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Collecting data on customs administrations: lessons learned from the first international survey on customs administration, 24 february 2022.

Co-managed by the WCO and the IMF, the first International Survey on Customs Administration (ISOCA) was finalized in June 2020 and a report presenting some of the results was released in November 2021. Whilst a higher number of participants is required for the Survey to provide a global view of the roles Customs administrations play and their practices, this first edition served as a proof of concept, demonstrating the feasibility of collecting data on Customs to support analysis and research at the national and international level.

The International Survey on Customs Administration (ISOCA) was created to collect quantitative and qualitative data on Customs administrations and to enable comparisons to be made between countries sharing common features (e.g. income level or gross domestic product; landlocked or coastal; geographic region; trade volume; population; size of the administration and mandates). It is co-managed by the World Customs Organization (WCO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

ISOCA covers most aspects of an administration, such as Customs revenues by type, details on offences, time required to release goods, cost of collection, performance standards, workforce characteristics, general management, border cooperation arrangements, automatic exchange of information, technologies for goods in transit, mobile teams, duty and tax exemptions.

As such, the data collected through ISOCA can be used to:

• (i) support strategic planning, communication, reporting to national authorities, advocating for investment, and improving resource allocation;
• (ii) understand historical performance;
• (iii) establish performance baselines;
• (iv) develop benchmarks to identify additional powers, trends in support function policies, composition and skills of human resources;
• (v) provide sufficient data to facilitate research; and
• (vi) identify specific needs for technical assistance and capacity building.

The inaugural round of the Survey was launched in June 2019 and finalized in June 2020, and the data collected correspond to fiscal years 2016 and 2017.

There was strong initial commitment by Customs administrations to participate in the Survey, with 102 responding positively to the invitation of the WCO and the IMF (93 of them were WCO Members). However, 30 of them did not complete the Survey and 21 did so only partially. A number of reasons were advanced to explain the lack of response. For example, while data collection began prior to COVID-19, some administrations reported remote work as a challenge in collecting the required data. The high abandon rate can also be explained by the lack of knowledge of the possibilities offered by the data reporting system. For example, some coordinators did not share data entry responsibilities by delegating the filling of the forms online. In the end, only 51 administrations provided submissions meeting minimum quality standards for both fiscal years (46 of them were WCO Members).

The entire data collection and review process took more than a year. Reminders were sent and extensions provided to participants. Innovative online guidance tools and mechanisms were developed to facilitate completion of the Survey, such as the possibility to delegate the responsibility of collecting and entering data in the online data collection platform.

The no-answer rate for some questions requiring numerical responses was extremely high, which may be indicative of a difficulty in some administrations in obtaining the data and suggest limitations in their data architecture, data management and reporting systems.

“Some of the requested data were not recorded in a harmonized manner in our systems and not all were readily available in our Customs Management System. We had therefore to consolidate  missing data  from different internal and external sources.” Mauritius ISOCA Coordinators

Despite participation being lower than expected, the data collected represent the most comprehensive available set of data on Customs administrations and their practices. While there is clearly a need for more Customs administrations to participate in the future, this first Survey serves as a “proof of concept” for the collection of Customs administration data.

In November 2021 [1] , the WCO and the IMF released a report presenting some of the first Survey results. Results were grouped into three categories: performance-related data; profile data; and data on practices and institutional structure. In addition, depending on the issue addressed, Customs administrations were often grouped in one of two ways:

• by standard grouping: small states (population less than 1.5 million, all income levels) / lower income / higher income; and
• by geographic location: island state / landlocked country / other countries.

The report is available online [2] and we invite readers interested in the results to consult it.

“We did not incur any additional cost to participate in the Survey. We were able to provide the data that was sought by the Survey without undue trouble. We do expect that as the group of participants broadens the data will potentially be more useful to us for further analysis and decision-making.” ISOCA Coordinator from Ireland

Two digital platforms are deployed as part of the ISOCA Survey:

• a data collection platform, called the Revenue Administration Fiscal Information Tool (RA-FIT ), lists a series of digital forms. Data collection responsibility can be shared between multiple actors, or “data owners”, at the national level; and
• a data dissemination platform, called the ISOCA portal, which is accessible to accredited officials from administrations which have participated in the Survey. The information stored on the portal includes aggregate and country-level data. The portal has built-in analytical capabilities. A query tool enables users to break down data to a granular level, visualize connections and trends between multiple datasets, and create data charts and graphs and benchmark variables.

Some key lessons learned

The first round of the Survey should be seen as a proof of concept demonstrating the feasibility of collecting Customs administrations’ data

Although the database established during this first edition of the Survey presents opportunities for improvement, the Survey itself served a critical purpose in providing a “proof of concept” for the collection of Customs administrations’ data. It needs to be seen as a “prototype”, or a demonstration model which gives an idea of the kind of aggregate analysis that could be done if more countries were to participate in the Survey.

“Whilst the data collected through the ISOCA Survey could not be used for benchmarking purposes due to the low response rate, the first round of the Survey showed that the data collection process itself was feasible. The National Tax and Customs Administration of Hungary has supported and will continue to support this initiative.” ISOCA Coordinator from Hungary

A survey similar in design and purpose to ISOCA, the International Survey on Revenue Administration (ISORA), is the product of the collaboration of five international organizations to collect data on tax administration practices, structures and performance directly from tax administrations [3] . Some of the lessons learned in the development of ISORA were taken into account during ISOCA’s development.

One of the lessons is that, despite intensive preparation and efforts, a survey of this type, covering all countries from the smallest to the very largest, inevitably needs live, comprehensive testing. Even though three of the organizations managing ISORA had been administering separate surveys to collect data on tax administrations – which actually informed the design of ISORA – a major revision of the survey was undertaken after two iterations to improve data quality. A simplified and shortened set of questions to be answered on an annual basis was compiled, which was supplemented by a periodic questionnaire. Despite data collection taking place in 2020 while staff in many administrations were working remotely, 156 administrations completed this streamlined third ISORA. The data from the 2020 survey have been released publicly for the first time, and data collection from the fourth survey will soon be complete.

