disadvantages of alcohol essay

The Benefits and Disadvantages of Drinking Alcohol

If you don't normally drink alcohol, there's no good reason to start now.

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In fact, health experts say there isn't a safe level of drinking alcohol, as alcohol use is the seventh leading risk factor for deaths globally, according to a landmark August 2018 study in ​ The Lancet ​.

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But if you like to kick back with a glass of wine or a cold beer every now and then, there are safer ways to drink — and the first step is to curb your intake.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends people assigned female at birth (AFAB) limit their intake to one alcoholic drink per day and people assigned male at birth (AMAB) only have up to two drinks. What does that look like exactly? Here's a breakdown from the CDC:

• 12 ounces of beer (5 percent alcohol content)
• 8 ounces of malt liquor (7 percent alcohol content)
• 5 ounces of wine (12 percent alcohol content)
• 1.5 ounces or a shot of 80-proof distilled spirits or liquor, such as gin, rum, vodka and whiskey

One way to approach alcohol is to think about why you want to drink. Will it help you relax and feel good? Or will it make your anxiety worse? Are you using it to cope with personal issues going on in your life?

"Pace yourself and make sure you are mindful of your motivations for drinking. If you are drinking to avoid feelings or out of boredom, it can be helpful to engage in another healthier activity or call a friend," Alana Kessler, RD , functional and holistic nutrition and wellness expert, tells LIVESTRONG.com.

How alcohol affects someone depends on the person, so if you do drink, make sure to limit yourself to the appropriate amount of drinks per day and be mindful of how it affects you.

"Pace yourself and make sure you are mindful of your motivations for drinking. If you are drinking to avoid feelings or out of boredom, it can be helpful to engage in another healthier activity or call a friend."

Your liver metabolizes alcohol, but it can metabolize only a small amount at a time, so any excess alcohol continues to circulate throughout your body, per the CDC. Whether you're sipping on a martini or brandy, the effects of alcohol will largely depend on the amount you take in and not so much on the type of alcohol you drink.

In small amounts, alcohol can uplift your mood, but as you drink more, it can impair your vision, motor skills, memory and judgment.

All that said, here are some pros and cons of alcohol. Remember, the benefits don't outweigh the disadvantages of drinking alcohol — so, again, don't start drinking if you haven't been.

If you feel like you're drinking too much, are on prescription medications or are getting treated for any health conditions, it's important to talk to your doctor about safe alcohol use for you, per the CDC.

Benefits of Drinking Alcohol in Moderation

There are many reasons why people drink alcohol — in fact, there are potential benefits of alcohol if you drink in moderation. Here's how alcohol can help the body:

1. It's Linked to Better Heart Health

Some types of alcohol are better protectants than others — red wine , for instance, has a high concentration of polyphenols called resveratrol that are linked to helping prevent coronary heart disease, according to the Mayo Clinic .

"The flavonoids and antioxidants in wine can be beneficial for the heart and blood vessels, as well as for people with type 2 diabetes. People with diabetes can produce a lot of free radicals because of poor sugar metabolism," Kessler says.

However, these health-supporting properties have shown to be beneficial only when you drink less alcohol. For example, a February 2017 study in ​ The Lancet Public Health ​ found that drinking in moderation does not appear to worsen blood pressure. But for those who drink more than two drinks per day, reducing alcohol can improve blood pressure.

High cholesterol is also major risk factor for stroke and heart disease, particularly non-high-density lipoproteins, or LDL cholesterol , which can build up inside your arteries and affect cardiovascular health, per the CDC . High-density lipoproteins (HDL cholesterol), on the other hand, is known as the "good" cholesterol as it helps your body get rid of LDL.

And an April 2017 review in the ​​ American Journal of Clinical Nutrition ​​ found that moderate drinking led to slower decreases in HDL cholesterol levels, depending on the type of beverage.

2. It's Linked to Lower Diabetes Risk

This health benefit of alcohol may come as a surprise, but moderate drinking might help lower your risk for type 2 diabetes , according to a September 2016 review in the ​​ American Journal of Public Health ​ ​ . ​

Per the research, people AFAB who drink one to two drinks per day have 40 percent lower risk of developing this disease compared to people who don't drink alcohol. Drinking 15 grams of alcohol per day was also linked to potentially improving insulin sensitivity, which can help prevent diabetes.

A 12-year follow-up August 2017 study in ​​ Scientific Reports ​​ similarly found that light to moderate alcohol intake may have protective effects.

On the other hand, though, it's important to note that both studies showed an increased risk for diabetes with higher alcohol consumption. For instance, the ​ Scientific Reports ​ research found that drinking more than 30 grams of alcohol per day may up your risk for diabetes.

If you have diabetes, it's still best to talk to your doctor about what amount of alcohol is safest for you before drinking.

3. It's Linked to Helping Prevent Other Chronic Diseases

When coupled with a well-balanced diet like the Mediterranean Diet , for instance, low-to-moderate wine intake can help improve insulin sensitivity and reduce inflammation.

A November 2019 review in ​ Nutrients ​ suggests that the polyphenols in red wine can help prevent chronic diseases associated with oxidative stress.

The review also highlights how low-to-moderate wine intake is tied to helping decrease total cholesterol in people with dyslipidemia, high cholesterol in postmenopausal people, blood pressure in people with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance in those with metabolic syndrome.

Furthermore, a small May 2012 study in ​ The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition ​ suggests that red wine may provide some prebiotic benefits and might help promote gut-friendly bacteria.

4. It's Tied to Better Cognitive Function

Another health benefit of moderate alcohol use is that it may be tied to better brain health in older adults.

A June 2020 study in ​ JAMA Network Open ​ of 19,887 people with a mean age of about 62 years old found that low to moderate drinking (which equated to 8 drinks per week for people AFAB and less than 15 drinks per week for people AMAB) was significantly associated with consistently high cognitive function and a lower rate of cognitive decline.

And here's where it gets even more interesting: Compared to people who never drink, those who drink low to moderate amounts of alcohol were less likely to have a low total cognitive function, mental status, word recall and vocabulary.

It's worth noting that the majority of the participants in this study were people AFAB. The study authors also acknowledge that people who are healthier at baseline may be more likely to participate in social activities where alcohol is present, which may affect the link between alcohol intake and health status (a bias that applies to a lot of research about alcohol's effects).

A September 2016 review in the ​​ American Journal of Public Health ​​ likewise found that people AFAB who have up to one drink per day are less likely to experience cognitive decline. They also face a lower risk of sudden cardiac death, hypertension, stroke and all-cause mortality compared to those drinking more than one serving of alcohol daily.

However, other evidence is conflicting.

For instance, a June 2017 study in the ​​ BMJ ​​ found that light drinking has no advantages over abstinence. Furthermore, the risk of right-sided hippocampal atrophy (which can contribute to Alzheimer's disease and impaired memory) is three times higher in adults who drink moderately.

And, per the Alzheimer's Society , some studies may not be accurate because they don't differentiate between former drinkers and lifetime non-drinkers.

People who formerly had alcohol use disorder, for example, may have already experienced brain damage to some degree compared to people who have never drank. That may in part be because drinking heavily can lead to thiamine deficiency, which can damage the memory-making centers of your brain, per the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).

This lack of thiamine from heavy drinking can also lead to Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a degenerative brain disorder that damages cognitive function, according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke .

5. Beer, Specifically, Might Help Your Gut

In terms of other alcohol, research shows that beer may also have some health benefits .

For instance, a November 2019 study of the health benefits of alcohol in ​ Metabolites ​ suggests that as a fermented drink, beer contains polyphenols, such as ferulic acid, xanthohumol, catechins, epicatechins and proanthocyanidins, that may help support the gut microbiome.

However, more research is needed to understand the health benefits of beer in regards to polyphenols and how they interact with the gut.

Is Beer a Diuretic?

A diuretic is any substance that increases your body's urine production.

Alcohol works as a diuretic in part by stimulating the bladder. Alcohol also suppresses a pituitary gland hormone that is responsible for inhibiting the diuretic effect. This makes your kidneys unable to reabsorb as much liquid as usual, according to Alcohol Health & Research World . So, yes, alcohol makes you pee more.

6. It Could Prevent Gallstones Naturally

Occasional alcohol use may also protect against gallstones by reducing stone formation and increasing gallbladder motility, per the ​​ American Journal of Public Health ​ review. Drinking 5 or more grams of alcohol per day was linked to a 40 percent lower risk of symptomatic gallstones.

But again, moderation is the key here — heavily drinking is not a preventative measure for gallstones.

The Disadvantages of Drinking Alcohol Heavily

On the other hand, there are disadvantages of drinking alcohol. Here are the reasons why you should not drink alcohol heavily:

1. It Can Cause Liver Damage

The disadvantages of alcohol use appear when you turn moderate drinking to heavy or binge drinking.

"Heavy alcohol consumption can tax the liver because the liver is the organ that filters alcohol. If the liver has to filter alcohol, it can produce metabolites that are harmful to your health and can cause diseases like fatty liver, hepatitis and cirrhosis," Kessler says.

2. It Can Harm Your Digestive Tract

Another disadvantage of alcohol in the human body is that it has been shown to damage the entire gastrointestinal tract. Ethanol can cause direct damage to the esophagus, intestine and stomach, in addition to the liver and pancreas, according to an October 2014 review in the ​ World Journal of Gastroenterology . ​

3. It's Tied to Cancer

Here's another reason why you shouldn't drink alcohol heavily: Research has linked it to a number of cancers, including breast, liver and colon cancers, according to the American Cancer Society .

Alcohol may stimulate cancerous tumor growths and promote the progression and aggressiveness of tumors, according to a January 2017 review in ​ Pharmacological Research ​.

Moreover, drinking more than moderate amounts of alcohol is associated with an elevated risk of colon cancer, especially those with a family history of the disease, per a January 2012 study in ​ The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition ​.

4. It's Linked to Heart Problems

There are advantages and disadvantages of drinking wine — after all, sipping it in moderation may contribute to heart health. But chronic excessive drinking (wine or otherwise) can up your risk for heart conditions like high blood pressure, heart disease, heart failure and stroke , according to the CDC.

That's because alcohol can increase blood pressure and heart rate and contribute to obesity, all of which and can damage the heart. This is especially the case if you drink frequently and in high amounts.

"Heavy drinking for [people AMAB] is equal to 15 or more drinks a week, and for [people AFAB], it's eight or more drinks per week," Kessler says.

5. It's Associated With Osteoporosis

Another reason not to drink heavily is that it's linked to an increased risk for osteoporosis, particularly in young people AFAB, according to a June 2018 study in the ​ Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs ​.

While osteoporosis — which is characterized by low bone mineral density — is usually more apparent in older adults, drinking too much alcohol in early adulthood can inhibit young adults from reaching their peak bone mass.

6. It's Tied to Weight Gain

Another con of alcohol is that drinking too much can lead to weight gain , given that it serves up seven calories per gram and offers little, if any, nutrients along with it, according to Harvard Health Publishing .

To put that into perspective, one shot of liquor has around 97 to 116 calories (before you pour in caloric mixers!) while a glass of wine can boast about 120 to 165 calories, per the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). Drinking too much can easily pack on the calories and lead to weight gain.

And the big disadvantage of alcohol when it comes to weight gain is that having overweight or obesity can put you at a high risk for heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and other comorbid illnesses, according to the CDC.

Related Reading

Yes, You Can Enjoy Alcohol and Still Lose Weight — Here's How

7. It Lowers Your Inhibitions

Another disadvantage of drinking alcohol is that it can cloud your judgment, paving the way for potentially destructive decisions, according to the CDC. That's because drinking can lead to:

• Poor judgment
• Reduced reaction time
• Loss of balance
• Motor skills
• Slurred speech

Per the CDC, this impaired function can lead to immediate risks such as:

• Car accidents
• Violent behavior
• Risky sexual behavior

8. It Can Cause Alcohol Poisoning

Here's why not to drink alcohol in excess: It can cause alcohol poisoning, a medical emergency that can be fatal resulting from high blood alcohol levels, according to the CDC.

9. It Can Dehydrate You

Drinking alcohol actually promotes dehydration , according to the CDC . Because alcohol increases your urine production, your body begins to eliminate more liquid than you're taking in through drinking. That's why this is one of the reasons not to drink alcohol: The more you drink, the greater your risk of becoming dehydrated.

Not only does alcohol make you pee more frequently, but you can lose additional fluids due to diarrhea, vomiting and increased sweating associated with excessive alcohol.

Prevent dehydration by drinking at least one 8-ounce glass of water in between each alcoholic beverage, per the NLM .

10. It Can Cause a Hangover

If you've ever woken up with a pounding headache after a night at the bars, you've likely experienced this disadvantage of drinking alcohol. Per the Mayo Clinic , a hangover can lead to symptoms like:

• Muscle aches
• Nausea, vomiting or stomach pain
• Poor or decreased sleep
• Sensitivity to light and sound
• Difficulty concentrating
• Mood disturbances like depression, anxiety and irritability
• Rapid heartbeat

Hangovers should resolve on their own, but for some, the aftereffects of drinking are among the top reasons not to drink alcohol.

What Causes Dizziness After Drinking Alcohol?

Your blood sugar levels drop after drinking alcoholic beverages and that can lead to physical symptoms, including dizziness, stomach discomfort, nausea, headache and anxiety, per the Mayo Clinic.

What's more, alcohol is dehydrating, and having multiple drinks can lead to a loss of electrolytes. If you don't replace the fluids by drinking water or electrolyte-enriched drinks, you'll likely feel light-headed after drinking.

11. It Can Lead to Nutrient Deficiencies

Chronic, excessive alcohol intake can cause malnutrition, especially if your nutrient intake is already low. Here's a breakdown of what minerals and vitamins are depleted by alcohol. If you have any of these deficiencies, then it may be a sign you shouldn't drink alcohol, so talk to your doctor about the best treatment for you.

​ Thiamine: ​ Excessive drinking is notorious for causing deficiency in thiamine, or vitamin B1, which is found mainly in whole or enriched grains, beans and seeds. Alcohol appears to reduce its absorption, per the NIAAA.

Adequate thiamine is crucial for carbohydrate metabolism and the formation of ATP, the body's energy. Chronic alcoholism can result in a severe form of beriberi (thiamine deficiency disease) called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a form of psychosis accompanied by memory loss and brain shrinkage. Very high doses of thiamine might treat this condition, at least to some degree, in the early stages.

​ Folate: ​ This B vitamin is required for normal DNA synthesis in all cells, and the maturation of red blood cells and good sources include fruits, vegetables and legumes.

Folate deficiency causes a disorder called megaloblastic anemia. In early pregnancy, a deficiency can interfere with the formation of the embryo's spinal cord. Per the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health , excessive alcohol intake blocks its absorption and interferes with its activation in the body. Alcohol-induced folate deficiency may also be related to certain cancers, especially of the breast and colon, and to liver damage.

​ Magnesium: ​ Excessive alcohol intake depletes magnesium , an extremely important mineral that has hundreds of roles in the cells, including those of the neuromuscular and cardiac systems.

Leafy green vegetables, avocados, beans, seeds and nuts are good sources. High alcohol intake is a major cause of magnesium depletion from the body's tissues, according to a March 2020 study in ​ Alcohol and Alcoholism . ​

12. It Can Lead to Pregnancy and Birth Problems

Drinking even in the short-term increases the risk for miscarriage or stillbirth for people who are pregnant, according to the CDC. It also puts fetuses at higher risk for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, which can lead to developmental delays, learning disabilities and vision or hearing problems, per the CDC .

13. It Can Contribute to Alcohol Dependence

Chronic heavy drinking can contribute to alcohol use disorder and alcohol dependence, according to the CDC.

