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Frequently asked questions about the COMET

Download COMET FAQ's here

What are the COMET main and alternate criteria?

The main criteria for each level at the college are:

Degree Level

Essay >=34, and reading comprehension >= 9th grade

Achieving College Excellence (ACE)

Essay >=28, and reading comprehension >=7th grade

Certificate (ACE)

Essay >=20, and reading comprehension >=5th grade

A set of alternate criteria was also established since some students may have good reading comprehension scores and math scores, but an essay or reading score that is a little low. This alternate criteria is implemented after the first set of criteria is applied.

• Reading comprehension >= 10th grade
• Essay >= 28, and reading comprehension >= 8th grade, and MS >=096
• Essay >=42, and reading comprehension >= 6th grade, and MS >= 096
• Essay >= 36 and reading comprehension >= 6th grade, and MS >=096
• Essay >= 20, and reading comprehension >= 4th grade, and MS >=096

How much does it cost to take the COMET?

The test fee to take the COMET is $5.00.

Why does the college have to use the COMET?

COM-FSM can’t accept and enroll every high school graduate or GED holder who wants to attend the college and has to make decisions on admitting and enrolling students. Having a high school diploma or GED by itself is not enough for the college to determine admissions to the college.

Additionally, most high schools in the FSM do not administer high school exit tests or comprehensive standard tests like SAT, ACT or TOEFL test to help the college make a decision about how well prepared a person who is to be admitted and do college level work. Therefore, COM-FSM developed the COMET to help identify, select, and admit students.

The COMET test scores are also used to place newly admitted students into appropriate college courses.

Who can take the COMET and when is it offered?

If you are a high school graduate or GED holder, you can take the COMET at any of the testing times offered throughout the year at each of the four campuses.

If you are a high school senior, you can take the COMET during the second semester of your senior (12th grade) year.

The test is given usually in early February to March for high school seniors.

How is the COMET scored and who scores the COMET essays?

All test answer sheets and essays are sent to the Office of the Vice President for Student Services (VPSS) located at the COM-FSM National Campus in Palikir, Pohnpei.

Reading Comprehension and Math Sections

The reading comprehension and math answer sheets are machine scored, and the scores are complied by the staff of the VPSS Office.

The COMET essays are sent to the VPSS Office then corrected by a team of college faculty members who are trained to read and score the essay based on a scoring “rubric.” The rubric has five categories worth 0-5 points for each category for a possible overall total of 25 points.

Every essay is read and scored separately by two essay readers. The scores from the two readers are then added together for the final “essay score.”

The final combined essay scores range from 0-50 points.

How can I get the test results?

If an individual wants to see his or her score, he or she can contact the local COM-FSM campus student services.

How does the college use COMET scores?

The COMET scores are used to make decision on accepting and admitting students into the regular associate degree college programs, vocational certificate programs, and placement into developmental courses. If the student decides to attend the college, the COMET test scores are also used by the college to place underprepared students into appropriate developmental English and math courses.

How can students and schools best prepare for the COMET test?

There is no “quick and easy” way to best prepare to score well on the COMET. The goal of the COMET is to get an indication of how prepared the student is to read, write and compute at college level. His or her success on the COMET therefore is the result of the skills the student has developed from K-12. Be familiar with how to use machine scored answer sheets. Be familiar with test taking strategies for using time as well. COM-FSM also recommends test takers become familiar with essay test requirements and practice writing essays. Ask the college for a sample of the essay scoring rubric.

If I attended another college and want to transfer into COM-FSM, do I have to take the COMET to be admitted?

No, you don’t have to take the COMET in advance to be admitted to COM-FSM as a transfer student, if you have been officially enrolled at another U.S. accredited college.

While you may be admitted as a transfer student, depending on your course work and level at the previous college, you may be asked to take some or all of the COMET test sections to determine best placement into appropriate courses.

If I am a high school senior or a high school graduate and I have official SAT, ACT or TOEFL scores, can I use these scores to be considered for admissions to COM-FSM, or do I still need to take the COMET?

At this time, COM-FSM has no established policy or procedure for admitting students based only on SAT, ACT or TOEFL scores. For now, the college is handling requests on a case-to-case basis. Nonetheless, the college welcomes applications for admission and will consider your application. If you are in the FSM, plan to take the COMET. If you are attending high school outside of the FSM and plan to return to the FSM to attend COM-FSM and cannot take the COMET, you should contact the college early about your plans. You will need to submit an application, report your SAT, ACT or TOEFL scores to COM-FSM, and have an official copy of your high school transcript sent to the college.

For more information and assistance in applying from outside the FSM, please contact any of the COM-FSM state campuses, or e-mail the Vice President for Student Services at [email protected] or the Director of Admissions, Records and Retention at [email protected].

Example Questions

Essay section High score essay Low score essay

Reading comprehension section Nelson-Denny practice test http://www.testprepreview.com/nelson_denny_practice.htm

Math section Math example

Office of the Vice President for Student Services College of Micronesia-FSM P.O. Box 159 Kolonia, Pohnpei FM 96941 Phone: (691) 320-2480 extension 129 Email: [email protected]

Office of Admissions, Records and Retention College of Micronesia-FSM P.O. Box 159 Kolonia, Pohnpei FM 96941 Phone: (691) 320-2480 extension 150 Email: [email protected]

The Student Services Coordinator College of Micronesia-FSM Pohnpei Campus P.O. Box 614 Kolonia, Pohnpei FM 96941 Phone: (691) 320-1065 Email: [email protected]

The Student Services Coordinator College of Micronesia-FSM Kosrae Campus P.O. Box 37 Tofol, Kosrae FM 96944 Phone:(691) 370-3193 Email: [email protected]

The Student Services Coordinator College of Micronesia-FSM Chuuk Campus P.O. Box 879 Weno, Chuuk, FM 96942 Phone: (691) 330-2689 Email: [email protected]

The Student Services Coordinator College of Micronesia-FSM Yap Campus P.O. Box 286 Colonia, Yap FM 96943 Phone: (691) 350-2296 Email: [email protected]

