated language and poetic devices.

4. The poem should be narrated by a single, all-knowing narrator.

5. The poem should be divided into episodes, each of which should be narrated in turn.

6. The story should be populated by a variety of characters, including heroes, villains, and supporting characters.

7. The plot should be based on a series of conflicts between the heroes and villains.

8. The poem should be structured around a series of moral or ethical themes.

9. The poem should be imbued with a sense of destiny or fate.

10. The poem should be a celebration of the human spirit.

What are the elements of the epic of Gilgamesh?

The epic of Gilgamesh is a Mesopotamian poem that tells the story of a king who is trying to find a way to escape death. The poem has many different elements, including adventure, love, and tragedy.

One of the most important elements of the epic of Gilgamesh is adventure. The poem is full of thrilling scenes in which Gilgamesh and his companion, Enkidu, fight monsters and travel to faraway lands. These scenes help to keep the story exciting and keep the reader engaged.

Another important element of the epic of Gilgamesh is love. Gilgamesh falls in love with a woman named Siduri, and the two of them share a touching moment together. Gilgamesh is also forced to confront his own mortality, and in doing so, he comes to understand the importance of love.

Lastly, the epic of Gilgamesh is a tragedy. Gilgamesh is unable to escape death, and in the end, he must face the fact that he will one day die. This makes the story feel emotionally powerful and moving.

How does an epic begin?

How does an epic begin? The answer to this question is not a simple one, as there is no one formula for creating an epic. However, there are some general elements that are often found in epic tales.

One common feature of epics is that they often involve a journey. The hero may be called upon to leave his home and travel to far-off lands, or to undertake a quest to save the world. This journey often provides the backdrop for the adventure that unfolds.

Another key element of epics is their scale. Epics often tell stories of great heroes and their struggles against mighty foes. They often explore important themes such as love, loss, and heroism. And they often feature a rich, descriptive language that brings the story to life.

Epics are often seen as the cornerstone of Western literature. They can be traced back to ancient Greece, where poets such as Homer wrote timeless classics such as The Iliad and The Odyssey. These works explored the themes and ideas that have become a staple of the epic genre.

Epics have continued to be popular to this day. Modern examples include J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings and George R.R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire. These books have enjoyed enormous success both in print and on screen.

So, how does an epic begin? In short, there is no one answer to this question. However, epics often share certain common features, including a journey motif and a grandiose scale. If you’re looking to write your own epic, these are a few things to keep in mind.

An epic is a long and detailed story that tells the tale of a hero or heroes who undertake a great journey. Epics typically have 10 main characteristics, which include a grand setting, elevated language, heroic deeds, a quest, tragic events, a spiritual message, love story, comic relief, and an enduring legacy.

The setting of an epic is typically large and grand, often including majestic landscapes and sweeping vistas. The language used in epics is often elevated and ornate, and is meant to add to the grandeur of the story. The deeds of the heroes in an epic are often heroic and impressive, and often include great feats of strength, cunning, or bravery. The quest of the heroes is often the focal point of the story, and the challenges they face along the way can be epic in scale. Tragic events are often a part of epic stories, and can often lead to the downfall of the heroes. However, even in the face of tragedy, epics often have a spiritual message that offers hope and redemption. The love story is often an important part of the narrative, and can add depth and emotion to the story. Comic relief is often used in epics to lighten the mood and provide a break from the tension of the story. And finally, the legacy of an epic is often enduring, with the story continuing to be told and retold for generations.

What is an epic? An epic is a long poem that tells the story of a hero’s journey. The hero may be a legendary figure, like Achilles or King Arthur, or a historical figure, like Julius Caesar or Napoleon. The epic tells the story of the hero’s rise to power and his adventures along the way.

How does an epic begin? There is no one answer to this question, as epics can be written in many different ways. However, there are some common elements that all epics share.

First, epics always start with a prologue, which is a section of the poem that introduces the reader to the story and sets the stage for the action that follows. The prologue may include a description of the hero’s home and family, or it may recount the hero’s heroic deeds in the past.

Second, all epics have a main character who is on a journey. This journey may be physical or spiritual, but it always leads the hero to new and dangerous adventures.

Third, all epics are written in a formal style that reflects the seriousness of the story. The language is often poetic and elevated, and the sentences are often long and complex.

Fourth, all epics culminate in a great battle or conflict that tests the hero’s courage and strength. This battle may be fought against a mortal enemy, or it may be a confrontation with a powerful supernatural creature.

Finally, all epics have a satisfying resolution that brings the story to a satisfying conclusion. The hero may triumph over his enemies, or he may die in the battle and be remembered as a hero forever.

What are the 5 elements of an epic?

An epic is a long, narrative poem that tells the story of a heroic figure or event. Epics often explore the universal themes of love, loss, and courage. They are often told in a formal, elevated style and are often considered to be the highest form of literary art.

There are five elements that are essential to an epic:

1. A hero or heroine

2. A quest or journey

3. A formidable enemy

4. A great victory

5. The celebration of the hero’s deeds

How do you write an epic introduction?

There is no one formula for writing an epic introduction, but there are some general tips that can help you create an introduction that will capture your reader’s attention and make them want to keep reading.

One key to writing an epic introduction is to start with a hook. You can hook your reader by using a rhetorical question, a striking statement, or a juicy bit of gossip. Whatever you do, make sure your hook is relevant to your topic and interesting enough to make your reader want to learn more.

Another important element of an epic introduction is setting the scene. Your introduction should give your reader a sense of the world you are about to introduce them to. You can do this by describing the setting, the characters, or the plot.

Finally, you want to make sure your introduction has a clear thesis statement. This is the point you want to make in your essay and the argument you will be making throughout the rest of your paper.

An epic introduction is not easy to write, but if you follow these tips, you can create an introduction that will engage your reader and make them want to keep reading.

Emerson McKinney is a 31-year-old mother and blogger who focuses on education. Emerson has a Bachelor's degree in Elementary Education from the University of South Carolina. She is currently a stay-at-home mom and blogger who writes about her experiences as a mother and educator. Emerson is also a contributing writer for the Huffington Post.

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What is an Epic? || Definition and Examples

"what is an epic": a literary guide for english students and teachers.

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What is an Epic? Transcript (English and Spanish Subtitles Available in Video. Click HERE for Spanish Transcript )

By Tekla Bude , Oregon State Associate Professor of Medieval Literatures

2 August 2021

Today, the word “epic” is an adjective that means something like “big, grandiose, extreme,” or “awesome.” It’s usually used for positive qualities, but it can also be employed to indicate intensity – like in the “epic fail” memes that were so popular in the early 2000s.

epic_fail_meme.jpg

But if we go back to the roots of the word “epic”, we find that its origins are very different from its current meaning. The word “epic” comes from the Ancient Greek word epos, which simply means “word, narrative, or song”.

