education promotion

How to Promote Education: A Comprehensive Guide

By GGI Insights | May 17, 2024

Table of contents

Understanding the Importance of Education

Education serves as the foundation for personal and societal development. It equips individuals with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary for success. Moreover, education enhances critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities, fostering informed citizens and leaders.

When individuals receive a quality education , they have the tools to navigate the world's complexities. They gain a deeper understanding of various subjects, from mathematics and science to literature and history. This broad knowledge base allows them to connect with different disciplines and think critically about the world around them. Understanding how to promote quality education is fundamental in this context, as it ensures the delivery of a curriculum that is rich, diverse, and tailored to equip students for future challenges.

Education not only provides individuals with the knowledge they need to succeed, but it also helps them develop important skills. Through classroom discussions, group projects, and hands-on learning experiences, students learn how to collaborate effectively, communicate their ideas clearly, and solve problems creatively. These skills are essential for success in the workplace and everyday life. This stage of personal and intellectual growth is particularly pivotal during secondary education , where students begin to refine these skills in preparation for higher education or their future careers.

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The Role of Education in Society

Education is the cornerstone of a functioning society. It empowers individuals by enabling social mobility, reducing poverty, and promoting equality. Furthermore, education cultivates active participation in democracy, fosters a sense of national identity, and encourages social cohesion.

Access to quality education, regardless of background or socioeconomic status, opens up opportunities for social mobility. Education can break the cycle of poverty by providing individuals with the skills and knowledge they need to secure better-paying jobs and improve their overall quality of life.

Education also plays a crucial role in promoting equality within society. By ensuring that all individuals have access to the same educational opportunities, regardless of race, gender, or socioeconomic background, education helps level the playing field and create a more just and equitable society.

Benefits of Promoting Education

Investing in education pays dividends both in the short and long term. Education leads to higher employment rates, economic growth, and innovation. It promotes healthier lifestyles, lowers crime rates, and contributes to community well-being and quality of life. In this context, primary education plays a pivotal role. It's the initial stage of formal education, laying the groundwork for future academic pursuits and personal development.

When individuals receive a quality education, they are more likely to find stable employment and earn higher wages. This not only benefits individuals and their families but also strengthens the economy as a whole. A well-educated workforce drives innovation, attracts businesses, and fosters economic growth.

Education also has a profound impact on public health. Individuals with higher levels of education tend to make healthier lifestyle choices, leading to lower rates of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. Additionally, education reduces crime rates, as individuals with access to education are less likely to engage in criminal activities.

Furthermore, education contributes to community well-being and quality of life. It fosters a sense of belonging and community engagement, as individuals with education are more likely to participate in civic activities, volunteer their time, and contribute to the betterment of society.

Strategies to Promote Education

To effectively promote education, various strategies can be employed. To fully grasp the concept of effective learning , it's essential to explore various teaching methodologies and their impact on student engagement and comprehension. Advocacy and awareness campaigns are crucial in highlighting the value of education and mobilizing stakeholders. Utilizing technology in education enhances access, engagement, and personalized learning. Encouraging lifelong learning creates a culture of continuous growth, adaptability, and skill development.

Advocacy and Awareness Campaigns

Advocacy and awareness campaigns raise public consciousness about the importance of education. These campaigns create a sense of urgency through targeted communication and informative events and inspire collective action. Additionally, collaborations with influencers, NGOs, and media outlets can amplify the message and reach wider audiences.

Advocacy and awareness campaigns can take various forms, such as public service announcements, social media campaigns, and community engagement events. These initiatives aim to educate the public about the benefits of education, including improved economic opportunities, enhanced social mobility, and the overall well-being of individuals and communities.

Furthermore, advocacy campaigns often focus on specific issues within the education system, such as access to quality education for marginalized communities, gender equality, and early childhood education's importance. By shedding light on these issues and advocating for change, these campaigns contribute to the overall improvement of the education sector.

Utilizing Technology in Education

Technology has revolutionized education by expanding access and improving learning outcomes. It enables distance learning, interactive virtual classrooms, and personalized learning experiences. Education becomes more engaging and inclusive by integrating technology into curriculum design, teacher training, and infrastructure development.

One of the key benefits of technology in education is its ability to bridge geographical barriers. Through online platforms and virtual classrooms, students from remote areas can access quality education previously unavailable. This increases educational opportunities and promotes cultural exchange and global understanding.

Moreover, technology allows personalized learning experiences tailored to individual student’s needs and learning styles. Adaptive learning software, for example, can analyze students' performance and provide targeted feedback and resources to support their progress. This personalized approach enhances student engagement and motivation, improving learning outcomes.

Encouraging Lifelong Learning

Promoting lifelong learning involves creating an environment that nurtures curiosity, self-directed learning, and continuous development. Encouraging individuals of all ages to engage in formal and informal learning opportunities enhances their employability, adaptability, and overall satisfaction in life.

Lifelong learning can take many forms, including pursuing higher education, attending workshops and seminars, participating in online courses, and engaging in hobbies and personal interests. It is about fostering a mindset of continuous growth and embracing new knowledge and skills throughout one's life.

Organizations and institutions can support lifelong learning by offering flexible learning opportunities, such as part-time and online programs, and providing resources for self-directed learning. Employers can also play a role by promoting a learning culture within the workplace, encouraging employees to develop new skills, and providing opportunities for professional development.

Furthermore, lifelong learning has numerous benefits beyond individual growth. It contributes to a more innovative and adaptable society, as individuals with diverse skills and knowledge can tackle complex challenges and drive progress. It also promotes social cohesion and inclusivity by providing opportunities for personal and professional development.

Role of Government in Promoting Education

The government plays a vital role in promoting education through policy development, resource allocation, and implementation of reforms. However, the impact of government involvement in education goes far beyond these basic functions. Let's explore additional aspects of the government's role in promoting education.

Education Policies and Reforms

The government establishes education policies and implements reforms to ensure quality education for all. These policies set standards, frameworks, and guidelines for curriculum, assessment, and teacher qualifications. But what factors influence the development of these policies? Well, the government considers various stakeholders' perspectives, such as educators, parents, and experts in the field of education. Through extensive research, consultations, and collaboration, the government strives to create policies that align with the evolving needs of society.

Moreover, education policies and reforms are not static; they are dynamic and responsive to the changing educational landscape. For example, with the advent of technology, governments are increasingly focusing on integrating digital tools and resources into classrooms. This enhances students' learning experiences and prepares them for the digital age.

Funding and Resource Allocation

Providing adequate funding and allocating resources is essential for building and maintaining effective educational systems. Governments must prioritize education and allocate funds to infrastructure development, teacher training, educational materials, and technology integration. However, the process of funding allocation is not a simple task.

The government faces the challenge of balancing competing needs and demands within limited resources. They must consider various factors, such as the number of students, geographical distribution, and socioeconomic disparities while allocating funds. The government also seeks to ensure equity in resource distribution, aiming to bridge the gap between well-funded schools and those in underprivileged areas.

Furthermore, governments recognize the importance of investing in human capital. They provide scholarships, grants, and financial aid programs to support students access to education, especially for those from disadvantaged backgrounds. By doing so, the government aims to create a level playing field, giving everyone an equal opportunity to pursue their educational aspirations.

In conclusion, while policy development and resource allocation are crucial aspects of the government's role in promoting education, additional complexities and considerations are involved. The government's commitment to education goes beyond mere administrative functions; it encompasses a broader vision of creating an inclusive, equitable, and high-quality education system for all.

Community Involvement in Education Promotion

Promoting education requires collective efforts from communities, parents, and stakeholders. Engaging the community fosters a supportive environment for learners and enhances the effectiveness of education promotion initiatives. Discussing the critical role of early childhood development in the edu cational journey of a child highlights the need for structured and nurturing learning environments from a young age.

To truly create an educational ecosystem that thrives, it is important to recognize parents' vital role in their children's learning journey. Parental engagement is a fundamental aspect of education promotion. Parents can contribute to improving education systems by actively participating in parent-teacher associations. These associations provide a platform for parents to voice their opinions, share their experiences, and work with teachers and administrators to create a positive learning environment for all students.

Furthermore, parents can support educational activities at home by creating a conducive environment for learning. This can include setting aside dedicated study spaces, establishing consistent routines, and providing access to educational resources. By taking an active interest in their children's education, parents can instill a love for learning and help develop important study skills.

Advocating for quality education is another crucial way parents can promote education. By engaging with local policymakers, attending school board meetings, and participating in community discussions, parents can voice their concerns and push for positive changes in the education system. This involvement ensures that the needs of students are heard and addressed, leading to a more inclusive and effective educational experience for all.

Community Outreach Programs

Community outreach programs are vital in bridging the gap between schools, nonprofits, and local organizations. These programs establish partnerships that provide disadvantaged students with educational resources, mentorship, career guidance, and scholarships. Community outreach programs help students overcome barriers and achieve their full potential by offering additional support outside of the classroom.

In addition to providing direct assistance to students, these programs facilitate collaboration between schools and local businesses. Students can benefit from real-world learning experiences and gain valuable insights into various industries by forging these connections. This exposure to different career paths helps students make informed decisions about their future and opens doors to potential job opportunities.

Moreover, community outreach programs foster a sense of belonging and inclusivity within the community. These programs promote unity and understanding by bringing together individuals from diverse backgrounds and creating a space for collaboration. Students can learn from the experiences of others and develop important social skills that will serve them well throughout their lives.

In conclusion, community involvement is an essential component of education promotion. Through their engagement, parents can actively contribute to improving education systems. On the other hand, community outreach programs provide valuable resources and opportunities for students, fostering a supportive and inclusive learning environment. By working together, communities can create a brighter future for all learners.

Successful Education Promotion

Examining successful case studies provides valuable insights and inspiration for effective education promotion strategies.

Education promotion plays a crucial role in shaping the future of societies and individuals. Countries can empower citizens, foster economic growth, and create a more equitable society by investing in quality education. In this article, we will explore two case studies of successful education promotion: Finland's Education System and Singapore's Approach to Education.

Finland's Education System

Finland's education system, known for its high-quality and equitable education, is a model for many countries. It emphasizes play-based learning, qualified teachers, comprehensive support systems, and a focus on student well-being. Finland has achieved remarkable educational outcomes by prioritizing education as a national asset.

One of the key factors contributing to Finland's educational success is its emphasis on play-based learning. Finnish schools encourage children to learn through play, exploration, and hands-on activities. This approach fosters creativity and critical thinking and ensures that learning is enjoyable and engaging for students.

In addition to play-based learning, Finland's education system strongly emphasizes qualified teachers. All teachers in Finland must have a master's degree in education, ensuring that they possess the necessary knowledge and skills to deliver high-quality instruction. This commitment to teacher professionalism has resulted in a highly respected teaching profession and a strong trust between teachers, students, and parents.

Furthermore, Finland's comprehensive support systems ensure every student has an equal opportunity to succeed. These support systems include early intervention programs, special education services, and counseling support. By addressing the diverse needs of students, Finland's education system promotes inclusivity and provides a nurturing environment for all learners.

Lastly, Finland's focus on student well-being sets it apart from many other education systems. Schools in Finland prioritize students' overall well-being, recognizing that academic success is closely linked to emotional and social well-being. This holistic approach to education helps students develop a strong sense of self-esteem, resilience, and overall happiness.

Singapore's Approach to Education

Singapore's education system is widely recognized for its focus on academic excellence and preparing students for the future. The government, schools, and industry collaborate to ensure that education meets labor market demands. A rigorous curriculum, teacher professional development, and robust assessment systems contribute to Singapore's educational success.

One of the key strengths of Singapore's education system is its strong collaboration between the government, schools, and industry. This collaboration ensures that education remains relevant and responsive to the evolving needs of the labor market. By actively involving industry professionals in curriculum development and school programs, Singapore prepares students with the skills and knowledge required for the workforce.

Singapore's rigorous curriculum is another crucial element contributing to its educational success. The curriculum is designed to provide students with a strong foundation in core subjects such as mathematics, science, and languages. This emphasis on academic excellence helps Singaporean students consistently perform well in international assessments and gain admission to top universities worldwide.

Furthermore, Singapore places great importance on professional development for teachers. Teachers in Singapore undergo regular training and professional development programs to stay updated with the latest pedagogical approaches and teaching techniques. This commitment to continuous learning ensures teachers have the necessary skills to deliver high-quality instruction and effectively support their students.

Lastly, Singapore's robust assessment systems play a crucial role in monitoring student progress and identifying areas for improvement. Regular assessments, such as the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) and the General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE O-Level) examinations, provide valuable feedback to students, parents, and educators. These assessments help identify students' strengths and weaknesses, allowing for targeted interventions and personalized support.

In conclusion, Finland's Education System and Singapore's Approach to Education offer valuable insights into successful education promotion strategies. Finland has achieved remarkable educational outcomes by prioritizing play-based learning, qualified teachers, comprehensive support systems, and student well-being. On the other hand, Singapore's focus on academic excellence, collaborations with industry, rigorous curriculum, professional development for teachers, and robust assessment systems contribute to its educational success. By learning from these case studies, countries can develop effective education promotion strategies that empower their citizens and pave the way for a brighter future.

Overcoming Challenges in Promoting Education

Promoting education is not without challenges. Addressing these challenges is crucial to ensuring equal access and quality education for all.

Education is a fundamental right that should be accessible to everyone, regardless of background or circumstances. However, several obstacles need to be overcome to achieve this goal.

Addressing Inequality in Education

Inequality poses a significant barrier to education. It is disheartening to see how disparities in school funding, teacher quality, and access to resources can perpetuate the cycle of poverty and limit opportunities for many students.

One way to address this issue is by implementing inclusive policies prioritizing equal resource distribution. This means ensuring that schools in low-income areas receive adequate funding and have access to well-trained teachers. Additionally, targeted interventions for marginalized groups, such as students from minority backgrounds or those with disabilities, can help bridge the educational divide and create a more inclusive learning environment.

Dealing with Lack of Resources

Limited resources can hinder education promotion efforts, especially in underprivileged communities. It is disheartening to see how a lack of textbooks, technology, and basic infrastructure can impede the learning process for students.

To overcome resource limitations, governments, in partnership with NGOs and international organizations, should explore innovative funding models. This could involve seeking investments in education from both the public and private sectors and allocating a higher percentage of the national budget towards education.

Furthermore, leveraging technology can play a significant role in overcoming resource constraints. By embracing e-learning platforms, students can access educational materials and resources remotely, reducing their dependence on physical resources. Open educational resources, freely available online, can supplement classroom learning and provide students with additional study materials.

Public-private partnerships can also be valuable in addressing the lack of resources. Schools can access funding, expertise, and resources to enhance education quality by collaborating with private companies. This can include initiatives such as providing scholarships, sponsoring infrastructure development, or offering mentorship programs.

It is important to recognize that promoting education is a complex task that requires a multi-faceted approach. By addressing inequality and resource limitations, education systems can become more equitable and provide every individual with the opportunity to thrive academically and personally.

The Future of Education Promotion

As we look towards the future, several emerging trends and opportunities reshape education promotion.

Innovative Teaching Methods

Rapid advancements in technology and pedagogy are transforming teaching and learning. Blended learning, gamification, and personalized learning enable tailored educational experiences. Leveraging emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality has the potential to revolutionize education delivery.

The Impact of Globalization on Education

The interconnected world of globalization provides opportunities and challenges for education promotion. Promoting cross-cultural understanding, multilingualism, and global citizenship is essential in preparing students to thrive in a globalized society. Collaborative initiatives, student exchange programs, and international partnerships expand educational horizons and foster international cooperation.

In conclusion, promoting education requires a multi-faceted approach involving government, communities, and individuals. By understanding the importance of education, implementing effective strategies, involving the community, and addressing challenges, we can create a better future for future generations. As we embrace technology, policy reforms, and global collaborations, education promotion catalyzes positive change, empowering individuals and strengthening societies.

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Schools Are Socially Promoting Students En Masse. What Comes Next?

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It’s becoming increasingly clear that in the face of the COVID-19 crisis, the nation’s school systems will soon engage in a massive, simultaneous act of social promotion, passing students along to the next grade whether or not they have the requisite skills and knowledge. School leaders quite reasonably feel they have no choice but to move in this direction, given the impracticality of retaining in grade substantial numbers of students. Such retention would immediately overwhelm the already maximally stressed capacity of school systems’ staff, budgets, and space.

Understandable though this mass social promotion may be, it’s time to start thinking strategically about the implications of such a move. How will educators meet the widely disparate learning challenges faced by their students this fall?

We know that the coronavirus-induced school closings have already exacerbated academic and social inequities. The disadvantaged have been further harmed by disparities in access to all forms of support, especially high-quality online learning. Those families with social and financial capital have had a much easier time of riding out the crisis and a much higher probability of having access to the tools and opportunities that enable out-of-school enrichment and learning.

Next fall should mark the beginning of the end of the 'one size fits all' approach to schooling."

Educators must take action. Next fall should mark the beginning of the end of the “one size fits all” approach to schooling—whether schooling is conducted in person or remotely. To get students back on track, educators will need to meet them where they are and give them what they need, customizing an education strategy for each child designed to get that child to “success.” While schools will be facing a host of operational, health, and financial challenges next fall, the first order of academic business must be some form of diagnostic assessment, not for any accountability purposes but to determine the particular academic and social-emotional needs of each student.

“Success planning” starts with creating a running record of each child’s needs followed by the intentional development of an actual plan that is designed by educators after consultation with families. Sound familiar? Schools have been required to take this approach, called individualized education programs, or IEPs, for decades to meet the legal requirements for serving children with special needs.

But we know all children have special, unique needs. While we should avoid the bureaucratic and adversarial pitfalls of the IEP process, it’s high time we started customizing education to meet the needs of all our students, especially in this time of crisis. A shift to a new paradigm of personalized education not only makes common sense, it’s essential to address the current challenge. In a recent Harvard Graduate School of Education interview, former U.S. Secretary of Education John King Jr. told me, “If we want to avoid a lost generation of kids, we need to make that shift.”