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This website and all COM-FSM Internet based services are best viewed with Firefox 3.0 or better. © Copyright 2020 College of Micronesia-FSM | Site Disclaimer P. O. Box 159, Kolonia, Pohnpei, 96941 - (691) 320-2480 College of Micronesia-FSM is accredited by the Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges, Western Association of Schools and Colleges, 428 J Street., Suite 400 Sacramento, CA 95814, (415) 506-0234, an institutional accrediting body recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation and the U.S. Department of Education. Additional information about accreditation, including the filing of complaints against member institutions, can be found at: www.accjc.org

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College Essay Review Services: Why You Need Them

Many students consider using college essay review services every year, but they aren't sure if their services are worth it. The short answer is yes; they are more than worth the cost. Whether you're trying to get into one of the  Ivy League Schools , a small college in your community, or one of the  best undergraduate business schools , you will likely be required to write at least one college admissions essay, and it will be an essential part of your application. This blog will talk about the different types of college essays, how important they are, and how college essay review services are your best bet for beating the competition and doing well with this application component. 

>> Want us to help you get accepted? Schedule a free strategy call here . <<

Article Contents 7 min read

What exactly is a college essay.

There are several different types of college essays, but the most common college admissions essay is the personal statement or  common app essay . This is a short document that is supposed to tell the admissions board about who you are as a candidate and why you are a good fit for their college or university. 

Some schools provide a specific word count for the essays, but it should be between 400 and 650 words unless otherwise stated. It also doesn't follow the same structure as an academic essay. Even though it has an introduction, body, and conclusion, it is not about presenting and supporting an argument. Rather, it is supposed to tell a story that illustrates who you are as a person.

You can think of it as a cover letter for your college application. When you are applying for a job, your resume shows your work history and academic background in the same way that your school transcript and other application components show your GPA and grades for your college application. Your cover letter ( and personal statement) is a bit more personal. They communicate the soft skills and strengths that can't be easily quantified.

College essays also give you a chance to humanize your application and tell the admissions board about the person behind the grades and GPA. Many colleges, like  Columbia University  for example, have a holistic admissions process. This means that they care about your academic background and who are outside of your studies. Your personal statement allows them to learn more about your interests and what you could  contribute to your future campus community.  

College essays are an essential part of the college application process. According to the  National Association for college admission counseling , college essays are an important part of the decision-making process for most institutions in the united states. This information is not surprising considering the amount of information that the admission board can learn about a student from their personal statement and other supplemental essays.

Additionally, it is important to remember that college essays also give students an opportunity to talk to the admissions board. You get to share your story and tell the admissions board why you are a good fit for their school in your own words. You also get to address some of the weaker points of your overall application. For example, if you are trying to  get into college with a low GPA , you can use your college essay to explain the circumstances that led to your subpar grades and the steps you have taken to improve your grades.

College essay review services do a lot more than highlight grammatical inconsistencies in your writing (although this is one of the many things they can help with). They are actual human experts who can have a significant impact on the overall quality of applicants' college essays, thus increasing their chances of getting into college. College essay review services are typically offered by admission experts, such as  college essay advisors , who know the college application process inside and out. They review students' college essays and use their knowledge and training to provide personalized feedback and guidance to help students edit and polish their essays. The aim is to draft a final essay that will be more compelling, making the student a more attractive candidate to colleges.

Your college essays are a representation of you to the admission board. Except for college interviews, this is your only chance to talk to the admission board in your own words. This means that is also the first impression they will have of you. If you submit an essay with grammatical errors and typos, it tells the board that you either did not care enough to review your work or that you did not notice those errors when you did. Either way, it is not a good look for you.

This is where college essay review services come in. College essay advisors can thoroughly verify the grammatical syntax of your sentences, check that your essay is coherent and easy to follow and that it is free of grammatical or spelling errors. 

Highlighting relevant skills

Since college essay review services are run by admission experts, they have an in-depth understanding of the world of college admissions. These essay advisors have not only gone through the process themselves, but they have also helped other students go through it multiple times. Additionally, they are also trained to decipher all the "admissions talk" on college websites so they can actually help you figure out what values and traits specific colleges are looking for.

Furthermore, because they are an objective third party looking at the details of your academic background and experiences, they can easily see which activities and skills can make you a better candidate. For example, if you are applying for a philosophy major, you might think that your love for nature or hiking is irrelevant information to your application. College essay review services can help you understand how you can showcase your experience as a hiker in a way that will appeal to your chosen faculty.

Writing strategies

Writing college essays is not an easy task, and the truth is that most applicants aren't aware that their essay writing skills may be lacking. Unfortunately, high school classes rarely include lessons about writing academic admission essays or personal statements, so even gifted writers or A+ English students don't have the tools needed to write an essay that will impress the college admissions committee.

Without guidance, students often end up writing very generic essays that do not add to their overall application, or they simply go through the details of their high school resume without providing any new information. By working with college essay review services, students have someone at their disposal who can give them the tools and strategies necessary to brainstorm and write great, original college essays.

Developing skills

Most college students start improving their research and writing skills as they write essays in college. However, when you work with a college essay review service, you start with stronger skills than most in that department. Good college essay review services have advisors who will not write the students' essays for them. Instead, they will guide them through the entire process – from brainstorming to drafting and editing- and teach them how to research, write and edit. 

In other words, working with college essay review services allows students to not only improve the quality of their college essays, but also improve their research, writing, and critical thinking skills. All of which are skills that will serve them well during college and beyond.

Preparing college applications is a stressful process, and one of the most anxiety-inducing aspects of it for students is writing college essays. Not only is it time-consuming, but it can get quickly get overwhelming for applicants and those around them. Furthermore, because students do not have access to as much information about the college admissions process, they simply have to trust that the topic they chose and the tips they found online are not leading them astray. 

Working with a professional college essay review service can remove that extra layer of anxiety. Because you are working with an expert, you can rely on the tips and advice they give you because you know it comes from a good source.