Per the Mayo Clinic , symptoms can include:

• Not being able to limit the amount of alcohol you drink, despite possibly wanting to
• Spending a lot of time drinking, seeking out or recovering from alcohol use
• Craving alcohol
• Alcohol gets in the way of successfully performing at work, school or home
• Continuing to drink even though it's causing problems
• Using alcohol in unsafe situations, like while driving
• Developing a tolerance to alcohol
• Having withdrawal symptoms like nausea, sweating and shaking when you don't drink

14. It Can Affect Mental Health

Yet another reason why you shouldn't drink heavily is because it can contribute to mental health issues like depression and anxiety, per the CDC.

While alcohol may temporarily relieve feelings of depression, it can actually make things worse in the long run. In fact, there is a mutual relationship between depression and alcohol misuse, according to the University at Buffalo . This can lead to a cycle where people use alcohol to ease their symptoms, but the alcohol fuels the negative emotions that contribute to depression.

Effects of Binge Drinking

When it comes to drinking, the law of averages doesn't apply.

As mentioned above, there are pros and cons of drinking alcohol, so long as you don't exceed one drink a day for people AFAB and up to two for people AMAB. However, the same benefit doesn't apply to saving up all those weekday drinks and drinking six to seven drinks on one weekend night.

This habit is known as binge drinking, per the CDC, and it's the riskiest pattern of consumption. When you binge drink, the health effects are much like those of a heavy drinker.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans define binge drinking as downing more than five drinks in two hours if you're a person AMAB and four drinks in two hours if you're a person AFAB.

Excessive drinking and binge drinking can lead to stroke, per the American Heart Association . Binging can also lead to fetal alcohol syndrome for people who are pregnant, cardiomyopathy, cardiac arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. The rates of high blood pressure increase and you're more likely to have a stroke.

Binge drinking is also associated with up to a 50 percent increase in breast cancer risk compared to low-average drinking, per a September 2017 study in the ​ American Journal of Epidemiology ​.

What Happens to Your Body When You Stop Drinking Alcohol

How to Enjoy Alcohol the Healthy Way

First off (and we cannot stress this enough) avoid binge drinking and try to sip a glass of water in between each alcoholic drink.

To help you choose healthier alcoholic drinks , Kessler shares some of her favorite cocktail and drink ideas below.

When choosing prosecco or champagne, go for extra-brut, ultra brut or brut nature, which indicate that it's lower in sugar. Use fresh ingredients like raspberries, cucumber slices and fresh herbs to enhance the flavor of your drink without adding sugar.

For a healthier mixer, go for club soda, seltzer or flavored waters with no added sugar instead of fruit juices and sodas. If you're a beer fan, opt for light beer to cut down on calories and carbs.

"If you're at a party, commit to having two drinks and never drink on an empty stomach. It can be helpful to eat a little snack before drinking as well," Kessler says. Check out these low-sugar cocktail recipes for more ideas:

• Tequila, club soda and lime
• Mezcal with a slice of orange
• Mix seltzer with your wines and add ice for a longer-lasting drink
• Mayo Clinic: "Red Wine and Resveratrol: Good for Your Heart?"
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "Fact Sheets — Alcohol Use and Your Health"
• American Heart Association: "Alcohol and Heart Health"
• The Lancet: "Alcohol Use and Burden for 195 Countries and Territories, 1990–2016: A Systematic Analysis For The Global Burden of Disease Study 2016"
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "Alcohol and Public Health Frequently Asked Questions"
• The Lancet Public Health: "The Effect of a Reduction in Alcohol Consumption on Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
• Nutrients: "The Fluid Aspect of the Mediterranean Diet in the Prevention and Management of Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes: The Role of Polyphenol Content in Moderate Consumption of Wine and Olive Oil"
• The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition: "Influence of Red Wine Polyphenols and Ethanol on the Gut Microbiota Ecology and Biochemical Biomarkers"
• Metabolites: "A New Perspective on the Health Benefits of Moderate Beer Consumption: Involvement of the Gut Microbiota"
• Pharmacological Research: "Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Alcohol-Induced Aggressiveness of Breast Cancer"
• The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition: "Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Colon Cancer by Family History of Colorectal Cancer"
• American Journal of Epidemiology: "Lifetime Alcohol Intake, Binge Drinking Behaviors, and Breast Cancer Risk"
• World Journal of Gastroenterology: "Alcoholic Disease: Liver and Beyond"
• Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs: "Heavy Episodic Drinking Is Associated With Poorer Bone Health in Adolescent and Young Adult Women"
• JAMA Network Open: "Association of Low to Moderate Alcohol Drinking With Cognitive Functions From Middle to Older Age Among US Adults"
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "LDL and HDL Cholesterol: "Bad" and "Good" Cholesterol"
• American Journal of Public Health: "Key Findings on Alcohol Consumption and a Variety of Health Outcomes From the Nurses’ Health Study"
• American Journal of Clinical Nutrition: "Longitudinal study of alcohol consumption and HDL concentrations: a community-based study"
• Scientific Reports: "Association between alcohol consumption pattern and the incidence risk of type 2 diabetes in Korean men: A 12-years follow-up study"
• BMJ: "Moderate alcohol consumption as risk factor for adverse brain outcomes and cognitive decline: longitudinal cohort study"
• Alzheimer's Society: "Alcohol and dementia"
• Harvard Health Publishing: "Should alcoholic drinks come with calorie labels?"
• U.S. National Library of Medicine: "Calorie count - Alcoholic beverages"
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "Adult Obesity Causes & Consequences"
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "Heat Stress: Hydration"
• Mayo Clinic: "Hangovers"
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: "Basics about FASDs"
• Mayo Clinic: "Alcohol use disorder"
• University at Buffalo: "Alcohol and Depression"
• Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health: "Alcohol: Balancing Risks and Benefits"
• NIAAA: "Alcohol Hangover"
• U.S. National Library of Medicine: "Hangover treatment"
• NIAAA: "The Role of Thiamine Deficiency in Alcoholic Brain Disease"
• Alcohol and Alcoholism: "Lower Serum Magnesium Concentrations are associated With Specific Heavy Drinking Markers, Pro-Inflammatory Response and Early-Stage Alcohol-associated Liver Injury"
• U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: "2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans"
• American Cancer Society: "Alcohol Use and Cancer"
• National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke: "Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome Information Page"
• National Institutes of Health: Health Risks and Benefits of Alcohol Consumption

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Even a Little Alcohol Can Harm Your Health

Recent research makes it clear that any amount of drinking can be detrimental. Here’s why you may want to cut down on your consumption beyond Dry January.

By Dana G. Smith

Sorry to be a buzz-kill, but that nightly glass or two of wine is not improving your health.

After decades of confusing and sometimes contradictory research (too much alcohol is bad for you but a little bit is good; some types of alcohol are better for you than others; just kidding, it’s all bad), the picture is becoming clearer: Even small amounts of alcohol can have health consequences.

Research published in November revealed that between 2015 and 2019, excessive alcohol use resulted in roughly 140,000 deaths per year in the United States. About 40 percent of those deaths had acute causes, like car crashes, poisonings and homicides. But the majority were caused by chronic conditions attributed to alcohol, such as liver disease, cancer and heart disease.

When experts talk about the dire health consequences linked to excessive alcohol use, people often assume that it’s directed at individuals who have an alcohol use disorder. But the health risks from drinking can come from moderate consumption as well.

“Risk starts to go up well below levels where people would think, ‘Oh, that person has an alcohol problem,’” said Dr. Tim Naimi, director of the University of Victoria’s Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research. “Alcohol is harmful to the health starting at very low levels.”

If you’re wondering whether you should cut back on your drinking, here’s what to know about when and how alcohol impacts your health.

How do I know if I’m drinking too much?

“Excessive alcohol use” technically means anything above the U.S. Dietary Guidelines ’ recommended daily limits. That’s more than two drinks a day for men and more than one drink a day for women.

There is also emerging evidence “that there are risks even within these levels, especially for certain types of cancer and some forms of cardiovascular disease,” said Marissa Esser, who leads the alcohol program at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

The recommended daily limits are not meant to be averaged over a week, either. In other words, if you abstain Monday through Thursday and have two or three drinks a night on the weekend, those weekend drinks count as excessive consumption. It’s both the cumulative drinks over time and the amount of alcohol in your system on any one occasion that can cause damage.

Why is alcohol so harmful?

Scientists think that the main way alcohol causes health problems is by damaging DNA. When you drink alcohol, your body metabolizes it into acetaldehyde, a chemical that is toxic to cells. Acetaldehyde both “damages your DNA and prevents your body from repairing the damage,” Dr. Esser explained. “Once your DNA is damaged, then a cell can grow out of control and create a cancer tumor.”

Alcohol also creates oxidative stress, another form of DNA damage that can be particularly harmful to the cells that line blood vessels. Oxidative stress can lead to stiffened arteries, resulting in higher blood pressure and coronary artery disease.

“It fundamentally affects DNA, and that’s why it affects so many organ systems,” Dr. Naimi said. Over the course of a lifetime, chronic consumption “damages tissues over time.”

Isn’t alcohol supposed to be good for your heart?

Alcohol’s effect on the heart is confusing because some studies have claimed that small amounts of alcohol, particularly red wine, can be beneficial. Past research suggested that alcohol raises HDL, the “good” cholesterol, and that resveratrol, an antioxidant found in grapes (and red wine), has heart-protective properties.

However, said Mariann Piano, a professor of nursing at Vanderbilt University, “There’s been a lot of recent evidence that has really challenged the notion of any kind of what we call a cardio-protective or healthy effect of alcohol.”

The idea that a low dose of alcohol was heart healthy likely arose from the fact that people who drink small amounts tend to have other healthy habits, such as exercising, eating plenty of fruits and vegetables and not smoking. In observational studies, the heart benefits of those behaviors might have been erroneously attributed to alcohol, Dr. Piano said.

More recent research has found that even low levels of drinking slightly increase the risk of high blood pressure and heart disease, and the risk goes up dramatically for people who drink excessively. The good news is that when people stop drinking or just cut back, their blood pressure goes down . Alcohol is also linked to an abnormal heart rhythm, known as atrial fibrillation , which raises the risk of blood clots and stroke.

What types of cancer does alcohol increase the risk for?

Almost everyone knows about the link between cigarette smoking and cancer, but few people realize that alcohol is also a potent carcinogen. According to research by the American Cancer Society, alcohol contributes to more than 75,000 cases of cancer per year and nearly 19,000 cancer deaths.

Alcohol is known to be a direct cause of seven different cancers : head and neck cancers (oral cavity, pharynx and larynx), esophageal cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer and colorectal cancer. Research suggests there may be a link between alcohol and other cancers as well, including prostate and pancreatic cancer, although the evidence is less clear-cut.

For some cancers, such as liver and colorectal, the risk starts only when people drink excessively. But for breast and esophageal cancer, the risk increases, albeit slightly, with any alcohol consumption. The risks go up the more a person drinks.

“If somebody drinks less, they are at a lower risk compared to that person who is a heavy drinker,” said Dr. Farhad Islami, a senior scientific director at the American Cancer Society. “Even two drinks per day, one drink per day, may be associated with a small risk of cancer compared to non-drinkers.”

Which condition poses the greatest risk?

The most common individual cause of alcohol-related death in the United States is alcoholic liver disease, killing about 22,000 people a year . While the risk rises as people age and alcohol exposure accumulates, more than 5,000 Americans in their 20s, 30s and 40s die from alcoholic liver disease annually.

Alcoholic liver disease has three stages: alcoholic fatty liver, when fat accumulates in the organ; alcoholic hepatitis, when inflammation starts to occur; and alcoholic cirrhosis, or scarring of the tissue. The first two stages are reversible if you stop drinking entirely; the third stage is not.

Symptoms of alcoholic liver disease include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and jaundice — a yellow tinge to the eyes or skin. However, symptoms rarely emerge until the liver has been severely damaged.

The risk of developing alcoholic liver disease is greatest in heavy drinkers, but one report stated that five years of drinking just two alcoholic beverages a day can damage the liver. Ninety percent of people who have four drinks a day show signs of alcoholic fatty liver.

How do I gauge my personal risk for alcohol-related health issues?

Not everyone who drinks will develop these conditions. Lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise and smoking all combine to raise or lower your risk. Also, some of these conditions, such as esophageal cancer, are pretty rare, so increasing your risk slightly won’t have a huge impact.

“Every risk factor matters,” Dr. Esser said. “We know in public health that the number of risk factors that one has would go together into an increased risk for a condition.”

A pre-existing condition could also interact with alcohol to affect your health. For example, “people who have hypertension probably should not drink or definitely drink at very, very low levels ,” Dr. Piano said.

Genes play a role, too. For instance, two genetic variants, both of which are more common in people of Asian descent, affect how alcohol and acetaldehyde are metabolized. One gene variant causes alcohol to break down into acetaldehyde faster, flooding the body with the toxin. The other variant slows down acetaldehyde metabolism, meaning the chemical hangs around in the body longer, prolonging the damage.

So should I cut back — or stop drinking altogether?

You don’t need to go cold turkey to help your health. Even reducing a little bit can be beneficial, especially if you currently drink over the recommended limits. The risk “really accelerates once you’re over a couple of drinks a day,” Dr. Naimi said. “So people who are drinking five or six drinks a day, if they can cut back to three or four, they’re going to do themselves a lot of good.”

Light daily drinkers would likely benefit by cutting back a bit, too. Try going a few nights without alcohol: “If you feel better, your body is trying to tell you something,” said George Koob, director of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.

Notably, none of the experts we spoke to called for abstaining completely, unless you have an alcohol use disorder or are pregnant. “I’m not going to advocate that people completely stop drinking,” Dr. Koob said. “We did prohibition, it didn’t work.”

Generally, though, their advice is, “Drink less, live longer,” Dr. Naimi said. “That’s basically what it boils down to.”

Alcohol: Balancing Risks and Benefits

Moderate drinking can be healthy—but not for everyone. You must weigh the risks and benefits.

– Introduction – What’s Moderate Alcohol Intake? What’s a Drink? – The Downside of Alcohol – Possible Health Benefits of Alcohol – Genes Play a Role – Shifting Benefits and Risks – The Bottom Line: Balancing Risks and Benefits

Introduction

Throughout the 10,000 or so years that humans have been drinking fermented beverages, they’ve also been arguing about their merits and demerits. The debate still simmers today, with a lively back-and-forth over whether alcohol is good for you or bad for you.

It’s safe to say that alcohol is both a tonic and a poison. The difference lies mostly in the dose. Moderate drinking seems to be good for the heart and circulatory system, and probably protects against type 2 diabetes and gallstones. Heavy drinking is a major cause of preventable death in most countries. In the U.S., alcohol is implicated in about half of fatal traffic accidents. [1] Heavy drinking can damage the liver and heart, harm an unborn child, increase the chances of developing breast and some other cancers, contribute to depression and violence, and interfere with relationships.

Alcohol’s two-faced nature shouldn’t come as a surprise. The active ingredient in alcoholic beverages, a simple molecule called ethanol, affects the body in many different ways. It directly influences the stomach, brain, heart, gallbladder, and liver. It affects levels of lipids (cholesterol and triglycerides) and insulin in the blood, as well as inflammation and coagulation. It also alters mood, concentration, and coordination.

What’s Moderate Alcohol Intake? What’s a Drink?

Loose use of the terms “moderate” and “a drink” has fueled some of the ongoing debate about alcohol’s impact on health.