So, how did the word “epic” evolve from something that basically just meant “words” to a blanket adjective for “intensity” or “extremeness”?

The answer lies in the history of literature !

If we look at its earliest use, epos is just what it says: words, narrative, and songs. The earliest “epics” were poems that told a story and that were performed out loud. Of course, the earliest epics, like Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey survive today because they were written down, but they circulated as orally performed poems – maybe for hundreds of years – before being copied. In fact, the author known as “Homer” probably never existed – he’s a catch-all name we give to the many generations of performers who told, retold, and shaped the stories of the Iliad and the Odyssey over time.

homer_image_for_epic.jpg

These early Homeric “epics” had some qualities in common beyond the fact that they were orally-performed stories.

First, they were about people whose personal qualities were considered “exemplary” in their culture, civilization, or country: in other words, heroes , like Achilles and Odysseus.

Second, they took place in settings that are “universal” in one way or another: either the narrative takes place over a wide range of places and times, involves a lot of travel, or used a single place, like the Walls of Troy, to explore ideas and themes that range widely over human experience.

achilles_epic.jpg

Third, these early epics also invoked deities or the supernatural (Athena, Zeus, Ares, and the like).

Finally, an epic is often used or read as a foundational cultural text. This last quality is incredibly important. The Iliad and the Odyssey – which were long poems about heroes doing heroic deeds and helped or hindered by the gods – ultimately came to “represent” something about a culture to itself: they were the ideals that people wanted to live up to or rebelled against by rejecting.

Today, we apply the word “epic” to all sorts of long works of literature – often ancient ones – that encapsulate our sense of the values of a given society. So not just the Greek Iliad and the Odyssey are epics, but so too is the Latin Aeneid , the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh , Sanskrit Mahabharata and Ramayana , and the Old English Beowulf . Even Milton’s Paradise Lost is sometimes classified as an epic. Today, an epic is an epic if it’s a long story about a hero that serves as an organizing point of cultural or social identity. It might be used to describe any creative media that has a broad scope, that speaks broadly to the human condition, that is long or large, and that is ambitious in its artistic goals. So we might think of Star Wars as a type of cinematic epic.

star_wars_epic.jpg

Over time, then, the connotation of the word “epic” has come to be identified not with the form an epic took (aka, the fact that it was words spoken out loud), but instead with the notion of being large, and looming large culturally. This description might sound overly broad, but that’s how it goes with defining a genre : the texts we identify within a genre are always changing, and so our ideas of the genre change too. No epic obeys all of the conventions of epic, and that’s a testament to the immense creativity of storytellers.

Which of your favorite stories could you consider epics?

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MLA Citation: Bude, Tekla. "What is an Epic?" Oregon State Guide to English Literary Terms, 2 Aug. 2021, Oregon State University, https://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/wlf/what-epic . Accessed [insert date].

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A Story of Epic Proportions: What makes a Poem an Epic?

Priam killed by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, detail of an Attic black-figure amphora, ca. 520 BC–510 BC.

Wikimedia Commons

Some of the most well known, and most important, works of literature in the world are examples of epic poetry. These heroic adventure tales have often had surprising durability over time, such as Homer's story of friendship and heroism, The Illiad , which continues its life in the modern film Troy . Epic poems are more than simply a lengthy story told in poetic form, and their ability to remain accessible, relevant, and remembered over time owes a significant debt to their roots in an oral tradition and to their cyclical pattern of events.

This lesson will introduce students to the epic poem form and to its roots in oral tradition. Students will learn about the epic hero cycle and will learn how to recognize this pattern of events and elements- even in surprisingly contemporary places. Students will also be introduced to the patterns embedded in these stories that have helped generations of storytellers remember these immense poems.

Guiding Questions

What is an epic poem?

How have epic poems traditionally been transmitted from generation to generation?

How do tellers remember these long and complicated stories?

Learning Objectives

Define epic poetry and be able to identify and describe the epic hero cycle.

Analyze epic poems to determine plot, characterization, and themes.

Compare epic poems across time, cultures, and places to determine similarities and differences. 

Lesson Plan Details

• Review the lesson plan, then find and bookmark relevant websites and useful materials. Download and print out the documents you will be using in class, such as the chart of elements of the Elements of the Epic Hero Cycle (PDF).
• Review the background materials on epic poetry (scroll down to the actual "Epic" entry on the web page), the Elements of the Epic Hero Cycle (PDF), the oral transmission of epic poems, and the use of mnemonic devices, accessible through the EDSITEment-reviewed web resource, Internet Public Library.

Activity 1. What are the elements of an epic poem?

Review with students the definition and elements of epic poetry found at the Glossary of Literary Terms.

Ask students what other stories they know or have heard of that follow a similar pattern of action and components described in the definition of epic poetry. While they may not be familiar with some epic stories, they probably are familiar with the Star Wars series of movies, or the Lord of the Rings and the Harry Potter series of books, which they may be surprised to learn also follow an epic hero cycle . Compile a list of stories that follow this pattern. Ask students to suggest stories that fit the epic hero cycle , and introduce the class to stories with which they may be less familiar. Draw students' attention to the ways in which they have come in contact with epic stories rooted in ancient Greece, such as the recent movie Troy . A brief list of epic stories might include:

• The Epic of Gilgamesh
• The Odyssey
• The Ramayana
• The Lord of the Rings series
• The Harry Potter series

Distribute the charts listing the major elements of the Elements of the Epic Hero Cycle (PDF). Divide students into small groups, where they will chose a story from the list they are all familiar with, such as the Lord of the Rings . Ask them to work together to fill in examples of each of the epic hero cycle elements on their charts. Once students have completed the charts, ask them to share some of the results with the rest of the class. Have students compare and contrast their answers.

• Are there discernable patterns in the answers?
• Is the hero a remote figure, or is he or she someone readers identify with?
• Can students identify ways in which the behavior of the epic hero might be teaching the reader a lesson, or presenting an example for them to follow?
• What is the hero's relationship with his homeland (whether that place is ancient Greece or the imaginary Middle Earth)?

Introduce some of the additional elements of traditional epic poems, such as the formal and florid language, their opening with an invocation, or the use of epithets (such as "fleet-footed Achilles"). Read aloud to the class, or distribute copies for students to read, the opening paragraph of two or more traditional epic poems from the list compiled by the class, such as

• The Iliad , found on the EDSITEment-reviewed website The Perseus Project

Ask students to identify elements such as the opening invocation in the opening lines of these poems or the connection of the hero to his homeland, which is the basis for many epic heroes as national figures.

Activity 2. Pass it On!

Explain to students that epic poetry has its roots in oral, rather than literate tradition. These stories were originally passed on by bards, or professional poets who made their living by singing folk tales and epic poems to audiences. While the details of the poem often shifted from one telling to the next, the most important elements of the story always remained the same.