Not sure where to start with your common app essay? This video can help:

College essays are a crucial part of the college application process, so if you want to maximize your chances of getting into a top college in this increasingly competitive climate, you need to do everything you can to ensure that you are submitting top-notch essays. The key to doing that is working with college essay review services. The college advisors who run these services can help you highlight your strengths and address any potential red flags in a way that still makes you look good. Furthermore, working with them will help you improve your research and writing skills, which you will definitely need when you get into college.

There are several types of college admission essays, and usually, at least one of them is compulsory. If you are applying to college through common app, for example, you will definitely need to write common app essay.

That will depend on the school you're applying to. Most colleges require one personal statement and one or more secondary essays. You should verify the admission requirements of the schools that you're interested in to find out how many college essays you will be required to write.

Not every Canadian university requires an admissions essay, but quite a few request one.  The University of Toronto , for example, is one of them.

You should stay away from advisors who will write your essay for you. This practice is unethical, and it can have severe consequences for both you, the applicant, and the person who wrote the essay for you.

We recommend that you spend at least six weeks on your college essay. That is enough time to brainstorm, write, review, edit and polish the essay before it is ready for submission.

These services are offered by admission experts who will review your essays and guide you through the process of editing and polishing them. The aim is for the essays you submit with your application to be as compelling as possible, thus increasing your chances of success.

Yes, there are. Not all college essay review services work with international students, but we here at BeMo certainly do. Schedule your free initial consultation to find out how our consultants can help you.

Good college essay review services have qualified advisors who care about helping students, good independent reviews, and a high success rate. Make sure you take the time to peruse the websites of the companies that you are considering.

Yes, they do. College essays are the only application component that tells the admissions committee how you see yourself. They give you a chance to show the admissions board the person behind the extracurriculars and the GPA and remind them that your application is a lot more than just a number.

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Three Harbingers of Halley's Comet. Essay review of The Mystery of Comets, by Fred L. Whipple, Comet, by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan, and Fire and Ice: A History of Comets in Art, by Roberta J. M. Olson

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For just $59 , students gain the written guidance needed to pinpoint their unique voice and work through their essays   strategically. There is no word limit, so the price is the same whether students submit a short answer or full-length draft.

After signing up, students will receive an email that contains instructions on how to submit their draft. When ready to submit, students can follow the instructions outlined, as well as fill out our brief student questionnaire that will provide us with insight into their writing. This helps us customize every student’s experience as much as possible.*

Within 48 hours of submission**, students will receive a personalized feedback report with comprehensive in-line edits and commentary based on admissions requirements.

*College Essay Review must be used within 1 year of purchase, or it will be forfeited. Only one essay draft per submission will be accepted.  **Please note guaranteed 48-hour turnaround excludes U.S. federal holidays .

Our team of trained Advisors has a deep professional knowledge of college essay writing and college admissions standards, as well as a passion for mentoring. Our team will use admissions-focused rubrics and our in-text commenting tool to provide feedback on bigger-picture components of writing – such as style, tone, structure, and theme – as well as detailed line edits addressing mechanics, spelling, and grammar.

Totally okay – in fact, there’s no such thing as writing perfectly the first time! Whether students are on draft number one or four, we’ve had experience reviewing, editing, and supporting thousands of pieces of writing across the entire spectrum of “draft” to “done”. From minor grammar adjustments to reordering a paragraph to better “flow” with the entirety of the piece, there are always ways to  make essays as strong as possible . Through our proven rubric-based lens, we help students gain clarity on what exactly isn’t working about the draft so far, while being mindful of keeping student voices their own.

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With our college essay review service, the essays are returned via a personalized Google Doc report, so that students can easily review our margin edits, as well as iterate on their draft directly. If there’s anything that the student doesn’t understand they’re welcome to email our Advising team at [email protected] , where they will receive prompt (and unlimited!) email support. We’re committed to ensuring students are able to incorporate their feedback as smoothly and quickly as possible.

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• v.9(3); 2015 Mar

A Comprehensive Review on Clinical Applications of Comet Assay

Vidya gunasekarana.

1 Senior Resident, Department of Anatomy, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, India.

Gladwin Victor Raj

2 Assistant Professor, Department of Anatomy, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, India.

Parkash Chand

3 Professor and Head, Department of Anatomy, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, India.

Increased levels of DNA damage and ineffective repair mechanisms are the underlying bio-molecular events in the pathogenesis of most of the life-threatening diseases like cancer and degenerative diseases. The sources of DNA damage can be either exogenous or endogenous in origin. Imbalance between the oxidants and antioxidants resulting in increased reactive oxygen species mostly accounts for the endogenously derived attacks on DNA. Among the various methods employed in the estimation of DNA damage, alkaline comet assay is proven to be a relatively simple and versatile tool in the assessment of DNA damage and also in determining the efficacy of DNA repair mechanism. The aim of this article is to review the application of comet assay in the field of medicine towards human biomonitoring, understanding the pathogenesis of cancer and progression of chronic and degenerative diseases, prediction of tumour radio & chemosensitivity and in male infertility. A standardized protocol and analysis system of various variants of comet assay in different types of cells, across the labs will be of useful and reliable clinical tool in the field of Medicine for the estimation of levels of DNA damage and repair mechanisms.

Introduction

Human body cells are constantly exposed to harmful factors which have the potency to cause DNA damage. Most of these harmful factors are of oxidative in nature [ 1 , 2 ]. Based on the sources from which these harmful factors are generated, they can be broadly categorized into exogenous and endogenous in origin as enumerated in [ Table/Fig-1 ] [ 2 - 4 ]. Endogenous factors originate intracellular during the normal process of metabolism and also pathologically during inflammation. Attacks from both exogenous as well as endogenous factors result in DNA damage [ 3 - 9 ].