In some studies, the term “moderate drinking” refers to less than 1 drink per day, while in others it means 3-4 drinks per day. Exactly what constitutes “a drink” is also fairly fluid. In fact, even among alcohol researchers, there’s no universally accepted standard drink definition. [2]

In the U.S., 1 drink is usually considered to be 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1½ ounces of spirits (hard liquor such as gin or whiskey). [3] Each delivers about 12 to 14 grams of alcohol on average, but there is a wider range now that microbrews and wine are being produced with higher alcohol content.

Is Red Wine Better?

The definition of moderate drinking is something of a balancing act. Moderate drinking sits at the point at which the health benefits of alcohol clearly outweigh the risks.

The latest consensus places this point at no more than 1-2 drinks a day for men, and no more than 1 drink a day for women. This is the definition used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020-2025, [3] and is widely used in the United States.

The Dark Side of Alcohol

Not everyone who likes to drink alcohol stops at just one. While many people drink in moderation, some don’t.

Problem drinking also touches drinkers’ families, friends, and communities. According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and others:

• In 2014, about 61 million Americans were classified as binge alcohol users (5 or more drinks on the same occasion at least once a month) and 16 million as heavy alcohol users (5 or more drinks on the same occasion on 5 or more days in one month). [6]
• Alcohol plays a role in one in three cases of violent crime. [7]
• In 2015, more than 10,000 people died in automobile accidents in which alcohol was involved. [8]
• Alcohol abuse costs about $249 billion a year. [9]

Even moderate drinking carries some risks. Alcohol can disrupt sleep and one’s better judgment. Alcohol interacts in potentially dangerous ways with a variety of medications, including acetaminophen, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, painkillers, and sedatives. It is also addictive, especially for people with a family history of alcoholism.

Alcohol Increases Risk of Developing Breast Cancer

There is convincing evidence that alcohol consumption increases the risk of breast cancer, and the more alcohol consumed, the greater the risk. [10-14]

• A large prospective study following 88,084 women and 47,881 men for 30 years found that even 1 drink a day increased the risk of alcohol-related cancers (colorectum, female breast, oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, liver, esophagus) in women, but mainly breast cancer, among both smokers and nonsmokers. 1 to 2 drinks a day in men who did not smoke was not associated with an increased risk of alcohol-related cancers. [15]  
• In a combined analysis of six large prospective studies involving more than 320,000 women, researchers found that having 2-5 drinks a day compared with no drinks increased the chances of developing breast cancer as high as 41%. It did not matter whether the form of alcohol was wine, beer, or hard liquor. [10] This doesn’t mean that 40% or so of women who have 2-5 drinks a day will get breast cancer. Instead, it is the difference between about 13 of every 100 women developing breast cancer during their lifetime—the current average risk in the U.S.—and 17 to 18 of every 100 women developing the disease. This modest increase would translate to significantly more women with breast cancer each year.

A lack of folate in the diet or folic acid, its supplement form, further increases the risk of breast cancer in women. [14] Folate is needed to produce new cells and to prevent changes in DNA. Folate deficiency, as can occur with heavy alcohol use, can cause changes in genes that may lead to cancer. Alcohol also increases estrogen levels, which fuel the growth of certain breast cancer cells. An adequate intake of folate, at least 400 micrograms a day, when taking at least 1 drink of alcohol daily appears to lessen this increased risk. [16, 17]

• Researchers found a strong association among three factors—genetics, folate intake, and alcohol—in a cohort from the Nurses’ Health Study II of 2866 young women with an average age of 36 who were diagnosed with invasive breast cancer. Those with a family history of breast cancer who drank 10 grams or more of alcoholic beverages daily (equivalent to 1 or more drinks) and ate less than 400 micrograms of folate daily almost doubled their risk (1.8 times) of developing the cancer. Women who drank this amount of alcohol but did not have a family history of breast cancer and ate at least 400 micrograms of folate daily did not have an increased breast cancer risk. [14]

Folate , the B vitamin that helps guide the development of an embryo’s spinal cord, has equally important jobs later in life. One of the biggest is helping to build DNA, the molecule that carries the code of life. In this way, folate is essential for accurate cell division.

Alcohol blocks the absorption of folate and inactivates folate in the blood and tissues. It’s possible that this interaction may be how alcohol consumption increases the risk of breast, colon, and other cancers.

Getting extra folate may cancel out this alcohol-related increase. In the Nurses’ Health Study, for example, among women who consumed 1 or more alcoholic drinks a day, those who had the highest levels of this B vitamin in their blood were 90% less likely to develop breast cancer than those who had the lowest levels of the B vitamin. [18] An earlier study suggested that getting 600 micrograms a day of folate could counteract the effect of moderate alcohol consumption on breast cancer risk. [17] There was no association with folate and increased breast cancer risk among women who drank low or no alcohol daily.

Alcohol and Weight Gain

However, a prospective study following almost 15,000 men at four-year periods found only an increased risk of minor weight gain with higher intakes of alcohol. [19] Compared to those who did not change their alcohol intake, those who increased their intake by 2 or more drinks a day gained a little more than a half-pound. It was noted that calorie intake (not from alcohol) tended to increase along with alcohol intake.

Possible Health Benefits of Alcohol

What are some of the possible health benefits associated with moderate alcohol consumption?

Cardiovascular Disease

More than 100 prospective studies show an inverse association between light to moderate drinking and risk of heart attack, ischemic (clot-caused) stroke, peripheral vascular disease, sudden cardiac death, and death from all cardiovascular causes. [20] The effect is fairly consistent, corresponding to a 25-40% reduction in risk. However, increasing alcohol intake to more than 4 drinks a day can increase the risk of hypertension, abnormal heart rhythms, stroke, heart attack, and death. [5, 21-23]

Learn more about the results of some large prospective cohort studies of alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease.

* compared with non-drinkers

The connection between moderate drinking and lower risk of cardiovascular disease has been observed in men and women. It applies to people who do not have heart disease, and also to those at high risk for having a heart attack or stroke or dying of cardiovascular disease, including those with type 2 diabetes, [32, 33] high blood pressure, [34, 35] and existing cardiovascular disease. [34, 35] The benefits also extend to older individuals. [36]

The idea that moderate drinking protects against cardiovascular disease makes sense biologically and scientifically. Moderate amounts of alcohol raise levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, or “good” cholesterol), [37] and higher HDL levels are associated with greater protection against heart disease. Moderate alcohol consumption has also been linked with beneficial changes ranging from better sensitivity to insulin to improvements in factors that influence blood clotting, such as tissue type plasminogen activator, fibrinogen, clotting factor VII, and von Willebrand factor. [37] Such changes would tend to prevent the formation of small blood clots that can block arteries in the heart, neck, and brain, the ultimate cause of many heart attacks and the most common kind of stroke.

Drinking Patterns Matter

A review of alcohol consumption in women from the Nurses’ Health Study I and II found that smaller amounts of alcohol (about 1 drink per day) spread out over four or more days per week had the lowest death rates from any cause, compared with women who drank the same amount of alcohol but in one or two days. [39]

The most definitive way to investigate the effect of alcohol on cardiovascular disease would be with a large trial in which some volunteers were randomly assigned to have 1 or more alcoholic drinks a day and others had drinks that looked, tasted, and smelled like alcohol but were actually alcohol free. Many of these trials have been conducted for weeks, and in a few cases months and even up to 2 years, to look at changes in the blood, but a long-term trial to test experimentally the effects of alcohol on cardiovascular disease has not been done.  A recent successful effort in the U.S. to launch an international study was funded by the National Institutes of Health.  Although the proposal was peer-reviewed and initial participants had been randomized to drink in moderation or to abstain, post hoc the NIH decided to stop the trial due to internal policy concerns .  Unfortunately, a future long trial of alcohol and clinical outcomes may never be attempted again, but nevertheless, the connection between moderate drinking and cardiovascular disease almost certainly represents a cause-and-effect relationship based on all of the available evidence to date.

Beyond the Heart

The benefits of moderate drinking aren’t limited to the heart. In the Nurses’ Health Study, the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, and other studies, gallstones [40, 41] and type 2 diabetes [32, 42, 43] were less likely to occur in moderate drinkers than in non-drinkers. The emphasis here, as elsewhere, is on moderate drinking.

In a meta-analysis of 15 original prospective cohort studies that followed 369,862 participants for an average of 12 years, a 30% reduced risk of type 2 diabetes was found with moderate drinking (0.5-4 drinks a day), but no protective effect was found in those drinking either less or more than that amount. [32]

The social and psychological benefits of alcohol can’t be ignored. A drink before a meal can improve digestion or offer a soothing respite at the end of a stressful day; the occasional drink with friends can be a social tonic. These physical and social effects may also contribute to health and well-being.

Genes Play a Role

Twin, family, and adoption studies have firmly established that genetics plays an important role in determining an individual’s preferences for alcohol and his or her likelihood for developing alcoholism. Alcoholism doesn’t follow the simple rules of inheritance set out by Gregor Mendel. Instead, it is influenced by several genes that interact with each other and with environmental factors. [1]

There is also some evidence that genes influence how alcohol affects the cardiovascular system. An enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase helps metabolize alcohol. One variant of this enzyme, called alcohol dehydrogenase type 1C (ADH1C), comes in two “flavors.” One quickly breaks down alcohol, the other does it more slowly. Moderate drinkers who have two copies of the gene for the slow-acting enzyme are at much lower risk for cardiovascular disease than moderate drinkers who have two genes for the fast-acting enzyme. [44] Those with one gene for the slow-acting enzyme and one for the faster enzyme fall in between.

It’s possible that the fast-acting enzyme breaks down alcohol before it can have a beneficial effect on HDL and clotting factors. Interestingly, these differences in the ADH1C gene do not influence the risk of heart disease among people who don’t drink alcohol. This adds strong indirect evidence that alcohol itself reduces heart disease risk.

Shifting Benefits and Risks

• For a pregnant woman and her unborn child, a recovering alcoholic, a person with liver disease, and people taking one or more medications that interact with alcohol, moderate drinking offers little benefit and substantial risks.
• For a 30-year-old man, the increased risk of alcohol-related accidents outweighs the possible heart-related benefits of moderate alcohol consumption.
• For a 60-year-old man, a drink a day may offer protection against heart disease that is likely to outweigh potential harm (assuming he isn’t prone to alcoholism).
• For a 60-year-old woman, the benefit/risk calculations are trickier. Ten times more women die each year from heart disease (460,000) than from breast cancer (41,000). However, studies show that women are far more afraid of developing breast cancer than heart disease, something that must be factored into the equation.

The Bottom Line: Balancing Risks and Benefits

Given the complexity of alcohol’s effects on the body and the complexity of the people who drink it, blanket recommendations about alcohol are out of the question. Because each of us has unique personal and family histories, alcohol offers each person a different spectrum of benefits and risks. Whether or not to drink alcohol, especially for “medicinal purposes,” requires careful balancing of these benefits and risks.

• Your healthcare provider should be able to help you do this. Your overall health and risks for alcohol-associated conditions should factor into the equation.
• If you are thin, physically active, don’t smoke, eat a healthy diet, and have no family history of heart disease, drinking alcohol won’t add much to decreasing your risk of cardiovascular disease.
• If you don’t drink, there’s no need to start. You can get similar benefits with exercise (beginning to exercise if you don’t already or boosting the intensity and duration of your activity) or healthier eating.
• If you are a man with no history of alcoholism who is at moderate to high risk for heart disease, a daily alcoholic drink could reduce that risk. Moderate drinking might be especially beneficial if you have low HDL that just won’t budge upward with diet and exercise.
• If you are a woman with no history of alcoholism who is at moderate to high risk for heart disease, the possible benefits of a daily drink must be balanced against the small increase in risk of breast cancer.
• If you already drink alcohol or plan to begin, keep it moderate—no more than 2 drinks a day for men or 1 drink a day for women. And make sure you get adequate amounts of folate, at least 400 micrograms a day.
• However, the study’s results contradict these headlines, as its findings mirrored those from previous cohort studies showing the lowest CVD risk among light/moderate drinkers (1-15 drinks a week), and risk sharply increasing in heavy/abusive drinkers (averaging >20 drinks a week). Yet the authors concluded that it wasn’t light/moderate drinking that protected the heart; rather, it was lifestyle factors associated with light/moderate drinking like exercising more and not smoking (as predicted by people possessing certain gene variants). Interestingly the study found that light/moderate drinkers had healthier habits than even the abstainers. When adjusting for these healthy habits, the protective effect from alcohol lessened slightly. Regardless, their overall conclusion still showed that light/moderate drinkers had the lowest risk of CVD and supported the additional benefit of healthy lifestyle behaviors. It may also be worth noting that the genetic variants studied were associated with alcohol use disorder (AUD) and not specific to general alcohol intake.
• A 2018 analysis in The Lancet of the global impact of alcohol on injury and disease made headlines when it concluded that even moderate drinking is unsafe for health—and the risks outweigh any potential benefits. However, according to Dr. Walter Willett, professor of epidemiology and nutrition at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, it can be “misleading” to lump the entire world together when assessing alcohol’s risk. (For example, while tuberculosis is very rare in the U.S., it was the leading alcohol-related disease identified in the study.) In an interview with TIME , Willett said that while there is “no question” that heavy drinking is harmful, there are plenty of data supporting the benefits of moderate drinking, and it remains a decision that should be determined at the individual level: “There are risks and benefits, and I think it’s important to have the best information about all of those and come to some personal decisions, and engage one’s health care provider in that process as well.
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• Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA, Friedman GD. Risk of cardiovascular mortality in alcohol drinkers, ex-drinkers and nondrinkers. American Journal of Cardiology . 1990 Nov 15;66(17):1237-42.
• Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of coronary disease and stroke in women. New England Journal of Medicine . 1988 Aug 4;319(5):267-73.
• Koppes LL, Dekker JM, Hendriks HF, Bouter LM, Heine RJ. Moderate alcohol consumption lowers the risk of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Diabetes Care . 2005 Mar 1;28(3):719-25.
• Solomon CG, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Manson JE. Moderate alcohol consumption and risk of coronary heart disease among women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation . 2000 Aug 1;102(5):494-9.
• Mukamal KJ, Maclure M, Muller JE, Sherwood JB, Mittleman MA. Prior alcohol consumption and mortality following acute myocardial infarction. JAMA . 2001 Apr 18;285(15):1965-70.
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• Biddinger KJ, Emdin CA, Haas ME, Wang M, Hindy G, Ellinor PT, Kathiresan S, Khera AV, Aragam KG. Association of Habitual Alcohol Intake With Risk of Cardiovascular Disease. JAMA Network Open . 2022 Mar 1;5(3):e223849-.  Author disclosures: Dr. Haas reported receiving personal fees and stock and stock options from Regeneron Pharmaceuticals outside the submitted work. Dr. Ellinor reported receiving grants from Bayer AG and IBM Health and personal fees from Bayer AG, MyoKardia, Quest Diagnostics, and Novartis during the conduct of the study. Dr. Kathiresan reported being an employee of Verve Therapeutics; owning equity in Verve Therapeutics, Maze Therapeutics, Color Health, and Medgenome; receiving personal fees from Medgenome and Color Health; serving on the advisory boards for Regeneron Genetics Center and Corvidia Therapeutics; and consulting for Acceleron, Eli Lilly and Co, Novartis, Merck, Novo Nordisk, Novo Ventures, Ionis, Alnylam, Aegerion, Haug Partners, Noble Insights, Leerink Partners, Bayer Healthcare, Illumina, Color Genomics, MedGenome, Quest Diagnostics, and Medscape outside the submitted work. Dr. Khera reported receiving personal fees from Merck, Amarin Pharmaceuticals, Amgen, Maze Therapeutics, Navitor Pharmaceuticals, Sarepta Therapeutics, Verve Therapeutics, Silence Therapeutics, Veritas International, Color Health, and Third Rock Ventures and receiving grants from IBM Research outside the submitted work. Dr. Aragam reported receiving speaking fees from the Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research.