Another lesson is that participation increases during a second round. One of the reasons is that second-time participants found the data reporting system easier to use. Moreover, the organizations managing the survey realized that supporting participating administrations remains essential, even in an established survey.

“Participating in the ISOCA Survey enabled us to self-evaluate our performance in a number of key areas. It is a timely and important initiative, however the data collection was time-consuming because it was the very first exercise of this kind and there is clearly room for improvement.” ISOCA Coordinator from Georgia

Providing assistance and reviewing data submission is key

Taking into account lessons learned when undertaking ISORA, a WCO-IMF Technical Working Group was established to provide assistance, answer questions and conduct data quality review in liaison with each Survey participant’s representatives. The latter often provided data that did not match data their administrations had already provided elsewhere. Reviewing the data was essential to ensure that any differences compared to other surveys or reports could be explained, and to ensure coherence across datasets and across countries. Elementary data items have to be based on compatible concepts, definitions and classifications so that they can be meaningfully combined and can be compared over time.

More time was required to complete the Survey due to the COVID-19 pandemic but the crisis also shed light on the importance of data

The COVID-19 pandemic increased the length of time needed by countries to provide information required in the Survey. This raises fundamental questions in terms of the sustainability of the data policy when priorities and resources are shifted towards relatively short-term but urgent tasks. We might be tempted to think that, at periods of crisis, there is no time for general assessment and benchmarking. But one should not forget that the implementation of a robust and coherent data strategy can assist the organization in ensuring organizational resilience, in other words, in responding and adapting to incremental change and sudden disruptions.

While delaying the collection of data that were not considered critical to the response to COVID-19, the pandemic has also increased interest in data analysis, highlighting the need to develop data interpretation skills at all staff levels. It has also shed light on the importance of data collection and interpretation, and the danger of incomplete information and biased data, especially in comparative settings [4] .

Some administrations need to strengthen data collection capacity and data sharing

ISOCA also highlights the limited interest in sharing data or the lack of hierarchical support to do so. Some very modern and well-equipped administrations did not submit data, or did so in such a limited way that it could not be used by the analysts.

There seems to be a need to develop a stronger data culture in some administrations and to develop capacity to produce key indicators as part of day-to-day operations, enabling them to measure their performance and to guide their strategic, tactical and operational decisions.

“At times it was difficult to complete the Survey and I couldn’t answer some of the questions due to the fact that my Administration did not have an updated database. This Survey enabled me to show my superiors that there is an urgent need to equip ourselves with a number of essential tools to ensure the smooth running and modernization of our Administration”. ISOCA Coordinator from Niger

Greater awareness of the benefits of the Survey should drive administrations’ engagement in the process.

The WCO and the IMF hope that, in the future, more Customs administrations will join this common effort to collect quality data for the benefit of the entire Customs community. The two Organizations are aware of the need to strengthen their engagement strategy and to ensure that the respondents assume ownership of the process, in view of its anticipated benefits. A stakeholder engagement strategy is also needed to ensure not only data coherence, but also data usability and accessibility.

Way forward

Although a higher number of participants is required for the Survey to be meaningful, the WCO and the IMF now know that the tool developed to collect the data operates efficiently. The two Organizations are also aware of the need to simplify the ISOCA Survey to balance the need for accurate data and the burden of data collection, and to better exploit the benefits that the online platform offers.

Their objective is to integrate the expectation of Customs administrations regarding the use of data at the design stage of the Survey, thus ensuring that the collected data are relevant and can improve decision-making. Metrics must meet criteria in terms of legitimacy, functionality, and technical validity to ensure their internal adoption and fitness for purpose.

To achieve this, the WCO and the IMF need to garner the support of some Customs administrations. Any administration interested in partnering with them in this process is therefore warmly invited to contact them.

More information [email protected] [email protected]

[1] The report can be consulted at  http://www.wcoomd.org/en/about-us/partners/publications.aspx and https://data.rafit.org/?sk=8234d071-b89c-4876-8bba-791b9a33ddfe&sId=1635259677768 .

[2] http://www.wcoomd.org/en/about-us/partners/publications.aspx or  https://data.rafit.org/?sk=8234d071-b89c-4876-8bba-791b9a33ddfe&sId=1635259677768

[3] The five organizations are: the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Inter-American Center of Tax Administrations (CIAT), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Intra-European Organisation of Tax Administrations (IOTA), and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). CIAT, IOTA, the IMF and the OECD signed an MOU in 2016. Ahead of the second round of ISORA, the ADB joined the partnership.

[4] George, Bert & Verschuere, Bram & Wayenberg, Ellen & Zaki, Bishoy. (2020). A Guide to Benchmarking COVID‐19 Performance Data. Public Administration Review. 10.1111/puar.13255.

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Transformation of Customs Administration and the Impact of Automation on Decision-Making by Customs Authorities

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The authors focus on current trends in the development of customs authorities and the informatization of the administration of customs services. The paper considers customs reforms aimed at introducing elements of artificial intelligence into the processes of dispatching and decision-making on the release of goods during an electronic declaration. The authors briefly analyze the problems faced by customs authorities during the ongoing reforms and automation of decision-making. Some directions for overcoming these problems are proposed. The proposed algorithm for applying the decision support system in electronic declaration centers demonstrates the critical perception of the decision-making system without the participation of officials in the customs authorities.