[Table/Fig-1]:

Sources of DNA damage UV Rays –Ultraviolet Rays

The dreaded effects of unrepaired DNA damage are mutations, genetic recombination, premature apoptosis, chromosomal aberrations, tumour formation, cell death and it forms the pathological basis of various disease conditions [ 2 , 9 ]. But there are certain innate DNA repair mechanisms which include photo-reactivation, nucleotide excision repair (NER), base excision repair (BER) and mismatch repair (MMR) to withstand the DNA damage and to restore the genetic stability. Contrary to the ineffective DNA repair mechanisms being the hallmark in the pathogenesis of cancers, recent studies suggest that certain types of tumour cell possess increased DNA repair capacity which may cause resistance to therapeutic agents and affect the outcome of therapy [ 9 - 11 ].

Assessment of DNA damage and repair mechanism

The challenges of assessment methods being, it should be sensitive, rapid, simple, and able to assess damage in both proliferating as well as non-proliferating cells. There are several assessment methods available to assess the DNA damage. The merits and demerits of each of this molecular procedure have been clearly depicted in [ Table/Fig-2 ][ 9 - 15 ].

[Table/Fig-2]:

DNA damage detection studies

PCR - Polymerase chain reaction, TUNEL – Terminal deoxyribonucleotidyltransferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling, HPLC- High-performance liquid chromatography, FISH - Fluorescence in situ hybridization, FCM - Flow cytometry, GC-MS - Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Merits of Comet Assay over other molecular diagnostic methods

Compared to the various techniques listed, studies have shown that the Single cell Gel Electrophoresis or the Comet assay is highly sensitive method to detect low levels of DNA damage. Further the results can be obtained in a relatively short period of time even with less number of proliferating/non-proliferating cells. In addition, deployment of wide range of cells; peripheral blood mononuclear cells, buccal epithelial cells, nasal epithelial cells, lens epithelium, tear duct epithelial cells, sperms as well as biopsy tissues in comet assay makes it a versatile and potential tool of choice to assess the DNA damage and repair efficiency [ 16 , 17 ].

Comet assay

The basic principle of the Comet assay is the movement of negatively charged damaged low molecular weight DNA fragments towards anode during electrophoresis leaving a trail resembling a tail of comet [ 18 , 19 ]. Treatment of cells with lysis solution which is hypertonic, and non-ionic detergent, removes the cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleoplasm including nucleosomes. The damaged DNA in the leftover nucleoid mass when subjected to electrophoresis migrates towards the anode producing a comet-like structure. The measurement of this tail reflects the extent of DNA damage [ 18 - 24 ]. The steps involved in comet assay have been depicted in the [ Table/Fig-3 ]. The comet images of the peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) showing minimal, moderate and extensive DNA damage are shown in the [ Table/Fig-4 , ​ ,5 5 , ​ ,6] 6 ] respectively.

Steps involved in Comet assay

PBL cells showing minimal DNA damage

PBL cells showing moderate DNA damage

PBL cells showing extensive DNA damage

Factors influencing comet assay

The validity and the reliability of the comet assay are influenced by various factors. Optimum results are obtained if standardized protocol is followed. The concentration of the agarose in the gel influences the comet assay, lesser the concentration more the tail length. Though the period of lysis has minimal effect, alkaline incubation time plays a significant role [ 20 ]. The percentage of DNA in the tail increases with the duration in the alkaline solution. The parameters which have greatest influence in the comet tail length and the percentage of DNA in the tail are the electrophoresis voltage gradient, duration and the temperature. Within limits, the tail intensity and length of comet increases proportional to the voltage and the time duration of electrophoresis. It has been suggested to run the electrophoresis in a cold room so that the tank temperature is maintained below 15°C [ 20 ].

Modified versions of Comet assay

Comet assay underwent several technical modifications since its introduction, thereby widening its application. The alkaline version of Comet assay was introduced in the year 1988, which is now the most commonly used and widely accepted method for the detection of single and double strand breaks [ 20 , 25 ]. Alok Dhawan et al., demonstrated the extent of DNA damage using comet assay in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in their in vitro and in vivo studies. Further, attempts were made by Marcos et al., to augment the ability of the comet assay to determine the specific excision repair sites by including DNA repair inhibitors, synthesis inhibitors or chain terminators. Hydroxylurea and cytosine arabinoside were also been incorporated to the technique to detect the lesions produced by the alkylating agents like ethyl methane sulfonate and methyl methane sulfonate in different cell systems [ 17 , 25 , 26 ]. Comet assay with incorporation of lesion-specific endonucleases enabled detection of specific DNA damage as shown in the [ Table/Fig-7 ] [ 20 , 27 ].

[Table/Fig-7]:

Comet assay in combination of lesion-specific endonucleases

Recent Advances in Comet Assay – its merits

Comet assay in combination with fluorescent labeled probes targeted against particular DNA sequences constitute Comet-FISH assay, which has been used to assess the DNA damage and repair of single genes or short DNA sequences [ 27 ]. The shift of fluorescent signals from the comet tail to the head in subsequent assays overtime can be monitored to evaluate the effectiveness of DNA repair in specific genes/sequences. With this recent development, it has been shown that Comet–FISH assay can be used as a substitute to ligation –mediated PCR and southern blotting techniques to assess the efficacy of transcription-coupled repair (TCR) mechanism in significant levels of DNA damage [ 27 ].

A modified version of comet assay-Apo-necro Comet assay that has been devised recently to differentiate viable, apoptotic and necrotic cells thereby determines the viability status of individual cells [ 17 , 20 ].

Cortes-Gutierrez et al., successfully isolated nuclear subunits -chromosomes and subjected those to electrophoresis for identification of DNA damage in isolated chromosomal mass by a technique called as Chromosome-Comet assay [ 20 , 28 ].

The limitation of processing few samples at a given time has been overcome by means of High throughput – Comet assay using multi chamber plates and high throughput techniques. A combination of multiple gels on one substrate, and reduction of the volume of agarose gel per sample has improved the throughput of the comet assay [ 20 ].