Last reviewed April 2022

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Consumption of Alcohol leads to these Disadvantages

Alcohol is a drug, positive or negative, that depends on the person consuming it. When consumed in modest quantities then it can be a blessing, but once you over-consume it, then it becomes the worst curse. Harvard School of Public Health has regarded alcohol, as both a poison and a tonic. Let’s discuss the Disadvantages of alcohol due to which you are advised to quit it and let us also find out why that is.

When does it become poison from tonic and in what ways this poison harms our body, acknowledging you with this important information is the aim of this post. While a glass of wine or cocktail is healthy for your heart, drinking more than one glass per day can also lead to cardiovascular disorders. Other disadvantages of over drinking alcohol include the development of cancerous cells in body, liver problems, and depression. However, its effects vary from person to person, therefore, it is important to know your capacity before you start drinking.

Given below are some disadvantages that can be caused by the consumption of alcohol.

Disadvantages of drinking alcohol

Causes liver problems, a risk to pregnant woman, your body becomes out of control, causes psychosis, causes family problems, causes skin problems.

• Causes Anemia

Causes Cancer

Causes cardiovascular disease, body nutrients are reduced, effects digestive system, effects skeletal and muscular systems, effects immune system, effects sexual and reproductive health, interferes with blood sugar level, high in calories, works as diuretic.

• Causes Gluten Insensitivity

You May Develop Beer Belly

Leads to intoxication and hangover, interacts with certain medications, worsens asthma, attracts mosquitoes, not safe for breastfeeding mothers, more diseases that can be caused by alcohol to the body are:.

Pregnant women are not allowed to consume alcohol as it can damage or be harmful to the fetus inside them.  Their children are prone to have genetic defects and syndromes if you have consumed alcohol during pregnancy. This is a disadvantage of alcohol in pregnant women .

One of the most common disadvantages of alcohol drinking is that your body will not remain in your control. This result in many problems such as walking out of control, abusing, you may face lots of problems, and it’s very hard to even talk properly. This affects for about one or two hours, but occasionally overnight. Do you know some amazing benefits of beer ?

Alcohol is good in changing your brain interaction risking of depression. A new British survey stated that people suffering from nervousness or depression were twice as possible to be the heavy problem for regular drinkers. Depressions result in several health problems and occasionally even push you to death.

Psychosis is caused by extreme levels of drinking in a human being. Psychotic symptoms occur when heavy drinkers suddenly stop drinking. Psychosis is the mental state where hallucination begins and persecution develops. This state of mind is known as ‘delirium tremens’. So, it is recommended for heavy drinkers to avoid sudden quitting of alcohol.

Heavy drinkers make a habit of drinking about 20 to 30 times a day which causes depression, headache and they started fighting with their family members and friends. Improve your Mental clarity, Focus and Memory , so that you dont make drinking your habit.

The other one of the main disadvantages of alcohol is the dry skin problem . Alcohol causes capillaries of the face to dilate, which allows extra blood to enter the pores. You can look for some home remedies for dry skin problems. Alcohol makes skins looks gray, pale yellow and tired. The British Association of Dermatologists Nina Goad explains: “Alcohol dries your body commonly, plus the skin, which is the largest organ of your body part. This occurs each time you drink. Alcohol causes liver problems, which affects many parts and organs of the body, especially the skin. Wanna get party-ready in an hour? Here is how to get rid of a pimple in an hour ?

Causes  Anemia

Heavy alcohol drinkers can cause several oxygen-carrying red blood cells to be unusually low. This condition is known as anemia which can trigger a mass of signs, including shortness of breath, fatigue, and lightheadedness. The best natural way to cure anemia is by eating a pomegranate.

Find more benefits of pomegranate

There is the high risk of cancer by regular drinking of alcohol says Jurgen Rehm, Ph.D., chairman of the University of Toronto. Scientists consider the increase in risk when the body converts alcohol into acetaldehyde. Cancer risk increases even more in heavy alcohol drinkers who also use tobacco. You must know the benefits of white wine.

The researchers of the University of Harvard found that blind drinking doubled the risk of death among the people who originally survived a heart attack. The disadvantages of alcohol are that it may cause rapid loss of awareness and, in the lack of immediate treatment sudden death can also occur.

Drinking alcohol results in the starvation of the whole body along with the skin. Essential nutrients are lost. An array of nutrients are depleted if alcohol consumption is too high. The health issues that accompany this nutrient loss are plenty. This is one of the major disadvantage of drinking alcohol.

Addition of this point in the list of Disadvantages of alcohol might surprise you, but Alcohol’s effect on the digestive system is something which is not very noticeable, yet it is there. The harm caused to the digestive system becomes clearer after the damage has been done. The relation between consumption of alcohol and its side effects on the digestive system is very much direct ( 1 ). Here are the doctor’s prescribed best digestive enzymes .

Excessive consumption of alcohol harms the tissues of the digestive tract as a result of which the human intestines are unable to digest food and absorb nutrients. This results in malnutrition. Along with causing direct harm to your intestines, drinking also causes a number of side effects to human Digestive System which includes: a feeling of fullness, diarrhea, gassiness, bloating.

It is very likely for heavy drinkers to develop Cancer of mouth, throat, esophagus, colon, liver. Mix tobacco and alcohol together and you are inviting an untimely death.

The list of problems does not end here; it is very common for heavy drinkers to suffer from Ulcers and hemorrhoids. Both the diseases can cause heavy internal bleeding which ultimately leads to death.

Another major disadvantage of drinking alcohol  is that it worsens the gastrointestinal disorders, gastritis, ulcerative colitis, and Cohn’s disease, to name a few. Irritate bowel syndrome also gets affected by its excessive consumption.

Disadvantages of drinking alcohol include poor Skeletal and Muscle System. Consumption of too much alcohol deteriorates your bones which increases the chances of fracturing them even from a small fall. Not just that, once that weak bone is fractured, it takes too long for that bone to heal itself. Other Skeletal and Muscle System problems that are common to heavy drinkers include weakness of Muscles which leads to cramping and ultimately Atrophy.

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Human Body’s natural ability to fight against potential germs and viruses decreases as the consumption of alcohol increases. It is because drinking weakens the immune system of the body leaving the drinkers vulnerable to even the weakest germ. Over a long period of time, it can prove to be fairly harmful to the body. Yogurt also helps in boosting the immune system of the body . ( 2 )

Sexual and Reproductive Health is another point in the list of Disadvantages of drinking alcohol . The major reason is that consumption of alcohol causes erectile dysfunction and reduces the production of sex hormone causing various problems.

In women, excessive drinking can make the menstrual cycle irregular leading to infertility. Drinking habits of pregnant women cause harm not only to themselves but to the fetus as well which includes miscarriage, stillbirth or premature delivery ( 3 )

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This is one of the most serious Disadvantages of drinking alcohol . When people get addicted to alcohol then they can’t function physically or emotionally without Alcohol. This condition is called Alcohol withdrawal and can sometimes prove to be severe. This is where the role of a counselor comes. Counselors are trained professionals who help an individual to help with Alcohol and its withdrawal symptoms.

One of the many negative effects of drinking alcohol  is that it interferes with sugar levels of the blood. Glycogen, which is stored in the liver, is converted into glucose by the liver and released into the bloodstream. But alcohol present in the alcohol interferes with this conversion. When this conversion is hindered then we experience urge to eat more food, resulting in weight gain.

Alcohol is loaded with calories and contains fewer to no nutrients, so if you want to lose weight, drinking alcohol  will reverse all your efforts. Instead of losing calories, like you should when you want to lose weight, you gain calories. In addition, the liver converts alcohol present in alcohol into acetate. The body, then, is forced to convert acetate into energy and the fats are stored in other body parts like belly and hips. So, another side effect of drinking alcohol  is it is high in calories and increases body fats.

A glass of alcohol on a day when it is scorching hot will bring you a great deal of relief. But you can feel increased urge to urinate because intake of alcohol because alcohol inhibits the functioning of anti-diuretic hormones, rendering body unable to retain bodily fluids. This activity makes people severely dehydrated. These effects become rigorous when you exercise. Because while exercising you are losing the fluids through urinating as well as by sweating. This forms another disadvantage of drinking alcohol .

Causes  Gluten Insensitivity

If you are sensitive to gluten then alcohol should be a big no-no for you. Majority of alcohols contains malted barley in them and barley contains gluten, which is a type of protein. So, if you are allergic to gluten, then avoid drinking alcohol.

Another major disadvantage of drinking alcohol  is that your slim waist no longer remains slim. Abdominal obesity caused due to excessive intake of alcohol is called a beer belly. And although its side effects are different in men and women, one thing that does not change is its calorie content. While its calorie content is very high, its nutritional value is very low, aiding to the development of that beer belly. Studies say that metabolic activity in men starts to decrease after the age of 35, so if men drink alcohol after 35, that alcohol is not metabolized and the belly becomes more prominent.

In women, the effect is a tad bit different. Fat gets stored in the hips and backside of women. However, wherever the fat is being accumulated, it is not healthy. It increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, high blood pressure, and imbalance in cholesterol levels.

Another negative effect of drinking alcohol is that you will wake up the next day with an intense hangover. Drinking alcohol in any form will affect the motor skills and nerves, leading to accidents.

A side effect of drinking alcohol is that it interacts with a few medicines. Actions of medicines such as antibiotics, sedatives, and erythromycin are affected by drinking alcohol and lead to health problems like vomiting, nausea, and headaches.

Along with gluten insensitivity, there are other kinds of allergies that are ignited by the excessive consumption of alcohol. Alcohol contains an allergen called histamine which is produced while the fermentation of beer. Histamine is known to cause many allergies such as hives, hoarseness, flushing, bloating. This is another disadvantage of drinking alcohol .

Alcohol is also prone to cause Asthma because like any other alcoholic drink, alcohol is also preserved by sulfites. And sulfite is known to cause asthma and many other allergic symptoms. Some people can suffer from simple wheezing while many other people can be affected largely, even getting an asthmatic attack. This forms another disadvantage of drinking alcohol .

Heavy drinkers attract mosquitoes; mosquitoes love the taste of alcohol in your blood. When you consume enough amount of alcohol then you are exposing yourself to mosquitoes and many diseases that they carry with themselves. Malaria, dengue, and Zika virus are the names of the few diseases that you have become vulnerable to because of excessive drinking. The major reason for peeked interests of mosquitoes in you is drinking leads to sweating and sweating increases your body temperature, making your body a perfect breeding ground for them. This forms one of the many side effects of drinking alcohol .

If you are breastfeeding your infant then avoiding alcohol is the best course of action for you. Drinking alcohol  while you are pregnant harms the baby and damages the chances of its survival. Mothers who are breastfeeding their infants should avoid alcohol too, as it can mix with the milk and harm the baby. This is another reason why you should not drink alcohol .

Signs of Alcohol withdrawal

• High blood pressure
• Nervousness
• Heavy sweating
• Irregular heartbeat
• Hallucinations
• Poor or Memory Loss
• Impulsive, risky behavior
• Difficulty planning and reasoning through problems
• Poor attention span
• Mood swings
• Impaired verbal skills
• Apple Cider Vinegar Detox Benefits
• Side Effects of Drinking Beer
• How to Stay Health (Steps and Measures)

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7 Advantages and Disadvantages Of Alcohol

• Post author: Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka ACMC
• Post published: October 29, 2023
• Post category: Scholarly Articles

Advantages and Disadvantages Of Alcohol: For more than the 10,000 years human beings have been consuming alcohol, there has been constant struggle to know the advantages and disadvantages of these fermented beverages. This contention still lingers till today as we strive to know the health benefits and consequences of what we consume.

An alcohol is a flammable volatile liquid which is being produced by the process of fermentation of fruits and sugars, or other source of sugar which could act as a drug. Alcohol consumption plays a lot of role in the society in many cultures. Alcohol being what it is, most countries have set out laws which regulate the consumption, production, and sale of alcohol in the country. Such regulations differs from one country to the other, it may include the labeling of the alcoholic percentage or the use of a warning label. However, some countries did ban the consumption of alcohol generally, regardless; the intake of alcohol is legal in most part of the world.

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Table of Contents

Advantages of Drinking Alcohol

The understanding of the benefits and risk of the intake of alcohol seems a bit confusing because evidence of moderate alcohol consumption is unknown in the average adult.

1. Reduced risk of cardiovascular disease : A study at Harvard University discovered that moderate consumption of alcohol increases levels of high-density lipoprotein, HDL, or ‘good cholesterol and higher HDL levels are associated with greater protection against heart disease.

Moderate consumption of alcohol has also been associated with beneficial changes ranging from insulin sensitivity to improvement in factors which influence the process of blood clothing.

2. Increased life span : Occasional drinking could add a few years to one’s life. A study at the Catholic University of Campobasso showed that taking less than four or two drinks in a day could reduce the risk of death by 18 percent in both men and women.

According to Dr. Giovanni de Gaetano of the University, the little amount, taken preferably during meal appears to be the best way of consuming alcohol.

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3. Improved libido : Contrary to the old believe, the newer research has proved that moderate drinking may actually protect one against an erectile dysfunction in the same way the intake of Red wine may benefit the heart.

In the 2009 study which was published in the ‘ Journal of Sexual Medicine ’, it was found by researchers that the chances of erectile dysfunction were by 25 to 30 percent amongst alcohol drinkers.

4. Helps with the prevention of common cold : The Department of Psychology at the Mellon University discovered that while the chances of common cold was improved by smoking, the intake of moderate alcohol reduced the chances of getting common cold and lead to the decrease of common cold among nonsmokers.

In 2002 according to the New York Times, Spanish researchers discovered that taking eight to fourteen glasses of wine per week especially Red Wine, contributed to the reduction of 60 percent of the risk of developing common cold.

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5. Reduce the risk of Gallstones : According to the researchers at the University of East Anglia, the intake of two unites of alcohol per day could reduce the risk of Gallstone by one third percentage. The researchers on this project stressed the fact that the basis of their findings is based on the moderate intake of alcohol and not its excessive intake also that excessive intake could cause health problems to the individual.

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6. It Leads To Better Health In One’s Heart: Some alcohols (such as red wine) are protects the body more than others. For instance, red wine. This wine has a high concentration of polyphenols that are called “ resveratrol “. It is reported by the Mayo Clinic that these polyphenols in red wines help to prevent coronary heart disease.

Generally, wines contain antioxidants and flavonoids which are beneficial for the blood vessels and heart (for instance, people with diabetes). These contents in alcohol can produce a lot of free radicals as a result of poor sugar metabolism. Again, these health-supporting contents (in wines) have shown to be beneficial only when you drink less wines. For instance, in 2017, a study in ​The Lancet Public Health​ found that moderate drinking does not worsen blood pressure, but heavy drinking does.

So, if you drink more alcohol, it may not be beneficial to you. For those who drink more than two drinks in a day, reducing alcohol can improve blood pressure. Again, high cholesterol is a major risk factor for stroke and heart disease (especially non-high-density lipoproteins or LDL cholesterol). It can affect cardiovascular health and build up the inner part of your arteries.

However, high-density lipoproteins also known as the “ good ” cholesterol helps your body get rid of LDL. Again, in 2017, review in the ​​American Journal of Clinical Nutrition​​ found that moderate drinking decreases the levels of HDL cholesterol, but it depends on the type of beverage.

7. It Leads To Lower Risk Of Diabetes: In 2016, it was reviewed by the American Journal of Public Health that moderate drinking might help to lower your risk (if you have diabetes).