How do we get all children to meet a high standard of academic mastery if we don’t take account of their current strengths and weaknesses and provide them with targeted learning opportunities and supports? How can we address the particular challenges that students with disabilities, English-language learners, and those living in poverty have faced during this crisis? Treating all students the same or teaching to the “average” has proved ineffective.

Personalization is what we do in medicine: differentiate the needs of patients and tailor prescriptions to meet their needs and achieve the goal of good health. Business has long adopted strategies of customization and niche marketing to satisfy the needs of customers. Our most elite schools do this implicitly by reducing class size to the point that every student is known and cared for in a systemic way.

Public schools, however, have generally proved unable to shift the paradigm from the factory model—batch processing of students—to the more targeted strategy of customization. There are all kinds of reasons for this resistance, including underfunding and lack of resources, the day-care function of schools, inertia, and misconceptions that confuse equality with equity. While the resistance to the obvious need to differentiate our students and customize our approach to them is formidable, this crisis may provide the opportunity for a bold paradigm shift in education. But it will take visionary leadership, financial resources, public engagement, capacity building, and effective strategy to overcome these barriers.

At Harvard’s Education Redesign Lab , we’ve been exploring the idea of personalized student success plans for several years. These plans are both a diagnostic tool that captures students’ academic progress, interests, strengths, and nonacademic needs and a concrete plan for action that must happen inside and outside of school.

Most schools already have foundational structures and processes to enable a shift to success planning, including individualized education programs and multitiered systems of support that offer a framework for identifying differing levels of need and intervention. For example, 44 states and the District of Columbia either require or encourage the use of individualized learning plans to help students identify and reach postsecondary academic goals.

Despite these precedents, there are many complex challenges in a shift to success planning—among them capacity issues (who takes responsibility for all the work involved) and privacy (who develops a plan and who has access to it)—and yet these obstacles can be surmounted. School and district leaders will need a clear vision; a plan for engaging key constituents; a thoughtfully sequenced, gradual implementation process; and lots of professional-development opportunities for teachers whose roles will be enhanced.

In the end, a shift to customization can create a system where each child has a comprehensive, running educational success record and the opportunities and supports to fulfill their potential. This is the pathway to equity. By shifting to a personalized-success paradigm, educators can make the most of this potentially evolutionary moment in educational history.

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UNESCO’s action in education

Education is everyone’s right throughout life.

Education is a basic human right and a global public good with the power to transform individual lives, communities and the planet for the better over generations. UNESCO’s Education Sector provides global and regional leadership to ensure every child, youth and adult has access to quality education throughout life while keeping two priorities, Africa and gender , in focus.

Since its founding in 1945, in the aftermath of World War II, UNESCO’s education programme has evolved to match new global challenges including the existential threat of global warming, conflict, protracted crises and the accelerated digital revolution.

Education is a public good, it is delicate, it is fragile, but it is the best possible investment we can make.

Our mission

Rallying the world around the future of education.

UNESCO has the power to catalyze transformation in education by bringing together stakeholders around the ambitious Education 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda , and in particular, the targets set by Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4). The Organization works to implement, coordinate, finance and review this education agenda - globally, regionally and nationally - to guarantee everyone has the same educational opportunity. It uses its convening power to launch events such as the Transforming Education Pre-Summit (TES) in June 2022, which brought 154 ministers and around 2,000 participants together at UNESCO Headquarters to forge new approaches to education after the COVID-19 crisis, address the toughest bottlenecks to achieving SDG 4 and inspire young people to lead a global movement for education.

The pandemic, the worst disruption to education in history, which affected the learning of 1.6 billion children and youth and deepened existing learning inequalities, has served as warning and wake-up call for urgent change and innovation, the impetus for the UN’s Transforming Education Summit in September 2022.

Our work: Reimagining, reshaping, rebuilding

UNESCO's task is to rethink and reimagine education for a sustainable future. The organization leads and coordinates the Education 2030 agenda through partnerships, monitoring and research. Our experts support countries to develop education systems that provide quality lifelong learning opportunities for all, and empower learners to be creative and responsible global citizens.

• Reimagining education

UNESCO anticipates and responds to emerging trends and needs in education, as seen in its ground-breaking Futures of Education report , a global initiative to rethink how learning can shape the future of humanity and the planet.

• Designing policies

UNESCO works with countries to design, implement and share successful education policies, plans and best practices based on data collection, monitoring and dialogue with national authorities.

• Standard-setting

UNESCO develops and monitors legal frameworks and normative instruments to ensure the right to education. These include the Convention against discrimination in education , the recent landmark Global Convention on the recognition of qualifications in higher education and an online monitor, Her Atlas , measuring the status of national legal frameworks related to girls’ and women’s education.

• Catalyzing for international cooperation

UNESCO uses its convening power for international cooperation by promoting dialogue, exchange and partnership among the global education community, including civil society and youth. This includes global conferences exploring areas such as early childhood care and education (2022), higher education (2022), adult learning (2022) and education for sustainable development (2021) that set the agenda for the decade ahead.

• Capacity-building

UNESCO provides technical advice and support to develop the institutional and human capacity of countries to achieve their education goals. This includes training of education practitioners and officers in multiple fields, including educational planning, curriculum design, data collection and distance learning.

Our challenges

two thirds of them women

allocate less than 4%of their GDP to education

are affected by crises globally

don’t mention climate change

must be recruited to achieve universal primary and secondary education by 2030

are out of school globally

complete lower secondary school

to get the world on track to achieve SDG 4 by 2030

Our key achievements include

UNESCO coordinates the international community to achieve the targets of the education goal SDG 4

Established by UNESCO, this multi-sector group works to protect education threatened by the pandemic from response to recovery

UNESCO’s flagship publication tracks the educational achievements of countries and the international community through annual themed reports

A UNESCO initiative reimagines a new future for education including the publication ’Towards the Futures: A new social contract for education’

Education transforms lives

Education transforms lives every day and in every corner of society. This video explores the power of education and UNESCO’s role in leading and coordinating the Education 2030 Agenda, which is part of a global movement to eradicate poverty through 17 Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. Education is the right of every woman, man and child. Together, we’re shaping the global citizens of tomorrow, empowered on the path of education to build a more sustainable future.

Education changes lives

Read how learning impact life

“Girls must believe in themselves and stop thinking that science is only for boys”

Angel , 17, a student at Ngweli secondary school in Sengerema, United Republic of Tanzania, has made dramatic improvement in physics thanks to her teachers being trained in gender sensitivity as part of the UNESCO, UNFPA, UN Women Joint Programme. Tanzania has one of the lowest rates of secondary education enrolment in Africa at 32 per cent. Read more .

“I grew up in a modest family and married at the age of 15, so I could not finish school. But I was able to continue my studies at a UNESCO learning centre”

Isabel Aracely Tzoy Tzoc , an adult learner in Guatemala, gave up schooling when she married at 15 and suffered domestic abuse. At the UNESCO Malala Centre she was able to reintegrate in secondary level studies and through personal development workshops achieve a life free of violence. She hopes to become a doctor. Read more . 

“After receiving the civil engineering diploma, I became interested in business management. I applied for a UNESCO scholarship and was accepted. Today, I have my own café”

Syrian refugee Saif Al-Sharaa was able to pick up his studies again in Jordan thanks to UNESCO’s technical and vocational education and training programme for vulnerable young Jordanians and Syrian refugees. After a scholarship and business management course he now owns the café where he worked as a student. Read more .

Brilliant work rewarded

UNESCO’s education prizes reward brilliant and innovative projects which work to achieve quality education for all while shining a light on critical themes.

• UNESCO Prize for Girls’ and Women’s Education
• UNESCO-Japan Prize on Education for Sustainable Development
• UNESCO-Hamdan Prize for Teacher Development
• UNESCO King Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa Prize for the use of ICTs in Education
• UNESCO Literacy Prizes: the UNESCO King Sejong Literacy Prize and the UNESCO Confucius Prize for Literacy

Our resources

Unesco and education: a photo history.

Let us take you on a visual journey through UNESCO’s work in education since 1945. We have selected 80 photos to illustrate the scale and diversity of UNESCO’s education programme across the globe.

• Explore the full photo selection in video
• Check out the photo gallery
• The photo selection is also available in a publication format

Related items

• Guidelines and tools
• Norms ＆ Standards
• Programme implementation
• Sharing knowledge
• Girls education
• Access to education
• Adult education
• Capacity development for education
• Civic education
• Health education
• Educational management
• Educational technology
• Inclusive education
• Early childhood education
• Technical and vocational education
• Educational policy
• SDG: SDG 4 - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
• See more add

Education Access and Quality

Goal: increase educational opportunities and help children and adolescents do well in school..

People with higher levels of education are more likely to be healthier and live longer. Healthy People 2030 focuses on providing high-quality educational opportunities for children and adolescents — and on helping them do well in school.

Children from low-income families, children with disabilities, and children who routinely experience forms of social discrimination — like bullying —  are more likely to struggle with math and reading. They’re also less likely to graduate from high school or go to college. This means they’re less likely to get safe, high-paying jobs and more likely to have health problems like heart disease, diabetes, and depression.

In addition, some children live in places with poorly performing schools, and many families can’t afford to send their children to college. The stress of living in poverty can also affect children’s brain development, making it harder for them to do well in school. Interventions to help children and adolescents do well in school and help families pay for college can have long-term health benefits.

Objective Status

Learn more about objective types

Related Objectives

The following is a sample of objectives related to this topic. Some objectives may include population data.

• Adolescents

People with Disabilities

Other topics you may be interested in.

• People With Disabilities

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• Progress towards quality education was already slower than required before the pandemic, but COVID-19 has had devastating impacts on education, causing learning losses in four out of five of the 104 countries studied.

Without additional measures, an estimated 84 million children and young people will stay out of school by 2030 and approximately 300 million students will lack the basic numeracy and literacy skills necessary for success in life.

In addition to free primary and secondary schooling for all boys and girls by 2030, the aim is to provide equal access to affordable vocational training, eliminate gender and wealth disparities, and achieve universal access to quality higher education.

Education is the key that will allow many other Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to be achieved. When people are able to get quality education they can break from the cycle of poverty.

Education helps to reduce inequalities and to reach gender equality. It also empowers people everywhere to live more healthy and sustainable lives. Education is also crucial to fostering tolerance between people and contributes to more peaceful societies.

• To deliver on Goal 4, education financing must become a national investment priority. Furthermore, measures such as making education free and compulsory, increasing the number of teachers, improving basic school infrastructure and embracing digital transformation are essential.

What progress have we made so far?

While progress has been made towards the 2030 education targets set by the United Nations, continued efforts are required to address persistent challenges and ensure that quality education is accessible to all, leaving no one behind.

Between 2015 and 2021, there was an increase in worldwide primary school completion, lower secondary completion, and upper secondary completion. Nevertheless, the progress made during this period was notably slower compared to the 15 years prior.

What challenges remain?

According to national education targets, the percentage of students attaining basic reading skills by the end of primary school is projected to rise from 51 per cent in 2015 to 67 per cent by 2030. However, an estimated 300 million children and young people will still lack basic numeracy and literacy skills by 2030.

Economic constraints, coupled with issues of learning outcomes and dropout rates, persist in marginalized areas, underscoring the need for continued global commitment to ensuring inclusive and equitable education for all. Low levels of information and communications technology (ICT) skills are also a major barrier to achieving universal and meaningful connectivity.

Where are people struggling the most to have access to education?

Sub-Saharan Africa faces the biggest challenges in providing schools with basic resources. The situation is extreme at the primary and lower secondary levels, where less than one-half of schools in sub-Saharan Africa have access to drinking water, electricity, computers and the Internet.

Inequalities will also worsen unless the digital divide – the gap between under-connected and highly digitalized countries – is not addressed .

Are there groups that have more difficult access to education?

Yes, women and girls are one of these groups. About 40 per cent of countries have not achieved gender parity in primary education. These disadvantages in education also translate into lack of access to skills and limited opportunities in the labour market for young women.

What can we do?  

Ask our governments to place education as a priority in both policy and practice. Lobby our governments to make firm commitments to provide free primary school education to all, including vulnerable or marginalized groups.

Facts and figures

Goal 4 targets.

• Without additional measures, only one in six countries will achieve the universal secondary school completion target by 2030, an estimated 84 million children and young people will still be out of school, and approximately 300 million students will lack the basic numeracy and literacy skills necessary for success in life.
• To achieve national Goal 4 benchmarks, which are reduced in ambition compared with the original Goal 4 targets, 79 low- and lower-middle- income countries still face an average annual financing gap of $97 billion.

Source: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023

4.1  By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes

4.2  By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education

4.3  By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university

4.4  By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship

4.5  By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations

4.6  By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy

4.7  By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development

4.A  Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provide safe, nonviolent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all

4.B  By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries

4.C  By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing states

UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UN Children’s Fund

UN Development Programme

Global Education First Initiative

UN Population Fund: Comprehensive sexuality education

UN Office of the Secretary General’s Envoy on Youth

Fast Facts: Quality Education

Infographic: Quality Education

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The Promotion of Education

A critical cultural social marketing approach.

• © 2019
• Valerie Harwood 0 ,
• Nyssa Murray 1

Sydney School of Education and Social Work, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

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• Introduces the concept of critical cultural social marketing, an approach that builds on the discipline of social marketing
• Uses examples from Lead My Learning, an education promotion campaign using this particular marketing approach
• Discusses how the understanding the effects of difficult experiences with schools ss crucial to the overall promotion of education

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Table of contents (8 chapters)

Front matter, involving the critical and the cultural in promoting education.

Valerie Harwood, Nyssa Murray

Appreciating, Understanding and Respecting the Cultural and Social Contexts of Learning

A critical cultural approach to social marketing, engaging a critical and cultural emphasis to create a campaign that promotes education, the lead my learning campaign, describing the critical cultural social marketing approach used in the lead my learning campaign, analysing and reviewing the critical cultural social marketing approach used in lead my learning, back matter.

• Critical Cultural Social Marketing
• Widening participation
• Access to education
• Engagement in learning
• Educational Futures
• Education and community
• Retention in higher education
• Disenfranchised from education

About this book

Authors and affiliations, about the authors, bibliographic information.

Book Title : The Promotion of Education

Book Subtitle : A Critical Cultural Social Marketing Approach

Authors : Valerie Harwood, Nyssa Murray

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25300-4

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Education , Education (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-25302-8 Published: 15 November 2019

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-25300-4 Published: 02 November 2019

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XVII, 310

Number of Illustrations : 1 b/w illustrations, 13 illustrations in colour

Topics : Popular Science in Education , Sociology of Education , Higher Education , Sociology of Education , Consumer Behavior

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How-To Geek

How to get apple's education discount on a mac or ipad.

Apple offers special education pricing for Macs and iPads. Homeschool teachers, college students, and faculty can take advantage of it. Here's how.

Quick Links

Who is apple's education discount for, how do you get apple education pricing, how much do you save, what are the limits, how do you prove you're eligible, why you shouldn't abuse apple's education pricing, what about apple education pricing outside of the united states.

Are you a homeschool teacher, college student, parent of a college student, K-12 teacher, or faculty member? If so, Apple offers discounted Education Pricing on Macs and iPads. Here's how to save some cash on your Apple hardware purchase.

According to Apple's sales terms , the following people are eligible to take advantage of the education discount in the USA:

• Homeschool teachers teaching K-12 students.
• K-12 teachers and other employees of K-12 institutions. Even school board members are eligible.
• Students at higher education institutions, including students who have been accepted to a college or university but aren't yet attending.
• Parents of higher education students provided that they're purchasing the hardware on behalf of their child.
• Faculty and staff at higher education institutions.

Apple says that these products are not for resale.

Here's the best part: Getting Apple's education discount is actually pretty simple. You just have to go to the right place on Apple's website.

To start shopping, head to Apple's Education Store website. Choose the products that you want to buy, check out, and buy them. It's that simple.

But how much money can you save with the Education Store? Well, as of Nov. 27, 2020, the discounts are as follows:

• MacBook Air : $899 on the Education Store vs. $999 normally ( save $100 )
• MacBook Pro : $1,199 on the Education Store vs. $1,299 normally ( save $100 )
• Mac mini : $679 on the Education Store vs. $699 normally ( save $20 )
• iMac : $1,049 on the Education Store vs. $1,099 normally ( save $50 )
• iMac Pro : $4,599 on the Education Store vs. $4,999 normally ( save $400 )
• Mac Pro : $5,599 on the Education Store vs. $5,999 normally ( save $400 )
• Pro Display XDR : $4,599 on the Education Store vs. $4,999 normally ( save $400 )
• iPad Pro : $749 on the Education Store vs. $799 normally ( save $50 )
• iPad Air : $549 on the Education Store vs. $599 normally ( save $50 )
• iPad : $309 on the Education Store vs. $329 normally ( save $20 )
• iPad mini : $379 on the Education Store vs. $399 normally ( save $20 )

Your savings will vary depending on the model you choose. For example, on some more expensive iMac models, you can save $100 instead of $50.

Of course, the products and discounts available may vary over time.

There are limits on how much you can buy from the Education Store. According to Apple's terms, each individual has the following purchase limits as of November 2020:

• Desktop : one per year
• Mac mini : one per year
• MacBook : one per year
• iPad : three per year

The limits reset each academic school year.

In the U.S., you don't actually have to provide proof of your eligibility at the time of purchase, although Apple might contact you to request some sort of proof if they judge it necessary.

If you're a student, teacher, or faculty member at an educational institution, you may want to use your email address for that institution to place the order. A .edu email address will make it pretty clear that you're eligible.