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Boikova, M.V., Vorona, A.A., Gubarev, D.V., Maksimov, Y.A., Timchenko, T.N. (2022). Transformation of Customs Administration and the Impact of Automation on Decision-Making by Customs Authorities. In: Popkova, E.G. (eds) Imitation Market Modeling in Digital Economy: Game Theoretic Approaches. ISC 2020. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol 368. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93244-2_2

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This book will take you through the past, the present and into the future of the flagship institution of the international customs community: the World Customs Organization (WCO). Our purpose is to present to you, in a comprehensive, orderly and synthetic manner, the enormous contributions that this prestigious and recognized institution has been making to the secure growth of world foreign trade. In the development of the text, special consideration has been given to the instruments relevant to day-to-day customs work and which constitute the flagships of the WCO (the Harmonized System Convention, the Revised Kyoto Convention, the SAFE Framework of Standards, among many others), as well as to those issues which are currently of particular relevance to the WCO, to those issues that are currently of special interest to the world Customs community (Cross Border Electronic Trade, Trade Facilitation, the Future Customs Agenda, to mention but a few), trying to reconcile the various practical aspects of Customs operations with their theoretical underpinnings. In short, these pages will be of great interest to all foreign trade operators, in particular to customs officials, customs brokers, carriers and international forwarding agents, managers of importing and exporting companies, as well as to all those (professionals and students) who wish to deepen their knowledge of the exciting world of Customs and International Trade.

Borys Kormych

The paper analyses basic transformation tendencies in the international trade policy standards generated within frameworks of global and regional institution and their influence upon customs and border formalities. The transformation of standards is also supplemented with crucial changes in a rule-making process, that conventionally has been an exclusive competence of national states. That rule-making changes are charac-terised by transferring the significant amount of competence from the national states to the global and supranational level, as well as by introduction new types of rule-making actors (both public and private) and new types of law sources. This urges us to apply to the analyses the concepts of global governance, transnational law and global administrative law, which focus on the above-mentioned transformations in the field. Customs authorities now are experiencing the transition of their initial mission from merely revenue collectors to actors responsible for extensive range of tasks, including safety and security issues, trade facilitation, joint border management, etc. All these tasks should be performed at the high level of harmonisation, unification and standardization with recognised international and regional rules and regulations. Due to the specifics of the new mission of customs authorities, the paper primary focuses on two relatively new tasks of security and trade facilitation. And also paper discuses two basic modern instruments to implement such tasks – the operation of Single Window for international trade and the application of good governance principles to customs routine operations. The essential point is that two instruments are not focused merely on improving the way customs and border formalities are performed by authorities, but also starve the whole system of border management into comprehensive reform of both interagency and intra-agency procedures and operations. The Single Window facility provides such reform through joint application of information technology based on internationally approved standards. The WTO rules for good governance for application of customs legislation in fact demands from member states to share common values and princi- ples, originally emerged within legal systems of western developed countries. The key words: trade policy, customs regulations, customs formalities, trade faci- litation, security, global supply chain, Single Window, good governance, WTO, WCO, UN/SEFACT Introduction.

Danilo Desiderio

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, the role of customs administration in the structure and efficiency of international logistics: an international comparison.

The International Journal of Logistics Management

ISSN : 0957-4093

Article publication date: 1 January 1992

Shippers are seeking international gateways that can provide them with services consistent with “seamless logistics”. This places pressures on public and private organizations, such as customs and freight forwarders, to adopt competitive technologies and systems. Electronic data interchange and integrated logistics management practices enable significant improvements in border procedures. A comparison of developments in four countries reveals that strategic changes by customs will enable more efficient logistics services. However, customs and forwarders in the countries are progressing at different rates.

• Freight forwarding
• Distribution management
• Electronic data interchange

Heaver, T.D. (1992), "The Role of Customs Administration in the Structure and Efficiency of International Logistics: An International Comparison", The International Journal of Logistics Management , Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 63-72. https://doi.org/10.1108/09574099210804813

Copyright © 1992, MCB UP Limited

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CCES is committed to excellence in research and strives to undertake nationally and internationally competitive research projects. It has attained a reputation for high-quality research in the areas of Customs, international trade and border management where it has particular depth and strength of academic and research capability.

Our research activities and projects include examining national, regional and international trends to identify best practice approaches to border management and to provide empirical evidence to inform strategic decision making. We ensure that all our programs and related services reflect contemporary and emerging issues that impact on business of customs, excise and border management through our ongoing applied research activities.

CCES research activities are designed to provide a scientific basis for policy decision-making, and the Centre’s Enhancing the Competitiveness of Australia’s International Traders research project is one such example.

CCES staff have published a number of books and research papers over the years, a selection of which can be viewed below.

Widdowson, D. (2023) Interesting trends in Customs university programmes. WCO News No.100 , pp.30-31

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B. & Kashubsky, M. (2023). Characteristics of Trade Data for Border Management Agencies. CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Widdowson, D. (2022) Cross-border windows of opportunity. In Proceedings of the 16th International scientific conference ‘History of trade, taxes and duties’ , University of Customs and Finance, Dnipro, pp. 157-162.

Widdowson, D. (2022) Customs in times of crisis. In Proceedings of the International conference ‘Customs Service of Ukraine in War and Post-War Conditions’ , University of Customs and Finance, Dnipro, pp. 5-7.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B. & Kashubsky, M. (2022). Advance Cargo Risk Assessment by Customs and Border Authorities. CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Preece, R., Davie, S., Kashubsky, M., Meille, B. & Long, A. (2022). Reporting Models for Imported and Exported Goods. CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Preece, R., Davie, S., Kashubsky, M., Meille, B., & Long, A. (2022). Scanning for Border Threats. CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Widdowson, D. (2021)   World Customs Organization global webinar series : Managing HR through a crisis and beyond. Keynote address 19 January 2021: Leading with 2020 hindsight. World Customs Journa l, 15(1), pp. 139-145.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Short, G., Lewis, G., Garcia-Godos, E. & Kashubsky, M., (2021) Single window in the context of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement. Journal of Customs and Trade , 42(3), pp. 28-53 [In Chinese]

Widdowson, D. & Kashubsky, M. (2021) UCC Navigator – A New Innovating Tool That Helps to Overcome EU Customs Legislation Complexity. CCRM Journal for Practitioners in Europe , Issue 9.