The research shows that people who drink one or two alcohols in a day have 40 percent lower risk of developing this disease compared to people who do not drink alcohol at all. Also, drinking 15 grams of alcohol in a day potentially improves the sensitivity of insulin, and this can help to prevent diabetes.

Also, in 2017, a study in ​​Scientific Reports​​ similarly found that moderate intake of alcohol may have protective effects. That is, it can protect your body systems against diseases. However, both studies showed that higher consumption of alcohol can increase the risk of diabetes.

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Disadvantages (Demerits) of Alcohol

Not every individual who loves alcohol stops at just one, sometimes there is no moderation. Heavy drinking does take its toll on the body as it could cause inflammation of the liver and scarring of the liver, a potentially fatal disease.

Therefore the disadvantages of alcohol are:

1. It increases the risk of breast cancer : There is enough evidence which is convincing that alcohol consumption increases the risk of breast cancer and the higher the consumption, the higher the risk. A constructive study involving men and women within the period of 30 years found that drinking as little as one drink in a day increases the risk of alcohol related cancers like cancer of the oral cavity , female breast, larynx, liver, esophagus in women, both in smokers and non smokers both mostly breast cancer.

In men however, a drink or two per day was not associated with an increased rate of alcohol related cancers (this only occurred in men who did not smoke). In another study, taking 2 – 5 drinks per day increased the chances of breast cancer in women and it was immaterial whether the source of alcohol was wine beer or hard liquor.

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2. Alcohol causes weight gain : Alcohol per serving contains at least 100- 150 calories, even the normal amount of 3 drinks a day may add up to 300 calories or more to the body. Mixing drinks will further increase the calories level in the drink.

3. Cardiovascular disease : More than 100 prospective studies have shown that an inverse association between light moderate drinking and the risk of stroke, heart attack sudden cardiac arrest and death from all cardiovascular causes. However, the increased intake of more than four drinks a day would increase the risk of hypertension, stroke, heart attacks, and even death.

The relationship between moderate drinking and lower risk of cardiovascular disease has been observed between men and women. This applies only to people who have no heart disease, and also to those who stand a high risk of having a heart attack, or dying of cardiovascular disease.

The idea that moderate intake of alcohol is a fact which makes sense scientifically. Moderate intake of alcohol raises level of high – density of lipoprotein (HDL) the higher the (HDL) , the lower the chances of heart disease.

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4. It damages the skin : Alcohol on its own does a terrible damage to the skin. Dr. Ariel Ostad who is a dermatologist, author and a clinical assistant professor in the Department of Dermatology at the New York University Medical Center said that there are three things which alcohol damage on the skin.

Alcohol is a skin dehydrator and diuretic, which explains the hang over skin dryness and symptoms. The alcohol beats up the liver and disallows it from functioning appropriately and in return, this makes the skin look dull, sallow, and pasty. However this requires an easy fix which is hydration, just drink water to enable it flush out the alcohol in the system and restore adequate circulation in your body.

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5. Immune system : The immune system in the body which is designated to fight against diseases should be strong enough to fight against said diseases. When the immune system is not strong to combat the issue before it, the individual would gladly welcome any disease which walks its part. People who consume lots of alcohol have a very weak immune system and also have the tendency of getting sick immediately the disease is introduced into their body.

Pneumonia and tuberculosis are two popular diseases which have engulfed most of the world’s population and alcohol drinkers with weak immune system are most likely to suffer from this diseases as they are some easy catch.

Alcohol do have its pros and cons, however it seems the cons are more deadly and the only way to access the pros is in moderation. Therefore in the consumption and intake of food and drinks, let there always be moderation for a healthy life.

Edeh Samuel Chukwuemeka, ACMC, is a lawyer and a certified mediator/conciliator in Nigeria. He is also a developer with knowledge in various programming languages. Samuel is determined to leverage his skills in technology, SEO, and legal practice to revolutionize the legal profession worldwide by creating web and mobile applications that simplify legal research. Sam is also passionate about educating and providing valuable information to people.

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The effects of alcohol use on academic achievement in high school

Ana i. balsa.

a Research Professor, Center for Applied Research on Poverty, Family, and Education, Department of Economics, Universidad de Montevideo; Prudencio de Pena 2440, Montevideo, 11600, Uruguay; Phone: (+598 2) 707 4461 ext 300; Fax: (+598 2) 707 4461 ext 325; yu.ude.mu@aslaba

Laura M. Giuliano

b Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124, United States; [email protected]

Michael T. French

c Professor of Health Economics, Health Economics Research Group, Department of Sociology, Department of Economics, and Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124, United States; ude.imaim@hcnerfm

This paper examines the effects of alcohol use on high school students’ quality of learning. We estimate fixed-effects models using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Our primary measure of academic achievement is the student’s GPA abstracted from official school transcripts. We find that increases in alcohol consumption result in small yet statistically significant reductions in GPA for male students and in statistically non-significant changes for females. For females, however, higher levels of drinking result in self-reported academic difficulty. The fixed-effects results are substantially smaller than OLS estimates, underscoring the importance of addressing unobserved individual heterogeneity.

1. Introduction

In the United States, one in four individuals between the ages of 12 and 20 drinks alcohol on a monthly basis, and a similar proportion of 12 th graders consumes five or more drinks in a row at least once every two weeks ( Newes-Adeyi, Chen, Williams, & Faden, 2007 ). Several studies have reported that alcohol use during adolescence affects educational attainment by decreasing the number of years of schooling and the likelihood of completing school ( Chatterji & De Simone, 2005 ; Cook & Moore, 1993 ; Gil-Lacruz & Molina, 2007 ; Koch & McGeary, 2005 ; McCluskey, Krohn, Lizotte, & Rodriguez, 2002 ; NIDA, 1998 ; Renna, 2007 ; Yamada, Kendrix, & Yamada, 1996 ) Other research using alternative estimation techniques suggests that the effects of teen drinking on years of education and schooling completion are very small and/or non-significant ( Chatterji, 2006 ; Dee & Evans, 2003 ; Koch & Ribar, 2001 ).

Despite a growing literature in this area, no study has convincingly answered the question of whether alcohol consumption inhibits high school students’ learning. Alcohol consumption could be an important determinant of how much a high school student learns without having a strong impact on his or her decision to stay in school or attend college. This question is fundamental and timely, given recent research showing that underage drinkers are susceptible to the immediate consequences of alcohol use, including blackouts, hangovers, and alcohol poisoning, and are at elevated risk of neurodegeneration (particularly in regions of the brain responsible for learning and memory), impairments in functional brain activity, and neurocognitive defects ( Zeigler et al., 2004 ).

A common and comprehensive measure of high school students’ learning is Grade Point Average (GPA). GPA is an important outcome because it is a key determinant of college admissions decisions and of job quality for those who do not attend college. Only a few studies have explored the association between alcohol use and GPA. Wolaver (2002) and Williams, Powell, and Wechsler (2003) have studied this association among college students, while DeSimone and Wolaver (2005) have investigated the effects of underage drinking on GPA during high school. The latter study found a negative association between high school drinking and grades, although it is not clear whether the effects are causal or the result of unobserved heterogeneity.

Understanding the relationship between teenage drinking and high school grades is pertinent given the high prevalence of alcohol use among this age cohort and recent research on adolescent brain development suggesting that early heavy alcohol use may have negative effects on the physical development of brain structure ( Brown, Tapert, Granholm, & Delis, 2000 ; Tapert & Brown, 1999 ). By affecting the quality of learning, underage drinking could have an impact on both college admissions and job quality independent of its effects on years of schooling or school completion.

In this paper, we estimate the effects of drinking in high school on the quality of learning as captured by high school GPA. The analysis employs data from Waves 1 and 2 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a nationally representative study that captures health-related behaviors of adolescents in grades 7 through 12 and their outcomes in young adulthood. Our analysis contributes to the literature in several ways. First, we focus on the effect of drinking on academic achievement during high school. To date, and to the best of our knowledge, only one other study in the literature has analyzed the consequences of underage drinking on high school GPA. Second, rather than rely on self-reported GPA, we use objective GPA data from academic transcripts, reducing the potential for systematic biases in the estimation results. Third, we take advantage of the longitudinal nature of the Add Health data and use fixed-effects models to purge the analysis of time invariant unobserved heterogeneity. Fixed-effects techniques are superior to instrumental variables (IV) estimation when the strength and reliability of the instruments are suspect ( French & Popovici, 2009 ). Finally, we explore a variety of mechanisms that could underlie a detrimental effect of alcohol use on grades. In addition to analyzing mediators related to exposure to education (days of school skipped), we investigate the effect of drinking on students’ ability to focus on and adhere to academic objectives.

2. Background and significance

Behavioral research has found that educational performance is highly correlated with substance abuse (e.g., Bukstein, Cornelius, Trunzo, Kelly, & Wood, 2005 ; Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992 ). Economic studies that look at the link between alcohol use and educational outcomes have customarily focused on measures of educational attainment such as graduation (from high school or college), college matriculation, and years of school completed (e.g., Bray, Zarkin, Ringwalt, & Qi, 2000 ; Chatterji, 2006 ; Cook & Moore, 1993 ; Dee & Evans 2003 ; Koch & Ribar, 2001 ; Mullahy & Sindelar, 1994 ; Renna, 2008 ; Yamada et al., 1996 ). Consistent with the behavioral research, early economic studies found that drinking reduced educational attainment. But the most rigorous behavioral studies and the early economic studies of attainment both faced the same limitation: they were cross-sectional and subject to potential omitted variables bias. Some of these cross-sectional economic studies attempted to improve estimation by using instrumental variables (IV). Cook and Moore (1993) and Yamada et al. (1996) found that heavy or frequent drinking in high school adversely affects high school and college completion. Nevertheless, the validity and reliability of the instruments in these studies are open to debate ( Chatterji, 2006 ; Dee & Evans, 2003 ; French & Popovici, 2009 ).

By contrast, more recent economic studies that arguably use better estimation methods have found that drinking has modest or negligible effects on educational attainment. Dee and Evans (2003) studied the effects of teen drinking on high school completion, college entrance, and college persistence. Employing changes in the legal drinking age across states over time as an instrument, they found no significant effect of teen drinking on educational attainment. Koch and Ribar (2001) reached a similar conclusion applying family fixed effects and instrumental variables to NLSY data. Though they found that drinking had a significant negative effect on the amount of schooling completed among men, the effect was small. Finally, Chatterji (2006) used a bivariate probit model of alcohol use and educational attainment to gauge the sensitivity of the estimates to various assumptions about the correlation of unobservable determinants of these variables. She concluded that there is no evidence of a causal relationship between alcohol use and educational attainment when the correlation coefficient is fixed at plausible levels.

Alcohol use could conceivably affect a student’s quality of learning and academic performance regardless of its impact on school completion. This possibility is suggested by Renna (2008) , who uses a research design similar to that used by Dee and Evans (2003) and finds that although binge drinking does not affect high school completion rates, it does significantly increase the probability that a student graduates with a GED rather than a high school diploma. Drinking could affect learning through a variety of mechanisms. Recent neurological research suggests that underage drinking can impair learning directly by causing alterations in the structure and function of the developing brain with consequences reaching far beyond adolescence ( Brown et al., 2000 ; White & Swartzwelder, 2004 ). Negative effects of alcohol use can emerge in areas such as planning and executive functioning, memory, spatial operations, and attention ( Brown et al., 2000 ; Giancola & Mezzich, 2000 ; Tapert & Brown, 1999 ). Alcohol use could also affect performance by reducing the number of hours committed to studying, completing homework assignments, and attending school.

We are aware of five economic studies that have examined whether drinking affects learning per se. Bray (2005) analyzed this issue indirectly by studying the effect of high school students’ drinking on subsequent wages, as mediated through human capital accumulation. He found that moderate high school drinking had a positive effect on returns to education and therefore on human capital accumulation. Heavier drinking reduced this gain slightly, but net effects were still positive. The other four studies approached the question directly by focusing on the association between drinking and GPA. Three of the GPA studies used data from the Harvard College Alcohol Study. Analyzing data from the study’s 1993 wave, both Wolaver (2002) and Williams et al. (2003) estimated the impact of college drinking on the quality of human capital acquisition as captured by study hours and GPA. Both studies found that drinking had a direct negative effect on GPA and an indirect negative effect through reduced study hours. Wolaver (2007) used data from the 1993 and 1997 waves and found that both high school and college binge drinking were associated with lower college GPA for males and females. For females, however, study time in college was negatively correlated with high school drinking but positively associated with college drinking.

To our knowledge, only one study has looked specifically at adolescent drinking and high school GPA. Analyzing data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, DeSimone and Wolaver (2005) used standard regression analysis to estimate whether drinking affected high school GPA. Even after controlling for many covariates, they found that drinking had a significant negative effect. Their results showed that the GPAs of binge drinkers were 0.4 points lower on average for both males and females. They also found that the effect of drinking on GPA peaked for ninth graders and declined thereafter and that drinking affected GPA more by reducing the likelihood of high grades than by increasing the likelihood of low grades.

All four GPA studies found that drinking has negative effects on GPA, but they each faced two limitations. First, they relied on self-reported GPA, which can produce biased results due to recall mistakes and intentional misreporting ( Zimmerman, Caldwell, & Bernat, 2006 ). Second, they used cross-sectional data. Despite these studies’ serious efforts to address unobserved individual heterogeneity, it remains questionable whether they identified a causal link between drinking and GPA.

In sum, early cross-sectional studies of educational attainment and GPA suggest that drinking can have a sizeable negative effect on both outcomes. By contrast, more recent studies of educational attainment that use improved estimation methods to address the endogeneity of alcohol use have found that drinking has negligible effects. The present paper is the first study of GPA that controls for individual heterogeneity in a fixed-effects framework, and our findings are consistent with the more recent studies of attainment that find small or negligible effects of alcohol consumption.

Add Health is a nationally representative study that catalogues health-related behaviors of adolescents in grades 7 through 12 and associated outcomes in young adulthood. An initial in-school survey was administered to 90,118 students attending 175 schools during the 1994/1995 school year. From the initial in-school sample, 20,745 students (and their parents) were administered an additional in-home interview in 1994–1995 and were re-interviewed one year later. In 2001–2002, Add Health respondents (aged 18 to 26) were re-interviewed in a third wave to investigate the influence of health-related behaviors during adolescence on individuals when they are young adults. During the Wave 3 data collection, Add Health respondents were asked to sign a Transcript Release Form (TRF) that authorized Add Health to identify schools last attended by study participants and request official transcripts from the schools. TRFs were signed by approximately 92% of Wave 3 respondents (about 70% of Wave 1 respondents).

The main outcome of interest, GPA, was abstracted from school transcripts and linked to respondents at each wave. Because most of the in-home interviews during Waves 1 and 2 were conducted during the Spring or Summer (at the end of the school year) and alcohol use questions referred to the past 12 months, we linked the in-home questionnaires with GPA data corresponding to the school year in which the respondent was enrolled or had just completed at the time of the interview.

The in-home questionnaires in Waves 1 and 2 offer extensive information on the student’s background, risk-taking behaviors, and other personal and family characteristics. These instruments were administered by computer assisted personal interview (CAPI) and computer assisted self-interview (CASI) techniques for more sensitive questions such as those on alcohol, drug, and tobacco use. Studies show that the mode of data collection can affect the level of reporting of sensitive behaviors. Both traditional self-administration and computer assisted self-administered interviews have been shown to increase reports of substance use or other risky behaviors relative to interviewer-administered approaches ( Azevedo, Bastos, Moreira, Lynch, & Metzger, 2006 ; Tourangeau & Smith, 1996 ; Wright, Aquilino, & Supple, 1998 ). Several measures of alcohol use were constructed on the basis of the CAPI/CASI questions: (1) whether the student drank alcohol at least once per week in the past 12 months, (2) whether the student binged (drank five or more drinks in a row) at least once per month in the past 12 months, (3) the average number of days per month on which the student drank in the past 12 months, (4) the average number of drinks consumed on any drinking day in the past 12 months, and (5) the total number of drinks per month consumed by the student in the past year.