Divide students into small groups where they will work on definitions of "oral tradition" and "literate tradition." Once they have established working definitions of the two traditions, ask them to imagine some of the issues related to the telling of stories by means of oral rather than written communication. Ask them to imagine memorizing a novel, which they would then retell. Without having a text to refer to, would the story have been the same each time it was told? With so much information and detail to remember, how was it possible for bards to memorize thousands of verses of poetry?

Ask each group to choose a fable, fairy tale, or other story they all know. Ask them to identify the most important characters, objects and actions in the story. For example, a list of elements for Cinderella would probably include Cinderella, the wicked step mother and her two daughters, the prince, the fairy godmother, the glass slippers, the pumpkin coach, her banishment on the night of the ball, her running from the ball at midnight, losing her slipper along the way, and the moment when her foot fits the glass slipper. Students will probably find that there is broad agreement on most of the elements on their list: why did most or all of the students in their group identify the same moments or elements in the story?

Next, ask students to compare their list of story elements with other groups in the class. Do they notice similarities in these lists? Ask students to work together on reasons why there are similar elements in each of these stories. What do these elements represent? They should work together to identify what each of the elements they have compiled symbolizes. Ask the student groups to again compare their lists, which they will probably find are similar even for different stories. How does the presence of these similar elements in the fables or fairy tales they have just discussed help them to remember the sequence of events in those stories? Remind students that epic poems are much greater in length than fairy tales, and that certainly bards must have used mnemonic devices to aid them in their telling. How might similar elements, or the presence of a predictable story cycle such as the epic hero cycle , helped bards in the memorization of much longer epic poems?

These elements act like memory markers in the telling of the story, helping the teller to remember how the story unfolds. Breaking the story down into more easily memorized smaller pieces of narrative, and then memorizing the order of these smaller narratives, is a mnemonic device that has been utilized by bards since Homer's time. If the teller can remember these markers, he or she can then elaborate and expand the details of the story for specific audiences, making the telling more personal to the audience. Ask students to work with their groups to come up with answers for why traveling bards might have localized elements of the stories they told as they traveled from one city or town to the next.

Ask students to write a definition for epic poetry, and to give at least one example of a traditional epic poem, such as The Iliad . Ask students to fill in the right side of the chart with the corresponding information from an example of a story that follows the epic hero cycle. Ask them to name at least one modern story that follows the epic hero cycle.

Ask students to define "oral tradition" and "literary tradition." Have them write a short essay explaining at least one mnemonic device that would have helped bards in remembering poems that were thousands of verses long.

More advanced students can be asked to complete a more extensive essay. While they may not all remember or agree on certain details of the stories they have discussed in class—was Cinderella's dress pink? White? Blue?- most of them will agree on the most important elements. Ask students to think of examples of stories set in distant times and places that have been changed to bring the stories closer to contemporary audiences. Examples might include movies such as West Side Story, Troy , or the recent modern telling of Cinderella in which the ball is imagined as a school prom. Ask students to write an essay about the contemporary telling of an old story which answers the following two questions:

• Does changing the time, place, or details such as the style of dress in the "updated" story affect the main elements of the story, or the story's message?
• Why do story tellers (including movie directors) change the story to bring it closer in time and space to its audience?
• Explore the texts of some of the most well know epic poems, such as The Iliad , The Odyssey , and The Aeneid on the EDSITEment-reviewed website, The Perseus Project .
• Learn more about the great epic tradition of India in the EDSITEment lesson plan, The Lessons of the Indian Epics: The Ramayana .

Selected EDSITEment Websites

• Glossary of Literary Terms

Materials & Media

Elements of the epic hero cycle, related on edsitement, introducing metaphors through poetry, listening to poetry: sounds of the sonnet, preparing for poetry: a reader's first steps, animating poetry: reading poems about the natural world.

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Writing About Poetry

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Writing about poetry can be one of the most demanding tasks that many students face in a literature class. Poetry, by its very nature, makes demands on a writer who attempts to analyze it that other forms of literature do not. So how can you write a clear, confident, well-supported essay about poetry? This handout offers answers to some common questions about writing about poetry.

What's the Point?

In order to write effectively about poetry, one needs a clear idea of what the point of writing about poetry is. When you are assigned an analytical essay about a poem in an English class, the goal of the assignment is usually to argue a specific thesis about the poem, using your analysis of specific elements in the poem and how those elements relate to each other to support your thesis.

So why would your teacher give you such an assignment? What are the benefits of learning to write analytic essays about poetry? Several important reasons suggest themselves:

• To help you learn to make a text-based argument. That is, to help you to defend ideas based on a text that is available to you and other readers. This sharpens your reasoning skills by forcing you to formulate an interpretation of something someone else has written and to support that interpretation by providing logically valid reasons why someone else who has read the poem should agree with your argument. This isn't a skill that is just important in academics, by the way. Lawyers, politicians, and journalists often find that they need to make use of similar skills.
• To help you to understand what you are reading more fully. Nothing causes a person to make an extra effort to understand difficult material like the task of writing about it. Also, writing has a way of helping you to see things that you may have otherwise missed simply by causing you to think about how to frame your own analysis.
• To help you enjoy poetry more! This may sound unlikely, but one of the real pleasures of poetry is the opportunity to wrestle with the text and co-create meaning with the author. When you put together a well-constructed analysis of the poem, you are not only showing that you understand what is there, you are also contributing to an ongoing conversation about the poem. If your reading is convincing enough, everyone who has read your essay will get a little more out of the poem because of your analysis.

What Should I Know about Writing about Poetry?

Most importantly, you should realize that a paper that you write about a poem or poems is an argument. Make sure that you have something specific that you want to say about the poem that you are discussing. This specific argument that you want to make about the poem will be your thesis. You will support this thesis by drawing examples and evidence from the poem itself. In order to make a credible argument about the poem, you will want to analyze how the poem works—what genre the poem fits into, what its themes are, and what poetic techniques and figures of speech are used.

What Can I Write About?

Theme: One place to start when writing about poetry is to look at any significant themes that emerge in the poetry. Does the poetry deal with themes related to love, death, war, or peace? What other themes show up in the poem? Are there particular historical events that are mentioned in the poem? What are the most important concepts that are addressed in the poem?

Genre: What kind of poem are you looking at? Is it an epic (a long poem on a heroic subject)? Is it a sonnet (a brief poem, usually consisting of fourteen lines)? Is it an ode? A satire? An elegy? A lyric? Does it fit into a specific literary movement such as Modernism, Romanticism, Neoclassicism, or Renaissance poetry? This is another place where you may need to do some research in an introductory poetry text or encyclopedia to find out what distinguishes specific genres and movements.