Widdowson, D. (2021, November 19) Australia’s Trade Single Window of Opportunity. East Asia Forum.

Hesketh, D. (2020) The WCO’s impact to date and lessons learned: the road from Columbus to Competency. World Customs Journal , 14(2), pp. 99-108.

Widdowson, D. (2020) Managing customs risk and compliance: an integrated approach. World Customs Journal,  14(2), pp.   63-80.

Blegen, B. (2020) Re-examining border clearance in the age of e-commerce. World Customs Journal,  14(2), pp.   81-98.

Kashubsky, M. & Hintsa, J. (2020) Customs capacity building through Partnership in Customs Academic Research and Development (PICARD): achievements and future directions. World Customs Journal,  14(2), pp.   197-223.

Widdowson, D (2020) Welcoming address. Green Channel 11(1) pp 7-8.

Preece, R. & Neher, A., (2020) The extent of the illicit cigarette market in Australia: using publicly available data in a ‘top‑down’ approach to estimation. World Customs Journal , 14(1), pp. 3-16.

Widdowson, D. (2020) Submission to the Parliament of Australia Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Inquiry into Australia activating greater trade and investment with Pacific island countries, 11 February 2020.

Widdowson, D. (2020) Submission to the UK Parliament Northern Ireland Affairs Committee Inquiry into Unfettered Access: Northern Ireland and customs arrangements after Brexit, 31 March 2020.

Widdowson, D. (2020) Supplementary submission to the UK Parliament Northern Ireland Affairs Committee Inquiry into Unfettered Access: Northern Ireland and customs arrangements after Brexit, 1 May 2020.

Widdowson, D. (2020) Evidence to the UK Parliament Northern Ireland Affairs Committee Inquiry into Unfettered Access: Northern Ireland and customs arrangements after Brexit, 30 April 2020.

Widdowson, D. (2020) Genuine NI-GB trade should not be subject to customs controls,  The UK in a Changing Europe, King’s College London,   13 May 2020.

Lewis, G. (2019) Softening hard borders through tech: Brexit and the Irish border. World Customs Journal , 13(1), pp. 167-170.

Preece, R., (2019) Australia: Addressing the illicit flows of tobacco in Australia. In Dutta, S. (2019) Countering Illicit Tobacco Trade: A Global Review of Country Experiences Washington, DC: World Bank, pp. 15-49.

Preece, R., (2019) Excise tax reforms across ASEAN since the start of its Economic Community. World Customs Journal 13(1), pp. 3-20.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Short, G., Lewis, G., Garcia-Godos, E. & Kashubsky, M., (2019) Single window in the context of the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement. World Customs Journal , 13(1), pp.101-128.

Preece, R (2018) Excise taxation in ASEAN: An analysis of the need to develop a coordinated approach to excise tax policy as part of implementing the ASEAN Economic Community.  Centre for Customs & Excise Studies, Charles Sturt University.

Preece, R., Oczkowski, E., Bnadara, Y. & Nuchaswan, K (2019) Development of an econometric model of alcohol taxation in Vietnam. World Customs Journal , 12(2), pp. 133-168.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Short, G., & Kashubsky, M. (2018) National committees on trade facilitation. World Customs Journal,  12(1), pp. 27-48.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Short, G., Lewis, G., Garcia-Godos, E., Kashubsky, M., Baker, H. & Juratowitch, B. (2018) Review of Australia’s progress towards implementation of the Single Window concept, CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Widdowson, D. (2018) Human competencies and administrative uniformity. In Muscat, I. (ed) The EU Customs Union @50: Concept to continuum.  Malta: Malta Customs, pp. 132-135.

Hassan, T. (2017) An analysis of prime determinants and constraints of Bangladesh’s export market: Stochastic frontier gravity model approach. World Customs Journal , 11(2), pp. 77-92.

Phan, T. (2017) Identifying illicit timber trade between Vietnam and China. World Customs Journal , 11(1), pp. 13-22.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Short, G. & Kashubsky, M. (2017) Review of Australia’s National Committee on Trade Facilitation,  CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Widdowson, D. (2017) Regulation of border management in Mexico. In Review of the Regulation of Freight Transport in Mexico . Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Kashubsky, M., Pavlenko, O. & Chentsov, V. (2016) Customs Scientific Journal: recent developments and future plans, World Customs Journal , 10(1), pp. 135-137.

Preece, R. (2016) Reforming automobile excise taxes in the ASEAN region for pre-growth and pro-environment outcomes. World Customs Journal , 10(1), pp. 45-72.

Widdowson, D. (2016) Managing the border: a transformational shift to pre-export screening. World Customs Journal , 10(2), pp. 3-16.

Kashubsky, M. (2016) Offshore oil and gas installations security: An international perspective. Routledge, New York.

Kashubsky, M. (2016) Maritime security threats and challenges arising from offshore oil and gas exploration and production in the Arctic. Strategic Insights , No.61, pp.19-23.

Widdowson, D. (2016) WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement: What it means for Australian Exporters. International Business Today,  pp. 14-16.

Preece, R. (2015)   Automotive Excise Taxation: What Reforms are needed to Best Utilise the ASEAN Economic Community?   World Customs Journal , 9(1), pp. 15-36.