While it may sound easy for anyone to get the discount, we highly recommend that you not abuse this system. Don't order from the Education Store unless you're actually eligible.

In its terms, Apple reserves the right to charge your credit card the difference between the normal price of the hardware and the education price you paid. If you don't pay with a credit card, Apple says it reserves the right to invoice you for the difference in price and sue you if you don't pay.

These terms are likely aimed at people who are really abusing this system---for example, resellers who order the maximum number of products every year and sell them elsewhere for cash. However, if you're eligible for the education pricing, don't worry about it.

Apple does offer education pricing in some other countries. If you live in another country, search the web for the "Apple Education Store" in your country. The discounts and eligibility may differ from country to country.

Other countries may require more verification as well. For example, Apple's Education Store in the U.K. requires you to verify your status with UNiDAYS before ordering.

Health Education and Promotion

Mission, Vision and Values

Health Education and Promotion (HEP) uses a health equity lens to foster environments, institutional practices and a campus culture that promote student well-being and academic success . We envision a campus where s tudent health and well-being are intentionally embedded throughout UC Davis. We intentionally center these values in all of our work: e vidence-informed action, social justice, student-centricity, collaboration, trauma-Informed practice.  Come visit our office for free resources such as safer sex products, Narcan, fentanyl testing strips and helmets!

Subscribe to Our Newsletter

We primarily focus on the following content areas: 

• Sexual Well-Being
• Mental Health
• Alcohol, Tobacco and Other Drugs Risk Reduction

Supportive Campus Environments

Our major initiatives for each content include:

Love Lab 

The Love Lab  is a mobile cart at the HEP office stocked with external condoms, internal condoms, dental dams, water-based lubricant and silicone-based lubricant available to UC Davis students at no charge. It also provides pads and tampons, in addition to educational materials, buttons and stickers. The "Love Lab" also serves as the brand for many sexual well-being initiatives and the Love Lab instagram .

Love Lab Instagram

Safe Party 

The Safe Party initiative was created to give judgement free information about booze, drugs and more. The Safe Party website is equipped with information for party-goers and party throwers about all things alcohol, tobacco and other drugs. You can also follow the Safe Party Instagram for tips and resources about safe partying.

Safe Party Instagram

Aggie Mental Health 

Aggie Mental Health is a campus-wide mental health campaign supporting student mental health and well-being. This campaign is a collaboration between HEP and the Aggie Mental Health Ambassador program. Visit the Aggie Mental Health website for help navigating all of campus's mental health resources, including Counseling Services. You can also follow the Aggie Mental Health Instagram for up to date information about mental health resources on campus. 

Aggie Mental Health Instagram

There is an undeniable link between campus environments and the students who live in them. The spaces where a student sleeps, eats, learns, and connects all influence their capacity to flourish. We must create campus environments that support students, rather than ones which create barriers to and hinder their well-being. A few major initiatives in this content area include Helmet Hair, Don't Care ; Decline to Weigh at SHCS ; and Thriving in Graduate School . 

Teaching Kitchen

The Teaching Kitchen is a program for students that offers free cooking demonstrations with curriculum that emphasizes nutrition and culinary education, and skill building. All cooking demonstrations are designed with the busy student in mind. The demonstrations provide food preparation and cooking skills, nutrition education and meal suggestions to inspire even the busiest student to cook! You can follow the Teaching Kitchen Instagram  for cooking tips and event announcements. 

Teaching Kitchen Instagram

• ACHA Connect
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Health Education/Health Promotion

Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health. It moves beyond a focus on individual behavior towards a wide range of social and environmental interventions. (Source: World Health Organization ) At colleges and universities, health promotion serves the core mission of higher education by supporting students and creating healthy learning environments.

This page is an index of ACHA and other resources on this topic. Resources include association projects, programs, publications, guidelines, and more. Additional information may be available under “External Resources.”

ACHA Resources

Health Promotion Section   [members only] The ACHA Health Promotion Section provides networking opportunities, resources, and support to members in the health promotion field.

Faculty and Staff Health and Wellness Coalition The purpose of the ACHA Faculty and Staff Health and Wellness coalition is: to encourage the inclusion of the campus community as a whole in college health efforts in order to build healthy environments that optimize learning; to provide a mechanism for the exchange of information, resources, and research-based best practices to address the health and wellness of faculty and staff on campus; and to provide continuing education and professional development across ACHA.

ACHA Faculty and Staff Health and Wellness Survey 2012 The ACHA Faculty and Staff Health and Wellness Coalition conducted this survey to collect data about faculty and staff health promotion and wellness programs on ACHA member campuses. The data collected provides valuable information about these programs and assists the coalition in assessing the scope and extent of educational efforts to address the health and wellness of faculty and staff on campus.

• The Current State of Faculty and Staff Health and Wellness Programs: Results from an ACHA Survey [pdf]

ACHA Guidelines for Hiring Health Promotion Professionals in Higher Education [pdf] This document provides support and guidance in hiring well-qualified health promotion professionals who can provide effective programs and services within our institutions of higher education.

Standards of Practice for Health Promotion in Higher Education [pdf] These ACHA Guidelines provide measurable guidelines for enhancing the quality of health promotion programs in colleges and universities.

Student Learning Outcomes Results of the ACHA Fall 2010 survey, background information, definitions, examples of SLOs, and resources.

Vision Into Action This companion to the ACHA  Standards of Practice for Health Promotion in Higher Education, Third Edition includes tools, strategies, and action steps to assist health promotion professionals, supervisors, senior administrators, and others in translating the standards to practice.

ACHA Programs

ACHA's Healthy Campus provides a framework for improving the overall health status on campuses nationwide. Healthy Campus includes national health objectives for students and faculty/staff; promotes an action model using an ecological approach; and provides a toolkit for implementation based on the MAP-IT (Mobilize, Assess, Plan, Implement and Track) framework. These tools and resources will help institutions of higher education determine which objectives are relevant, achievable, and a priority on your campus.

External Resources

ACHA thanks its committee, coalition, task force, and section volunteers for providing resources and links concerning this topic.  ACHA does not endorse or accept responsibility for the content or use of external websites .

Coalition of National Health Education Organizations (CNHEO)

American Association for Health Education (AAHE)

American School Health Association (ASHA)

Coalition of National Health Education Organizations

The College Health Promotion List The College Health Promotion List (Hlthprom) provides a forum for the exchange of information among professionals providing health promotion and prevention services at colleges/universities. To join HLTHPROM, fill in the form on this page:  https://lists.wisc.edu/read/all_forums/subscribe?name=hlthprom

Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education  (CAS) CAS has been the pre-eminent force for promoting standards in student affairs, student services, and student development programs since its inception in 1979. The  CAS Professional Standards for Higher Education (7th edition)  is available at the CAS website.

CAS Standards: Health Promotion Services   [members only]

The Directors of Health Promotion and Education   Formerly known as the Association of State and Territorial Directors of Health Promotion and Public Health Education, ASTDHPPHE, this organization is a joint effort between directors of health education in state health departments, deans of health education in schools of public health, and the Director of Health with the U.S. Public Health Service.

National Commission for Health Education Credentialing, Inc.

National Social Norms Institute

National Wellness Institute Okanagan Charter This resource is the outcome of the 2015 International Conference on Health Promoting Universities and Colleges. The Charter serves as a call to action for institutions of higher education to create healthier campuses and healthier communities.

Society for Public Health Education (SOPHE)

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• Commenting Platform

Chapter 19 – How Can Education Promote Social Progress?

Coordinating Lead Authors : [1] Christiane Spiel, Rob Reich

Lead Authors : [2] Marius Busemeyer, Nico Cloete, Gili Drori, Lorenz Lassnigg, Barbara Schober, Simon Schwartzman, Michele Schweisfurth, Suman Verma

Contributing Authors : [3] Bilal Bakarat

Word count: 20,411

Abstract : [Abstract 200 words]

There are many reasons to believe that increased educational opportunity and achievement lead to social progress. The aim of this chapter is to examine how educatıon can promote social progress. Answering this question is not straightforward. Education has multiple aims, and the way in which education is provided – educational governance, educational institutions, educators, curriculum, and pedagogy – all matter a great deal. We cover each of these topics in this chapter, looking at trends across the globe and seeking ascertain what scholars know about better and worse forms of educational provision.

To understand the connection between education and social progress, we distinguish among four distinct aims of education: economic , civic , humanistic , and equity promotion .

Each of these goals can be understood from an individual and collective perspective.

• Education develops productive skills, and this is valuable for the individual, to advance in the labor market and for society, to improve and maintain prosperity and compete in a globalized economy.
• Education develops civic skills, and this is valuable for the individual, to allow for meaningful participation in civil society and political life, and for society, to benefit from an informed and engaged citizenship.
• Education develops human talents and interests, and this is valuable for the individual, allowing for personal flourishing, and for society, since the expansion of knowledge and human achievement are valuable for their own sake. 
• Education can be a vehicle for equity and greater social inclusion, or when absent, poorly delivered or unfairly distributed, a vehicle for injustice and greater social exclusion.

These distinct purposes of education connect in multiple ways to the definition of social progress provided in chapter 2. Some of these connections are obvious. The basic values of human progress include well-being, freedom, solidarity, social relations, esteem and recognition, and cultural goods. The humanistic purpose – developing human talents and interests – facilitates well-being (some might say actually constitutes well-being), cultivates capacities essential to freedom, promotes esteem and recognition, and contributes to cultural goods. The civic purpose – developing civic skills and dispositions – help establish the basis of social relations, develop bonds of solidarity among citizens, and encourage esteem and recognition. And insofar as education is a vehicle for equity and social inclusion, it is an essential mechanism for nearly every value on the list.

Overall, education is about the unleashing of human capabilities: economic, civic, and humanistic. When education is successful, it enables individuals not merely to exercise their agency in participating in economic, civic, and humanistic activity but also to shape or re-shape economic, civic, and humanistic life. When we think about the relationship between education and justice, we reach two additional conclusions. First, justice demands that every individual be afforded equitable educational opportunities. Second, the provision of educational opportunity, across all four goals, is essential to social progress and the advancement of justice. This includes access to education, experiences within it, and outcomes from it.

In the first part of the chapter, we present a broad view of education in the world today, showing how formal education has expanded in the last decades, and emphasizing how it relates to citizenship, growing opportunities for social mobility, economic development and equity. We take stock of what has been achieved and is still to be done to improve access to quality education in the poorer parts of the word, through the Sustainable Developed Goals fostered by global community, which is mostly concerned with initial and mandatory education; and take a closer look at the special roles played by vocational and tertiary education.  Each of these dimensions are subject to controversies, which we try to take into account, while emphasis the overall positive effects of education for social progress.

The crucial role education can play in promoting social progress obviously depends on the governance of education, on educational institutions and educators, as well as on the content and pedagogy of education. Consequently, it is necessary to consider at least three levels of effects, which are strongly interconnected: the level of concrete instruction in class (microlevel). Educators are the main actors at this level; the level of institutions (schools, pre-schools, kindergartens, universities, etc.; the mesolevel). Here principals have a substantial influence; and the level of the educational system (the macrolevel). Educational policymakers and authorities are the central actors here.

In the second part of the chapter we discuss facilitators and barriers to education as a means for social progress in three subsections. The first subsection focuses on governance of education and therefore the macrolevel. Here we discuss how modes of governance affect the potential of education to contribute to social progress. The second subsection targets institutions and educators. That means it focuses the meso- and microlevel. This subsection describes characteristics of successful educational institutions and competencies educators and principals should have to contribute to the four goals of education. The third and final subsection focuses on content of education and pedagogy and targets all three levels. Concretely, it discusses the core curriculum for the 21st century and especially identity formation as an important basic theme in education, as well as two important trends in pedagogy: learner-centred education and the role of technology. All three subsections provide final recommendations. 

A final cautionary note: Education can be studied from a vast array of disciplinary approaches, the issues and priorities for education policies vary enormously among developed and developing societies and social groups, different cultural contexts and philosophical orientations, and are often controversial. This chapter cannot expect account for this enormous variety, nor gloss over the different and opposing views that may exist. It can, however, provide a broad view of the relevance of education for social progress, what has been achieved, what are the pending issues in different contexts, and identify some of the main issues raised by the social sciences to make education more accessible and meaningful for all.

1. Introduction

The twentieth century witnessed a major growth in the provision of educational opportunity across the globe, which is a good thing. Landmark multinational agreements such as the 1948 Declaration of Human Rights and the more recent United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) put forward a right for all children to be educated.

There are many reasons to believe that increased educational opportunity and achievement lead to social progress. The aim of this chapter is to examine how can educatıon promote social progress.

Answering this question is not straightforward. Education has multiple aims, and the way in which education is provided – educational governance, educational institutions and educators, curriculum, and pedagogy – all matter a great deal. We will cover each of these topics in this chapter, looking at trends across the globe and seeking ascertain what scholars know about better and worse forms of educational provision.

To understand the connection between education and social progress, we must first distinguish among four distinct aims of education: economic , civic , humanistic , and equity promotion .

• Education develops civic skills, and this is valuable for the individual, to allow for meaningful participation in civil society and political life,  and for society, to benefit from an informed and engaged citizenship.

The definition of social progress also includes a list of basic principles. Once again, there are multiple connections to the distinct purposes of education. The most obvious connection is the identification of “educating and supporting citizens” as a basic principle. Here education is defended mainly for its essential civic role, preparing children for their participation in political life and in civil society and to assume the responsibilities of citizenship.

Two additional principles are important to mention, basic rights and distributive justice. Various United Nations declarations consider primary and secondary education as a basic right that must be guaranteed to every child. And since educational opportunity is not something that an individual can provide on his or her own, we must consider it within the scope of distributive justice. The task of a theory of distributive justice is to identify what principle or principles should structure the distribution of benefits and burdens in a society and to identify to whom -- what people or class of persons -- these benefits and burdens are to be distributed.  The provision of schooling is a paradigmatic example of a good that is distributed in some manner or another by virtually every society. So to address the question of education as an important dimension of measuring social progress is to explore the question of how it should be distributed to people.

Overall, education is about the unleashing of human capabilities: economic, civic, and humanistic. When education is successful, it enables individuals not merely to exercise their agency in participating in economic, civic, and humanistic activity but also to shape or re-shape economic, civic, and humanistic life. Education for professional skills not merely prepares people for the workforce; it shapes the labor market itself. Education for citizenship not merely prepares people to participate in civic and political life; it enables social participation that shape political institutions. Education for human talents not merely develops the vast domain of human potential; it advances humanity’s storehouse of knowledge and cultural achievement.

When we think about the relationship between education and justice, we reach two additional conclusions.

First, justice demands that every individual be afforded equitable educational opportunities.

Second, the provision of educational opportunity, across all four goals, is essential to social progress and the advancement of justice. This includes access to education, experiences within it, and outcomes from it.

When we observe education across the world today, we see two clear patterns. First, educational opportunity is not everywhere provided to all. Equity is routinely violated. Second, educational policies often weight the economic purpose of schooling with comparatively little attention paid to civic and humanistic aims. Discussion of these observations constitutes the major part of the remainder of this chapter.

The chapter has three further sections. In section 2, we take stock of current conditions and challenges in educational provision and distribution on a global scale. In section 3, we consider facilitators and barriers to education as a means to social progress. We examine here three separate domains: (1) governance of education; (2) institutions and educators; and (3) content and pedagogy. In section 4 we provide our conclusions and recommendations.

2. Current conditions and challenges

In this section, we present a broad view of education in the world today, showing how formal education has expanded in the last decades, and emphasizing how it relates to citizenship, growing opportunities for social mobility, economic development and equity. We take stock of what has been achieved and is still to be done to improve access to quality education in the poorer parts of the word, through the Sustainable Developed Goals fostered by global community, which is mostly concerned with initial and mandatory education; and take a closer look at the special roles played by vocational and tertiary education.  Each of these dimensions are subject to controversies, which we try to take into account, while emphasis the overall positive effects of education for social progress.

2.1 Education and social progress

Culture, "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits" (Tylor 1870) is the most distinctive element of human societies, and in its broadest sense education is the process of facilitating learning or the acquisition of culture. Education takes place informally, starting with the interaction of children with their parents and relatives, but becomes to a large extent formal in complex societies, as it is codified (in primers, manuals, catechisms, handbooks) and provided by specialized institutions (churches, schools, universities, professional guilds, academies) according to specific methods (lecturing, memorization, demonstration, interpretation, collaboration, practice, experimentation).

In most societies, education is a valued asset: more education is expected to enhance specific dimensions of culture (religious beliefs, citizenship, professional skills, humanistic values, critical thinking), fostered by different institutions and sought by individuals and families as a means of achieving or securing social and economic standing and prestige. As the notion of social progress becomes entrenched, more and better education becomes considered one of its main instruments.

The expansion of formal education, which followed the emergence of the nation state and the modern economy, is one of the most visible indicators of social progress. Until the early 19th century, advanced learning was limited to a small elite of priests, bureaucrats and specialists, provided by universities and other prestigious learning centers, usually associated with the churches. The notion that all persons should be able to read the sacred books was part of the Jewish, Christian and Muslim traditions, but was never fully practiced and mostly limited to men (Hanna 2007, Vincent 2000, Gawthrop and Strauss 1984, Botticini and Eckstein 2012). This notion was adapted and spread out by the modern, industrialized Western nation states, and exported to some degree to their colonies and areas of influence. By the end of the 19th Century, the United States, Australia, Canada and New Zealand had already reached universal schooling, followed closely by Northern Europe. In Asia, expansion of primary education started in Japan, followed later by Taiwan, Thailand, Sri Lanka and the Philippines. In Latin American and Africa, it expanded first in areas with strong European immigration, such as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and Southern Brazil, as well as in South Africa and Zimbabwe (Benavot and Riddle 1988).