Versification: Look closely at the poem's rhyme and meter. Is there an identifiable rhyme scheme? Is there a set number of syllables in each line? The most common meter for poetry in English is iambic pentameter, which has five feet of two syllables each (thus the name "pentameter") in each of which the strongly stressed syllable follows the unstressed syllable. You can learn more about rhyme and meter by consulting our handout on sound and meter in poetry or the introduction to a standard textbook for poetry such as the Norton Anthology of Poetry . Also relevant to this category of concerns are techniques such as caesura (a pause in the middle of a line) and enjambment (continuing a grammatical sentence or clause from one line to the next). Is there anything that you can tell about the poem from the choices that the author has made in this area? For more information about important literary terms, see our handout on the subject.

Figures of speech: Are there literary devices being used that affect how you read the poem? Here are some examples of commonly discussed figures of speech:

• metaphor: comparison between two unlike things
• simile: comparison between two unlike things using "like" or "as"
• metonymy: one thing stands for something else that is closely related to it (For example, using the phrase "the crown" to refer to the king would be an example of metonymy.)
• synecdoche: a part stands in for a whole (For example, in the phrase "all hands on deck," "hands" stands in for the people in the ship's crew.)
• personification: a non-human thing is endowed with human characteristics
• litotes: a double negative is used for poetic effect (example: not unlike, not displeased)
• irony: a difference between the surface meaning of the words and the implications that may be drawn from them

Cultural Context: How does the poem you are looking at relate to the historical context in which it was written? For example, what's the cultural significance of Walt Whitman's famous elegy for Lincoln "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloomed" in light of post-Civil War cultural trends in the U.S.A? How does John Donne's devotional poetry relate to the contentious religious climate in seventeenth-century England? These questions may take you out of the literature section of your library altogether and involve finding out about philosophy, history, religion, economics, music, or the visual arts.

What Style Should I Use?

It is useful to follow some standard conventions when writing about poetry. First, when you analyze a poem, it is best to use present tense rather than past tense for your verbs. Second, you will want to make use of numerous quotations from the poem and explain their meaning and their significance to your argument. After all, if you do not quote the poem itself when you are making an argument about it, you damage your credibility. If your teacher asks for outside criticism of the poem as well, you should also cite points made by other critics that are relevant to your argument. A third point to remember is that there are various citation formats for citing both the material you get from the poems themselves and the information you get from other critical sources. The most common citation format for writing about poetry is the Modern Language Association (MLA) format .

Epic Poetry: Some Features and Examples

Epic poetry some features and examples.

An Introduction To Epic

An epic also called heroic poem is a verse narrative usually long which deals with a serious subject. It is told in a formal and elevated style. It is centred on heroic or quasi-divine figures on whose action depends the fate of a tribe, a nation or the entire human race as in the instance of John Milton’s The Paradise Lost. Epics maybe traditional or literary.Traditional epics are called folk epics. The traditional epics were the written version of oral poems about a tribal or national hero during a warlike age. Among these are the Iliad and

Odessey that are attributed to Homer, the Greek poet. Literary epics were composed in deliberate imitation of the traditional epics. Virgil’s Latin poem the Aeneid is of this kind.

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This epic later served as a model for Milton’s Paradise Lost.

Ask Your Question?

Some features of epics

The hero of an epic is a figure of great national importance. In the Iliad, the hero is the Greek warrior Achilles, who is the son of the sea nymph Thetis, and Virgil’s Aeneas is the son of the goddesses Aphrodite.

The setting of the poem is ample in scale and may be worldwide or even larger.

Odysseus wanders over the Mediterranean basin and in Book XI he descends into the underworlds as does Virgil’s Aeneas.

An epic poem is a ceremonial performance, and is narrated in a ceremonial style which is deliberately distanced from the ordinary speech and proportioned to the grandeur and formality of the heroic subject.

The Epic Conventions

The narrator starts by stating his argument for epic theme, invokes a muse or guiding spirit to inspire him in his great undertaking. The narrative begins in media-res or in the middle of the story. There are catalogs of some of the main characters introduced in a formal detail The term epic is often applied to narratives that differ from this model in many respects but manifest the epic spirit and grandeur in the scale, scope and profound human significance of their subject. In this broad sense Dante’s “Divine Comedy” and Edmund Spencer’s “The Fairie Queene” are often called epics.

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Jeffrey R. Wilson

• Aphorisms on Epic Poetry

To interpret epic poetry is to search for the author’s intent ( in , “toward” + tendere “to stretch”) in writing the poem in the way that it was written – that is, the desired effect of the poem and the means employed to achieve that effect.

Every epic poem has a two-fold intent – mimetic and rhetorical. Mimeses (Gk. μιμεîσθαι, mimeisthai , “to imitate) is the imitation of reality in language. Rhetoric (Gk. ῥήτωρ, rhetor , “public speaker”) is public speech used to accomplish an objective. That is, every epic poem aims to accomplish an objective through the imitation of reality.

When reading epic poetry, ask two sets of questions: (1) questions of mimesis, and (2) questions of rhetoric. One can initially respond to these questions according to figures of singularity and figures of plurality. Singularity (L. singulum , “one, individual, separate”) is the condition of being one or unified. Plurality (L. plus , “more, greater in number”) is the condition of being more than one or not unified.

The questions of mimesis lead one to an ideology of form (if it exists in the poem); the questions of rhetoric lead one to an ideology of mode (if it exists). An ideology (Gk. Ιδέα, idea , “type, model” + λόγος, logos , “reason, study”) is the systematic scheme of typical concepts implicitly or explicitly regarded by a society as true and/or good.

The first set of questions to ask are the questions of mimesis. The questions of mimesis investigate the relationship of a poem’s form and content.

Begin by asking four questions on the epic’s form (L. forma , “shape”), i.e  the shape of the poem:

What is the poem’s meter (Gk. μέτρον, metron , “measure, rule, length, size”)? In both Greek and Latin, the most common epic meter is dactylic hexameter (six feet of stressed-unstressed-unstressed, with unrhymed line endings). In English, epics are often written in pentameter, especially blank verse (five feet of stressed-unstressed, with unrhymed line endings) but sometimes heroic couplets (five feet of stressed-unstressed, with rhymed line endings). A consistent meter and unrhymed line endings are figures of singularity, while a various meter and rhymed line endings are figures of plurality.

How is the poem organized (Gk. όργανον, organon , “instrument, tool”)? Division into books (OE. bóc , “beech-tree”) is common, especially 24 books or 12 books. Division within books into cantos (L. canere , “to sing”) is common, especially in the Renaissance. Division of the verse within cantos into stanzas (L. stare , “to stand”) also occurs in the romance epics of the Renaissance. The fewer the divisions in an epic, the more singular it is.

What is the material condition of the text? A text is perfect (L. per , “thoroughly, completely, to completion, to the end” + facere, “to do, make”) if the author finished the poem, and it survives intact. A text is imperfect (L. im . “not” + perfectus ) if the author did not finish the poem, and/or it does not survive intact. Perfection is a figure of singularity, while imperfection is a figure of plurality.