Widdowson, D. (2015) 10 years of promoting the academic standing of the customs profession. World Customs Journal , 9(2), pp. 111-113.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B. & Kashubsky, M. (2015) Facilitating Trade through Trusted Partnerships. In Proceedings of the Inaugural INCU Global Conference ‘Trade Facilitation Post-Bali: Putting Policy into Practice ’, International Network of Customs Universities, Canberra, pp.285-299.

Kashubsky, M. (2015) Recognition of University Customs Curriculum: Issues, Challenges and Possible Solutions. In Proceedings of the Inaugural INCU Global Conference ‘Trade Facilitation Post-Bali: Putting Policy into Practice’ , International Network of Customs Universities, Canberra, pp.247-251.

Widdowson, D. (2015) The role of Customs scholarship in capacity building. In Studies on harmonization of customs law and contributions of the academy for updating and improving the WCO. Brussels: International Customs Law Academy, pp. 207-222.  

Widdowson, D. (2015) 10 years of promoting the academic standing of the Customs profession. WCO News , October, pp. 79-80.

Preece, R. (2014)   Developing an Excise Working Tariff Schedule for South East Asia: A Resource for Policy Makers. World Customs Journal , 8(1), pp. 189-192.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B. & Kashubsky, M. (2014) Facilitating trade through inter-agency cooperation. In Customs Policy: Economics, Law and Practice, Warsaw, Poland, pp. 423-432.  

Widdowson, D. (2014) Regulatory harmonisation: An essential ingredient of international trade facilitation. In Customs Policy: Economics, Law and Practice, Warsaw, Poland, pp. 257-267.  

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Kashubsky, M. & Grainger, A. (2014) Review of Accredited Operator Schemes: An Australian Study. World Customs Journal , 8(1), pp. 17-34.

Widdowson, D., Blegen, B., Kashubsky, M. & Grainger, A. (2014) Review of Accredited Operator Schemes . CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Kashubsky, M. (2014) Can an Act of Piracy Be Committed Against an Offshore Petroleum Installation? Electronic Supplement to the Russian Juridical Journal , 5(1), pp. 5-14.

Widdowson, D., Weppner, G., Yi, J. & Baldwin, W. (2014) Utilisation of Australia’s free trade agreements . Canberra: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service.

Widdowson, D. & Short, G. (2014) Review of licensing provisions . CCES Research Paper Series, Canberra: Centre for Customs and Excise Studies.

Widdowson, D. (2014) Review of customs licensing arrangements and accredited operator programs. Paper presented at the Australian Federation of International Forwarders National Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 28-30 May 2014.

Widdowson, D. (2014) AEO: A plurilateral approach to mutual recognition. Journal of Contemporary Economic and Business Issues 1(2), pp. 67-77.

Preece, R. (2013) The Effective Contribution of Excise Taxation on Non-alcoholic Beverages to Government Revenues and Social Objectives: A Review of the Literature. World Customs Journal , 7(1), pp. 21-38.

Kashubsky, M. (2013) Protecting offshore oil and gas installations: security threats and countervailing measures (Part II). Journal of Energy Security , December 2013.

Kashubsky, M. (2013) Protecting offshore oil and gas installations: security threats and countervailing measures (Part I). Journal of Energy Security , August 2013.

Kashubsky, M. & Morrison, A. (2013) Security of offshore oil and gas facilities: exclusion zones and ships’ routeing. Australian Journal of Maritime and Ocean Affairs , 5(1), pp.1-10.  

Widdowson, D. (2013) Bordering on corruption: An analysis of corrupt Customs practices that impact the trading community. World Customs Journal , 7(2), pp. 11-22.

Ndonga, D. (2013) Managing the risk of corruption in Customs through single window systems. World Customs Journal , 7(2), pp. 23-38.

Lewis, G. (2013) Integrity: an age-old problem for Customs that demands a new approach. World Customs Journal , 7(2), pp. 107-118.

Widdowson, D. (2013) The role of Customs scholarship in capacity building. Paper presented to the International Customs Law Academy’s World Meeting of Customs Law, ‘Studies on Harmonization of Customs Law and Contributions of the Academy for updating and improving the WCO Instruments’ 4-6 September 2013, Brussels.

Widdowson, D. & Preece, R. (2013) Post Clearance Audit: Reference and Implementation Guide. Washington, DC: World Bank.

Kashubsky, M. (2012) Can an act of piracy be committed against an offshore petroleum installation? Australia and New Zealand Maritime Law Journal , 26(2), pp.163-171.

Holloway, S. & Rae, J. (2012) De minimis thresholds in APEC. World Customs Journal , 6(1), pp. 31-62.

Preece, R (2012) Excise taxation of non-alcoholic beverages in Thailand: products, approaches, rates, and administration . World Customs Journal , 6(2), pp. 59-72.

Preece, R (2012) Excise Taxation of Key Commodities across South East Asia a Comparative Analysis Ahead of the ASEAN Economic Community in 2015 .  World Customs Journal , 6(1), pp. 3-16.

Widdowson, D. (2012)  Risk-Based Compliance Management: Making it Work in Border Management Agencies . Washington, DC: World Bank.

Preece, R & Zhang, S., (2011) Designing and Implementing Customs Business Partnerships: a Possible Framework for Collaborative Governance. World Customs Journal , 5(1), pp. 43-62.

Kashubsky, M. (2011) Offshore petroleum security: analysis of offshore security threats, target attractiveness, and the international legal framework for the protection and security of offshore petroleum installations. Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, Faculty of Law, University of Wollongong, 2011.

Kashubsky, M. (2011) A chronology of attacks on and unlawful interferences with offshore oil and gas installations, 1975-2010. Perspectives on Terrorism ,   5(5-6), pp.139-167.  

Widdowson, D. & Holloway, S. (2011) Core border management disciplines: Risk based compliance management. In McLinden, G., Fanta, E., Widdowson, D. & Doyle, T. (eds) Border management modernization.  Washington DC: World Bank, pp. 95-113.