2.2 Education and citizenship

The initial drive for the expansion of public education in the modern era was a concern for the need to imbue the population with the knowledge, values and habits of citizenship. Thomas Jefferson believed that “If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, it expects what never was and never will be.” In Latin America, Andres Bello and Domingo Sarmiento  established the first public school systems in the 1840s, arguing for the importance of public education for nation building and economic well-being (Jaksic 2006). The role of the schools, as expressed by Émile Durkheim in France, was to make the student to understand his country and his times, to make him feel his responsibilities, to initiate him into life and thus to prepare him to take his part in the collective tasks awaiting him, providing a link between the private life in the family and the public life in society; a fully educated citizen should be disciplined, attached to his social group, and endowed with autonomy and self-determination, provided by rationality (Durkheim 1922, Wesselingh 2002, Nisbet 1965). Sociologists developed the concepts of civic culture, social cohesion, social trust and social capital as key ingredients for the proper functioning of modern democracies and complex economies almond (Almond and Verba 1963, Putnam 2001, 2002, Harrison and Huntington 2000, Lipset 1960). Reactions to the conservative tone of the Durkheimian tradition, in the context of a changing world, led to alternative pedagogical approaches putting more emphasis on critical thinking, communitarian values, and individual liberation and self-determination (Peterson 2011, Biesta, De Bie, and Wildemeersch 2014, Benson, Harkavy, and Puckett 2007, Apple 1996, Freire 1970, Dalton and Welzel 2014).

Whether access to formal schooling actually develops citizenship, or any other goal of education, is an entirely different question. In the 1990s, the International Association for the Evaluation of Education Achievement carried on a comparative survey of civic education in 38 countries, assessing to which extent 14-year-old students gained the knowledge, engagement and attitudes expected from citizenship in a modern society. One of their findings was that "in most countries, young people's views of political parties are relatively negative. In place of giving allegiance to parties and to what many perceive as hierarchical political organizations ruled by an older generation, they are instead gravitating to social movements as the arenas in which good citizenship can be manifested" (Torney-Purta et al. 2001 p. 189); it shows that the role of formal education to shape values and social participation is smaller than most educators would like it to be.

2.3 Expansion and increased access

In the last century, and especially after World War II, access to formal education expanded dramatically. In the same period, governments shifted their priorities from education for citizenship to education for productivity, with great consequence.

In 1950, about 47% of the children aged 5-14 in the world were enrolled in some kind of school. In 2010, 89.1% of the children were, varying from 98.7% in the European Union to 84.2% in the Middle East. Secondary education, which used to be mostly a preparatory stage for the universities, became part of the regular school system, starting with the "high school movement" in the United States and spreading later to Europe and other countries. Worldwide, the number of secondary school students went from 187 to 545 million between 1970 and 1910, a threefold growth, capturing 63% of the relevant age group worldwide. Higher education, once limited to a tiny elite for specialized universities, became a mass phenomenon in the second half of the 20th century, reaching 32 million students worldwide in 1970 and 182 million in 2010. (World Bank 2015, Trow 2000, Schwartzman, Pinheiro, and Pillay 2015, Schofer and Meyer 2005, Goldin and Katz 1997).

This extraordinary expansion of education resulted from a combination of factors. On the supply side, for the modern nation states, public education was considered a tool for social cohesion and citizenship, and a means to develop the human resources necessary for running the state and enhancing the economy. Religious organizations and churches continued to participate strongly in education, sometimes in partnership and sometimes in dispute with the nation states. Business sectors also got involved, either creating their own systems of vocational education or participating in the shaping of education policies.

It was also a response to expanding aspirations. For a growing number of persons, access to education was perceived as a channel for social mobility. More than a tool for access to public and private jobs, education came to be perceived as an individual right, expected to pave the way for other forms of participation, including the benefits of individual choice, good employment and income, as well as social prestige. After World War II, the right to education was enshrined in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and embodied in the work of international organizations such as UNESCO, that not only spread the gospel of expanding education, but also helped the countries to organize their school systems. In 1990 the Jomtien World Conference on Education for All set the target to provide free and compulsory primary education for all children in the world, with the financial and technical support of public and private donors. This was inscribed through UN Millennium Development Goal 2, which aimed to achieve universal completion of a full cycle of primary education by 2015, and by the new Sustainable Development Goal 4, with the headline ‘Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.’ Since the 1990s, different institutions started to implement worldwide assessments of student achievement in language, mathematics and science, with the assumption that, beyond the local languages and cultural traditions, all persons in the world were supposed to acquire the same set of broad cognitive and also non-cognitive competencies, required for full citizenship in modern societies (Spring 2008, Kautz et al. 2014a, OECD 2004, Mullis et al. 2003).

2.4 Education and the economy

As education expanded, the amount of public and private investments in education increased everywhere, reaching now between 4 and 10% of GDP in most countries.

The broad links between education and productivity are clear, but, when education keeps expanding and the economy changes or stagnates, millions of educated persons find themselves without jobs, and uncertain of their places in society. The expansion of education has been much more rapid and intense than the expansion of the economy and the reduction of social inequality, leading to issues in the global north of "over education" or "education surplus", in which persons with formal qualifications cannot find jobs or have to work in activities below their expectations, and countries that invest heavily in the expansion of education without reaping its expected benefits (Hersch 1991). One explanation is that, beyond its value in terms of skills and competencies, formal education is also a "positional good", meaning that individual benefits depend on one's position within the distribution of educational access and attainment, which results in intense pressure and competition for more education and credentials, regardless of the actual requirements or possibilities of the job market (Brighouse and Swift 2006, Brown 2003, Hollis 1982)

Education systems are stratified in terms of the prestige and opportunities provided by different types of schools and universities, and access and achievement are strongly correlated with the social conditions of the students and their families, leading some authors to argue that the main role of education is to reinforce existing social inequalities and the monopolies of social status through the administration of credentials (Bourdieu and Passeron 1970, Collins 1979, Wolf 2002). Even rich economies, such as the United States, cannot eliminate the achievement and opportunity gaps related to race and poverty, and the quality of most education in low income countries is extremely low by international standards, leading to the creation of small segments of highly selective schools for the upper classes (Coleman 1966, Jencks and Phillips 1998).

Economists coined the expression "human capital" to refer to their interpretation of education as a factor of production. Since the pioneering work of Schultz, Becker and Mincer, empirical research has shown again and again that individual investments in education leads to higher income, and that countries that expand and improve the quality of education are more likely to develop their economy (Becker 1973, Schultz 1970, Mincer 1974).  

If education is an economic investment, it should be possible to measure its rate of return, both for individuals and for societies, and use this data to establish priorities in education policies, for instance by comparing the returns of investment in primary, secondary or higher education, as advocated by the World Bank until the 1990s and widely used since then (Leslie 1990, Psacharopoulos 1994). Thus, a recent study found that, across 140 countries, there has been a significant shift in the rate of private (individual) returns to education. Returns to schooling have declined from the early 1980s to post-2011 (from 13% to around 10%) and they ascribe this mainly to the unprecedented increase in schooling (three more years globally). The study also found that, with the exception of high-income economies, primary education has higher returns than secondary education and that tertiary education has the highest returns, in spite of the large increase in the number of students and graduates, with sub-Saharan Africa with the highest rates of return in the world ( (21% vs. 14.6%) (Montenegro and Patrinos 2014).

In spite of its intriguing finds, the use of rates of return for establishing priorities and assessing the quality of investments in education is controversial.  The rates of return are calculated from the wages the individuals get in their life-time, compared with their investments to complete their education. In most countries, education is subsidized with public resources, and the measurement of the social benefits of these are usually calculated as private returns net of public costs. In an extensive discussion of the approach, British sociologist Alison Wolf argues that “wages reflect a great deal more than productivity. The amount paid to different groups and different individuals also depend heavily on the way in which a society is organized overall: how it runs services such as health and education; how much its public and civic culture values equality; how professionals’ fees are regulated” (Wolf 2002).  The Mincer model used to measure rates of return has also been questioned by economists, who have shown that its general assumptions are untenable (Heckman, Lochner, and Todd 2006).

There are important differences in the ways the labor market is organized and relates to the education sector, depending in part on whether the countries have a tradition of market coordination or liberalization, and how they react to the technological changes related to deindustrialization and the expansion of the services sector (Thelen 2007, 2012). In the former Soviet Union, education was tightly linked to the productive sector and unemployment by definition did not exist, but this arrangement proved to be inefficient and did not survive the opening of the economy (Froumin and Kouzminov 2015, Soltys 1997). A usual pattern is for countries to protect the better organized sectors of the market with the legal benefits of job stability and unemployment benefits, while allowing other parts of the labor market to remain unprotected, with low salaries, in the "informal" economy or excluded from the labor market altogether, establishing segmented job markets enforced by legal and sometimes ethnic or social barriers (Carnoy 1978, Wilkinson 2013).   

When the labor market is regulated, it also extends this regulation to education. A classic example is the link between the industrial sector and the apprenticeship system in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and the role played by the medical and legal corporations in defining the numbers, duration, resources and content of education in their respective careers, while other may be left unattended and unfunded (Rosenbaum 2001). In some countries, the regulation and protection of the job and professional markets and of education may be part of a broader political consensus on the values of social equity, implemented by the prevailing political parties; in other, the segmentation of the job market may derive from the political power of specific professional end economic groups.

2.5 Inequality

In its simplest form, inequality in education can be understood by measuring what ‘good education’ and ‘poor education’ are and how this is distributed across the population as a whole. This can then be debated through concepts such as ‘equality of outcomes’ and ‘equality of opportunity’.  Schmidt and McKnight (2012) suggest that “the ultimate test of an educational system is whether it makes sure that every student, whatever their background, is exposed to the content they need to compete in today’s society”. But the very fact of having been admitted to school cannot be taken to represent the same opportunity to all in the classroom, as the burden to compensate for a home disadvantage is then placed on the student. This perspective complements the position that grade attainment (completing more and more grades) will not improve educational outcomes or downstream income earnings if little learning happens per grade. More schooling is therefore not necessarily equal to a better education.

Inequality is impacted by equity in access to distinct forms/types of schooling (public fee-paying, public no fee-paying, self-funded private or grant-funded private schools); by equity in provision in respect to dosage (class size, student-teacher ratios, teaching and learning time, ability to learn at home, language choice, technology, infrastructure); and by equity in quality (teaching standards, pedagogical methodology, materials, curriculum and curriculum coverage). More schooling does not automatically make a better education. Thus, reducing inequality does not necessarily correlate with universal enrolment (more children in schools) but in addressing the real challenge of how to ensure that the access to schools is matched by real learning happening in each classroom. It is therefore not necessarily about equalising resources, but rather concern for the core of schooling; that is, offering instruction in and coverage of academic content by teachers in a way that is meaningful to students. Educational governance, institutions (schools) and educators, curriculum and pedagogy – the concerns of the following section – all matter a great deal. Where students from poor or marginalised communities are exposed to less rigorous content or to a less engaging pedagogical method, the risk of inequality in the opportunity to learn is high. In other words, educational equality of opportunity (in the wide sense) of outcomes is necessary, but not sufficient, for achieving equity.

Some countries have developed highly differentiated systems, with general and vocation and university and non-university institutions, in an effort to respond to the perceived needs of the economy, but also to protect the traditional education institutions from the pressures of mass enrollments.

Piketty (2014) pairs climate change with educational access as two of the greatest challenges to the human race. Ameliorating schooling is even more important than fixing governmental debt: “the more urgent need is to increase our educational capital” (ibid.: 568). Furthermore, he argues that the best way to reduce inequality and increase “the overall growth of the economy is to invest in education” (ibid.: 307-308). To maintain a competitive edge in a rapidly transforming knowledge economy, countries need to invest more in quality education. Not even minimum wage schedules can “multiply wages by factors of five or ten: to achieve that level of progress, education and technology are the decisive factors” (ibid.: 313).

With a clear link between education and high private returns to investment, particularly at the tertiary level, there is a rational assumption – stronger in low-income than in high-income countries – that education in general and higher education in particular is the route out of poverty. For this constituency, the main aim of education is not economic development as such but poverty reduction and social mobility.

Access to tertiary education is regarded by the ‘haves’ as a means to maintaining privilege, and by the ‘have‐nots’ as a means of getting out of poverty. In the 1970s in the US, 10% of students from the lowest income quintile went to university in contrast to 40-50% from quintiles four and five. By 2010, still only 10% of quintile one went to university, but for quintiles four and five the percentage had increased to 80-90%. Higher education in the US has thus become part of the mechanism for maintaining privilege. Piketty points out that in the US, the level of wage inequality results directly from a failure to invest sufficiently in higher education. High tuition at both public and private universities keeps many individuals from receiving the training needed to shrink wage inequality and to make the country more equal and competitive globally. Given such trends, Piketty anticipates that social mobility will decline even further in the future as income increasingly determines access to American higher education.

2.6 The Millennium Goals of Education

For low income countries, where access to minimum levels of education has still not been achieved, the global consensus and targeted support for the Millennium Development Goals established in 2000 by the United Nations meant considerable progress was made, with numbers of out-of-school children dropping from approximately 115 to 57 million between 1999 and 2012. Among all regions, South Asia experienced the most accelerated progress. However, the rate of progress has significantly stagnated since 2007, with virtually no change in the global rate of number of out of school children (OOSC), while the percentage of OOSC in conflict-affected countries has increased. Almost 30% of low-and middle-income countries are off-track to meet goal of universal primary education and more than 20% are off-track to meet goal of gender parity (World Bank, 2012). Those remaining out of school are among the most disadvantaged: children in conflict-affected countries; children with disabilities; and children from the poorest families, where even apparently ‘free’ education comes with opportunity costs. In the majority of countries with data, disparities by wealth in primary school attendance have narrowed – with the greatest gains among children from the poorest quintile. However, in a number of countries, the wealth gap remains large, and disadvantages based on gender, disability and other markers persist. For instance, in West and Central Africa, children of primary school age from the poorest quintile are on average six times more likely to be out of school as those from the richest.  Disparities are also seen in learning outcomes.

Progress was also made toward gender parity in terms of primary school enrolment, with approximately 70% of countries reaching this quantitative goal, but local cultural perspectives on the value of education to girls in some contexts have also led to exclusion.  Providing girls with an education helps break the cycle of poverty: educated women are less likely to marry early; less likely to die in childbirth; more likely to have healthy babies; and more likely to send their children to school. Poverty and other forms of social disadvantage magnify gender disparities. In most sub-Saharan African countries, girls from the poorest households remain most disadvantaged in terms of school participation. The World Development Report on Gender Equality and Development draws attention to the fact that there are still 31 million girls out of school, nearly 4 million “missing” women annually (meaning the number of women in low-and middle-income countries who die relative to their counterparts in high-income countries) and, average wage gaps of 20%, along with gaps in labor force participation. The systematic exclusion of girls and women from school and the labor force translates into a less educated work force, inefficient allocation of labor, lost productivity, and consequently diminished progress in economic development. Children with disabilities are among the most disadvantaged in terms of missing out on education, being “invisible” in the data and being overlooked in responses to OOSC. Children with disabilities aged 6 to 17 years are significantly less likely to be enrolled in school than their peers without disability (UNESCO Institute for Statistics and UNICEF 2015, World Bank 2012)

Additionally, the emphasis on the metrics associated with access rather than the more nebulous issue of quality education has contributed to a ‘learning crisis’, with an estimated 250 million children not learning basic skills, even if they are in school (UNESCO 2014). Data reveal significant gaps in children’s learning performance between the richest households and the poorest. While the learning levels remain low – even among children of primary school age in the richer countries –, children from the richest households are far more likely to achieve minimum learning standards in reading  than those from the poorest households (UNESCO 2015a, b, UNICEF 2015, OECD 2016).

2.7 Vocational education

Vocational education, expected to provide specific competencies for medium and high skilled workers, developed in Europe from a long tradition of professional guilds, expanded with industrialization, reached its zenith in the 1990s, and started to decline in numbers since then. In 1995, 32.6% of the secondary school students in the European Union were enrolled in vocational education; in 2012, only 24.1 did. The percentages in other regions of the world are much smaller: 10% in middle income countries, 6% in lower income countries, 10% worldwide (World Bank 2015). One of the reasons for it limited reach and recent decline is that European vocational education, and more specially the apprenticeship system adopted in German speaking countries, although very successful in developing the skills and providing jobs for the industrial sector, was from the beginning part of a socially stratified education system, with tracking systems through which the children of the working class would be sent to vocational schools to be prepared to work in industry, while the children of the middle and upper classes would go to general education schools with the expectation of getting middle class jobs and entering the universities. As the relative size of the industrial sector diminished and access higher education expanded, opportunities for good quality vocational education were reduced, and most students choose the general education path if they could. Vocational education changed in most places to adapt to the new circumstances, eliminating or postponing tracking to the end of compulsory education, creating paths from vocational to higher education, creating comprehensive schools, expected to combine general and vocational education, and putting more emphasis on general competencies, such as language and mathematics, in vocational schools. The United States never developed a distinctive vocational education sector, but, in practice, provided it to some extent within the high schools and community colleges, as an option for students unwilling or not able to follow the path to full college education. Less developed countries lacked the well-established industrial and business sectors that allowed for good quality vocational education in the richer countries. For them, vocational education remained at best very limited in size, and at worse a kind of second-class education for the poor.

The limitations of vocational education, associated with the dominance of general education and growing aspirations for higher education degrees, raises the issue of how to deal with the large number of students that, in most countries, never acquire the minimum competencies required by compulsory education. A recent study by OECD found that "one in four 15-year-old students in OECD countries have not attained a baseline level of proficiency in at least one of the three core subjects PISA assesses: reading, mathematics and science. In absolute numbers, this means that about 13 million 15-year-old students in the 64 countries and economies that participated in PISA 2012 were low performers in at least one subject; in some countries, more than one in two students were" (OECD 2016, 3). The situation in low income societies is much worse. There are many strategies to make education more attractive, meaningful and accessible for the students, but the fact remains that millions of students, in rich and mostly in low income countries, go through school without learning to read and understand a simple text, to solve a simple arithmetical problem, or to  have a grasp of very simple scientific facts.