Application of comet Assay in the field of Medicine

The comet assay has a wide range of applications in both environmental health and medical science. It includes bio-monitoring of human populations for occupational/environmental exposure to genotoxic agents, assessment of DNA damage; protective effect of antioxidants and DNA repair capacity in various diseases, particularly in cancer [ 18 , 27 ]. The versatility of alkaline comet assay to detect a wide range of lesions such as single and double-strand breaks, AP sites, repair intermediates has enabled it as a tool of choice for risk assessment, early diagnosis of the disease, therapy monitoring and prognosis of diseases like cancer [ 19 - 29 ]. Apart from this comet assay has its role in drug toxicity monitoring, UV radiation injury, phototherapy induced DNA injury, assessment of sperm DNA damage in male infertility etc [ 18 , 29 ].

Biomonitoring of Environmental and Occupational Exposure

Comet Assay is a valuable tool in measuring the extent of DNA damage and its quantification in populations exposed to different types of genotoxic agents and environmental pollutants. The degree of damage in association with the dose and period of exposure to toxic agents can be measured using comet assay which helps in early detection of health risks in populations exposed to environmental toxic agents. Studies have shown that the comet assay was used to evaluate the impact of living near the source of environmental pollutants, like crude oil refineries, factories, waste incinerators etc., and along with other markers of oxidative stress, to study the oxidative potential of particulate matter (PM) exposure [ 30 , 31 ].

PBL cells of persons exposed to chronic low dose radiation, antineoplastic drugs, volatile organic compounds, metals etc., showed increased levels of DNA damage which correlated with the structural chromosomal aberrations, micronucleus assay and markers of oxidative damage [ 30 , 31 ].The advantage of comet assay over the other eco-toxicological parameters or assays being simultaneous assessment of repair kinetics and apoptotic cells with DNA strand breaks. The comet responses in detecting DNA damages have been found to be more sensitive, rapid and reproducible in comparison to the other assays [ 29 ].

Comet Assay and Cancer

In Vivo Comet – Assessment of Geno-toxicity

The International Conference on Harmonization [ICH- S2 (R1)] guidance (2012) has recognized the In vivo comet assay, in addition to In vivo micronucleus assay, as a potential tool for the assessment of genotoxic potential of chemicals/carcinogens [ 32 ]. The ability of In vivo comet assay in differentiating the genotoxic and non genotoxic chemicals has been widely utilized in the field of genotoxicology. The comet assay can be employed as a prospective biomarker in prediction of genetic susceptibility and in detection of DNA damage leading to carcinogenicity, in addition to assessment of local genotoxicity in tissues and all cell types that are otherwise not possible with other standard assessment methods [ 32 ].

Assessment of DNA damage in patients with cancer

Increased levels of DNA damage and ineffective or defective DNA repair mechanisms are the underlying molecular events driving the initiation of pathogenesis and progression of cancer. Therefore, comet assay has been extensively used in the assessment of DNA damage in PBL and tumour cells and the characteristics of various DNA repair mechanisms with a wide range of DNA damaging agents. Extensive studies were done in patients with various types of cancer which showed invariably increased in levels of basal DNA damage and defective DNA repair mechanism [ 33 - 38 ]. Further, attempts were made to determine the correlation between the levels of DNA damage to the various types and different stages of cancer. The levels of DNA damage thereby provide valuable information regarding the nature and severity of the cancer which could be a useful tool for the specialists treating the cancer to determine the best possible intervention and treatment modality in halting the progression and to aim for a cure in patients with cancer [ 33 ].

Prediction of tumour radio & chemosensitivity

The success and outcome of various treatment modalities in patients with cancer depends upon the nature of the tumour cell in its intrinsic ability to proliferate, status of hypoxia and to a large extent its sensitivity towards radiation and various chemotherapeutic agents. Clonogenic cell survival assay and functional imaging of tumour cells by means of PET scan and single photon emission CT has been employed to measure the response towards radiation, the metabolism and hypoxia status. The rate limiting step and the disadvantage in the clonogenic cell survival assay being the ability and the time taken by the tumour cells to grow in soft agar. The disadvantages of the above mentioned methods have been overcome by the alkaline comet assay in measuring the sensitivity of tumour cells towards low levels of radiation that are practically deployed in the treatment of patients with cancer and also in cells with low proliferative ability [ 33 ]. Attempts were made to assess the radio-sensitivity of different tumour cells lines of colon, bladder [ 34 , 35 ], breast [ 36 , 37 ], prostate [ 38 ] cancer and have found that the alkaline comet assay to be a useful tool. Further, the efficacy of various doses of radiation and radiation in different stages of cancer has been studied. Thus a standardized and validated alkaline comet assay will be of useful tool in predicting the radiosensitivity of the tumour cells and in determining the efficacy and progress of radiotherapy treatment in patients with cancer. The advantage of measuring DNA cross linking and alkylation in addition to the assessment of breakages involving single and double strands of DNA further potentiates the alkaline comet assay to be a versatile tool in assessing the sensitivity towards various chemical compounds which are used as chemotherapeutic agents in the treatment of cancer [ 16 , 20 , 33 ]. A clear dose-response and time response relationship with DNA double strand breaks was obtained by comet assay which shows the potency of comet assay in radiation biodosimetry [ 39 ].

Comet assay in Chronic & Degenerative diseases

DNA damage of the target cells seems to be the final hallmark of most of the chronic diseases like Diabetes mellitus, Rheumatoid arthritis, etc. and also in neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease [ 31 ]. Higher levels of SSBs and oxidative stress were found in patients with Diabetes Mellitus compared to the healthy controls. Studies have proven that patients with chronic diseases showed increased susceptibility to free radical damage and decreased efficacy of DNA repair mechanism [ 16 , 31 ]. The resulted DNA damage in the above said diseased conditions is either due to increased oxidative stress as suggested by most of the studies or due to a direct insult to the DNA by means of various other toxic chemical compounds. Alkaline comet assay along with the measurement of levels of 8 hydroxy 2 deoxy guanosine seems to be an appropriate method in the assessment of DNA damage due to an oxidative insult [ 31 ].