Widdowson, D. & Holloway, S. (2011) The national security environment: Strategic context. In McLinden, G., Fanta, E., Widdowson, D. & Doyle, T. (eds) Border management modernization.  Washington DC: World Bank, pp. 297-316.

Widdowson, D. (2011) Raising the academic standing of the Customs profession. WCO News , 64, pp. 29-30.

Hesketh, D. (2010) Weaknesses in the supply chain: who packed the box? World Customs Journal , 4(2), pp. 3-20.

Holloway, S. (2010) Measuring the effectiveness of border management: designing KPIs for outcomes. World Customs Journal , 4(2), pp. 37-54.

Lewis, G. (2009) The impact of ICT on Customs. World Customs Journal , 3(1), pp. 3-11.

Holloway, S. (2009) The transition from eCustoms to eBorder management. World Customs Journal , 3(1), pp. 13-25.

Hesketh, D. (2009) Seamless electronic data and logistics pipelines shift focus from import declarations to start of commercial transaction. World Customs Journal , 3(1), pp. 27-32.

Blegen, B. (2009) US Importer Security Filing: advance electronic data under the SAFE Framework meets the real world. World Customs Journal , 3(1), pp. 73-85.

Widdowson, D. & Holloway, S. (2009) Maritime transport security regulation: policies, probabilities and practicalities. World Customs Journal , 3(2), pp. 17-42.

Buyonge, C. (2008) Organisational design in Customs in Sub-Saharan Africa: a critical evaluation. World Customs Journal , 2(2), pp. 53-62.

Preece, R. (2008) Key controls in the administration of excise. World Customs Journal, 2(1), pp. 73-92.

Buyonge, C. & Kireeva, I. (2008) Trade facilitations in Africa: Challenges and possible solutions. World Customs Journal , 2(1), pp. 41-54.

Holloway, S. (2008) Achieving sustainability in customs capacity building. World Customs Journal , 2(2), pp. 63-70.

Widdowson, D. (2008) The role of capacity building in achieving consistent application of international instruments. World Customs Journal , 2(2), pp. 71-76.

Kashubsky, M. (2008) Offshore energy force majeure: Nigeria’s local problem with global consequences. Maritime Studies , 160, pp.20-26.

Buyonge, C. (2007) Emerging issues on the role of Customs in the 21st century: an African focus. World Customs Journal , 1(1), pp. 31-37.

Widdowson, D. (2007) The changing role of Customs: Evolution or revolution? World Customs Journal , 1(1), pp. 31-37.

Kashubsky, M (2007) Marine pollution from the offshore oil and gas industry: Review of major conventions and Russian law (Part II)’. Maritime Studies ,   152, pp. 1-15.

Widdowson, D. (2007) WTO Trade Facilitation Negotiations Support Guide . Washington, DC: World Bank.

Kashubsky, M. (2006) Marine pollution from the offshore oil and gas industry: Review of major conventions and Russian law (Part I). Maritime Studies , 151, pp. 1-11.

Kashubsky, M. (2006) Customs regulation of offshore resources installations. Australian Resources and Energy Law Journal , 25(1), pp.104-111.

Kashubsky, M. (2006) Russia calls home its fleet. Lloyd’s List DCN ,   No.596, p. 9.

Widdowson, D. (2006) Border protection and trade facilitation – are the two compatible? Presentation to the Korea Research Society for Customs Conference on Globalization of Customs Administration & Border Protection, Seoul, Korea, May 2006.

Widdowson, D. (2006) The Australian Accredited Client Program – A Work in Progress. Presentation to the 18th European Customs Law Conference, Esslingen, Germany, June 2006.

Widdowson, D. (2006) Raising the Portcullis. Presentation to the WCO Partnership in Customs Academic Research and Development Conference, Brussels, March 2006.

Kashubsky, M. (2005) Giants of Sakhalin: companies vie for stake in energy project, Lloyd’s List DCN ,   No.564, pp.1, 13.

Widdowson, D. (2005) International trade facilitation: the Customs imperative. Presentation to the APEC Workshop on the WTO Trade Facilitation Negotiations, Kuala Lumpur, March 2005.

Widdowson, D. (2005) Customs partnerships: A two-way street. Presentation to the European Customs Conference organised by the European Forum for Foreign Trade, Customs and Excise Bonn, Germany 10 June 2005.

Widdowson, D. (2005) Managing risk in the customs context. In De Wolf, L. & Sokol, J. (eds) Customs Modernization Handbook . World Bank, Washington DC, pp. 91-99.

Widdowson, D., Harrison, M., Gulbransen, P., & Spong, M. (2003) The Revised Kyoto Convention: A Pathway to Accession and Implementation . Singapore: Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat.

Widdowson, D. (2003) Intervention by Exception: A Study of the Use of Risk Management by Customs Authorities in the International Trading Environment . (Doctor of Philosophy Thesis). University of Canberra, Australia.

Widdowson, D. (1998) Managing Compliance: More Carrot, Less Stick. In Chris Evans & Abe Greenbaum (eds) Tax Administration: Facing the Challenges of the Future . Prospect, Sydney, pp. 99-104.

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Bux, Fardeen. "The deductibility of losses incurred by a taxpayer as a result of senior employee theft, fraud or embezzlement." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/d1020608.

Mak, Hoi-wan Walter, and 麥凱雲. "An evaluative study on the new performance appraisal system for inspectorate grade officer in the Hong Kong Customs & Excise Department." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10722/210309.

鄧燕 and Yin Juliymiki Tang. "A study of the training strategies for inspectorate officers in the Customs and Excise Department." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2002. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31967000.

Klicker, Karl D. "The edifice complex : a study of the causes and effects of conflict between generations of marines, and of cultural changes in the United States Marine Corps." Virtual Press, 1990. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/720398.