2.8 Tertiary education

There is widespread recognition that tertiary education is a major contributor to economic competitiveness in an increasingly knowledge-driven global economy, which has made high-quality tertiary education more important than ever in both industrialised and developing countries (World Bank 2007). As the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD 2008) has pointed out, tertiary education contributes to social and economic development through four major missions:

• The formation of human capital (primarily through teaching)
• The building of knowledge bases (primarily through research and knowledge development)
• The dissemination and use of knowledge (primarily through interactions with knowledge users), and
• The maintenance of knowledge (primarily through inter-generational storage and transmission of knowledge).

Increasingly, tertiary education is also becoming more diversified, including new types of institutions such as polytechnics, university colleges, technological institutes and a plethora of private and distance (e-learning) providers. Facilities such as these have been created for a number of reasons: to develop a closer relationship between tertiary education and the external world, including greater responsiveness to labour-market needs; to enhance social and geographical access to tertiary education; to provide high-level occupational preparation in a more applied and less theoretical way; and to accommodate the growing diversity of qualifications and expectations of school graduates (Pillay 2011).

World Economic Forum (WEF) data measure education participation rates, primary school quality rankings (for secondary education, quality ranking includes maths and science scores), rate of return for tertiary education, and global competitiveness ranking. In its commentary on the relationship between unemployment as an indicator of the status of the country’s economic growth, the WEF report reflects on the complex relationship between unemployment and competitiveness, as well as on the underlying influence of the adequacy of the education system (from primary through secondary to tertiary education) and the efficiency of its labour market. In the most competitive economies, high rankings against most of the human capital-related indicators were observed, even in cases where unemployment had increased. Thus, while weaknesses in these economies may centre on issues such as higher education, the skills gap in the labour market and wage performance, lesser developed economies have weaknesses centred on issues such as health and basic schooling. This may be the case even where the participation rate in primary and secondary education is high but where the quality is low, lessening the efficiency of the labour market in absorbing the youth exiting these systems.

In one of the most comprehensive analyses of the relationship between tertiary education and economic development Bloom, Canning, and Chan (2006) support the idea that expanding tertiary education may promote faster technological catch-up and improve a country’s ability to boost its economic output. Their detailed study of sub-Saharan Africa found that a one-year increase in the tertiary education stock would raise the long-run steady-state level of African GDP per capita by 12.2%. The data suggest that a one-year increase in tertiary education stock may boost incomes by roughly 3% after five years and by 12% eventually. Considering that incomes have been falling in some African countries, such growth would be significant. It strongly suggests that tertiary education plays a recognisable role in promoting economic growth.

Where there are high-cost barriers associated with higher levels of education, and where economic resources are distributed with high inequality, this may contribute to inequality in educational outcomes. The finding that the wage gap between those with higher education and workers with low levels of education has widened in the OECD over the past decade, despite the fact that the wages of the former have stagnated, is because those of the latter group have declined in real terms. More recent evidence has also shown that there is some complementarity between home background and schooling; in other words, that children from higher status families may derive a greater benefit from a given school input.

3. Facilitators and Barriers to education as a means for social progress

The crucial role education can play in promoting social progress obviously depends on the governance of education, on educational institutions and educators, as well as on the content and pedagogy of education. Consequently, it is necessary to consider at least three levels of effects, which are strongly interconnected (Spiel, Reimann, Wagner & Schober, 2008): (A) the level of concrete instruction in class (microlevel). Educators are the main actors at this level; (B) the level of institutions (schools, pre-schools, kindergartens, universities, etc.; the mesolevel). Here principals have a substantial influence; and (C) the level of the educational system (the macrolevel). Educational policymakers and authorities are the central actors here.

In the following facilitators and barriers to education as a means for social progress are discussed in three subsections. The first one focuses on governance of education and therefore the macrolevel. Here we discuss how modes of governance affect the potential of education to contribute to social progress. The second subsection targets institutions and educators. That means it focuses the meso- and microlevel. This subsection describes characteristics of successful educational institutions and competencies educators and principals should have to contribute to the four goals of education. The third and final subsection focuses on content of education and pedagogy and targets all three levels. Concretely, it discusses the core curriculum for the 21st century and especially identity formation as an important basic theme in education, as well as two important trends in pedagogy: learner-centred education and the role of technology. All three subsections provide final recommendations. 

3.1 Governance of education

While education is poised to play a crucial role in promoting social progress, any effective contribution of education very much depends on how exactly educational institutions are designed . On the one hand, education indeed can be, and has been, an effective instrument for social progress by promoting humanistic values, nurturing collective conceptions of democratic citizenship, providing skills with labor market value, as well as supporting educational and social equality if access to education is open and fair. On the other hand, education systems can also become, and historically often have been, instruments to reinforce or magnify socio-economic inequality across generations, to nurture nationalistic and autocratic tendencies by promoting exclusionary or hierarchical conceptions of citizenship, or to fuel labor market stratification by limiting access to higher levels of education. On the whole, the governance of education is the institutional mode designed to direct education by setting its goals and standards, to provide the necessary means for deliverance of education, and to monitor, assess and redraft policy with the aim of harnessing education for social progress.

In the following, we discuss how modes of governance affect the potential of education to contribute to social progress. We describe the complexity of education governance and review core topics in the study of educational governance. We continue by focusing on three broad trends that have dominated the agenda of policy-makers and scholars alike in recent years:

First : decentralization, privatization and marketization of education

Second : the rise of evidence- or research-based policy-making

Third : the ongoing educational expansion, now encompassing adult and further education

3.1.1 Educational governance around the world

The rise of formal education since the middle of the nineteenth century – with regulation of schooling and public policies pertaining to teachers, pupils and schools as well as the continued expansion of upper and post-secondary education  – spurred debates about the governance of education worldwide. Initially in developed countries and since the mid-twentieth century internationally, education emerged as a principal policy and administrative domain for governments, as well as the principal agenda of a fast growing number of intergovernmental- and transnational nongovernmental organizations. As a result, the governance of education grew into a complex array of institutions, often with intersecting and overlapping jurisdictions and responsibilities. The contemporary complexity of education governance is, therefore, both a strong engine and a constraint for the harnessing of education towards social progress: it is both a solid system of policy-making and operations and still an unmanageable maze of public and private, national and international governors. Nevertheless, education is currently formally enshrined in numerous international treaties as a human right guaranteed to all and policies are set – nationally, internationally and transnationally – in accordance with this spirit. And while over time education policies have oscillated between focusing on education’s skilling and economic benefits and its progressive and civic importance, education has been universally recognized as a critical social institution and thus as a major focus for policy-making (Drori 2016).

For instance, in Europe, the Bologna process, which started out as an effort of international coordination in higher education governance, has contributed to the establishment of a transnational governance framework, largely based on voluntary cooperation between governments. This framework both achieves some sort of coordination in higher education policy, such as the introduction of Bachelor and Master degrees throughout Europe and the establishment of common quality management procedures, while also respecting national peculiarities. Furthermore, according to Voegtle et al. (2011), it was largely driven by a process of transnational communication with the goal of joint problem-solving. Hence, it is a good example how complex governance arrangements in the global era are both necessary as well as possible.

This general vision of education has not tamed the vast variation in education governance across countries. The institutional design and capacity of education systems vary dramatically cross-nationally, among levels of government, and between sectors. As a corollary, political conflicts about the institutional design or the governance of education systems are often related to underlying material interests of those affected (Ansell 2010; Busemeyer 2015; Iversen/Stephens 2008). Furthermore, historical conflicts about the design of education systems have strong implications for the governance of education in the contemporary period, because once established, institutions create powerful path dependency effects, which reduce the leeway for large-scale change in the long term (Pierson 1993; Thelen 1999). The feedback effects of established institutions affect strategies, preferences, and power resources of individual and collective actors in the respective systems. The implication is that once political choices for the design of education systems have been made at critical junctures in historical policy development, large-scale change is unlikely thereafter.

This is why there is a huge variation in the governance of education systems nowadays. As already shown above, there is of course a significant cross-national variation in the extent to which different sectors of the education system are developed, which is to a certain extent related to the level of economic development in a given country. Broadly speaking, the higher levels of the education system (upper secondary, post-secondary and tertiary education) develop in line with economic demand and capacities, implying a gradual opening up of access for those formerly excluded. Access to tertiary education in non-democratic or developing economies, in contrast, is often restricted to the offspring of the countries’ elites, exemplifying the ambivalent character of education with regard to the promotion of citizenship and social progress (Stasavage 2005). Ideally, democracy, education and economic development can positively reinforce each other with education promoting both citizenship and economic skills, which promote the further development of democratic structures. These in turn can ensure a continued opening up of access to higher levels of education (Ansell 2008, 2010). And still, there is no deterministic association between the institutional structure of education systems and economic development. In the (post-)industrial democracies of the Western world with similar levels of economic development, there is still a huge variety of institutions.

For instance, countries differ with regard to the degree of institutional stratification in school structures, primarily at the secondary level. In some cases, there is a strong separation between academic and vocational tracks, which is often associated with students being sorted onto these different tracks very early on in their school careers (Germany or Switzerland are good examples for this type of systems). In contrast, in other countries such as Sweden, but also the United States and South Africa, all children from different backgrounds attend the same type of schools, namely comprehensive secondary schools. However, again depending on the exact design of educational governance, the formal equivalence in institutional design can go along with a strong degree of effective segregation: In the United States, the fiscal stance of individual schools (or school districts) very much depends on the wealth of the locality, mirroring existing socio-economic inequalities and thereby creating a clear stratified hierarchy of institutions in the respective educational sectors (Busemeyer 2006).

In general, research has shown that a higher degree of institutional stratification in secondary education is associated with higher levels of educational inequality, exacerbating class biases in access to education (Pfeffer 2008; Hanushek/Wößmann 2006). In other words: A strong separation between academic and vocational tracks in lower and upper secondary education delimits the potential contribution of education to promoting social equity (and progress). However, from a purely economic perspective, the strong separation between academic and vocational tracks might have beneficial effects (Hall/Soskice 2001), because it increases the supply of vocational skills in the economy, which can be beneficial for (some types of) employers. Furthermore, there is empirical evidence that levels of socio-economic , not educational, inequality are lower in countries with extensive vocational training systems (Busemeyer 2015; Estévez-Abe et al. 2001), because vocational training opens up access routes to well-paid and secure employment for those with few academic skills. These examples show that it is necessary to evaluate the effects of educational institutions from different perspectives as these might be very different and partly contradicting, depending on the viewpoint.

Questions of educational governance reach beyond the institutional design of educational institutions as such, including issues related to education financing and spending . First of all, countries differ with regard to how much they invest in education in total and how they distribute funding across the different sectors (Busemeyer 2015). However, there is no apparent association between the total level of investment on education and educational performance (Castles 2013). This is shown quite impressively in the OECD’s PISA studies, which compares educational attainment of 15-year old students in a large sample of rich and middle-income countries from Peru and Vietnam on the one hand to Luxembourg and Switzerland on the other. Even though there is certain association between economic well-being and educational performance with poorer countries clustering in the lower half of the ranking table and richer countries above, there are some notable exceptions: Vietnam, for example, with a GDP per capita of about 2,100 Dollar performs significantly better than Luxembourg with a GDP per capita of about 101,000 Dollar. [4] Hence, in order to promote educational opportunities, it is not sufficient to simply increase spending on education. This, again, points to the crucial role of governance as well as cultural, social and political contexts, because the institutional set-up of education systems determines how available resources are employed, and if they are employed in effective and efficient ways.

In addition to the total level of spending, there is significant cross-national variation in the division of labor between public and private sources of funding (Wolf 2009; Wolf/Zohlnhöfer 2009). Private sources of funding mostly include tuition and school fees, but also contributions from private foundations, employers and individuals. Even though the evidence on the impact of tuition fees on participation in and access to education is somewhat mixed, there are solid indications that high tuition fees effectively block students from low-income backgrounds from participating in (higher) education (Mettler 2014). Furthermore, high levels of private spending can also have feedback effects on citizens’ expectations vis-à-vis the welfare state: When individuals have invested a considerable amount of money in acquiring their education, they are less likely to support high levels of taxation and redistribution, since this would lower their returns on their educational investments (Busemeyer 2013).

In the context of developing countries, private schools (and financing) may play a different role. In a situation, when public schools are failing because of serious governance problems related to mismanagement, corruption and a lack of accountability, private schools may be considered as an attractive alternative, delivering a higher quality of teaching and better learning outcomes at lower costs, as a recent comprehensive report on private schooling in developing countries has shown (Ashley et al. 2014). In the long run, however, the establishment of a private school sector might also promote segregation and inequalities in the developing countries, when access is increasingly tied to parental background and resources. Hence, improving the governance of public institutions should be the prime goal in these contexts.

In addition to institutional stratification and spending, another important dimension in the governance of education is how different stakeholders in the system are included in decision-making (or not). There are several aspects related to this topic. The first is the question of how many different stakeholders are involved in decision-making about educational reforms as well as day-to-day management of education systems (this might be called the horizontal governance dimension). There are some countries, in which decision-making is centralized in the hands of governmental bureaucrats, whereas in others, different stakeholders are involved, e.g. parents and students in the running of local schools as well as representatives of trade unions and employers’ association in the administration of vocational training schemes.

The second aspect is how different competencies for the administration of the education system are distributed across levels of government (the vertical dimension of governance). Again, in some countries, decision-making competencies are concentrated on the national level (e.g. in France) with limited involvement of and autonomy for lower levels of government. In contrast, the financing and administration of education is very decentralized in other countries. In Scandinavian countries, for instance, municipalities have far-reaching competencies for the provision and financing of education. The local level is also important in Anglo-Saxon countries like the US or the UK. In federalist systems, the subnational levels play a crucial role in education policy, although this might often be associated with an actually lower degree of autonomy for the local level, since many competencies are then concentrated on the regional level.

With the onset of globalization, in particular since the mid-twentieth century, new international and transnational interdependencies have emerged with strong implications for educational governance. Education is currently promoted by a transnational advocacy network, which is composed of both intergovernmental- and transnational nongovernmental organizations. This diverse set of organizations, which have proliferated at an exponential rate for decades, has been instrumental in formulating transnational regulation, most notably the Global Campaign for Education and the Education for All agenda, as well as situating education as a pinnacle of the Millennium Development Goals. While intergovernmental organizations affect national education agendas through the activation of inter-state treaties, most other transnational organizations influence education agendas through “soft law” mechanisms, for example by setting standards for education in the form of comparative assessments for achievement (e.g., Kamens and McNeely, 2010; Wiseman, 2010; Meyer and Benavot, 2013). The rise of the private and for-profit transnational education sector further complicates the matrix of global education governance, introducing neo-liberal practices and therefore furthering the turn of public education systems worldwide toward so-called New Public Management models (e.g., Ball, 2012). Overall, this heterogeneous transnational advocacy network of organizations, which constitutes the global governance of education, operates as a diffuse policy regime, drawing legitimacy and authority from its financial and political capacities, the appreciation of expertise, and the geopolitical power of western governmental and nongovernmental actors.

This international and transnational education governance intersects with national and sub-national education policy-making in numerous ways and greatly and influences its trajectory. For one, this global governance regime constitutes what is taken to be “best practices” for education, defining universal standards for curriculum, pedagogy, evaluation and alike. For example, global organizations have imprinted curricula worldwide by introducing discourses of social sciences (Wong, 1991), environmentalism (Bromley, Meyer, and Ramirez, 2011) and human rights (Suárez, 2007) to textbooks in schools worldwide and by promoting programs for girls’ education (Vaughan, 2013) and lifelong learning (Jakobi, 2009). In these ways, the global transnational advocacy network for education formulated curricular, pedagogical and administrative isomorphism, regardless of varying national political cultures or local traditions. Also, this global governance regime is critical for the implementation of education policies worldwide, because it serves as the cadre for consultancy and expertise and as the source for sponsorship of education reforms. Through their evidence-based assessments and policy recommendations, which operationalize educational ideologies, the global governance regime spreads particular education practices and ideas (e.g., Mundy and Menashy, 2014). Overall, world polity, as the formal organizational backbone of world society, drove the rapid institutionalization of universal mass schooling (Boli, Ramirez and Meyer, 1985; Meyer, Ramirez and Soysal, 1992) and of tertiary education (Schofer Meyer, 2005), thus prescribing education agenda, especially in poorer countries with weaker national polities (e.g., McNeely, 1995; Steiner-Khamsi and Stolpe, 2006; Vaughan, 2013). And still, the worldwide isomorphism that resulted from the decades of policy borrowing and lending has nevertheless preserved cross-national differences in education capacities and outcomes (Baker and LeTendre, 2005). 

3.1.2 Recent trends in educational governance and their implications for social progress

The complexity of the global governance regime for education thinly veils the overwhelming thematic coherence of education governance worldwide. In other words, in spite of the heterogeneity within the transnational advocacy network and the rapid growth of the constituents involved in this governance regime, the focus remains on conceiving of education as a means for societal development. This focus drives forwards several worldwide trends in the governance of education. Currently, three main trends are dominant worldwide: systemic mode of decentralization, administrative mode of research-based policy-making, and content mode of emphasis on lifelong learning.