What is the narrative (L. narrare , “to relate, recount”) structure (L. struere , “to build”) of the poem? If the epic is unified (L. uni “one” + facere “to make”), the action is singular – it can be plotted on a line, though this is not to say that the plot must be linear – collectively related to one distinct event with a beginning, a middle, and an end. If the epic is episodic (Gk. εις, eis , “into” + ὁδός, odos , “way”), the action is plural – and as the action is extraneous, so the plot is digressive – variously related to multiple events that are loosely intertwined, so that an end is always a new beginning.

Pause to articulate the relationship between these four aspects of the poem’s form. How does a given aspect of the form – meter, organization, material condition, or narrative structure – correspond or clash with the other aspects? In terms of singularity and plurality, does any kind of pattern emerge?

Then ask two questions on the poem’s content ( com “together” + tenere “to hold”), i.e. that which is held within the shape of the poem:

What is the war (Teut. werra , “confusion, discord, strife”) depicted in the epic, and who wins? The victor (L. vinecre , “to overcome, conquer”) overcomes its adversary. The defeated (L. dis, “undo, reverse” + facere, “to do, make”) are over come by their adversary. In short, who is fighting whom, why are they fighting, and who wins the fight? The victors experience the war as an historical singularity – a linear series of events leading to their victory – while the defeated experience the war as an historical plurality – a random series of events following from their defeat.

What is the cultural (L. colere , “to attend to, respect”) character (Gk. χαρακτηρ, kharakter , “engraved mark”) of each side of the war? The epic poet always figures general cultural characteristics in specific literary characters and groups of characters. A hero (Gk. ἥρως, heros “men of renown supposed to be deified on account of great and noble deeds”) is someone who epitomizes the character of a culture. A physically heroic character – overcoming adversity through a courageous exercise of will and strength – is a figure of singularity, while an intellectually heroic character – coping with adversity trough a temperate exercise of understanding and reason – is a figure of plurality.

Pause to articulate the relationship between these two aspects of the poem’s content. What are the cultural characteristics that are at war in the epic (that is, the cultural character on each side of the war depicted). What kind of heroism wins the war? In terms of singularity and plurality, does any kind of pattern emerge?

Pause again to articulate the relationship between the form of the poem and its content. What are the possible relationships between the patterns in the shape of the poem and the patterns in that which is held within this shape? Does the author imitate the content in the form? Is there an ideology of form – that is, is there a systematic scheme of typical concepts to be found when the form and the content of the epic are taken together? In the heroic epic, the content and form coalesce to produce an ideology of singularity – granting the physically powerful characters and cultures victory in a unified narrative. In the romance epic, the content and form coalesce to produce an ideology of plurality – submitting the intellectually powerful characters and cultures to defeat in an episodic narrative.

The second set of questions to ask are the questions of rhetoric. The questions of rhetoric investigate the relationship between the beliefs of the epic and the mode of the author.

Begin by asking three questions on the beliefs (ME. bi , “about” + leve , “to permit”) presented in the epic, i.e. the disputed opinions that are permitted to govern the epic world and thus confirmed as true for that world (in short, what theories of truth and goodness explain the events that occur in the epic):

What is the epic’s theology (Gk. θεός, theos , “god” + λόγος, logos, “word, reason”) – that is, the belief that explains the relationship between humankind and divinity in the epic? In a positive (L. ponere , “to place, put, lay down”) theology, the historical events depicted in the poem follow from an interaction of the human and the divine. In a negative (L. negare , “to deny, refuse”) theology, the historical events follow from natural causes, or from a breakdown in the relationship between the human and the divine. With its vertical relationship between the human and the divine, a positive theology is a figure of singularity, but with a circular relationship among humans alone, the negative theology is a figure of plurality. There are almost always gods in epic poetry, but are these gods intended to be understood as real (L. res “matter, thing”) or as machinery (Gk. μηχανή, makhana , “device, means”)?

What is the epic’s domestic (L. domus , “house”) policy – that is, the belief about how a society should govern itself? In an aristocratic (Gk. άριστος, aristos “best” + κρατία, kratia , “rule”) ideology, the chief power of government is granted to the best – a notion that is variously defined according to birth, fortune, or worth. In a democratic (Gk. δῆμος, demos, “the people” + κρατία, kratia , “rule”) ideology, government is decentralized so that the sovereign power resides in the people as a whole, without hereditary or arbitrary differences of rank or privilege. Aristocracy is a figure of singularity, while democracy is a figure of plurality.

What is the epic’s foreign (L. foris “out of doors”) policy – that is, the belief about how a society should relate to other societies? Under an imperial (L. im , “in” + parare “to order, prepare”) policy, one culture desires command and control over another, so the concern is with cultural expansion. Under a national (L. nasci “to be born”) policy, a culture desires stable order within its own borders, so the concern is with the continued prosperity of an already established government. Imperialism is a figure of singularity, with it attempt to subsume all societies into one empire, but nationalism is a figure of plurality, with its attempt to address the various factions of a society.

Pause to articulate the relationship between these three aspects of the beliefs presented in the epic. How does a given belief – theological, domestic policy, foreign policy – correspond or clash with the other beliefs? In terms of singularity and plurality, does any kind of pattern emerge?

Then ask two questions related to the author’s mode (L. modus , “manner”), i.e. the manner in which the author presents the beliefs that explain the events of the epic.

What is the author’s national (L. nasci “to be born”) identity (L. identitas , “sameness”)? The author’s national identity is the cultural character of the group of people that constitute the author’s primary social network. Who in the epic, given this national identity, does the author identify with – the victors or the defeated? For the author to identify with the victors is a figure of singularity, but for the author to identify with the defeated is a figure of plurality.

What is the author’s mood? If the epic aims to present events as they actually occurred, then the mood is indicative. If the epic aims to present events as people said they were, then the mood is subjunctive. If the epic aims to present events as they ought to have been, then the mood is optative. In attempting a unity between the event and the representation of it, the indicative mood is a figure of singularity, but in distancing the events and the representation of them, the subjunctive and optative moods are figures of plurality.

Pause to articulate the relationship between these two aspects of the author’s mode. In terms of singularity and plurality, does any kind of pattern emerge?

Is there an ideology of mode? If there is an ideology of mode, then the author has repeated or transgressed against one of the poem’s beliefs in his/her mode. In the didactic (Gk. διδασκειν, didaskein , “teach”) mode, the author presents an ideology as a position for readers to adopt, so the education of an audience occurs by way of indoctrination . In the ironic (Gk. ειρωνεια, eironeia , “feigned ignorance”) mode, the author does not advocate the ideology represented, in fact he or she usually encourages a critique from the reader, so the method by which the audience is educated is instruction .