Comet assay in Male infertility

Much of the focus have been shifted and attributed to Sperm DNA damage in cases of male infertility with otherwise normal sperm indices. The quality of sperm DNA has been assessed by comet assay and studies have shown increased evidence of sperm DNA damage in patients with male infertility compared to those of fertile men [ 40 ]. The sperm DNA damage is mainly due to the endogenously derived reactive oxygen species from polyunsaturated fatty acids. Comet assay is found to be a more sensitive technique in the evaluation of sperm DNA damage and fragmentation compared to conventional TUNEL, HALO assay, Flow Cytometry, etc [ 15 , 40 ]. The challenges in the assessment of sperm DNA being the modification and optimization of the comet assay technique due to the unique structure of DNA in sperm (protamine replacing histone) in comparison with other cells. Further, the paucity of DNA repair mechanisms has to be considered in application of assay in the assessment of sperm DNA. Further studies are in process to understand the mechanisms of paternal DNA damage as a cause for early loss of developmental stages [ 29 ].

The relative rapidity and simplicity of the comet assay, the various modified versions available, and the wide range of cells deployed in the comet assay, makes it a versatile and potential tool for estimating the extent of DNA damage and repair efficacy in various clinical conditions like carcinoma, chronic diseases like Alzheimer, Parkinson’s etc., and infertility. There exist quite an ample number of reports on the confounding factors of comet assay in various studies. Hence, it is relevant to identify all the confounding factors that may affect the estimation of the basal level of DNA damage in individual cells. Thus comet assay can be used as potential tool in the management of cancer and other chronic diseases involving DNA damage, if the fundamental issues relating to experimental validation, standardization and data interpretation are optimized.

Financial or Other Competing Interests

Essay on Comets

Students are often asked to write an essay on Comets in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Comets

What are comets.

Comets are icy objects that travel around the Sun. They are made of frozen gases, rock, and dust. When they get close to the Sun, they warm up and release gases and dust, creating a glowing head and a long tail that we can see from Earth.

Parts of a Comet

A comet has several parts. The nucleus is the solid center. The coma is a cloud that forms around the nucleus when the comet heats up. The tail is made of gas and dust that the Sun pushes away from the comet.

Comet Orbits

Comets orbit the Sun, but unlike planets, their paths can be very long and stretched out. Some comets come back around regularly, while others might only be seen once in a lifetime.

Famous Comets

One well-known comet is Halley’s Comet. It is special because it can be seen from Earth every 75 years. Many people look forward to seeing it in the sky during their lifetime.

250 Words Essay on Comets

Comets are icy bodies in space that orbit the Sun. They are like dirty snowballs made of ice, dust, and small rocky parts. When they get near the Sun, they heat up and release gases and dust into a glowing head that can often be seen from Earth.

A comet has several parts. The core, or nucleus, is the solid center made of ice and rock. Around this is the coma, a cloud of gas and dust that forms when the comet warms up. Sometimes, the Sun’s energy pushes dust and gas away from the coma to form two tails: one made of gas and one made of dust.

Comets’ Paths

Comets travel in long, stretched-out paths around the Sun. Some take many years to go around once, while others might take thousands of years. Sometimes, a comet’s path brings it very close to Earth, where it can be seen with the naked eye.

Interesting Comet Facts

Comets have fascinated people for centuries. They can appear suddenly and have bright, glowing tails that make them easy to spot in the night sky. Many comets are famous, like Halley’s Comet, which comes near Earth every 76 years.

In conclusion, comets are exciting space objects made of ice, dust, and rock. They have glowing tails and follow long paths around the Sun. These space visitors give us a glimpse into the materials that were around when our solar system was formed.

500 Words Essay on Comets

Comets are like space snowballs made of frozen gases, rock, and dust that orbit the Sun. When frozen, they are the size of a small town. When a comet’s orbit brings it close to the Sun, it heats up and spews dust and gases into a giant glowing head larger than most planets. The dust and gases form a tail that stretches away from the Sun for millions of miles.

There are several parts to a comet. The core or ‘nucleus’ is the solid part, made of ice, gas, and dust. When the comet gets near the Sun, the ice starts to turn into gas, creating an atmosphere around the nucleus known as the ‘coma’. The Sun’s energy pushes dust and gas away from the coma, forming two tails. The ‘dust tail’ is wide and curved, while the ‘ion tail’, made of gases, always points straight away from the Sun because of the solar wind.

Where Comets Come From

Comets come from two main places in our Solar System: the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud. The Kuiper Belt is a circle of space beyond Neptune filled with small icy objects. The Oort Cloud is a giant spherical shell surrounding our Solar System, far beyond Pluto. Comets from the Oort Cloud can take thousands of years to complete one trip around the Sun.

Types of Comets

There are two types of comets: short-period and long-period. Short-period comets, like Halley’s Comet, take less than 200 years to orbit the Sun and come from the Kuiper Belt. Long-period comets, such as Hale-Bopp, take more than 200 years and come from the Oort Cloud.

Some comets are famous because they pass close to Earth and are easy to see. Halley’s Comet is one of the most famous; it can be seen from Earth every 75-76 years. The last time it was visible was in 1986, and it will be seen again in 2061. Another famous comet is Hale-Bopp, which was very bright in the sky in 1997.

Comets and Earth

Comets are important to scientists because they are like time capsules. They carry the very stuff that was around when the Sun and planets formed. By studying comets, scientists can learn more about the early Solar System. Some scientists even think that comets might have brought water and other materials to Earth, helping to start life here.

Comets are fascinating objects that travel through space, leaving bright trails behind them. They are ancient leftovers of the Solar System’s formation, and studying them helps us understand our place in the universe. Whether they are short-period comets that visit often or long-period comets that take centuries to return, each comet’s visit is a chance for us to learn and wonder about these beautiful space wanderers.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Comet: The Ecommerce Website Review Essay

Electronic commerce or “e-commerce” is commonly believed to be a new concept that was born οf the dot-com explosion in the 1990s. Some retailer companies in the United Kingdom have played a very important role in giving a boost to e-commerce. Comet is one οf them. The company is one οf the largest electrical retailers in the country, which οffers the widest range οf electrical products to buy online.