Decentralization, privatization and marketization

The first such broad and worldwide, towards decentralization in the provision of education, is often accompanied and conditioned by a parallel trend towards privatization and marketization (Gingrich 2011). Decentralization of education governance means that competencies for the management, financing, curriculum design and personnel are delegated from the national to lower levels of government, such as subnational and local governments as well as schools themselves. Even though this is a powerful international trend, national contexts, of course, influence how it manifests itself in different countries. In cases such as the US and the United Kingdom, for instance, the governance of education had already been rather than decentralized before the 2000s, but many competencies had been centralized in the hands of “Local Education Authorities” (LEAs) or school districts. Thus, in this context, further decentralization amounts to the delegation of responsibilities down to the level of individual schools, which are independent from the local educational authorities (e.g., Charter Schools in the US or Academies in the British context). In other cases, for instance Germany, decentralization implied the delegation of autonomy to individual schools within existing governance structures, i.e. from the Land level to the school level. In Sweden, far-reaching reforms in the 1990s paved the way for the emergence of “independent schools”, which are run by private providers, though financed with public moneys (Klitgaard 2008). This represents a typical “Swedish” approach to decentralization in the sense that competition between schools is limited by public regulation on admission criteria and financing (Bunar 2010).

In the context of developing countries, we can also witness a similar process of marketization and privatization in the governance of education, but it plays out very differently as it is entangled with the ongoing expansion of educational opportunities, in particular at the level of higher education. In African countries, for instance, the recent wave of expansion in tertiary enrolment went along with a significant expansion of the role of private institutions in higher education (Varghese 2013). Private households were increasingly willing and able to pay for education, but state institutions often lacked the fiscal and administrative capacities to meet this increasing demand both from households as well as employers. Hence, private institutions increasingly played an important role filling this gap. As mentioned above, in the short run, this type of privatization can promote social progress by granting access to education to those who were formerly excluded, but in the long run, a continued failure of public institutions may promote segregation. 

It is difficult to single out one specific driving factor of the trend towards decentralization, but there are several plausible candidates. First, in the Western world, over the course of the 1970s and 1980s, the public (i.e. mostly vocal parents from the middle and upper classes) in many countries became increasingly dissatisfied with the “one size fits all” model of educational governance and demanded a more differentiated and participatory model of governance. Second, central governments may also have developed an interest in offloading some responsibilities to lower levels of government, in particular in times when fiscal and budget constraints became increasingly binding so that unpopular decisions about cutbacks could be delegated to lower levels of governments. Furthermore, the mobilization of private sources of funding in the form of fees or the involvement of private educational providers could partly compensate for the lack of public funding, which may be a more important driving force of privatization and marketization in the developing and middle-income countries, where educational aspirations of the newly affluent middle classes are thwarted by public governance failures. Finally, the professionalization of education management went along with the emergence of New Public Management (NPM) as the dominant paradigm of administrative decision-making. From the perspective of NPM, promoting competition between schools, both within the public system as well as between public and private providers, is believed to increase the overall efficiency of the system.

What are the potential consequences of decentralization with regard to the potential of education to contribute to the social progress? This question is difficult to answer empirically, and it very much depends on the specific implementation of decentralization reforms. In the Western world, there are good reasons to believe that decentralization, privatization and marketization will and does already have negative consequences with regard to social and educational inequality as well as social progress in general. Furthermore, there is little evidence that decentralization has gone along with a significant increase in educational performance so far (Schlicht-Schmälzle et al. 2011). In the developing countries, in contrast, marketization may promote educational expansion in the short run, compensating for the lack of responsiveness on the part of the public education system. In the long run, however, the entrenchment of a private sector may contribute to segregation, as it has done in some rich-world democracies.

A crucial factor in this respect is the extent to which competition between schools and higher education institutions is constrained by public regulations. When a higher degree of institutional autonomy in resource management as well as pedagogical matters is accompanied by a decentralized system of education finance, decentralization can result in a growing heterogeneity between institutions. Wealthy schools would then increasingly be concentrated in wealthy districts, being able to attract better students and better teachers. Elitist private universities could close their doors to aspiring students from lower social backgrounds. Once an institutional regime is established – and in particular, once it has become entangled with housing and residential patterns as well as career choices – it can be very difficult to change politically, because public opposition against redistributing resources away from the wealthy to the poorer districts will be significant as households have adjusted their housing and lifetime financial choices accordingly.

On the positive side, it could be argued that the decentralization in the provision of education allows for a greater involvement of local stakeholders, in particular parents, teachers and students, in designing the pedagogical content of the curriculum. Granting schools more autonomy could also promote the embeddedness of schools in local contexts, nurturing civil society and social capital. Eventually, this might increase the commitment of individuals to “their” school. Also, in today’s diverse societies, a “one size fits all” model of education simply would not be able anymore to cater to the different educational needs and demands. In higher education, decentralization would allow universities to develop individual profiles, building on their respective strengths. In contexts, where the public system is plagued with management problems and governance inefficiencies, private (autonomous) institutions may be more effective and efficient.

The rise of evidence-based policy-making

Second, the governance of education globally and worldwide is turning towards research-based policy-making. Much along the reorientation of policy-making in the fields of healthcare and welfare, education policy-making too is increasingly anchored in methodical study and scientized evidence, which are accepted as providing a solid – namely, professional and value-neutral – basis for decision-making on matters of supervision, control, capacity, efficiency, operations and structure. This research-based governance mode is inspired by cultural trends towards scientization and quantification (see, Drori and Meyer, 2006; Espeland and Sauder, 2007) and expresses a high form of administrative rationalization (Drori, 2006). Applied to education, this research-based mode of governance has primarily introduced practices of assessment of various aspects of education provision (such as education outcomes, also of comparative performance) and of administrative capacity (such as financial and human resources). Globally, most evident is the policy fascination with internationally comparative testing, such as PISA and TIMSS, under the assumption that curricula and student achievements are indeed universal and comparable (Kamens and McNeely, 2010). Indeed, the rise of this international assessment regime has encouraged the diffusion of practices for the assessment of education also at the national and sub-national level, bringing the mode of “governing by numbers” to all world regions (e.g., Grek, 2009) and many countries (e.g., Feniger, Livneh, and Yogev, 2012; Sung and Kang, 2012). Moreover, this impulse for research-based governance furthers the privatization of policy-making: with preliminary research required for each policy initiative, much of this research is subcontracted, or outsourced, to experts and think tanks. Few governmental policy agencies, most notably the intergovernmental OECD, maintain the capacity for the extensive research that is required to substantiate policy-making. Overall, the dramatic growth of international and national educational testing and the dramatic expansion of education assessment practices signal the rise of a rationalized governance regime for education. This governance mode steers education towards administrative-focused regime and is often criticized as diverting attention away from content-specific and context-specific policy-making. 

Continuing educational expansion

Third, whereas global and cross-national education policies focused until the 1980s on mass schooling and, with the advent of the global knowledge economy, also on tertiary education and innovation, the contemporary substantive focus for education governance is on lifelong learning. The orientation towards education as a continuous, and often also self-motivated, learning and skilling is spurred by the rapid changes of the global economy and the labor force. Such changes include the longevity of individuals, which extends the employability of working adults; they also introduce great uncertainty as to the competencies that are required for future gainful and productive employment. These uncertainties, and the “over the horizon” planning that they impose, call not only for promotion of continuous learning but also for change to the content of education. Indeed, contemporary education policies globally and cross-nationally advocate a paradigm shift in pedagogy – towards flexible and non-formal education, towards digital literacy, and towards agentic learners. This global governance regime regarding lifelong “and lifewide” learning is formalized in such intergovernmental initiatives as the 2010 Belém Framework for Action, coordinated by such intergovernmental programs as the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, and advocated by the European coalition of nongovernmentak organizations known as The Lifelong Learning Platform (formerly, EUCIS-LLL). Here too we see evidence for the complexity and heterogeneity of global, international and transnational advocacy networks of organziations, creating a global mode of education governance.

3.1.3 Conclusions and recommendations

Over the course of the globalization of education policy-making, formally since the mid-nineteenth century until today, there is a consistent and unwavering commitment to the vision that education is a means for societal development. Nevertheless, the definition of what accounts for development and of the mechanisms by which education is to contribute to development have varied over time and across polities. In this way we observe a sustained definition of education’s social role and still considerable variety in the operationalization of education’s contribution to development. This tension is expressed clearly in policy documents, which on the one hand proclaims the universal importance of knowledge and learning and the virtues of erudition while, on the other hand, specify particularistic (national, ethnic, or religious) conditions and goals for designing education and for harnessing it towards human wellbeing.

Given the diverse background conditions that different countries are facing, it is difficult to come up with policy recommendations that would hold independent of context. In fact, a first and foremost recommendation would be that in considering and devising governance reforms, policy-makers need to take into institutional, political and social contexts as well as policy legacies and path dependencies. There is no “one size fits all” model of educational governance, which could be transferred from one country to another. A complementary recommendation would be to pay more attention to the cultural foundations of educational governance, which have implications for the effectiveness of how governance works in different countries.

In spite of these considerations, there is certainly a lot of potential to learn from each other: Thus, a second recommendation is to engage in transnational processes of communication, which can be enhanced by input from evidence-based research and the systematic involvement of a diverse set of governmental and non-governmental stakeholders. In order to create lasting and legitimate policy solutions, evidence-based policy-making needs to be connected to processes of societal mobilization and organization. Furthermore, a transnational process of problem-oriented policy learning should respect national (and subnational) diversity in addressing governance problems in education (and beyond), while striving for a common understanding of problems and challenges at the same time.

3.2 Institutions and educators

While section 3.1 focuses the macrolevel, in this section we mainly focus on the two levels considered to be decisive in creating the proximate environment for development and learning: the microlevel and the mesolevel. We summarize central insights gleaned from research on (1) characteristics of educational institutions that facilitate learning and (2) relevant attitudes and competencies of educators (esp. principals and teachers). The section mostly focuses on facilitators of education as means of social progress at the level of institutions and educators, the most relevant barriers are described in the final part.

In line with the four goals of education as means for social progress, educational institutions and educators should contribute to the promotion of …

• …skills, abilities, knowledge and competencies in learners that allow them to be successful with regard to objective standards of achievement and therefore participate in the labor market and workforce (economic),
• ...social responsibility as a basic personal attitude among learners (civic),
• …interest and motivation in learning that goes beyond a purely economic rationale, with learners having the self-efficacy to make this a reality and thus being open for personal development  (humanistic),
• …equal opportunities for all learners, which involves providing support for learners at risk and contributing to a reduction in the influence of factors such as SES that are outside individuals’ control (equity).

The section focuses on key educational objectives/ targets that are assumed to be the fundamental basis of all of the goals mentioned above and apply to all individuals. We are describing the necessary qualities of institutions and competencies of educators from a psychological perspective. This was chosen as the psychological perspective can address basic motivations, attitudes, and competencies that are considered to be universal and decisive for all individuals. Concerning institutions we primarily deal with preschool/kindergarten and school, as they are obligatory or at least key educational institutions in most countries. Additionally, these levels of education have been shown to have a high and sustainable influence on personal and finally societal developments (cf. Campbell et al., 2002, OECD, 2013). As the mission of universities is not purely an educational one, and only a select group of students come into contact with these institutions, we will give them only the occasional mention here.

3.2.1        Characteristics of successful educational institutions

Research on institutional quality typically identifies three broad quality areas, which need to work in tandem with one another if institutional success is to be achieved: process quality (= learners’ direct interactions in the group setting, with the educator, and with the physical environment), structural quality (= the framework surrounding concrete interactions, including characteristics such as group size, student-teacher ratio, teacher qualifications and spatial and material conditions), and quality of orientation (= curriculum, institutional-specific concept, educational approach, staff goals and values). These three quality areas are linked to the three levels discussed above: process quality corresponds with the microlevel, quality of orientation with the mesolevel, and structural quality with the macrolevel. The classification scheme of qualities is primarily used in research on early childhood education (cf. Tietze, Roßbach & Grenner, 2005), but – even if labelled different - can also be found in research on classroom instruction and school effectiveness (cf. Scheerens, 2000). Thus, the three quality areas repeatedly come up when examining the characteristics of effective educational institutions in line with our goals in the following sections. Kindergartens There is a growing body of research recognizing that early childhood education and care brings a wide range of benefits, both social and economic: better child well-being and learning outcomes; more equitable outcomes and a reduction in poverty; increased intergenerational social mobility; greater female labor market participation and gender equality; increased fertility rates; and better social and economic development for society at large (OECD, 2006; Campbell et al., 2002).

Numerous studies conducted in various countries demonstrate that participation in systematic preschool education per se as well as the length of attendance at kindergarten, pre-school etc. are positively correlated with later school success (WENIGE ZITATE Tietze, 2010). The rate of grade retention among children from disadvantaged families and immigrant backgrounds shows a particularly strong reduction.

However, not only the length of attendance matters. In fact the quality these institutions have has an important influence on the outcomes (cf. Britto, Yoshikawa, & Boller, 2011). Here, the quality areas mentioned above are of relevance and have to be viewed considering their interdependency. There is a substantial correlation between process quality and various aspects of structural quality and quality of orientation: For example, process quality and student-educator-ratio are related. As better the ratio as higher the quality. Higher process quality is observed when educators are better paid. But a high level of education of educators seems to represent only a necessary not a sufficient condition for ensuring good process quality. Traditional, less individual-oriented convictions among educators have negative effects on process quality. In sum, good structural conditions create the framework for high pedagogical process quality – making it possible, rather than “determining” it per se. But the relative importance of structural conditions can vary depending on cultural context. While the influence of any single quality aspect is usually rather small; taken together, they form a potent package.

High institutional quality is shown to have consistent short, middle and long term effects. In terms of preschool-aged children (= short term), consistent, supportive effects were found for linguistic-cognitive development. Results concerning social development are mixed. In the medium term (= school age), effects of high-quality preschool education have been found for cognitive, language and math performance, and in general for scholastic abilities. Furthermore, high institutional quality is related to a higher ability to cope with everyday situations. In the long run (= off school age), also positive social and cognitive effects were found e.g., better final school degrees, higher income, lower rates of criminality (Campbell et al., 2002). However, with regard to long-term effects, the quality of the subsequent school plays an important role. If the subsequent school has low quality, the positive effects of high quality preschool education diminish.

All in all, a growing body of research recognizes that early childhood education and care brings a wide range of benefits, including social and economic ones: better child well-being and learning outcomes; more equitable outcomes and reduction of poverty; increased intergenerational social mobility; higher female labour market participation and gender equality; increased fertility rates; and better social and economic development for society at large. Research further shows that quality matters a lot, in particular the everyday process quality. Exposure to high-quality care appears especially important for at-risk children’s later school success. The literature clearly shows that money invested in early childhood development and education yield extraordinary public returns. Governments are increasingly working to assist families and support children. Between 1998 and 2011, public expenditure on young children in the form of childcare and preschool increased 55% on average across OECD countries (OECD, 2016). However, there are large differences in the percentage of their GDP the countries spent on childcare and preschool. Even in the OECD-countries preschool places for very young children are lacking (OECD, 2015). From the two year olds 39% stay in childcare (variation 0 – 95%) from the three your olds 74% (variation 3 – 100) while 88% of the four year olds attending kindergarten (variation 36 – 100%). Furthermore, the quality of childcare, kindergarten, and preschool education is very mixed.  Schools Obviously, the three quality areas (process quality, structural quality, and quality of orientation) are also of high relevance for schools. However, respective research does not focus on these quality areas, but on school effectiveness and quality management. Within this research several parameters for success (concerning the four goals of education) and their working mechanism could be identified (Scheerens, Glas & Thomas, 2003; Bonsen & Bos, 2010): (1) Achievement orientation: High but appropriate expectations for both teachers and students provide a positive stimulus for the school’s pedagogical work. (2) Well-structured learning atmosphere: Students can be r supported better both in advancing their content knowledge and in taking responsibility for themselves and their environment in a learning environment where everybody feels valued and secured. This encompasses a positive school climate among students as well as between students and teachers and among the teaching staff. (3) Professional cooperation among teachers: There should be broad consensus among the teaching staff in terms of pedagogical goals; teachers should work together in formulating goals and in planning and developing their classroom instruction. (4) Pedagogical leadership: The school’s leadership goes beyond purely administrative matters. Rather school principals` responsibilities are: supporting, evaluating and developing teaching quality; goal-setting, assessment and accountability; strategic financial and human resource management; and collaborating with other schools. (5) Quality of the enacted curriculum: Schools have to ensure the alignment between the intended and enacted curriculum. This requires school-level reflection with regard to its pedagogical work. (6) Evaluation focus: Evaluation is considered important, and systematic monitoring of student performance, feedback on instruction and internal as well as external evaluations take place at the institutional level.

Sustainably successful schools need to fulfill all six parameters together as they are highly related. Similar as for kindergarten, most important are parameters contributing to process quality (= instructural quality) as e.g., achievement orientation and well-structured learning atmosphere (Hattie, 2008). However, even in the OECD countries this high level of school quality is only partly realized with high variation across countries. This could be shown on the one hand by such studies as PISA or TIMSS, and on the other hand by studies focusing on school climate. Conclusions The opportunities for implementing these parameters vary internationally and across cultures. Nevertheless, professionalization of educators and educational institutions is needed. This professionalization should explicitly seek to target all four educational goals and take responsibility for achieving them. So far, there is a lack of models that explicitly and cohesively describe necessary competencies for educators, teachers and school principals. One such approach was presented by Schober, Klug, Finsterwald, Wagner and Spiel (2012) and refers to schools in its original form. The same basic idea can easily be broadened to include other educational institutions as kindergartens. The approach will be described in the next subsection.

3.2.2        Competencies of educators and principals 

The approach presented by Schober et al. (2012) proceeds from the assumption that results-oriented, output-oriented, and competency-oriented quality development leads to the optimization of educational institutions as a whole by means of orienting the entire pedagogical process as well as the entire work of the school / educational institution towards improving young people’s learning outcomes. As a guiding maxim for behavior, educators (daycare educators, kindergarten teachers, preschool teachers, school teachers, etc.) and principals (daycare and kindergarten principals, school principals, etc.) should ask themselves what concrete learning goals are being pursued in a given situation, whether these are being achieved – and if not, why not and what needs to be changed in order to achieve them.