Individual characteristics obtained from the in-home interviews included age, race, gender, grade in school, interview date, body mass index, religious beliefs and practices, employment status, health status, tobacco use, and illegal drug use. To capture environmental changes for respondents who changed schools, we constructed indicators for whether the respondent attended an Add Health sample school or sister school (e.g. the high school’s main feeder school) in each wave. We also considered family characteristics such as family structure, whether English was spoken at home, the number of children in the household, whether the resident mother and resident father worked, whether parents worked in blue- or white-collar jobs, and whether the family was on welfare. Finally, we took into account a number of variables describing interview and household characteristics as assessed by the interviewer: whether a parent(s) or other adults were present during the interview; whether the home was poorly kept; whether the home was in a rural, suburban, or commercial area; whether the home environment raised any safety concerns; and whether there was evidence of alcohol use in the household.

Respondents to the in-home surveys were also asked several questions about how they were doing in school. We constructed measures of how often the respondents skipped school, whether they had been suspended, and whether they were having difficulties paying attention in school, getting along with teachers, or doing their homework. We analyzed these secondary outcomes as possible mediators of an effect of alcohol use on GPA.

Our fixed-effects methodology required high school GPA data for Waves 1 and 2. For this reason, we restricted the sample to students in grades 9, 10, or 11 in Wave 1 (N=22,792) who were re-interviewed in Waves 2 and 3 (N=14,390), not mentally disabled (N=13,632), and for whom transcript data were available at Wave 3 (N=10,430). In addition, we excluded 1,846 observations that had missing values on at least one of the explanatory or control variables. 1 The final sample had 8,584 observations, which corresponded to Wave 1 and Wave 2 responses for 4,292 students with no missing information on high school GPA or other covariates across both waves. Male respondents accounted for 48% of the sample.

Table 1 shows summary statistics for the analysis sample by wave and gender. Abstracted GPA averages 2.5 for male students and 2.8 for female students, 2 with similar values in Waves 1 and 2. Approximately 9% of males and 6% of females reported drinking alcohol at least one time per week in Wave 1. The prevalence of binge drinking (consuming five or more drinks in a single episode) at least once a month is slightly higher: 11% among males and 7% among females. On average, the frequency of drinking in Wave 1 is 1.34 days per month for male respondents and 0.94 days per month for female respondents, while drinking intensity averages 2.8 drinks per episode for males and 2.2 drinks per episode for females. By Wave 2, alcohol consumption increases in all areas for both males and females. The increases for males are larger, ranging from an 18% increase in the average number of drinks per episode to a 55% increase in the fraction who binge monthly.

Summary Statistics

Note : Based on responses to survey questions regarding most recently completed school year.

Of the Wave 1 respondents, 87% of males and 90% of females had skipped school at least once in the past year, with males averaging 1.47 days skipped and females averaging 1.37 days. Further, 11% of males and 7% of females had been suspended at least once. Regarding the school difficulty measures, 50% of male respondents in Wave 1 reported at least one type of regular difficulty with school: 32% had difficulty paying attention, 15% did not get along with their teachers, and 35% had problems doing their homework. Among females, 40% had at least one difficulty: 25% with paying attention, 11% with teachers, and 26% with homework.

Table 2 tabulates changes in dichotomous measures of problem drinking by gender. Among males, 82.6% did not drink weekly in either wave; 8.1% became weekly drinkers in Wave 2; 4.8% stopped drinking weekly in Wave 2; and the remaining 4.5% drank weekly in both waves. Among females, 88.5% did not drink weekly in either wave; 5.3% became weekly drinkers in Wave 2; 3.7% stopped drinking weekly in Wave 2; and 2.5% drank weekly in both waves. The trends in monthly binging were similar, with the number of students who became monthly bingers exceeding that of students who stopped bingeing monthly in Wave 2. The proportion of respondents reporting binge-drinking monthly in both waves (6.6% and 3.4% for men and women, respectively) was higher than the fraction of students who reported drinking weekly in both waves.

Tabulation of Changes in Dichotomous Measures of Alcohol Use By Gender

4. Empirical methods and estimation issues

We examined the impact of adolescent drinking on GPA using fixed-effects estimation techniques. The following equation captures the relationship of interest:

where GPA it is grade point average of individual i during the Wave t school year, A it is a measure of alcohol consumption, X it is a set of other explanatory variables, c i are unobserved individual effects that are constant over time, ε it is an error term uncorrelated with A it and X it , and α, β a , and β x are parameters to estimate.

The coefficient of interest is β a , the effect of alcohol consumption on GPA. The key statistical problem in the estimation of β a is that alcohol consumption is likely to be correlated with individual-specific unobservable characteristics that also affect GPA. For instance, an adolescent with a difficult family background may react by shirking responsibilities at school and may, at the same time, be more likely to participate in risky activities. For this reason, OLS estimation of Equation (1) used with cross-sectional or pooled longitudinal data is likely to produce biased estimates of β a . In this paper, we took advantage of the two high school-administered waves in Add Health and estimated β a using fixed-effects techniques. Because Waves 1 and 2 were only one year apart, it is likely that most unobserved individual characteristics that are correlated with both GPA and alcohol use are constant over this short period. Subtracting the mean values of each variable over time, Equation (1) can be rewritten as:

Equation (2) eliminates time invariant individual heterogeneity ( c i ) and the corresponding bias associated with OLS estimation of Equation (1) .

We estimated Equation (2) using different sets of time-varying controls ( X it ). 3 We began by controlling only for unambiguously exogenous variables and progressively added variables that were increasingly likely to be affected by alcohol consumption. The first set of controls included only the respondent’s grade level, indicators for attending the sample school or sister school, and the date of the interview. In a second specification, we added household characteristics and interviewer remarks about the household and the interview. This specification includes indicators for the presence of parents and others during the interview and thus controls for a potentially important source of measurement error in the alcohol consumption variables. 4 The third specification added to the second specification those variables more likely to be endogenous such as BMI, religious beliefs/practices, employment, and health status. A fourth specification included tobacco and illegal drug use. By adding these behavioral controls, which could either be mediators or independent correlates of the drinking-GPA association, we examined whether the fixed-effects estimates were influenced by unmeasured time variant individual characteristics.

The fifth and sixth specifications were aimed at assessing possible mechanisms flowing from changes in alcohol use to changes in GPA. Previous research has found that part of the association between alcohol consumption and grades can be explained by a reduction in study hours. Add Health did not directly ask respondents about study effort. It did, however, ask about suspensions and days skipped from school. These school attendance variables were added to the set of controls to test whether an effect of alcohol use on human capital accumulation worked extensively through the quantity of, or exposure to, schooling. Alternatively, an effect of alcohol use on grades could be explained by temporary or permanent alterations in the structure and functioning of an adolescent’s developing brain with resulting changes in levels of concentration and understanding (an intensive mechanism). To test for the mediating role of this pathway, we added a set of dichotomous variables measuring whether the student reported having trouble at least once a week with each of the following: (i) paying attention in school, (ii) getting along with teachers, and (iii) doing homework.

Finally, we considered the number of days the student skipped school and the likelihood of having difficulties with school as two alternative outcomes and estimated the association between these variables and alcohol use, applying the same fixed-effects methodology as in Equation (2) . To analyze difficulties with school as an outcome, we constructed a dichotomous variable that is equal to one if the student faced at least one of the three difficulties listed above. We estimated the effect of alcohol use on this variable using a fixed-effects logit technique.

Separate regressions were run for male and female respondents. The literature shows that males and females behave differently both in terms of alcohol use ( Ham & Hope, 2003 ; Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2007 ; Schulenberg, O’Malley, Bachman, Wadsworth, & Johnston, 1996 ; Wechsler, Davenport, Dowdall, Moeykens, & Castillo, 1994 ) and school achievement ( Dwyer & Johnson, 1997 ; Jacob, 2002 ; Kleinfeld, 1998 ). These gender differences are clearly evident in the summary statistics presented in Table 1 . Furthermore, the medical literature suggests that there may be gender differences in the impact of alcohol consumption on cognitive abilities (e.g. Hommer, 2003 ).

In addition to examining differential effects by gender, we tested for differential effects of alcohol use along three other dimensions: age, the direction of change in alcohol use (increases vs. decreases), and initial GPA. These tests, as well as other extensions and robustness checks, are described in Section 6.

Table 3 shows the fixed-effects estimates for β a from Equation (2) . Each cell depicts a different model specification defined by a particular measure of alcohol use and a distinctive set of control variables. Rows (a)-(d) denote the alcohol use variable(s) in each specification, and Columns (1)-(6) correspond to the different sets of covariates. Control variables are added hierarchically from (1) to (3). We first adjusted only by grade level, sample school and sister school indicators, and interview date (Column (1)). We then added time-varying household characteristics and interviewer assessments (Column (2)), followed by other individual time-varying controls (Column (3)). Column (4) adds controls for the use of other substances, which could either be correlates or consequences of alcohol use. Columns (5) and (6) consider other potential mediators of the effects found in (1)-(3) such as days skipped, suspensions from school, and academic difficulties.

Fixed effects Estimates; Dependent Variable = GPA

Notes : See Table 1 for list of control variables in each model specification. Robust standard errors in parentheses;

The results for males provide evidence of a negative yet small effect of alcohol use on GPA. No major changes were observed in the estimates across the different specifications that incrementally added more controls, suggesting that the results are probably robust to unmeasured time-varying characteristics. In what follows, therefore, we describe the results in Column (3), which controls for the greatest number of individual time-varying factors (with the exception of tobacco and illicit drug use). Weekly drinking and monthly binge drinking are both negatively associated with GPA, but neither of these coefficients is statistically significant (Rows (a) and (b)). The continuous measure of alcohol consumption has a statistically significant coefficient (Row (c)), suggesting that increasing one’s alcohol intake by 100 drinks per month reduces GPA by 0.07 points, or 2.8% relative to the mean. The results in Row (d) suggest that variation in both the frequency and the intensity of alcohol use contributes to the estimated effect on grades. An increase of one day per month in drinking frequency reduces GPA by 0.005 points, and consumption of one additional drink per episode reduces GPA by 0.004 points.

Columns (4)-(6) report the estimates of interest after controlling for use of other substances, days skipped or suspended from school, and difficulties with school. Relative to the effects identified in Column (3), controlling for tobacco and illegal drug use reduces the negative effect of total number of drinks on GPA by 9% or 0.006 GPA points (see row (c), Column (4)). Adding the school attendance variables to the set of controls in Column (3) results in a point estimate of −0.06 or 0.01 GPA points below the coefficient in Column (3) (see Column (5)). Adding the school difficulty variables results in a reduction in GPA of 0.007 GPA points or a 10% decrease relative to the estimate in Column (3). While not shown in the table, the inclusion of both school difficulty and attendance variables as controls explains approximately 20% of the effect of alcohol use on grades, with the alcohol use estimates remaining statistically significant at the 10% level.

For females, the estimated coefficients are much smaller than those for males, and for two measures (binge-drinking and drinking frequency), the estimates are actually positive. However, none of the coefficients are statistically significant at conventional levels. 5 Interestingly, after controlling for substance use, difficulties with school, and school attendance, the estimates become less negative or more positive. But they remain statistically non significant.

Table 4 shows the effect of alcohol use on the number of school days skipped during the past year. These results are qualitatively similar to the findings for GPA, suggesting some small and statistically significant effects for males but no significant effects for females. For males, increasing the number of drinks per month by 100 leads to an additional 0.72 days skipped (p<0.10) when controlling for household features, interviewer comments, and individual characteristics such as body mass index, religiosity, employment, and health status (see Column (3), Row (c)). Controlling for tobacco and illegal drug use reduces the coefficient slightly to 0.69 days. The results in Row (d) suggest that this effect is driven mainly by variation in drinking intensity, with an additional drink per episode resulting in an increase of 0.06 days skipped.

Fixed-effects Estimates; Dependent Variable = School Days Skipped

Notes : Robust standard errors in parentheses;

Table 5 contains estimates of the relationship between alcohol use and our dichotomous measure of having difficulty in school. For males, we found one small but statistically significant effect: consumption of an additional 100 drinks per month is associated with a 4% increase in the probability of having trouble in school. For females, the estimated coefficients are all positive and larger than those found for males, and four out of five are statistically significant. The probability of having trouble in school is roughly 11% higher for females who drink weekly relative to those who do not, and there is a similar effect for monthly binge drinking (Rows (a) and (b)). Furthermore, the likelihood of difficulties increases by 7% with an additional 100 drinks per month (Row (c)). These findings suggest that female students suffer adverse consequences from alcohol consumption, even if these effects do not translate into lower grades. Finally, in Row (d), we see that these adverse effects are driven by increases in drinking frequency rather than drinking intensity.

Fixed-effects Logit Estimates; Dependent Variable = Difficulty with School

Notes : Dependent variable is a dummy variable equal to one if respondent had trouble at least once a week with one or more of the following: (1) paying attention in school, (2) getting along with teachers, or (3) doing homework. Robust standard errors in parentheses;

Our main results thus far point to two basic conclusions. After controlling for individual fixed effects, alcohol use in high school has a relatively minor influence on GPA. But there are also some interesting gender differences in these effects. For males, we find small negative effects on GPA that are partially mediated by increased school absences and difficulties with school-related tasks. For females, on the other hand, we find that alcohol use does not significantly affect GPA, but female drinkers encounter a higher probability of having difficulties at school.

Our basic estimates of the effects of drinking on GPA complement those of Koch and Ribar (2001) , who find small effects of drinking on school completion for males and non-significant effects for females. However, our analysis of school-related difficulties suggests that females are not immune to the consequences of drinking. Namely, females are able to compensate for the negative effects of drinking (e.g., by working harder or studying more) so that their grades are unaffected. This interpretation is consistent with Wolaver’s (2007) finding that binge drinking in college is associated with increased study hours for women but with reduced study hours for men. It is also reminiscent of findings in the educational psychology and sociology literatures that girls get better grades than boys, and some of this difference can be explained by gender differences in classroom behavior ( Downey & Vogt Yuan, 2005 ) or by greater levels of self-discipline among girls ( Duckworth & Seligman, 2006 ).

When interpreting our results, there are some important caveats to keep in mind. First, we must emphasize that they reflect the contemporaneous effects of alcohol use. As such, they say nothing about the possible cumulative effects that several years of drinking might have on academic performance. Second, we can only examine the effect of alcohol use on GPA for those students who remain in school. Unfortunately, we cannot address potential selection bias due to high school dropouts because of the high rate of missing GPA data for those students who dropped out after Wave 1. 6 Third, we acknowledge that our fixed-effects results could still be biased if we failed to account for important time-varying individual characteristics that are associated with GPA differentials across waves. It is reassuring, however, that our results are generally insensitive to the subsequent inclusion of additional time-varying (and likely endogenous) characteristics, such as health status, employment, religiosity, tobacco use, and illicit drug use. Finally, we cannot rule out possible reverse causality whereby academic achievement affects alcohol use. Future research using new waves of the data may provide further insight on this issue. In the next section, we discuss some additional issues that we are able to explore via robustness checks and extensions.

6. Robustness checks and extensions

6.1. ols versus fixed effects.