Actually, e-commerce has been around for 30 years in the form οf Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) transactions enabled by the ANSI X-12 standard. The difference, however, is that EDI required linked companies to use expensive leased lines to connect directly with one another.

In March οf 1991, restrictions against the commercial use οf the Internet were lifted. With this development, Comet came into the limelight οf electric retailers with its strong online business strategy. E-commerce not only provided an alternative medium for connecting but made it possible to connect many businesses to many other businesses and consumers at the same time. With the Internet as the enabler, e-commerce was about to explode.

The resulting stock markets euphoria that surrounded dot-com e-commerce companies subsided in 2000. It was discovered that despite historical and predicted phenomenal growth in the e-commerce market; there are limited buyers on the other end οf the business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-consumer (B2C) links. Many companies mistakenly relied on business plans that projected each οf them capturing the same share οf the market. It was also discovered that there is a large chasm between simply connecting buyer and seller and gaining promised efficiencies in the resulting transactions. It was not as simple as creating a web page or performing XML transactions.

What was achieved was the ease with which buyers and sellers could meet in an electronic marketplace. This e-marketplace promoted fierce competition on price and the pooling οf buying or selling power, even among competitors.

Although not universally perfected, the ability to streamline e-commerce transactions was improved. For example, Sprint worked with the online auction site abbreviate to improve the procurement process. With the old method, Sprint would mail bids to several suppliers, which created a paper trail mired with corporate bureaucracy. The paper process οften took two months. But now, Sprint can find appropriate suppliers and gain online bids and manage approvals in a few hours.

With the promised efficiencies οf e-commerce and the Internet as the backbone for its implementation, e-commerce has grown significantly. Deloitte Consulting estimates that by the end οf 2001, 91% οf U.S. businesses will be conducting transactions on the Internet. This acceptance by the business will allow total B2B sales to reach an estimated $7.29 trillion by 2004, according to the Gartner Group. This is compared to only $114 billion in 1999.

Expected B2C growth is at a relatively modest pace, with sales expected to reach $269B by 2005, up from $45B in 2000. Although B2C dot-com companies driving e-commerce continues to grab headlines, in 2000, e-commerce represented only 2.4% οf all retail sales, which was up from 1.4% in 1999.

Despite their shared accelerated growth rate and leverage οf the Internet, B2B and B2C e-commerce solutions each have their own unique benefit propositions and problems. Each will be further defined and detailed in the following sections, beginning with B2B.

Business-to-business or “B2B” is the connecting οf two business entities for the purpose οf creating commerce efficiencies. B2B-enabler business products are οften described as an “exchange”. This is similar in concept to the New York Stock Exchange, where numerous buyers and sellers can either meet directly or through a trading representative. Like online exchanges, those on the NYSE trading floor also have their own “protocol” for communication to make transactions fast and efficient.

With computerized B2B transactions, the protocol may be TCP/IP over a virtual private network, or perhaps it is an XML exchange. The goal is to have one business computer system communicating directly with another company’s system. Not all B2B exchanges are exactly alike. “Some link buyers with sellers, while others operate with a middleman at the centre οf the process. Still, others οffer auction capabilities.”

Initially, the B2B marketplace was feared and rejected by some suppliers. Many feared when they could be compared digitally with their competition, their competitive advantage was reduced only to the price. In many cases, this was true. Equally disturbing was the fear that if a company did not join or create an e-marketplace, they wouldn’t even be considered as a market player. Although the latter is still true, many e-marketplaces today allow a buyer to specify criteria for judging bids.

The existence οf a direct buyer-to-seller link, as well as the ability for buyers to pool with other buyers, and sellers with other sellers, is a source οf leverage for all parties in the transactions. This leverage clearly creates opportunities for e-commerce benefits and efficiencies. The next section will identify the promising benefits οf B2B e-commerce. However, it will also be shown that although the promise exists, benefits are not easily achieved.

The promise οf B2B integration is great. Benchmarking Partners estimates that a B2B connection will have a 5-15 times payback over a matter of οf months. This is conceivable since B2B transactions create efficiencies in the most expensive segments οf business, including inventory, sales, purchasing, and accounts receivable. B2B enables companies to:

• Aggregate demand, which enables buyers to negotiate better prices.
• Improve market liquidity by allowing numerous buyers and sellers to participate
• Create a direct link from manufacturing to the customer, which facilitates Just-in-Time inventories. This leads to reduced inventory and a more responsive plant.
• Provide extended (global) reach.
• Better serve customers.
• Connect while avoiding supplier investment in new hardware or proprietary sοftware, as is the case with traditional EDI connections.

Although the benefits are easily understood, the reality is that unless full automation is achieved, the benefits are οften not realized. To generate the efficiencies that B2B promises, companies need to link back-οffice systems such as purchasing, inventory, and accounting. Without this link, information is οften printed and entered manually into the back-οffice systems, thereby destroying the potential for efficiency.

If the dot-com revolution proved anything in regards to e-commerce, it showed that the challenges are real and that throwing money at the problem is not the sole solution. Indeed, significant technical and business obstacles are inhibiting complete implementation οf B2B solutions, which in turn inhibit realization οf its full potential.

As was presented previously, the greatest benefit is achieved when buyer and seller can achieve tight integration. However, today “Only 15 per cent to 20 per cent [οf B2B exchanges] can actually complete transactions online, and almost none οf them tie it into back-end systems”¦” The reasons for the problems, follow:

• There is a reluctance οf leery buyers and sellers doing business a whole new way. To be successful, there must be tight integration between buyers, implying a partnership stronger than most buyer-seller relationships.
• Existing private network EDI systems work. Unless there is a catalyst for change, many οf the benefits achieved through direct system-to-system linkage have been achieved.
• There is a huge time and money investment to build a complex infrastructure that is required for the B2B e-marketplace.
• There is a lack οf standardization οf online catalogues, including needed uniform data descriptions. This limits consistent use and searching οf product across suppliers, thereby discouraging buyers from working with vendors whose catalogues are unfamiliar.
• There exists a fear by suppliers that buyers will shop solely on price, thus eliminating all other strategic differentiators.
• Where there are numerous suppliers and only a few powerful buyers (i.e. Auto manufacturers), B2B exchanges allow the buyers to bully those lower in the supply chain.
• XML is still a new protocol for communications without many standard data sets. (Although more than 150 XML-oriented standards efforts are underway.)
• There exist few standards for any aspect οf marketplace operations.
• It is simple for a few competitors to form cartels to coordinate prices that are counter to the interests of οf buyers.