Concretely, these competencies are: being able to 1) define (learning) goals; 2) take targeted measures to achieve these goals; 3) measure and assess whether and to what extent goals have been achieved; 4) derive new measures as a consequence of this; 5) initiate and conduct internal evaluations (i.e. effectiveness analyses); and 6) handle and make use of the results of external evaluations. The extent to which these competencies are necessary certainly vary by group of actors (educators vs principals) and by level (e.g., kindergarten vs school). Nevertheless, they are equally valid for all actors regardless of whether they work in schools or in pre-schools, whether they are involved in direct instruction or in leading the institution as a whole. Table 1 in the Appendix specifies these six competencies for result-oriented quality development more in detail.

Comprehensive and fundamental determinants for all six competencies are (a) a fundamentally positive attitude towards evaluation, (b) the willingness to take responsibility, and (c) high self-efficacy and self-worth. R esponsibility means that educators and principals must feel connected to the goals of their institutions and believe that they can be achieved. Taking responsibility, in turn, requires high self-worth and a high self-efficacy . A further (d) fundamental determinant is to view diversity as an opportunity . Differences among individuals in terms of abilities and starting points must be recognized in setting goals and taken into account in designing instruction. This particularly applies to the areas of multiculturalism (cf. Cochran-Smith, Davis & Fries, 2003), gender, special abilities / needs and socio-economic background. Related to this, it is also necessary to explicitly view a much wider range of competencies as resources and a source of student potential, rather than just a few (cf. those that align with the traditional canon of school subjects).

For realizing results-oriented quality development not only the described competencies of educators and principals are necessary, but also appropriate conditions at the mesolevel (= institutions) are needed as described in the subsection before. Furthermore, the macrolevel has to provide respective high professional education for teachers and principals.

3.2.3        Central barriers

Having in mind the described characteristics of successful educational institutions and of the competencies educators and principals should have for results-oriented quality development, several barriers could be brought into discussion. They obviously vary across cultures and countries. In the following we mention four central barriers that are of general relevance.

• Presently a high proportion of children is not attending public education; in particular there is a substantial supply gap in daycare, kindergarten and preschool education. Of course, here is a high variation across continents and cultures.
• High quality of education and professionalization of teachers and principals is not widely established. Again, a large variation across continents and cultures is evident. A further problem arises from the fact that poor teacher education and lacking school and preschool attendance is often combined. Furthermore, even in OECD countries there is a substantial portion of institutions (schools, kindergartens, etc.) that does not fulfill the criteria for success as described above.
• Even in countries where nearly all children are attending public education and teachers are obligatory educated at universities, initiatives and reforms for quality improvement fail as they are not systematically implemented. Implementation is widely understood as the “specific set of activities designed to put into practice an activity or program of known dimensions” (Forman et al., 2013).
• A further general barrier that hinders reforms for results-oriented quality development is that most of the programs, recommendations etc. are formulated on a meta-level lacking concrete advises for action and measures for educators, principals and institutions.

3.2.4        Conclusions and recommendations

The section focuses on characteristics of institutions, educators and principals that contribute to their ability to work towards the four goals enabling social progress rather independently of specific cultural and national contexts. They are expected to put learners in the position to actively participate in shaping their educational careers, gather information and have confidence in their ability to overcome challenges and uncertainty. Learners have to be prepared for overcoming social barriers – both of a personal nature and with regard to society in general.

In the following we provide recommendations for institutions and educators to be facilitators to education as a means for social progress. The recommendations address all three levels mentioned before (macro, meso, micro):

• Given that educational institutions play an important role in social progress, opportunities for participation in them need to be assured – even in early childhood.
• Investment in the quality of institutions and their actors increases the positive effects on various facets of social progress. Thus, all three areas of quality (process, orientation, structural) need to be supported systematically – at all levels of learners’ educational careers. Decisions with regard to structural quality are political decisions (macrolevel) that have corresponding effects on quality of orientation (at the mesolevel of educational institutions) and process quality (at the microlevel, educators).
• The goals of education must be explicitly defined in ways that go beyond economics and the labour market. Educational systems need to be aware of their responsibility for all educational goals (holistic perspective) relevant to facilitating social progress (e.g. in terms of designing curricula; ensuring that institutions attend to all goals; ensuring that basic education is sufficient and defining corresponding minimum standards with relevant criteria; and monitoring a wide range of competencies, not just a few very specific ones)
• Educational institutions and their principals and educators are important factors influencing educational success on the individual, societal and economic level. Policy makers must be aware of this and enhance the professionalization of the educational system.
• Results-oriented quality development processes should be promoted . Here, autonomy and the participation of all actors of an institution are necessary prerequisites for success.
• Being a principal in an educational institution or an educator is a challenging position in society that carries great responsibility. Therefore a high investment should be put in attracting high-potential candidates for these positions and in high-quality training for principals and educators (beginning with educators in preschool institutions).
• All reforms and programs in the field of education need a systematic implementation strategy. The realization of this strategy should be accompanied by evaluation measures.   In recent years, a growing body of implementation research has indicated that an active, long-term, multilevel implementation approach is far more effective than passive forms of dissemination.

Educational institutions should not only focus on their respective educational duties but also recognize their shared r esponsibility for social progress, for successful incoming and outgoing transitions and for the complete educational careers of their students. This responsibility about what happens before and after learners are part of their own institution also needs to be better anchored within universities. This is recommended as they are actively involved in the training of educators in many countries.

3.3 Content and pedagogy

The support of the four goals of education and consequently the promotion of social progress is not only dependent on governance, institutions, and educators but also on content of education (curriculum) and pedagogy which is the topic of this subsection. In the first part we discuss the power of content and pedagogy in promoting social progress. Based on this, we focus first on relevant aspects of the content of education and two further parts deal with important trends in pedagogy. The description of barriers and facilitators for promoting social progress and the influencing factors of the three levels (macro, meso, micro) are integrated in all subsections. Considering the high relevance of school for lifelong development, achievement, well-being and further basic values of social progress this section primarily focuses on schooling. 

3.3.1 The power of content and pedagogy in promoting social progress

For those in primary and secondary education, what happens in classrooms is the main shaper of their experiences of schooling and dominates future memories. It also plays important roles in shaping identities, constructing citizenship, preparing learners for the workforce, sustaining and renewing cultural traditions, and developing capabilities that matter to individuals and society. Education does not always do these things well, or with balanced emphasis. In addition to being experientially important, classroom processes and the content of teaching and learning have major consequences for learning outcomes, no matter how these might be defined, and positive or negative experiences or expectations or life in classrooms create ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors that contribute to decisions about whether to attend school and whether to continue. Curriculum and pedagogy are also ultimately where the vast majority of educational funding goes in the form of the recurrent costs of teacher salaries. Surprisingly, despite the centrality of curriculum and pedagogy to the experience and benefits of education, and despite the costs of staff to deliver and enact them, in comparative perspective they are relatively under-researched and they receive insufficient attention in terms of, for example, aid funding to education, as compared to questions of access and outcomes.

The content taught in schools is expressed in a curriculum, which may be more or less controlled and centralised.  Many, but not all, countries have a state (or sub-national) curriculum. This sets out the knowledge that learners are expected to command, and also in most cases defines particular skills they should acquire and sometimes the values that are intended to be inculcated. The level of detail of these varies widely, ranging from minute details of ‘facts’ to be covered and learned and competencies to be attained by all students, to very loose guidelines within which teachers make some of the most important decisions regarding what is taught and learned and there is space for differentiation for and by individual learners based on their needs and interests. Where the national curriculum is tightly framed, it is also common to have state-prescribed textbooks which buttress this control over content. While a common curriculum can potentially support equity by equalising entitlement, the use of imposed state curricula to oppress citizens in totalitarian or racist regimes is well-documented. Whatever the explicit learning outcomes might be, the content of teaching and learning also has an implicit dimension, known as the hidden curriculum, which sends strong but oblique messages to learners.  For example, the ways that women are portrayed in textbooks – the jobs they do, the ways they communicate, the clothes they wear, who is loved and who is not – set out a normative framework for learners that has deep effects on their own identities and understandings of what to expect from others, regardless of whether the official line advocates equality for women as a learning goal.

Pedagogy is a complex and highly culture-bound process and this is perhaps among the explanations for the lack of attention it receives by researchers and funders. On one level, pedagogy consists of the observable methods and interactions that take place in classrooms.  However, as in Alexander’s definition (2000) it also includes the beliefs, philosophies and theories that underpin these in the minds of teachers. These govern what teachers do, although habit and imitation are highly significant as well. All the lessons in the world have a number of shared and familiar ingredients: tasks, activities, teacher judgments, and interactions, structured through use of time, space and student institution, and, over the cycles of the school year, routines, rules, and rituals (Alexander, 2001). Within this there are context-specific variations which create a plethora of approaches. Despite these cultural variations, there are powerful international norms of ‘best practice’ which become travelling policies and prescriptions for pedagogy. We explore one of these – learner-centred approaches – in the section below.

What have these to do with social progress and with the four goals of education as set out above? There are a number of issues around content and pedagogy which relate to the question of equity. The curriculum often caters far better for some parts of the population rather than others, and privileges particular forms of dominant knowledge that reinforce an unequal status quo. Language of instruction strongly governs access to the curriculum for learners. On the other hand, teaching ABOUT inequality through the use of critical thinking has the potential to interrupt cycles of reproduction. Much is learned too about one’s rightful place in society through the interactions that shape experiences of pedagogy. Teachers send out strong messages about who is able, who is powerful and who is in charge through how they interact with students. Classroom discussions may be dominated by boys, by dominant ethnic groups, by those whose parents are better educated, or by those with good language competency, disenfranchising others and reminding them of their lower status. When teachers tightly control tasks and activities there is little space for questioning of the status quo or for exploring what is of interest to learners whose life worlds are outside  the norms established within curricular content that supports  inequalities.

Schools are a primary site for socialization for children and adolescents in particular, for whom relationships with individuals outside the home gain increasing importance. Although schooling structures can be sites in which adolescents are socialized to reproduce existing social class hierarchies (Bourdieu, 2000), they are also – at least potentially - mechanisms for upward mobility. In particular, school social contexts have been found to be critically important sites for socialization towards schooling and career, with consequences for students’ educational outcomes (Hallinan, 2006). The relationships children form through school have been theorized to be instrumental in their access to resources and support. Transmitted through these relationships, the realization of academic and career goals can be fostered. The quality of these relationships has proven to be an important factor in youths’ academic achievement (Bryk & Schneider, 2002).

The four goals of education are supported – or undermined – by content and pedagogy.  Much discourse around curriculum reform is couched in terms of preparing students for economic productivity, whether that means learning ‘the basics’ of literacy and numeracy, studying vocational subjects as preparation for specific jobs, or focusing on the so-called 21st century skills that support the knowledge economy (see below). The nature of civics as a subject area or cross-curricular theme – for example whether it is limited to knowledge about governmental structures and prescriptions about obedient citizens, or whether through critical pedagogy it questions inequalities and power – shapes understandings of the possibilities and limits of democratic political and civic participation. The Janus face of education’s relationship to equality is also in evidence in the roles of content and pedagogy. The curriculum has the potential to contribute to the redistribution of opportunity by debunking myths of in-group superiority; equally, it can reinforce social stratification when different curricula are offered to different groups of students and those groups align with relative privilege. Where learners are streamed into academic and vocational tracks there is often a correlation between socio-economic status and one’s place in the streams. As noted above, textbooks and other curricular resources can communicate messages to students that build or undermine their confidence in terms of what they can achieve. A pedagogy for equality is one which allows equal participation and promotes critical questioning of privilege.

One key area of international debate revolves around the development and implementation of initiatives and agendas such as Education for All (EFA), the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and more recently the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In particular, it has been frequently argued that international efforts have focused far too narrowly on increasing access to formal education, without attending to the quality of learning actually taking place in schools. There has been a failure to ensure that schooling actually leads to education, resulting in a need to recapture the broad understanding of education and its purpose in future goals and frameworks. These critiques highlight the need for policy and practice to attend not just to learning outcomes, but also to the learning process and the role of pedagogy in providing quality education (United Nations, 2013). Linked to these educational policy discussions is a large body of academic work from disciplines such as development studies, development education and anthropology that has critiqued international development, and by extension education, initiatives and agendas for their tendency to rely on a ‘Western’ view of what constitutes ‘development’. Authors such as Amartya Sen, Martha Nussbaum, Arturo Escobar, Robert Chambers and James Ferguson have argued for a range of alternative conceptualizations of the term capable of providing space for indigenous and local knowledges, diverse understandings of what constitutes a ‘good life’, and acknowledgement of the effects of unequal global relationships. This shift in academic discourse has also run parallel to a shift in international development policy, which is increasingly moving away from an idea of ‘development’ being organized for the Global South by actors in the Global North (Skinner, Blum & Bourn, 2013).

Beyond all these restrictions and controversial discussions, the subjects and themes a global core curriculum might include have been described and are  set out below. Additionally, identity formation as one highly relevant cross-subject theme is discussed in more detail. 

3.3.2 Core curriculum for the 21st century

Among the striking features of contemporary global education is the consolidation of a globally recognized core curriculum. Such curriculum describes the subjects and themes that are considered the basis for those personal competencies and for the societal capacities that are required for 21st century progress worldwide (Trilling and Fadel, 2009; Rotherham and Willingham, 2010).

Whereas post World War II international education policies concentrated mostly on basic literacy, currently the global core curriculum includes a much expanded list of subjects and themes. Chief among them is STEM (science, technology, engineering and math), which is adjusted per education level to build the required general science and math knowledge and skills. In its expanded form STEM also includes environmental education, chemistry, physics, and computer sciences (Marginson et al., 2013). Alongside, global core curriculum also includes citizenship education, which generally includes civic and political skills, studies of international relations and human rights, multiculturalism and tolerance education (Cogan and Derricott, 2014). Last, the global core curriculum also incorporates post-literacy curriculum, referring to life-long learning and non-formal education and acknowledging the ever-changing conditions of global society and the need for continuous education and skilling of the labor force  (Jakobi, 2009; Tuijnman, and Boström, 2002). These three general curricular areas – STEM, citizenship-, and post-literacy education – differ in their worldwide appeal: drawing upon the definition of science as a universal body of human knowledge, STEM is the most internationally standardized curricular areas, whereas citizenship- and post-literacy curricula are treated with greater sensitivity to local social traditions. And still, on the whole, all three curricular areas are included in international policy recommendations regarding education and progress.

The sweeping endorsement of this global core curriculum is predicated on the non-contested expectation that education is the mechanism for delivering social progress, namely prosperity, wellbeing, justice and security. Therefore, while education in general is hailed as the panacea for social ills and goods, the impact of the subjects and themes that are incorporated into the global core curriculum is specifically articulated. For example, STEM is commonly linked with the 21st century’s knowledge- and innovation economy; in a similar manner, citizenship education is assumed to guarantee political engagement, public responsibility, and social action. In these ways, education in general and the 21st century global core curriculum in particular are defined as both a means to a social end and as a human right.

The global core curriculum is set as a policy recommendation and its implementation worldwide is voluntary. Nevertheless, the authority of such education principals as UNESCO to specify and prescribe this curricular model propels the diffusion of the universalized curriculum to societies worldwide. Moreover, curricular and learning assessment tools that were designed to evaluate curricular development and implementation work to further articulate and even scale the globally recognized curriculum (Brinkeley et al., 2012). For example, UNESCO’s General Education Quality Analysis/Diagnosis Framework (GEQAF), which was designed to strengthen the capacities of national education authorities to monitor local education achievements and thus to allow for policy interventions, has been also responsible for the diffusion of isomorphic curricula across the world. Likewise, the testing and rankings scheme of OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) confirms the standing of reading, math and science as the three areas of global education competence.

The nature of globalisation demands that educational programs in all countries prepare young people to understand global relationships and concerns, cope with complex problems and live with rapid change and uncertainty. Insufficient recognition, particularly in LAMICs (low and middle income countries), of the importance of these issues in international education and development policy, not to mention research, undermines international efforts to engage all citizens around the world with developmental processes and debates in providing quality education to all.

3.3.3 Identity formation

Who am I? What shall I do with my life? Questions of identity can and do arise at many points in life, but they are particular and intense during adolescence. The term identity has been used to refer to many different phenomena, such as goals, values or beliefs. The term is also used to refer to people’s group affiliation and role in society. From a social-psychological and sociological perspective, individuals have multiple identities: one can be Indian, female and planning to be a teacher in the future. These various facets of identity converge to define the self (Schwartz, Donnellan, Ravert, Luychx, & Zamboanga, 2012).

In addition to being shaped by dispositions, motivations and individual experiences, the process of identity development can be influenced by the social and cultural environment. This is of particular relevance regarding schools as the most important institution adolescents are committed to (Lannegrand-Willems & Bosma, 2009). Adolescents in schooling in most countries spend a minimum of 20 hours a week during at least 10 months of the year.

There is, however, not only a lack of empirical research analyzing identity formation in school contexts, but also a lack of recommendations on how schools can actively contribute to identity formation in positive ways that promote individual choice and emancipation. Whereas people in the mid-20th century could develop their individual and collective identities within well-defined roles of work and partnership, today’s youth is challenged with identity issues prior to entering the workforce and committed partnerships. The transition from adolescence to adulthood has become far more extended, individualized and complex than in the mid-20th century. Consequently, schools are forced to systematically provide opportunities for students’ exploration of life and supporting identity formation in domains such as occupation, culture, religion, politics and gender roles. It is of particular importance that schools with students from poorer socioeconomic backgrounds provide such opportunities for their students.