In addition to running fixed-effects models, we estimated β a using OLS. Separate regressions were run by gender and by wave. We first regressed GPA on measures of alcohol use and the full set of time-varying controls used in the fixed-effects estimation (see Column (3), Table 3 ). Next, we added other time-invariant measures such as demographics, household characteristics, and school characteristics. Finally, we controlled for tobacco and illegal drug use. The comparison between fixed-effects and OLS estimates (Appendix Table A1 ) sheds light on the extent of the bias in β ^ a OLS . For males, OLS estimates for Wave 1 were 3 to 6 times larger (more negative) than fixed-effects estimates (depending on the measure of alcohol use), and OLS estimates in Wave 2 were 3 to 4 times larger than those from the fixed-effects estimation. The bias was even more pronounced for females. Contrary to the results in Table 3 , OLS estimates for females were statistically significant, quantitatively large, and usually more negative than the estimates for males.

OLS Cross-sectional Estimates; Dependent Variable = GPA

6.2. Outlier analysis

Concerns about misreporting at the extreme tails of the alcohol use distributions led us to re-estimate the fixed-effects model after addressing these outliers. A common method for addressing extreme outliers without deleting observations is to “winsorize” ( Dixon, 1960 ). This technique reassigns all outlier values to the closest value at the beginning of the user-defined tail (e.g., 1%, 5%, or 10% tails). For the present analysis, we used both 1% and 5% tails. As a more conventional outlier approach, we also re-estimated the models after dropping those observations in the 1% tails. In both cases we winsorized or dropped the tails using the full Wave 1 and Wave 2 distribution (in levels) and then estimated differential effects.

After making these outlier corrections, the estimates for males became larger in absolute value and more significant, but the estimates for females remained statistically non-significant with no consistent pattern of change. 7 For males, dropping the 1% tails increased the effect of 100 drinks per month on GPA to −0.15 points (from −0.07 points when analyzing the full sample). Winsorizing the 5% tails further increased the estimated effect size to −0.31 points.

We offer two possible interpretations of these results for males. First, measurement error is probably more substantial among heavier drinkers and among respondents with the biggest changes in alcohol consumption across waves, which could cause attenuation bias at the top end. 8 Second, the effect of drinks per month on GPA could be smaller among male heavier drinkers, suggesting non-linear effects. Interestingly, neither of these concerns appears to be important for the analysis of females.

6.3. Differential effects

Thus far we have reported the differential effects of alcohol use on GPA for males and females. Here, we consider differential effects along three other dimensions: age, direction of change in alcohol use (increases vs. decreases), and initial GPA. To examine the first two of these effects, we added to Equation (2) interactions of the alcohol use measure with dichotomous variables indicating (i) that the student was 16 or older, and (ii) that alcohol use had decreased between Waves 1 and 2. 9 For males, the negative effects of drinking on GPA were consistently larger among respondents who were younger than 16 years old. None of the interaction terms, however, were statistically significant. We found no consistent or significant differences in the effect of alcohol consumption between respondents whose consumption increased and those whose consumption decreased between Waves 1 and 2. All results were non-significant and smaller in magnitude for females. It should be noted, however, that the lack of significant effects could be attributed, at least in part, to low statistical power as some of the disaggregated groups had less than 450 observations per wave.

To examine whether drinking is more likely to affect low achievers (those with initial low GPA) than high achievers (higher initial GPA), we estimated two fixed-effects linear probability regressions. The first regression estimated the impact of alcohol use on the likelihood of having an average GPA of C or less, and the second regression explored the effect of drinking on the likelihood of having a GPA of B- or better. For males, we found that monthly binging was negatively associated with the probability of obtaining a B- or higher average and that increases in number of drinks per month led to a higher likelihood of having a GPA of C or worse. Frequency of drinking, rather than intensity, was the trigger for having a GPA of C or worse. For females, most coefficient estimates were not significant, although the frequency of drinking was negatively associated with the probability of having a GPA of C or worse.

6.4 Self-reported versus abstracted GPA

One of the key advantages of using Add Health data is the availability of abstracted high school grades. Because most educational studies do not have such objective data, we repeated the fixed-effects estimation of Equation (2) using self-reported GPA rather than transcript-abstracted GPA. To facilitate comparison, the estimation sample was restricted to observations with both abstracted and self-reported GPA (N=2,164 for males and 2,418 for females).

The results reveal another interesting contrast between males and females. For males, the results based on self-reported grades were fairly consistent with the results based on abstracted grades, although the estimated effects of binging and drinking intensity were somewhat larger (i.e., more negative) when based on self-reported grades. But for females, the results based on self-reported grades showed positive effects of alcohol consumption that were statistically significant at the 10% level for three out of five consumption measures (monthly binging, total drinks per month, and drinks per episode). Furthermore, with the exception of the frequency measure (drinking days per month), the estimated effects were all substantially larger (i.e., more positive) when based on self-reported GPA. This suggests that females who drink more intensively tend to inflate their academic performance in school, even though their actual performance is not significantly different from that of those who drink less. Males who drink more intensely, on the other hand, may tend to deflate their academic accomplishments.

6.5. Analysis of dropouts

In Table 3 , we estimated the effects of alcohol consumption on GPA conditional on being enrolled in school during the two observation years. While increased drinking could lead an adolescent to drop out of school, reduced drinking could lead a dropout to re-enroll. Our GPA results do not address either of these possible effects. Of those who were in 9 th grade in Wave 1, roughly 2.3% dropped out before Wave 2. Of those who were in 10 th and 11 th grades in Wave 1, the dropout rates were 3.7% and 5.0%, respectively. Our core estimates would be biased if the effect of alcohol use on GPA for non-dropouts differed systematically from the unobserved effect of alcohol use on GPA for dropouts and re-enrollers in the event that these students had stayed in school continuously.

To determine whether dropouts differed significantly from non-dropouts, we compared GPA and drinking patterns across the two groups. Unfortunately, dropouts were much more likely to have missing GPA data for the years they were in school, 10 so the comparison itself has some inherent bias. Nevertheless, for those who were not missing Wave 1 GPA data, we found that mean GPA was significantly lower for dropouts (1.11) than for those students who stayed in school at least another year (2.66). Dropouts were also older in Wave 1 (16.9 vs. 15.9 years old) and more likely to be male (54% vs. 48%). They also consumed alcohol more often and with greater intensity in the first wave. While there is evidence of differences across the two groups in Wave 1, it is unclear whether dropouts would have differed systematically with respect to changes in GPA and in drinking behavior over time if they had stayed in school. Due to the small number of dropout observations with Wave 1 GPA data, we could not reliably estimate a selection correction model.

6.6. Attrition and missing data

As described in the data section, a large fraction of the Add Health respondents who were in 9th, 10th, or 11th grade in Wave 1 were excluded from our analysis either because they did not participate in Waves 2 or 3, did not have transcript data, or had missing data for one or more variables used in the analysis. (The excluded sample consisted of 7,104 individuals out of a total of 11,396 potentially eligible.) Mean characteristics were compared for individuals in the sample under analysis (N=4,292) and excluded respondents (N=7,104) in Wave 1. Those in the analysis sample had higher GPAs (both self-reported and abstracted, when available) and were less likely to have difficulties at school, to have been suspended from school, or to have skipped school. They were less likely to drink or to drink intensively if they drank. They were more likely to be female and White, speak English at home, have highly educated parents, have a resident mother or father at home, and be in good health. They were less likely to have parents on welfare, live in commercial areas or poorly kept buildings, and smoke and use drugs.

The above comparisons suggest that our estimates are representative of the sample of adolescents who participated in Waves 2 and 3 but not necessarily of the full 9 th , 10 th , and 11 th grade sample interviewed at baseline. To assess the magnitude and sign of the potential attrition bias in our estimates, we considered comparing fixed-effects estimates for these two samples using self-reported GPA as the dependent variable. But self-reported GPA also presented a considerable number of missing values, especially for those in the excluded sample at Wave 2. Complete measures of self-reported GPA in Waves 1 and 2 were available for 60% of the individuals in the analysis sample and for less than 30% of individuals in the excluded sample.

As an alternative check, we used OLS to estimate the effects of alcohol use on self-reported GPA in Wave 1 for the excluded sample, and compared these to OLS coefficients for our analysis sample in Wave 1. The effects of alcohol use on self-reported grades were smaller for individuals excluded from our core analysis. Because the excluded individuals tend to consume more alcohol, the finding of smaller effects for these individuals is consistent with either of the two explanations discussed in Section 6.2 above. First, the effect of consuming alcohol on GPA could be smaller for those who drink more. And second, measurement error is probably more serious among heavier drinkers, potentially causing more attenuation bias in this sample.

To summarize, the analysis described above suggests that some caution should be exercised when extrapolating the results in this paper to other populations. Due to missing data, our analysis excludes many of the more extreme cases (in terms of grades, substance use, and socioeconomic status). However, our analysis suggests that the effects of alcohol use on grades are, if anything, smaller for these excluded individuals. It therefore supports our main conclusions that the effects of alcohol use on GPA tend to be small and that failure to account for unobserved individual heterogeneity is responsible for some of the large negative estimates identified in previous research.

7. Conclusion

Though a number of investigations have studied the associations between alcohol use and years of schooling, less is known about the impact of adolescent drinking on the process and quality of learning for those who remain in school. Moreover, studies that have examined the impact of drinking on learning have faced two important limitations. First, they have relied on self-reported grades as the key measure of learning and are therefore subject to potential biases that result from self-reporting. Second, they have relied on cross-sectional data and suffer from potential biases due either to unobserved individual heterogeneity or to weak or questionable instrumental variables.

In the present study, we contribute to the existing literature by exploiting several unique features of the nationally representative Add Health survey. First, we measure learning with grade point averages obtained from the respondents’ official school transcripts. Second, we exploit Add Health’s longitudinal design to estimate models with individual fixed effects. This technique eliminates the bias that results from time-invariant unobserved individual heterogeneity in the determinants of alcohol use and GPA. Finally, we explore a variety of pathways that could explain the association between alcohol use and grades. In particular, we examine the effects of alcohol consumption on both the quantity of schooling—as measured by days of school skipped—and the quality—as measured by difficulties with concentrating in school, getting along with teachers, or completing homework.

The main results show that, in general, increases in alcohol consumption result in statistically significant but quantitatively small reductions in GPA for male students and in statistically non-significant changes for females. For both males and females, comparisons of the fixed-effects models with standard cross-sectional models suggest that large biases can result from the failure to adequately control for unobserved individual heterogeneity. Our findings are thus closely aligned with those of Koch and Ribar (2001) and Dee and Evans (2003) , who reach a similar conclusion regarding the effects of drinking on school completion.

Our analysis also reveals some interesting gender differences in how alcohol consumption affects learning in high school. Our results suggest that for males, alcohol consumption has a small negative effect on GPA and this effect is partially mediated by increased school absences and by difficulties with school-related tasks. For females, however, we find that alcohol use does not significantly affect GPA, even though it significantly increases the probability of encountering difficulties at school. Gender differences in high school performance are well documented in the educational psychology and sociology literatures, yet no previous studies have estimated gender differences in high school learning that are directly associated with alcohol use. Our study is therefore unique in that regard.

Finally, our study also highlights the potential pitfalls of using self-reported grades to measure academic performance. Not only do we find evidence that use of self-reports leads to bias; we also find that the bias differs by gender, as drinking is associated with grade inflation among females and grade deflation among males. Hence, the conceptual discoveries uncovered in this research may be as important for future investigations as the empirical results are for current educational programs and policies.

Acknowledgements

Financial assistance for this study was provided by research grants from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01 AA15695, R01 AA13167, and R03 AA016371) and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (RO1 DA018645). This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website ( http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth ). No direct support was received from grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis. We gratefully acknowledge the input of several colleagues at the University of Miami. We are also indebted to Allison Johnson, William Russell, and Carmen Martinez for editorial and administrative assistance. The authors are entirely responsible for the research and results reported in this paper, and their position or opinions do not necessarily represent those of the University of Miami, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, or the National Institute on Drug Abuse.

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1 Due to a significant fraction of missing responses, we imputed household income and household welfare status using both predicted values on the basis of other covariates and the sample mean for households that were also missing some of the predicting covariates. We added dummy variables to indicate when an observation was imputed.

2 Grades and numerical grade-point equivalents have been established for varying levels of a student’s academic performance. These grade-point equivalents are used to determine a student’s grade-point average. Grades of A, A-, and B+ with respective grade-point equivalents of 4.00, 3.67, and 3.33 represent an “excellent” quality of performance. Grades of B, B−, and C+ with grade-point equivalents of 3.00, 2.67, and 2.33 represent a “good” quality of performance. A grade of C with grade-point equivalent of 2.00 represents a “satisfactory” level of performance, a grade of D with grade-point equivalent of 1.00 represents a “poor” quality of performance, and a grade of F with grade-point equivalent of 0.00 represents failure.

3 Note that some demographics (e.g., race, ethnicity) and other variables that are constant over time do not appear in Equation (2) because they present no variation across waves.

4 Of particular concern is the possibility that measurement error due to misreporting varies across waves—either because of random recall errors or because of changes in the interview conditions. (For example, the proportion of interviews in which others were present declined from roughly 42% to 25% between Wave 1 and Wave 2.) Such measurement error could lead to attenuation bias in our fixed-effects model. On the other hand, reporting biases that are similar and stable over time are eliminated by the fixed-effects specification.

5 We tested the significance of these differences by pooling males and females and including an interaction of a gender dummy with the alcohol consumption measure in each model. We found statistically significant differences in the effects of monthly bingeing, drinks per month, and drinking days per month.

6 If alcohol use has small or negligible effects on school completion - as found by Chatterji (2006) , Dee and Evans (2003) , and Koch and Ribar (2001) - then such selection bias will also be small.

7 These results are not presented in the tables but are available from the authors upon request.

8 Examination of the outliers showed that only 15% of those who reported a total number of drinks above the 95th percentile of the distribution did so in both waves.

9 These fixed-effects regressions were adjusted by the same set of controls as in Table (3) , Column (3).

10 More than two-thirds of those who dropped out between Waves 1 and 2 were missing Wave 1 GPA data

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Drinking Age

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Negative Effects of Alcohol Essay, with Outline

Published by gudwriter on January 4, 2021 January 4, 2021

Effects of Alcoholism Essay Outline

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Thesis: Although praised by many as a way to pass time and relax, alcohol can affect an individually financially, socially, and psychologically.

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Financial Impact

• Alcohol drinkers may suffer other economic consequences such as low wages, loss of employment, increased medical expenses, and legal expenses.
• In some countries, alcoholics lose their eligibility for loans.
• In Cameroon, the cost of a single beer is more than the minimum daily wage of most individuals.
• In India and Malaysia, alcoholics are faced with challenges such as debt, illnesses, and injuries.
• Alcohol is closely related to poverty.

Social Impact

• The people that are most affected by alcoholism are the immediate family members.
• Impairment of an individual’s performance as a parent, partner and how he or she contributes to the normal functioning of a household.
• Heavy drinkers are known to have impaired judgement that can lead to one becoming violent.
• The social impact of alcoholism can be related to its physical effects.
• For example, for a heavily drinking mother, an unborn child may suffer from Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. Read on essays examples on topics such as abortion .
• Parental drinking may lead to child abuse among other negative consequences on a child .

Psychological Impact

• One of the most significant psychological impact is an increase in suicidal tendencies.
• Alcohol has a negative impact on the brain explained through a form of liver damage referred to as hepatic encephalopathy.
• The effects of hepatic encephalopathy includes; altered sleep pattern, changes in mood and personality, depression, anxiety and other psychiatric conditions.
• There are also cognitive effects such as a reduction in attention and issues with coordination.