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Dante’s Inferno: a Deep Dive into the Allegorical Circles of Hell

This essay about Dante Alighieri’s “Inferno” examines the structured and symbolic representation of Hell in his epic poem. It describes Hell as nine concentric circles, each punishing different sins with precise moral justice. The analysis begins with Dante’s entrance into Hell, highlighting the emotional and spiritual punishments that await sinners, ranging from the virtuous pagans in Limbo to the deceitful in the lower circles. The essay discusses the allegorical nature of the punishments and the inclusion of historical and mythical figures to enrich the themes of guilt, justice, and human frailty. Dante’s guide, Virgil, symbolizes human reason, emphasizing the poem’s focus on reason and divine grace in navigating moral complexities. Ultimately, the essay asserts that “Inferno” serves as a reflection on the consequences of our actions and the importance of ethical living, making it relevant across ages.

How it works

The opening section of Dante Alighieri’s colossal epic poem “The Divine Comedy,” “Inferno,” transports readers profoundly through the several circles of Hell. The poem is a meditation on justice and human nature as well as a religious metaphor of the consequences of sin. Here, we explore the many levels of Dante’s Hell, looking at its organization, meaning, and continuing significance.

Nine concentric circles, each designated for a distinct category of sinners, are used to represent Dante’s Hell. These circles descend into the earth’s interior, where Satan is imprisoned in ice.

This arrangement reflects the poet’s moralistic conception of the universe, in which the complexity and harshness of divine vengeance are analogous to those of human wrongdoing.

The voyage starts in the shadowy woods when the protagonist, Dante, gets lost. This represents the spiritual disorientation that many experience when they deviate from their moral path. He discovers the entrance to Hell, which is marked with the well-known phrase, “Abandon all hope, ye who enter here.” This lays the groundwork for the hopelessness and never-ending retribution that lie within.

The first circle, Limbo, houses virtuous pagans and unbaptized infants. It is a relatively peaceful domain where the only suffering is the absence of God’s presence. This circle introduces readers to the concept that not all punishments in Hell are physical; some are emotional and spiritual.

As Dante progresses to the deeper circles, the sins grow more severe, and the punishments more grotesque. In the second circle, the lustful are forever swept in a violent storm, unable to find peace, just as they allowed their passions to control them in life. This pattern of symbolic retribution continues through the circles. Gluttons lie in putrid sludge in the third circle, a representation of their filthy excesses, while the wrathful fight each other endlessly in the swampy waters of the fifth circle.

The deeper circles punish sins of malice and fraud, which Dante considers more heinous than sins of passion because they involve betrayal of reason and trust. The eighth circle, subdivided into ten ditches, houses a range of deceivers from seducers to counterfeiters, each group tormented in a manner befitting their crimes on earth. This meticulous matching of sin and punishment exemplifies Dante’s belief in divine justice, where Hell serves as the ultimate moral arbiter.

Perhaps the most poignant aspect of Dante’s Hell is its inhabitants. Each sinner has a story, which Dante uses to explore themes of guilt, regret, and justice. Historical figures and mythical characters are judiciously placed to either exemplify their sins or illuminate their human weaknesses. For instance, Ulysses, found in the eighth circle, is punished not for his famed adventures but for the deceit he employed.

Dante’s guide through this infernal landscape is the Roman poet Virgil, symbolizing human reason. Virgil’s presence underscores the poem’s emphasis on reason and knowledge as guides through the moral complexities of life. However, Virgil’s inability to enter Paradise also highlights the limits of human reason and the necessity of divine grace.

The relevance of Dante’s “Inferno” transcends its medieval origins. Today, it can be seen as a mirror reflecting our contemporary moral quandaries. Each circle forces readers to confront not only the darkness found in the poem but also the potential for darkness within themselves. It serves as a stark reminder of the consequences of our actions and the importance of living a life aligned with our ethical beliefs.

In conclusion, Dante’s depiction of Hell is not merely a grotesque spectacle of torment but a carefully constructed allegory that invites readers to reflect on justice, human nature, and the power of redemption. As we navigate through Dante’s Hell, we are compelled to consider the weight of our own choices and the ultimate quest for moral integrity in our lives. This journey, though harrowing, reinforces the timeless message that our actions have consequences, reaching far beyond the scope of our own lives into the cosmic scale of divine justice.

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Home — Essay Samples — Literature — Beowulf — Beowulf An Epic Poem Analysis

Beowulf an Epic Poem Analysis

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Poetry Is an Act of Hope

Through verse, we can perhaps come closest to capturing events that exist beyond our capacity to describe.

This is an edition of the Books Briefing, our editors’ weekly guide to the best in books. Sign up for it here.

Poetry is the art form that most expands my sense of what language can do. Today, so much daily English feels flat or distracted—politicians speak in clichés; friends are distracted in conversation by the tempting dinging of smartphones; TV dialogue and the sentences in books are frequently inelegant. This isn’t a disaster: Clichés endure because they convey ideas efficiently; not all small talk can be scintillating; a bad sentence here or there in a novel won’t necessarily condemn the whole work.

First, here are four new stories from The Atlantic ’s Books section:

• When your every decision feels torturous
• “Noon”: a poem by Li-Young Lee
• A prominent free-speech group is fighting for its life.
• The complicated ethics of rare-book collecting

Poetry is different, however. We expect more from it. Not a single word should be misused, not a single syllable misplaced—and, as a result, studying language within the poetic form can be particularly rewarding. In March and April of this year, two of America’s great poetry critics, Helen Vendler and Marjorie Perloff, died. In reading Adam Kirsch’s tribute to both, I was struck by how different their respective approaches to language were. Vendler was a “traditionalist,” per Kirsch; she liked poets who “communicated intimate thoughts and emotions in beautiful, complex language.” She was a famous close reader, carefully picking over poems to draw out every sense of meaning. For Vendler, Kirsch writes, poetry made language “more meaningful.”

Perloff wasn’t as interested in communicating meaning. Her favorite avant-garde poets used words in surprising and odd ways. As Kirsch writes, “At a time when television and advertising were making words smooth and empty, she argued that poets had a moral duty to resist by using language disruptively, forcing readers to sit up and pay attention.”

I’d reckon that neither Perloff nor Vendler relished lines that were smooth and empty, even though their preferred artists and attitudes toward reading might have differed. Ben Lerner has said that poetry represents a desire to “do something with words that we can’t actually do.” In that sense, poems are a declaration of hope in language: Even if we can’t pull off something magnificent, we can at least try.

Through poetry, we can perhaps come closest to capturing the events that feel so extreme as to exist beyond our capacity to describe them. In the February 8 issue of The New York Review of Books , Ann Lauterbach published a poem called “ War Zone ,” dedicated to Paul Auster, another literary great who died recently. The poem depicts not scenes of violence and gore but the hollow wordlessness many of us feel in the face of war or suffering—then it uses images of silence, blankness, and absence to fight against that unspeakability. The last line, which I won’t spoil here, points to this paradox: Words may not be able to capture everything—especially the worst things—but they can, and must, try.