Symkovych, Anton. "Power relations in a Ukrainian prison." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2011. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.609920.

Chan, Nga-lai Ella. "Pay administration in the Hong Kong civil service." [Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong], 1992. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B13236325.

Lichterman, Hilary L. "Self-efficacy beliefs of assistant residence hall directors at Ball State University." Virtual Press, 2004. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1293374.

Mundy, Eric J. "PUBLIC TRUST IN GOVERNMENT: AN EXAMINATION OF CITIZEN TRUST DIFFERENTIALS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATORS AND OTHER GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS AT THE FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL LEVELS." Akron, OH : University of Akron, 2007. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=akron1176487794.

Mtikitiki, Nolusindiso. "An investigation on the perceptions of officials on their role in the rehabilitation process: the case of the East London Correctional Centre." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/19277.

Snoodgrass, Anthony Michael. "Overcoming communications barriers in local government: Establishing networks through the public management forum." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1992. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/618.

Ousley, Timothy Paul. "Municipal layoffs in Southern California: Should seniority outweigh productivity?" CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1997. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1489.

Chan, Nga-lai Ella, and 陳雅麗. "Pay administration in the Hong Kong civil service." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1992. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B31963997.

Lines, Rodney John. "Telecommuting, is it part of the future for the Upland Police Department?" CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1993. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/717.

Bam, Liseka Lindelwa. "Assessing the municipal performance management system on service delivery : the case of Lukhanji Municipality." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/d1020140.

Šaulytė, Donata. "Organizacijos kultūros raiška Lietuvos Respublikos Seime." Bachelor's thesis, Lithuanian Academic Libraries Network (LABT), 2009. http://vddb.library.lt/obj/LT-eLABa-0001:E.02~2009~D_20090625_113920-99052.

Wike, Christopher L. "Intent to quit perceptions of nursing assistants working in Oklahoma state veterans administration-owned and administered nursing homes." Thesis, University of North Texas, 2007. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc3903/.

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Key facts about U.S. immigration policies and Biden’s proposed changes

Since President Joe Biden took office in January 2021, his administration has acted on a number of fronts to reverse Trump-era restrictions on immigration to the United States. The steps include plans to boost refugee admissions , preserving deportation relief for unauthorized immigrants who came to the U.S. as children and not enforcing the “ public charge ” rule that denies green cards to immigrants who might use public benefits like Medicaid.

Biden has also lifted restrictions established early in the coronavirus pandemic that drastically reduced the number of visas issued to immigrants. The number of people who received a green card declined from about 240,000 in the second quarter of the 2020 fiscal year (January to March) to about 79,000 in the third quarter (April to June). By comparison, in the third quarter of fiscal 2019, nearly 266,000 people received a green card.

Biden’s biggest immigration proposal to date would allow more new immigrants into the U.S. while giving millions of unauthorized immigrants who are already in the country a pathway to legal status. The expansive legislation would create an eight-year path to citizenship for the nation’s estimated 10.5 million unauthorized immigrants , update the existing family-based immigration system, revise employment-based visa rules and increase the number of diversity visas . By contrast, President Donald Trump’s administration sought to restrict legal immigration in a variety of ways, including through legislation that would have overhauled the nation’s legal immigration system by sharply reducing family-based immigration.

The Biden administration has proposed legislation that would create new ways for immigrants to legally enter the United States. The bill would also create a path to citizenship for unauthorized immigrants living in the country.

To better understand the existing U.S. immigration system, we analyzed the most recent data available on federal immigration programs. This includes admission categories for green card recipients and the types of temporary employment visas available to immigrant workers. We also examined temporary permissions granted to some immigrants to live and work in the country through the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals and Temporary Protected Status programs.

This analysis relies on data from various sources within the U.S. government, including the Department of Homeland Security, Citizenship and Immigration Services, the Department of State, Federal Register announcements and public statements from the White House.

The Senate is considering several immigration provisions in a spending bill, the Build Back Better Act , that the House passed in November 2021. While passage of the bill is uncertain – as is the inclusion of immigration reforms in the bill’s final version – the legislation would make about 7 million unauthorized immigrants eligible to apply for protection from deportation, work permits and driver’s licenses.

Amid a record number of migrant encounters at the U.S.-Mexico border, Biden reinstated in December 2021 a Trump-era policy that requires those who arrive at the U.S.-Mexico border and seek asylum to wait in Mexico while their claims are processed. Biden had earlier ended the Migration Protection Protocols , or “Remain in Mexico” policy, and then restarted it after the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a lawsuit by Texas and Missouri that challenged the program’s closure. Asylum seekers do not receive a legal status that allows them to live and work in the U.S. until the claim is approved.

Overall, more than 35 million lawful immigrants live in the U.S.; most are American citizens. Many live and work in the country after being granted lawful permanent residence, while others receive temporary visas available to students and workers. In addition, roughly 1 million unauthorized immigrants have temporary permission to live and work in the U.S. through the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals and Temporary Protected Status programs.

Here are key details about existing U.S. immigration programs, as well as Biden’s proposed changes to them:

Family-based immigration

In fiscal 2019, nearly 710,000 people received lawful permanent residence in the U.S. through family sponsorship. The program allows someone to receive a green card if they already have a spouse, child, sibling or parent living in the country with U.S. citizenship or, in some cases, a green card. Immigrants from countries with large numbers of applicants often wait for years to receive a green card because a single country can account for no more than 7% of all green cards issued annually.

Biden’s proposal would expand access to family-based green cards in a variety of ways, such as by increasing per-country caps and clearing application backlogs. Today, family-based immigration – referred to by some as “ chain migration ” – is the most common way people gain green cards, in recent years accounting for about two-thirds of the more than 1 million people who receive green cards annually.