Effects of Drinking Alcohol

Alcoholism is a common problem in many communities. It is persistent in many societies since alcohol consumption is considered as an attractive leisure activity by many. While this may be and actually is the case, alcohol has a negative impact on health. Its effects also often spill over to people who do not consume it when it gets to a level of addiction whereby many have to turn to relatives and loved ones to source for money with which to sustain their wasteful spending on alcoholism. Although praised by many as a way to pass time and relax, alcohol can affect an individual financially, socially, and psychologically.

The financial impact of alcohol is significant especially to the poor. In any session of alcohol consumption, heavy drinkers tend to spend a lot. Sometimes, alcohol drinkers may suffer other economic consequences such as low wages, loss of employment, increased medical expenses, and legal expenses. In some countries, alcoholics lose their eligibility for loans. In Sri Lanka for instance, a report revealed that at least 7% of men spent much on alcohol than they actually earned. In Cameroon, the cost of a single beer is more than the minimum daily wage of most individuals (Tamfuh, 2016). In India and Malaysia, alcoholics are faced with such serious challenges as debt, illnesses, and injuries (Armitage et al., 2015). Exacerbation of poverty and burden on women is another common occurrence facing most alcoholics. A majority of alcoholic men are faced with the constant need to source for extra income through such activities as stealing to sustain their behavior of alcoholism. In the long-run, their families end up in unimaginable debts and suffering.

Here, the people that are most affected by alcoholism are the immediate family members. It is proven that drinking too much alcohol impairs an individual’s performance as a parent and partner, and how he or she contributes to the normal functioning of a household. The situation can have a long lasting impact on children and partners, and is therefore a very serious one. For instance, heavy drinkers are known to have impaired judgment that can lead to them becoming violent (Kaufmann et al., 2014). Such an individual might turn against their partner or children and when this happens, it could have far-reaching effects on the lives of spouses and children.

The social impact of alcoholism can also be related to its physical effects. For example, for a heavily drinking mother, an unborn child may suffer from Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder . After birth, parental drinking may lead to child abuse among other negative consequences on a child. The child may end up suffering socially, psychologically, and economically.

There are numerous psychological effects of alcoholism . One of the most significant effect in this respect is an increase in suicidal tendencies whereby studies have shown that at least 15% of alcoholics end up committing suicide. In the same breadth, alcohol has a negative impact on the brain, explained through a form of liver damage referred to as hepatic encephalopathy. It is a disease that affects the normal functioning of the brain when the liver cannot perform its functions well. There are several psychological effects associated with this disease. Some of these effects include altered sleep patterns, changes in mood and personality, depression, anxiety, and other psychiatric conditions (Vilstrup et al., 2014). There are also cognitive effects such as a reduction in attention and issues with coordination.

Undoubtedly, alcoholism has an adverse impact on the financial, social, and psychological environment of the victim. The worst scenario is that alcoholism tends to affect others such as the immediate family members. It is a problem that has the potential to destroy families if not well checked. It can destroy the lives of children and as well interfere with the wellbeing of spouses of alcoholics. It is especially concerning that it is a problem that affects both men and women. In this respect, there is need to find ways through which the problem of alcoholism may be comprehensively addressed.

Armitage, C. J., Panagioti, M., Rahim, W. A., Rowe, R., & O’Connor, R. C. (2015). Completed suicides and self-harm in Malaysia: a systematic review.  General hospital psychiatry ,  37 (2), 153-165.

Kaufmann, V. G., O’farrell, T. J., Murphy, C. M., Murphy, M. M., & Muchowski, P. (2014). Alcohol consumption and partner violence among women entering substance use disorder treatment.  Psychology of Addictive Behaviors ,  28 (2), 313.

Tamfuh, W. Y. (2016). Drugs and drug control in Cameroon.  Pan-African Issues in Drugs and Drug Control: An International Perspective , 17.

Vilstrup, H., Amodio, P., Bajaj, J., Cordoba, J., Ferenci, P., Mullen, K. D., … & Wong, P. (2014). Hepatic encephalopathy in chronic liver disease: 2014 practice guideline by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the European Association for the Study of the Liver.  Hepatology ,  60 (2), 715-735.

Undoubtedly, alcoholism has an adverse impact on the financial, social and psychological environment of the victim. The worst scenario is that alcoholism tends to affect others such as the immediate family members.

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Alcoholic Anonymous: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Programs Essay

Introduction, alcoholics anonymous and its major features, advantages of aa, disadvantages of aa, discussion and conclusion.

Alcohol abuse is one of the problems that are increasingly affecting modern-day society. The prevalence of this problem can to a large extent be blamed on the popularization of alcohol by the mass media. This factor has resulted in the prevalence of drinking reaching levels that may be considered risky. As a result, there has emerged a class of people who are unable to control their drinking habits, therefore, becoming alcoholics. Alcoholism has a negative effect on both the individual and the people he/she relates with. It is, therefore, necessary to come up with means to assist the individual who is suffering from alcoholism. Many organizations have come up to assist with this most notably of which is the Alcoholic Anonymous society.

The sobriety program of Alcoholic Anonymous (AA) aims at bringing about an “instance of self-transforming discourse and practice” (Yeung, 2007). By fully working the program, the individual is able to lead a stable life with total abstinence from alcohol. This paper shall set out to critically discuss the major features of the AA. The paper shall start by giving a concise but informative description of the Alcoholic Anonymous program. In addition to this, the merits and demerits of AA in the fight against alcohol abuse shall be articulated so as to demonstrate the effectiveness of AA in helping Alcoholics recover.

According to the Alcoholics Anonymous Australian website, AA is “a fellowship of men and women who share their experience, strength and hope with each other that they may solve their common problem and help others to recover from alcoholism” (AA Australia, 2010). AA traces its birth to 1935 and was a result of the meeting of Dr. Robert Holbroom and a New York businessman, William Wilson (Bill). Bill was a recovering alcoholic who had managed to stay sober for a year but feared a relapse of the same. To assist reduce the risk of relapse, Bill was put into contact with Dr. Bob, therefore, beginning the joint effort at curbing drinking which would soon spread out as the well-established Alcoholics Anonymous. AA was begun as a tool for mutual support for recovering alcoholics.

AA has no affiliation with any religion, political or social and is self-funding through the contributions of its members. This informal society boasts of a membership of over 2million throughout the world with thousands of group meetings in each locality. In terms of membership, AA is open to any person, regardless of their race, creed, political affiliation or even sexual orientation. The only criterion for membership is the personal “desire to stop drinking” by the person as well as the prior alcohol addiction. AA includes meetings that are held at designated venues and attended by the members.

Open AA meetings are open to anyone, whether they are alcoholics or suffer from any other kind of addiction. This is because the twelve steps used by AA may be used to help in more than just alcohol abuse. However, closed AA meetings are restricted to people with drinking problems and so is the membership to AA (AA Australia, 2010).

The AA program has a manual known as the Big Book which acts as the official guide for AA members. Yeung (2007) spells out that the book contains the principles by which “current AA members guide their efforts at quitting drinking”. The acclaimed “Twelve Steps” to recovery are contained in this book. These steps are in essence a formula intended to result in a “total psychic change” in which the individual transforms his/her drinking and thinking and pursuits a sober lifestyle.

The Twelve Steps form the backbone of the AA program and are outlined in the Big Book that the society uses. The steps begin by an admittance of powerlessness over alcohol by the individual, proceed to surrendering to a higher power and end by the person having had a spiritual awakening which results in healing of the freedom from alcoholism.

A key principle is that the alcoholic can never be a normal drinker, drinking modestly due to a stable disposition. This being the case, the only way in which the alcoholic can reform is by aiming for a life of complete sobriety which can only be brought about by full abstinence from drinking. To assist in achieving this end, AA makes use of story telling which involves the members of the group telling stories of their past alcoholic experiences as well as their present.

O’Halloran (2008) states that AA story is a powerful affirmation of change attributed solely to high power. This is one of the attributes of AA which gives it a religion like appearance although the members of the society are adamant that the while the group has a lot of spiritualism, it is not a religious movement. Yeung (2007) suggests that AA as a program largely draws from the principles of Christian fellowship and is centered on the individual establishing a deeply personal relationship with a higher deity. Sobriety is achieved through spiritual awakening which results from this.

Another major feature of AA is their many slogans which form a part of the AA meeting. These slogans reflect the prevailing views held by the members and in fact act as an expression of a shared understanding by the AA community (O’Halloran, 2008). The use of slogans accentuates group membership in as much the same way as different subgroups (such as doctors, lawyers, sport fans etc) use a stock of phrases that mark group membership. The use of these slogans therefore indicates affiliations and helps maintain solidarity among members. O’Halloran (2008) suggests that the phrases can be used as mantras to ward off impulses to drink therefore increasing the likelihood of the program to succeed for an individual.

It is a generally accepted notion in therapeutic circles that before any therapeutic treatments can be administered and effected, there must be an acceptance of the existence of a problem by the person who needs help (Yeung, 2007). Evidence of this recognition of a problem and acceptance of the same can be seen from the AA meetings introductions whereby the alcoholic introduces himself by saying their names followed by the confession that “I’m an alcoholic” (Bufe, 1998, p.1). Therefore, AA obligates the member to face his/her drinking problem and only after the person has done this can there be hope of recovery.

.AA is not the only means through which alcoholics can be helped to recover and therapy as provided by professional therapists is an equally potent means. However, AA has an inherent advantage owing to the lack of a hierarchical structure.

The emotional support and persuasive power that comes about from the peer meetings can sometimes be greater than that of a therapist. Galanter and Kaskutas (2008, p.148) reveal that in therapy, “while group leaders possess authority compared to members, a leader’s supportive comment may be suspect as a perfunctory role requirement”. This means that the leaders input no matter how sincere may be seen as something simply said as part of the job and hence devoid of sincerity. As such, the likelihood of the AA program resulting in positive change in a person is increased due to the inherent credibility and honesty that AA exudes.

Studies reveal that people who help others in the context of mutual help groups reap great benefits from their involvement in the same (Galanter & Kaskutas, 2008; Riessman, 1965). This is especially true for the sponsorship program of the AA whereby both the helper and the recipient share a common problem (alcoholism in this case). The reason for this is that the helper (who is also a sufferer) will become more committed to solve their own problems by offering advice and encouragement to others (Galanter & Kaskutas, 2008). This is one of the key strengths of AA over other alcoholism recovery programs. The altruism that AA fosters through having members help other group members by sharing and giving moral support results in many successes.

The treatment costs for alcohol-related problems are in some instances prohibitively high for a majority of the population. Bufe (1998) reveals that as long as the early 1990s, the average cost of inpatient treatments averaged an excess of $14000 for a 28 day stay. Much of these costs were justified as for catering for the detoxification process which is one of the treatment processes that alcoholics are offered. Most of the detoxification was unnecessary and had not useful results to the patient. Contrasting this with AA’s which are absolutely free; it is evident that AA is accessible to more people than other treatment options.

All recovering alcoholics are predisposed to relapse and as such, relapse prevention strategies present the best means for ensuring sustainable recovery from alcoholism. Haber et al (2009) articulates that relapse prevention approaches are aimed at helping the patient identify situations which resulted in excessive drinking and to use appropriate cognitive and behavioral strategies to avoid the same. The programs also provide coping skills and support for the patient. These are all roles that the AA program achieves through its peer-based system.

One of the outspoken critics of the AA program Bufe (1998) accuses the group of using guilt as a device to cause behavior in its members. He goes on to articulate that guilt is inherent in the AA dogma with the revered 12 steps having references of “shortcomings”, “defects of character” and other negative terms that invariably lead to the reinforcement of guilt in the members. When a member slips back into his/her drinking habits after attending the AA meetings, they experience unpleasant feelings of guilt and have a considerable loss of self prestige and pride. While this is ideally a good thing since it reinforces the need for AA program, Bufe (1998) states that it may result in members feeling hopeless and seeing the AA program as their only hope for sobriety.

One of the tenets of AA explicitly states that “Alcoholics Anonymous should remain forever nonprofessional”. This is an ideology that is strictly enforced and the Alcoholic Anonymous Australia (2010) states that AA “doesn’t have clinics, doctors, counselors or psychologies. All members are themselves recovering from alcoholism”. This presents a very major disadvantage for the AA since it cannot reap the benefit of professional personnel who are well versed with alcohol abuse. This therefore reduces the effectiveness of AA since while it may be able to assist some members through the sponsorship program, members who are in need of more help cannot find it in the AA.

Alcohol abuse is a real problem that may have life threatening implications to the alcohol abuser. Haber et al (2009) reveals that individuals who intake large amounts of alcohol may experience a withdrawal syndrome on stoppage of the consumption. The authors go on to note that these withdrawals may result in severe and life threatening complications such as seizures and delirium if the withdrawal is poorly managed or all together unsupervised.

Considering the fact that AA is an informal society run by non professionals who are themselves recovering alcoholics, it is conceivable that the society lacks the expertise to deal with the alcohol related problems that may arise as members try to end their addictions. AA advocates total abstinence from alcohol since the alcoholic is seen as being unable to control his drinking. Members of AA are therefore predisposed to suffer from withdrawal symptoms as a result of the AA ideologies they follow. Alcohol withdrawal symptoms (some of which may be life threatening) may inflict the members and without the professional assistance required to deal with the same, the outcomes may be fatal.

One of the philosophies that AA advances is that the alcoholic has a lack of choice, will power and so cannot control his drinking habits. This is articulated by the assertion “for reasons yet obscure, we (the alcoholics) have lost the power of choice in drink” (Yeung, 2007, p.52). The members also express their weakness through the process of surrendering and admitting one’s limited power to change their lives on their own. This can be seen to be a detrimental attribute of AA since it removes personal accountability and responsibility which are very important values in the society. A society in which a person cannot be held responsible for their own actions since they claim to “lack the choice and will power” would inevitably collapse.

Alcoholism is a problem that affects many members of our society and for this reason, programs that assist in recovery from the same should be pursued. This paper has set out to discuss one of the programs that purport to assist in dealing with alcoholism: the Alcoholic Anonymous program. From the discussions presented in this paper, it is clear that AA is not only a popular but also a highly effective means for overcoming alcohol abuse though the use of the Twelve Steps. By following the steps, AA members shift from being in isolation to being aligned with something greater than themselves bringing about healing.

While it is true that AA does have a number of weaknesses most notably of which is the induction of feelings of guilt and to some extent helplessness in its members, even its critics acknowledge that AA does not manipulate its members for the personal advantage of any one person or group of people. Considering the fact that the number of people consuming alcohol at high risk levels has been on the rise over the last ten decades, the need for means to solve the problem of alcoholism is high now more than ever. Societies such as AA are therefore very relevant and should be utilized even more to assist solve the problem of alcohol abuse in our society.

Alcoholics Anonymous Australia (2010). What is AA. Web.

Bufe, C. (1998). Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure? Arizona: Sharp Press.

Galanter, M. & Kaskutas, L.A. (2008). Research on Alcoholics Anonymous and Spirituality in Addiction Recovery: the Twelve-step Program Model, Spiritually Oriented Recovery, Twelve-step Membership, Effectiveness and Outcome Research. Cengage Learning.

Haber, P. et al (2009). Treatment of Alcohol Problems: Companion Documents to the Guidelines for the Treatment of Alcohol Problems . Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing.

O’Halloran, S. (2003) Participant Observation of Alcoholics Anonymous: Contrasting Roles of the Ethnographer and Ethnomethodologist.

O’Halloran, S. (2008). Talking Oneself Sober: the Discourse of Alcoholics Anonymous. Cambria Press.

Yeung, S. (2007). Working the Program: Technologies of Self and Citizenship in Alcoholics Anonymous. Web.

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