When Poetry Could Define a Life

By Adam Kirsch

The close passing of the poetry critics Marjorie Perloff and Helen Vendler is a moment to recognize the end of an era.

Read the full article.

What to Read

The Taste of Country Cooking , by Edna Lewis

Lewis’s exemplary Southern cookbook is interspersed with essays on growing up in a farming community in Virginia; many of the recipes in the book unspool from these memories. Lewis, who worked as a chef in New York City as well as in North and South Carolina, writes with great sensual and emotional detail about growing up close to the land. Of springtime, she writes, “The quiet beauty in rebirth there was so enchanting it caused us to stand still in silence and absorb all we heard and saw. The palest liverwort, the elegant pink lady’s-slipper displayed against the velvety green path of moss leading endlessly through the woods.” Her book was ahead of its time in so many ways: It is a farm-to-table manifesto, a food memoir published decades before Ruth Reichl popularized the form, and an early, refined version of the cookbook-with-essays we’re now seeing from contemporary authors such as Eric Kim and Reem Assil. The recipes—ham biscuits, new cabbage with scallions, potted stuffed squab—are as alluring as the prose.  — Marian Bull

From our list: eight cookbooks worth reading cover to cover

Out Next Week

📚 First Love , by Lilly Dancyger

📚 América del Norte , by Nicolás Medina Mora

📚 The Lady Waiting , by Magdalena Zyzak

Your Weekend Read

The Diminishing Returns of Having Good Taste

By W. David Marx

There are obvious, concrete advantages to a world with information equality, such as expanding global access to health and educational materials—with a stable internet connection, anyone can learn basic computer programming from online tutorials and lectures on YouTube. Finding the optimal place to eat at any moment is certainly easier than it used to be. And, in the case of Google, to “organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful” even serves as the company’s mission. The most commonly cited disadvantage to this extraordinary societal change, and for good reason, is that disinformation and misinformation can use the same easy pathways to spread unchecked. But after three decades of living with the internet, it’s clear that there are other, more subtle losses that come with instant access to knowledge, and we’ve yet to wrestle—interpersonally and culturally—with the implications.

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Praiseworthy by Alexis Wright review – an Australian epic

Fake news, fascists and firestorms in a brilliant satire about the wresting of identity from Indigenous people

I n a lifetime of writing, Alexis Wright became aware of “how other people were telling stories on behalf of Aboriginal people in Australia”. A national narrative manipulated by the most powerful, she wrote in a 2016 essay , would “constantly be on my mind while trying to tell stories of who we are … The cloud is always present.”

That cloud takes tangible form in her fourth novel, Praiseworthy, which follows 2013’s The Swan Book, a climate crisis dystopia, and 2006’s Carpentaria, winner of the Miles Franklin award. Set in the scorching, dirt‑poor fictional town of Praiseworthy on the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia, this incandescent, polyphonic novel – a free-wheeling, circling narrative told by 10 “oracles” – recalls the choral Tracker , Wright’s 2017 biography of an activist of the stolen generations assembled through first-person testimony. Yet besides Indigenous storytelling, the novel’s vernacular poetry, flights of magic realism and lyrical interiority about internalised hatred nod to other ancestors, from Homer, Joyce, García Márquez and Fuentes to Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye.

A polluting, skin-scourging, ochre dust cloud sits immovably above Praiseworthy, a “sulky haze … full of broken ancestors”. The unquiet spirits are grieving two centuries of dispossession, and the desecration of land whose rightful stewards know more than the rest of humanity about how to look after the future. Readers are plunged into the worldview of those who have survived “cataclysmic times generated by the mangy dogs who had stolen their traditional land”. In the novel’s excoriating satire on assimilation, townsfolk who seek “to turn themselves into white-type superior people” want the Australian army to bomb the cloud. Yet it outlives several prime ministers, who do “bugger-all about the haze”.

The protagonist, Cause Man Steel, is a “culture dreamer” who hears “the crying and screaming of every single animal caught in firestorms”. Yet, figuring global heating could herald a “golden age for the downtrodden black man”, Cause takes his cue from the global poor, who use donkeys rather than fossil fuel, and hatches a plan for a “world-class donkey transport conglomerate” to beat the climate crisis. A crazed visionary, whose belief in economic self-reliance owes much to the tracker of Wright’s biography, his ambition triggers the central quest – both Homeric and quixotic. He sets out in an old Falcon sedan to round up the hardiest feral donkeys in northern Australia.

A doomsayer messiah who lives in the contested Native Title land of the town graveyard, Cause is “sabotaged by the very people he was trying to save”. His foil and nemesis is Major Mayor, an all-round villain known as Ice Pick after mysteriously appearing to turn white. Forever “kowtowing to a conga-line of government politicians”, Ice Pick accuses his constituents of being “child-killer parents”, urging them to “love your children like white people” love theirs.

Cause’s wife, Dance, is absorbed in her own quests: for butterflies, or for the homeland of a Chinese ancestor. Their 17-year-old amateur boxer son, Aboriginal Sovereignty – named “so that the boy would always remember who he was” – is a “bony gazelle” in ripped jeans. Part of a beleaguered young generation, he had “walked the distances of old men many times”, though his father could “never see the police cars roaring through the streets of his son’s brain”. He falls in love with a girl two years his junior.

His eight-year-old brother, Tommyhawk, is a “smart‑arse fascist kid” whose goal is to “supersonically shoot himself faster than sound out of Praiseworthy”. Spending most of his time online makes him prey to fake news claiming that “Aboriginal communities are an infestation of predatory paedophiles”. Convinced he must be taken “into the white world before he too was molested”, he determines to “only tell white people what they wanted to hear”. The callow child’s indoctrination unleashes tragedy. Tommyhawk shops his brother for his underage love – bringing down police brutality and alien law.

The novel’s notional 2008 setting puts it a year into the Howard-driven Northern Territory intervention, whose pretext was a report on child sexual abuse entitled Little Children Are Sacred. Mindful of stolen generations, child suicides and thwarted self-determination, the novel targets malign fictions hammered home for political ends. If its satire is relentlessly repetitive, it is an indignant response to “repetitious mantra broadcasts”. As the 14 October no vote on the Indigenous voice to parliament has made many despair at an impervious national narrative, some reiteration may be called for.

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In her 2016 essay, Wright states: “If you ever wanted to know why Australia is not capable of grappling with the truth of its history, it is because we have remained in [a] storytelling war with each other.” This immersive epic marks a decisive stand. It suggests what would be lost were assimilation to succeed: vital knowledge for the future of humankind gleaned from the “biggest library in the world – country”. Yet its anguished elegy is offset by a confidence in survival, born of a long view of tens of thousands of years.