Refugee admissions

The U.S. admitted only 11,411 refugees in fiscal year 2021, the lowest number since Congress passed the 1980 Refugee Act for those fleeing persecution in their home countries. The low number of admissions came even after the Biden administration raised the maximum number of refugees the nation could admit to 62,500 in fiscal 2021 . Biden has increased the refugee cap to 125,000 for fiscal 2022, which started on Oct. 1, 2021.

The low number of admissions in recent years is due in part to the ongoing pandemic. The U.S. admitted only about 12,000 refugees in fiscal 2020 after the country suspended admissions during the coronavirus outbreak . This was down from nearly 54,000 in fiscal 2017 and far below the nearly 85,000 refugees admitted in fiscal 2016, the last full fiscal year of the Obama administration.

The recent decline in refugee admissions also reflects policy decisions made by the Trump administration before the pandemic. Trump capped refugee admissions in fiscal 2020 at 18,000 , the lowest total since Congress created the modern refugee program in 1980.

Employment-based green cards

In fiscal 2019, the U.S. government awarded more than 139,000 employment-based green cards to foreign workers and their families. The Biden administration’s proposed legislation could boost the number of employment-based green cards, which are capped at about 140,000 per year . The proposal would allow the use of unused visa slots from previous years and allow spouses and children of employment-based visa holders to receive green cards without counting them against the annual cap. These measures could help clear the large backlog of applicants. The proposed legislation also would eliminate the per-country cap that prevents immigrants from any single country to account for more than 7% of green cards issued each year.

Diversity visas

Each year, about 50,000 people receive green cards through the U.S. diversity visa program , also known as the visa lottery. Since the program began in 1995, more than 1 million immigrants have received green cards through the lottery, which seeks to diversify the U.S. immigrant population by granting visas to underrepresented nations. Citizens of countries with the most legal immigrant arrivals in recent years – such as Mexico, Canada, China and India – are not eligible to apply.

The Biden administration has proposed legislation to increase the annual total to 80,000 diversity visas. Trump had sought to eliminate the program .

In fiscal 2019, more than 188,000 high-skilled foreign workers received H-1B visas . H-1B visas accounted for 22% of all temporary visas for employment issued in 2019. This trailed only the H-2A visa for agricultural workers, which accounted for nearly a quarter (24%) of temporary visas. In all, nearly 2 million H-1B visas were issued from fiscal years 2007 to 2019.

The Biden administration is expected to review policies that led to increased denial rate s of H-1B visa applications under the Trump administration. In addition, Biden has delayed implementing a rule put in place by Trump that sought to prioritize the H-1B visa selection process based on wages, which would have raised the wages of H-1B recipients overall. Biden also proposed legislation to provide permanent work permits to spouses of H-1B visa holders. By contrast, the Trump administration had sought to restrict these permits. The Trump administration also created an electronic registration system that led to a record number of applicants for fiscal 2021.

Temporary permissions

A relatively small number of unauthorized immigrants who came to the U.S. under unusual circumstances have received temporary legal permission to stay in the country. One key distinction for this group of immigrants is that, despite having received permission to live in the U.S., most don’t have a path to gain lawful permanent residence. The following two programs are examples of this:

Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals

About 636,000 unauthorized immigrants had temporary work permits and protection from deportation through the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, or DACA, as of Dec. 31, 2020. One of Biden’s first actions as president was to direct the federal government to take steps to preserve the program , which Trump had tried to end before the Supreme Court allowed it to remain in place . DACA recipients, sometimes called “Dreamers,” would be among the undocumented immigrants to have a path to U.S. citizenship under Biden’s immigration bill. Senators have also proposed separate legislation that would do the same.

Temporary Protected Status

Overall, it is estimated that more than 700,000 immigrants from 12 countries currently have or are eligible for a reprieve from deportation under Temporary Protected Status, or TPS , a federal program that gives time-limited permission for some immigrants from certain countries to work and live in the U.S. The program covers those who fled designated nations because of war, hurricanes, earthquakes or other extraordinary conditions that could make it dangerous for them to live there.

The estimated total number of immigrants is based on those currently registered, in addition to those estimated to be eligible from Myanmar – also called Burma – and Venezuela.

Immigrants from Venezuela and Myanmar are newly eligible for TPS under changes made after Biden took office in January 2021 by the Department of Homeland Security, which oversees the program. The government must periodically renew TPS benefits or they will expire. The department extended benefits into 2022 and beyond for eligible immigrants from nine nations: El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras, Nepal, Nicaragua, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen. In addition, the Biden administration expanded eligibility for immigrants from Haiti based on recent turmoil.

Biden and congressional Democrats have proposed granting citizenship to certain immigrants who receive TPS benefits. Under Biden’s large immigration bill, TPS recipients who meet certain conditions could apply immediately for green cards that let them become lawful permanent residents. The proposal would allow TPS holders who meet certain conditions to apply for citizenship three years after receiving a green card, which is two years earlier than usual for green-card holders. By contrast, the Trump administration had sought to end TPS for nearly all beneficiaries, but was blocked from doing so by a series of lawsuits.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published March 22, 2021.

• Citizenship
• Family Reunification
• High-Skilled Immigration
• Immigration & Migration
• Legal Immigration
• Political Issues
• Refugees & Asylum Seekers
• Visas & Employment

Jens Manuel Krogstad is a senior writer and editor at Pew Research Center

Ana Gonzalez-Barrera is a former senior researcher focusing on Hispanics, immigration and demographics at Pew Research Center

How Temporary Protected Status has expanded under the Biden administration

After declining early in the covid-19 outbreak, immigrant naturalizations in the u.s. are rising again, most americans are critical of government’s handling of situation at u.s.-mexico border, most latinos say u.s. immigration system needs big changes, naturalized citizens make up record one-in-ten u.s. eligible voters in 2020, most popular.

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