Despite the rapid growth οf B2B e-commerce, e-marketplaces are “still in their infancy” due to the problems noted. Many analysts believe that it will take only 2-3 years to resolve most οf the issues, while others predict a realistic timeframe is 10 years. With either scenario, management must not only look for ways to incorporate what does work in B2B but also focus on overcoming the barriers that exist. At the core οf, that effort is the ever-present business question οf relevance to a company’s strategy.

Katie Atkinson, president οf Results Direct Internet Marketing warns, “¦e-commerce has to fall under the area οf benefits and service to members, not just making money.” Simply having a presence on the Web may not appeal to the company’s members. Therefore, it is suggested that the first focus for any e-commerce plan should be on which business problems can and should be addressed. Then, create the execution plan, ensuring that there is an honest evaluation οf the technical capabilities and limitations οf the firm.

As noted in the previous “Barriers” section, there are several technical and logistics problems to overcome. In addition, the environment will constantly be changing as new exchanges are created, and new standards are defined. Therefore, “it all boils down to management at the end οf the day, because there are so many unpredictable things that are going to happen”¦”

Smart management includes linking an e-commerce strategy to the company’s core strategy. This is important regardless οf whether it is a B2B connection or a B2C connection that will be discussed next.

Business-to-Consumer (B2C) e-commerce involves linking a consumer directly with a seller (or their proxy) via the Web. Unlike the tight, integrated connections οf B2B transactions, B2C transactions by nature require limited technology and setup on the part οf the buyer. Therefore, a Web browser and Internet connection usually suffice. This also means standard Web languages like HTML and Java can be leveraged to avoid the communication problems more common in B2B connections.

As with B2B transactions, B2C transactions also allow sellers to pool with other sellers, and sometimes buyer’s pool with other buyers. For example, sites like Mobshop.com sell sοftware to allow aggregation. Even the government uses Mobshop technology to run a www.buyers.gov e-commerce site. Generally, however, it is more likely that sellers act independently and sponsor their own exchange, with consumers making purchases individually. Auctions are also popular in B2C e-commerce, as the daily volume on eBay and Yahoo has proven.

The failure or imminent failure οf many dot-coms online retailing (“e-tailing”) sites is due to a miscalculation or ignorance οf the fundamentals οf the retailing business. Online sellers believed that because οf home-shopping convenience, lower prices, and absence of οf sales taxes, people would visit “brick-and-mortar” stores less and less and shop online more and more. What was not understood is two fundamental psychological buyer truths: 1) People like to touch the merchandise. 2) People οften want an item immediately, not in a week via UPS.

Egghead became a classic victim οf this psychology. Started in 1984, Egghead grew to 250 stores in the U.S. During the 1990’s Egghead stores had their troubles, and many closed. In 1998, Egghead closed all remaining stores, lay οff 800 people, and went strictly online. Since then, “Egghead.com” has encountered the problems many “e-tailers” do, such as attracting customers to their Web site and the complicated logistics οf shipping directly to them. Recently, they announce the layοff οf 100 employees and are not expected to survive.

Other web start-up companies such as Amazon.com have had equal struggles running a prοfitable business without a bricks-and-mortar site. From a consumer perspective, the largest issue returns. Dropping οff a book bought online at a Barnes and Noble store is much simpler than trudging to the local Post Οffice for a return. (The store return is perhaps more prοfitable to the store if the customer finds other items she likes during the visit.) From a strategy perspective, it is important to consider how both a “bricks-and-mortar” building and a Web presence can not only co-exist but also complement each other. For example, CircuitCity.com allows a customer to purchase online and drive to the store to pick up the merchandise. The benefit? The buyer doesn’t have to make a trip across town to discover they are out οf the item. Also, the customer does not have to wait in a checkout line when arriving at the store. In summary, “while businesses treat online and οffline markets as completely separate entities,” consumers are skipping between cyberspace and brick stores.”

In the end, e-tailing is considered more like catalogue shopping since the product cannot be touched and the logistic problems are similar. A retailer’s warehouse must be designed as an intermediate stop for efficient distribution to physical stores. An e-tailer’s warehouse must allow an item to be found and shipped directly to the consumer. With these challenges, e-tailing is expected to remain a relatively small portion οf the retailing market segment, even as more Internet users come online.

Betsy Schiffman, “Egghead.com Jumps out οf the Frying Pan”, Forbes.com, 2001

Bob Lewis, “Business-to-Business Can Benefit From The Miscues Οf B-to-C Vets”, InfoWorld, 2001.

Kate Miller, “Lawmakers Get Head Start on Net Taxes”, The Industry Standard, 2001.

Keith Perine, “Value America’s Palace Coup”, The Industry Standard, 1999.

Ken Cottrill, “Know Your e-Customers”, TrafficWorld, p.18, 2000.

Meera Selva; Benjamin Wootliff, British Electrical Goods Retailer Powerhouse Prepares Bid for Comet. Sunday Business (United Kingdom), 2002

Pawsey, Vanessa., Eversheds instructed by Comet. Lawyer, 4/15/2002, Vol. 16 Issue 16, p. 6, 1/9p

Pawsey, Vanessa., Eversheds instructed by Comet.. Lawyer, 4/15/2002, Vol. 16 Issue 16, p. 6, 1/9p

Ruhan Memishi, “B2B Survival Guide”, Internet World, 7 no1 p49-55, 2001.

Sarah Butler., Curbs on extended warranties hit Comet. Times, The (United Kingdom), 2004

Tim Webb, Retailer Kingfisher May Spin Οff Electrical Business. Sunday Business (United Kingdom), 2002

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