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David Shapiro, Who Gained Fame in Poetry and Protest, Dies at 77

A renowned member of the New York School of poets, he also found accidental notoriety when he was photographed during the 1968 uprising at Columbia University.

By Alex Williams

David Shapiro, a cerebral yet deeply personal poet aligned with the so-called New York School, whose highly lyrical work balanced copious literary allusions with dreamlike imagery and intimate reflections drawn from family life, died on Saturday in the Bronx. He was 77.

His wife, Lindsay Stamm Shapiro, said the cause of death, in a hospice facility, was Parkinson’s disease.

Mr. Shapiro published 11 volumes of poetry during his six-decade career. His book “You Are The You: Writings and Interviews on Poetry, Art and the New York School” is scheduled to be published this fall. His 1971 collection, “A Man Holding an Acoustic Panel,” was nominated for a National Book Award.

He was also an art historian, producing monographs on Piet Mondrian, Jasper Johns, Jim Dine and other painters. And he maintained a career in academia that included decades as an art history professor at William Paterson University in Wayne, N.J. In the 1970s, he taught English and comparative literature at his alma mater, Columbia University.

It was there as an undergraduate that he first tasted fame, albeit unwittingly, during the landmark student uprising in the spring of 1968, which was sparked by outrage over the university’s ties to research for the Pentagon, its plans to build a gym on nearby public land and other issues.

Mr. Shapiro was just weeks from graduating when another student photographed him in the office of the university’s president, Grayson Kirk, in Low Library after it was occupied by protesters.

Shown seated in a high-backed chair behind Mr. Kirk’s paper-strewn desk, Mr. Shapiro captured the spirit of a moment, casually smoking one of Mr. Kirk’s cigars while wearing sunglasses and a defiant smirk.

The photograph ran in Life magazine and publications around the world. Although it became an enduring symbol of the student protests that roiled universities across the nation in the late 1960s, Mr. Shapiro preferred over the years to focus on his literary achievements, not on his cameo as a campus rebel.

Mr. Shapiro was a nimble-minded, voluble and gregarious polymath who demonstrated an almost gymnastic ability to bound between intellectual topics, the writer Lucy Sante , a friend and a former student of Mr. Shapiro’s at Columbia, said in an interview.

“David just thought about 15 times as fast as the average person, and he talked that fast as well,” Ms. Sante said. “Any conversation with David, in or out of the classroom, was a dense weave of references to art and literature and music and science, emitted directly from his subconscious, swerving this way and that and spinning out into epic digressions.”

A literary prodigy, Mr. Shapiro was already publishing poems in European and South African journals by the age of 10. At 14, he published a poem in The Antioch Review, his first in the United States. As a freshman at Columbia in 1965, he published his first poetry collection, “January.”

He was often categorized as part of the New York School — an experimental vanguard, starting in the 1950s, of visual artists, dancers and poets, including John Ashbery , Frank O’Hara and Kenneth Koch , who was also a Columbia professor and mentored Mr. Shapiro.

Mr. Shapiro was considered part of the second generation of the New York School, along with Ted Berrigan, Alice Notley, Ron Padgett and others.

“Although often described as a member of the New York School of poets, David Shapiro wrote poems that sound like no one else’s,” Mr. Padgett wrote in an email, “poems full of mystery, lyricism, and agile leaps of an eternally fresh spirit, with surprising humor in the music of his unearthly melancholy.”

In his 1977 poem “Stay Stay Stay Stay,” Mr. Shapiro “waves away iconic love poems from ancient Greece and modern-day France and begs his love to simply stay stay stay stay,” the poet Kate Farrell wrote in an email.

It is snowing on the kindergarten It is snowing on your eyelids Love’s dice Are manias and fights Anacreon writes You are standing on my eyelids

And your hair Is in my hair As Paul Eluard Says elsewhere And what do you say? I say

Stay stay stay stay streak intrinsicality

His work also drew from surrealism and the avant-garde; he employed dramatic shifts in level of diction, or even in subject, within a single poem, as well as taking a literary collage approach, which he discussed in a 1990 interview with Pataphysics magazine.

“I’ve transformed grammar and physics textbooks and played with their degraded diction,” he said.

In his 1979 poem “A Song,” he added, he took snippets of the 1966 Percy Sledge song “When a Man Loves a Woman” and transformed them into “a disco cascade with elements of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.”

David Joel Shapiro was born on Jan. 2, 1947, in Newark, N.J., the third of four children of Dr. Irving Shapiro, a dermatologist, and Fraida (Chagy) Shapiro, a schoolteacher. He spent summers in Deal, a breezy seaside borough on the Jersey Shore near Asbury Park, which he later invoked in his lauded 1969 collection, “Poems From Deal.”

His maternal grandfather, Berele Chagy, was a well-known cantor, and his family was steeped in music. When he was a child, his family formed a quartet, with David on violin, that performed on the Voice of America radio network when he was 5. In his teens, he performed with the New Jersey Symphony and the American Symphony Orchestra under Leopold Stokowski .

He left Weequahic High School in Newark after his junior year to enroll in Columbia in 1964, graduating in 1968 with a bachelor’s degree in English and comparative literature. He later received a master’s degree from the University of Cambridge and a doctorate in English from Columbia.

In addition to his wife, he is survived by his sisters, Judith Silverman, Naomi Shapiro and Debra Shapiro, and his son, Daniel.

A product of a left-wing household, Mr. Shapiro at times wove themes of political liberation into his work.

His 1971 poem “The Funeral of Jan Palach” was written from the ghostly perspective of a Czech student who died three days after setting himself on fire in Prague in January 1969, in the turbulent protests against the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia the previous summer:

When I entered the first meditation I escaped the gravity of the object, I experienced the emptiness, And I have been dead a long time.

The poem was later inscribed on a haunting memorial to the martyred student in the city by the artist and architect John Hejduk.

But it was a very different political statement that brought Mr. Shapiro international attention: his occupation photo. Mr. Shapiro came to regret the shot, in part because it made him seem like a leader of the protests, although he was only a participant.

The photograph also caused him plenty of other problems. “He was clubbed by police and suspended by Columbia — he almost didn’t graduate,” his wife said in an interview. “He had been given a five-year fellowship to Harvard, and that was rescinded. Even going through customs, he was on the F.B.I. lookout list.”

In a 2018 interview with the New Jersey newspaper The Record, Mr. Shapiro issued a mea culpa of sorts. “I’d like to apologize for the rudeness of my youth,” he said. “That’s not a picture. That’s a parody.”

An earlier version of this obituary misstated the name of a forthcoming book by Mr. Shapiro. It is “You Are The You,” not “You Are You.” It also misstated the last word of his poem “Stay Stay Stay Stay.” It is “intrinsicality”, not “intrinsically.”

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Alex Williams is a Times reporter on the Obituaries desk. More about Alex Williams