Cultural background and gender are significant aspects of identity in which schooling plays a significant role. For immigrants, school provides an opportunity to socialize. School is a place where both local and migrant children and youth spend a substantial part of the day. For many, school provides prolonged first-hand contact with people from different cultures and  ethnic backgrounds, and is therefore an important context for forming peer relations. As a result, school has the potential to afford positive opportunities like friendships, learning about other cultures, understanding other ethnic groups; as well as negative experiences such as prejudice and racism, rejection and social exclusion, bullying and victimisation (Schofield, 1995) having either positive or negative effects on identity formation in the domain of culture. 

Despite men and women, or boys and girls, formally having the same educational opportunities, gender differences still exist in students’ performance and motivation, in vocational aspirations, and also in salaries and the participation in different substantive fields. Gender-stereotyped expectations play a central role in the perpetuation of gender differences, as they determine behaviour of important others and thus lead to vicious cycles in the development of children’s gender-stereotyped motivation and performance and therefore their identity development. Overall men and women are typified to differ both in terms of achievement-oriented traits, labelled as agency, or instrumentality and in terms of social- and service-oriented traits, labelled as communion, or expressivity (Kite, Deaux, & Haines, 2008). Men are characterized as aggressive, forceful, independent, and decisive (= agentic attributes), whereas women are characterized as kind, helpful, beautiful, and concerned about others (= communal attributes).

Gender-stereotyped expectations are often confirmed even though they are false, as expectations often lead to self-fulfilling prophecies and to perceptual biases (Jussim, Eccles, & Madon, 1996). In the context of education, gender-stereotyped expectations in particular concern interests, abilities and vocational aptitudes attributed to girls and boys (Kollmayer, Schober, & Spiel, 2016). In general, a positive view on heterogeneity should become a pivotal educational goal for teachers leading to the active promotion of students’ social competence and coping with diversity which also supports positive identity formation.

For realizing the described subjects and themes of education respective pedagogical measures are needed. In the following subsections two important trends in pedagogy are presented in more detail. 

3.3.4 Learner-centred education

Learner-centred education (LCE) is a travelling policy and classroom practice which has gained international currency, not least due to its links – in theory – to education’s role in promoting social progress. The broad term ‘learner-centred education’ is an umbrella for a wide range of practices which emphasise different approaches to pedagogy and the curriculum, including, for example, inquiry-based learning, activity-based learning, critical pedagogy, and child-centred pedagogies. What they all have in common is their reaction against teacher-centric approaches such as lecturing and drilling, and their emphasis on learner control over what is studied and how.

Learner-centred practice has been associated with social progress in a number of ways [5] . By encouraging active participation by all individual learners, and by giving them greater control over the curriculum, it upholds Children’s Rights conventions and is assumed to facilitate the development of democratic skills. Critical versions of LCE encourage questioning of received knowledge and of authority, also essential for democracy and for social change. By acknowledging and accommodating individual differences in terms of interests, talents and preferred approaches to learning, in theory LCE has the potential to promote equality in the classroom, at least in terms of processes, if not outcomes. It also has the potential to promote learner engagement with schooling and by generating and channelling motivation, raise achievement across all groups of learners. LCE is also claimed to prepare all learners for the knowledge economy by creating flexible, lifelong learning practices that can respond to rapid change and the information revolution.

However, given the complexity and multiple interpretations of LCE, pedagogy’s close relationship to culture and to power interactions, and LCE’s export to low-and-middle-income countries especially during the late 20th century, it is perhaps not surprising that much of this potential has not been realised and that LCE’s assumed link to social progress has been questioned. The lack of evidence – or occasionally contradictory evidence – concerning the underpinning suppositions above are one source of critique. What is especially compelling, however, is that whatever the potential of LCE, it cannot be realised within mainstream schooling where it does not embed into local systems, and in many lower-income countries where it has been an import, there have been unintended consequences of the introduction of LCE through policy reform. Research has offered a range of reasons for this, including teachers unaccustomed to learner-centred approaches and with little preparation; assessment regimes which test a fixed curriculum and memorised knowledge; and a lack of resources to support a wider range of learning activities in classrooms. LCE has also been accused of being an individualistic and ‘Western’ approach which is not in harmony with indigenous approaches or locally-acceptable relationships of power distance between teachers and learners (Schweisfurth 2011). Beyond these issues of policy-practice gaps and accusations of neo-colonialism which have sometimes followed in lower-income contexts, research in the UK has suggested that not all learners are equally equipped to participate in learner-centred lessons, with already advantaged learners being more accustomed to stimulating learning activities and more practiced at expressing themselves (Bernstein 1971, Young 2013).

Despite these challenges, it is striking how successful LCE has been with adult learners, such as those based on Freirian approaches (Freire 1972), and in alternative schools outside of the mainstream, such as those that follow the Montessori model. It seems that LCE’s shortcomings are more to do with understandings of childhood and children’s places in the world, and the domination of particular modes of state schooling, than it does with its own failings.

What is perhaps needed is a new understanding of learner-centredness and approach to it.  Policymakers and teachers can embrace its potential to uphold rights, encourage critical thinking and democratic exercise, and support the development of love for learning.  However, given the cultural variations that will frame the enactment of such pedagogies, to be successful and to suit the local context it is essential that educational reform to pedagogy does not impose individualistic approaches where more collectivist ways of working are more culturally valued and have been educationally successful.  Reforms must also avoid making inappropriate or unrealistic demands on teachers. The limitations of this cultural relativity are where pedagogical approaches violate rights (such as the use of corporal punishment) or perpetuate or create inequalities (for example by excluding students with less cultural capital). 

3.3.5 The role of technology

Begin with the obvious: the most drastic change over the past generation to the lives of both teachers and students is the explosion of digital technology. In 1996, universities began to create websites, email was still a novelty, and cell phones were costly and looked like small radios. Research was conducted via card catalogue at libraries and in encyclopedias. Google and Wikipedia were yet to be born. Today the world looks utterly different. Access to the worldwide web, cellular technology and mobile computing, email, and social media have completely transformed what takes place inside and outside the schoolyard. Parents, teachers, and, above all others, students inhabit a hybrid world, interacting with distant others and information with ease.

The opportunity to communicate via technology -- email, social media, text message -- marks one massive shift in the experience of teaching and learning. A still larger shift is the digital accessibility of knowledge and information. The success and ubiquity of Google, whose stated mission is to “organize the world’s information and make it universally accessible and useful,” has forever changed how anyone connected to education can access knowledge on any topic. And technology has also begun to transform classroom lessons: teachers and students create online learning opportunities, including testing and assessment.

In recent years, technological innovation has done more than color the experience of teaching and learning inside and outside the classroom; it has threatened to replace the classroom entirely. The advent of “massive open online courses,” or MOOCs, provide opportunities for children and adults alike to access educational opportunities, often for free (or no more than the price of an internet connection) anywhere in the world and at any time. It is too soon to assess whether MOOCs will be as “disruptive” to traditional brick-and-mortar schooling as some of their founders wish.

In contrast, the aims of on-line distance education in low and middle income countries are often different from those of the higher income countries. In the latter, moves to widen participation and lifelong learning for non-traditional learners are closely linked to the development of a strong knowledge economy. In contrast, in LAMICs motives for distance learning are often to provide basic and literacy education to large numbers of poor people, particularly in the rural areas. Lack of trained teachers has meant that several open learning initiatives in LAMICs have focused on educating and training their unqualified teaching force. In sum, there is a variety of open and distance learning methods that have been successfully implemented with an outreach to the poorer and deprived groups in LAMICs.

It is widely suggested that online technologies can help address issues of educational equity and social exclusion, and open up democratic and accessible educational opportunities. The national governments and non-government agencies who funded endeavours in LAMICs have advocated the use of new technologies to reduce the cost of reaching and educating large numbers of children and adults who are currently missing out on education. However, the present IT provisions in LAMICs is limited to the urban elite. Existing infrastructures allow only a few to develop communication and interaction skills and to become part of the new social networking paradigm. Education for the masses continues to be didactic and devoid of interaction and critique. And while e-learning may offer the opportunity to shift the distance learning paradigm from delivering of content towards learner-centred and discussion-led learning, continuing reliance on print material and broadcast technologies dominates in LAMICs (Gulati 2008). The IT access gap is contributing to the widening digital divide between haves and haves not in LAMICs. Furthermore, using online education needs both high motivation and self-regulated learning competencies. Therefore, as it was outlined in the section on LCE not all learners are prepared to profit from technology based education as online courses.

Many of these technologies – email and the web, for instance – are so ubiquitous that we no longer see them as innovative; they are merely the medium through which we do business. But much more remains to be done in order to realize the educational promise of technology. For one, there is a digital divide between haves and have-nots, and extending access to the web through cellular and broadband technologies must be a global priority. Beyond access, we need much more research on how most effectively to adopt blended learning strategies and to incorporate online learning opportunities in the classroom. But there is evidence, that online education often lacks respective didactical concepts and is not solidly based on learning theories. Mostly, the technology dominates educational concepts and models. The idea that often has driven the adoption of technology in education is to save money and time. But the contrast is the case. High quality and successful use of ICT in education needs time and money.

3.3.6 Conclusions and recommendations

While there is ever greater recognition of the need to focus on pedagogy and learning, and the development of critical approaches to education that incorporate diverse perspectives and skills, uncertainty remains about precisely how to achieve this in practical terms. Just as teachers cannot overhaul the education system alone, nations cannot counteract worldwide deficiencies in education systems in isolation. All countries will face consequences if today’s learners are not adequately prepared to collaborate and resolve the world’s economic, environmental, health, social, and political challenges. All can contribute to a global pool of expertise on how best to implement 21st century learning by forming alliances to overcome obstacles to overhauling education.

In the following we provide recommendations for content and pedagogy addressing all three levels mentioned before (macro, meso, micro):

• Curriculum developers and teachers need to ensure that the curriculum does not privilege particular ethnic, socio-economic, gender or other groups through embedded stereotypes or differential access.
• Further research is needed on the interactions that shape identity in different contexts, and how the curriculum and pedagogical relationships can nurture positive identity construction of the self, the group, and the other.
• Policymakers and teachers need to embrace the potential of pedagogy to uphold rights, encourage critical thinking and democratic exercise, and support the development of love for learning. However, learner-centred and related approaches need to be adapted to suit the local context within a framework of human and child rights and equality.
• More research is needed on how most effectively to adopt blended learning strategies and to incorporate online learning opportunities in the classroom, while minimizing the effects of the digital divide.
• LAMICs, wherein only a small proportion of the population has Internet access, need to realize the disparities between rural and urban communities, male and female students, and elite and non-elite groups. They need to consider how to adapt global software and hardware to benefit all of their citizens. This also holds true for those from the Global North advising on and supporting education in LAMICs.  The critical challenge is to educate students and teachers to the use of computers and develop accessible infrastructures so that they benefit from the interactivity offered by online learning.
• In the future, curricular reform will most likely be required to balance core subjects and new 21st century skills. This will also require fresh thinking about performance measures to overcome legitimate concerns that there has been limited progress toward recognizing and rewarding skill development that cannot be detected in an end-of-term assessment.
• Accountability will be more essential than ever in 21st century education systems. It will be important to measure accurately the impact of new skills and pedagogy in the classroom to bring about new and improved outcomes.
• The roles of educational institutions in the future and their capacity to radically transform themselves remain uncertain. Every nation has its own vision of what a 21st century education should look like. Innovations that produce successful learning in one nation can have a ripple effect as other nations adopt and adapt these methods for their own use. With increased international cooperation and collaboration, all can participate in building a global learning network as dominant and pervasive as existing international networks in business, finance and communications.

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Table XIX.1 : Specific competencies of educators and administrators for result-oriented quality development in educational institutions (CROQD)

[1] Affiliations : University of Vienna, Austria ; Stanford University, USA

[2] Affiliations : University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA ; University of Konstanz, Germany ; CHET, South Africa ; Hebrew University, Israel ; Institute for Advanced Studies — IHS Vienna, Austria ; University of Vienna, Austria ; Institute for Studies on Labor and Society, Brazil ; University of Glasgow, UK ; Panjab University, India

[3] Affiliations : CHET, South Africa

[4] Data on GDP per capita are taken from: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD (accessed August 2, 2016)

[5] The narratives which follow are drawn from Schweisfurth 2013.

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Apple education discounts and programs for students and educators

• Apple offers modest educational discounts on desktop computers, MacBooks, iPads, and more.
• Educators and students in grades K-12 and higher education are eligible for discounts.
• The Apple Education Community is a free online resource that includes forums and tutorials.

From its earliest days, Apple has taken an interest in educators and students, lobbying Congress to allow technology donations to educational institutions tax deductible — and actually donating thousands of Apple II computers to schools as part of its Kids Can't Wait program.

These days, the company continues to have a close relationship with education by offering education discounts on computers, iPads, and other Apple products , as well as hosting its Apple Education Community, a free resource for helping teach students computer and software literacy.

Here's everything you need to know about Apple's education discounts and resources.

Who qualifies for Apple's education discount?

Apple offers discounts to both students and educators for a variety of Apple products, including iMacs, MacBooks, iPads , and more. The discounts vary, but are generally about 10% off the regular retail price.

To be eligible, you need to be one of the following:

An employee of any public or private K-12 institution

K-12 homeschool teachers

Currently serving school board members, as well as current PTA and PTO executives

Faculty or staff of any higher education institution

Students attending (or accepted into) any higher education institution

Parents making purchases on behalf of students at higher education institutions

These rules are for US educators and students — there are slightly different education discount rules in other locales around the world.

To get the discount, visit Apple's Education Store and choose the product you want to buy, then check out in the normal way.

Apple may ask you to confirm that you qualify as a student or educator at checkout. Students can generally provide a current photo ID from the school they are attending, a transcript, or report card. Educators, on the other hand, can submit a pay stub from an educational institution or a letter on the school's official letterhead verifying their role.

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Homeschool teachers qualify as well. They can provide a photo ID along with a letter of intent to homeschool addressed to their local school district, a Home School Legal Defense Association membership card, Home School Charter School membership card, or a book receipt for the current year.

Products available to educators, students

Apple students and educators can use their discount to purchase a wide variety of Apple products. You can take advantage of these discounts at Apple's Education Store website, as well as at physical Apple stores and at authorized campus resellers on college campuses.

Devices generally offered at a discount include the MacBooks and iMacs, the Mac Pro, Mac mini, and Mac Studio computers. Discounts are also available on monitors like the Studio Display and Pro Display XDR. Teachers and students may also purchase iPads as well as accessories like AirPods, the Apple Pencil, keyboards, and various power adapters. The discount applies to new models only — not Apple's refurbished products.

Apple also offers Apple Music subscriptions to students at a discount. Instead of the usual $10.99 per month, students can get an individual plan for just $5.99 on the Student plan.

Unfortunately, Apple doesn't offer education discounts on iPhones, Apple TV, or Apple Watch .

The education discount also limits how many products you can buy each year. You can purchase one computer (like a MacBook or desktop Mac) or two iPads each year.

Go inside the Apple Education Community

However, Apple's commitment to education goes beyond just discounts on MacBooks and iPads. The company offers the Apple Education Community, an online learning hub aimed at educators who want to use Apple products to make engaging learning experiences for students.

The Education Community is built around two main spaces: the Learning Center and the Forum.

Apple's Learning Center provides educators with a large library of tutorials and lesson ideas. The resources are published in 16 languages and are designed to build foundational skills for using technology like Macs and iPads, along with creative and productivity software like Pages, Keynote, Numbers, GarageBand, and iMovie.

As the name suggests, the Forum is a social platform for educators to connect and get coaching and mentoring from Apple education and technology experts. It lets teachers ask and answer questions, discuss education topics, and share experiences and resources.

All of Apple's education community resources are free and can be accessed using your Apple ID .

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Promotion and Education

Program Overview

As a Farm Bureau member there are unlimited opportunities to share your experience on and off the farm, in your community and with consumers. If you are enthusiastic about sharing more about agriculture, the Promotion & Education program is for you!

Together, we:

• Promote the awareness and understanding of agriculture;
• Empower grassroots members with effective tools for engagement; and
• Provide training opportunities to equip volunteers to confidently connect with consumers and effectively convey the significance of agriculture.

Promotion and Education brought me an opportunity to continue to share my passion for agriculture and to inform, inspire and collaborate with others. It offers members a home after aging out of YF&R, no matter gender or age, to tell the story of agriculture.

Target Training

Target Training is a premier consumer engagement training for Farm Bureau members from any state who are passionate about sharing agriculture with the general public. This event occurs every other year (even years) and focuses on inspiring and equipping participants to successfully convey the significance of agriculture and bridge the gap between field and fork.

Amplify Agriculture Series

Hosted quarterly throughout the year, online Amplify Agriculture episodes connect Farm Bureau members with experts who share valuable insights and empower viewers to elevate the story of agriculture to all those who depend on food, fiber and fuel. The episodes also spotlight tools, resources, ideas and opportunities for engaging with consumers. #AmplifyAg

Register Now for the May 9th  Online Episode  – Held at 8:00 PM EDT Product Labeling: What Are Consumers Looking For?

In this episode, we will be exploring what consumers are looking for when considering the options on the shelves at the store. Attendees will hear about interesting research that has been conducted at Oklahoma State University and AFBF staff will also share their perspectives on the topic.

View the February 22nd episode of the Amplify Agriculture Series: Keeping Food on the Shelves: The Critical Relationship between Producers, Consumers and Retail, featuring Featuring Andy Harig, Vice President of Tax, Trade, Sustainability, and Policy Development for FMI – the Food Industry Association

View the November 16th episode of the Amplify Agriculture Series: Perception or Reality? Exploring the Consumers Perspective on Animal Agriculture, featuring Hannah Thompson-Weeman, CEO of the Animal Agriculture Alliance

View the August 10th episode of the Amplify Agriculture Series featuring speakers Kirk Bachmann, Campus President & Provost, and Stephanie Michalak, Chef Instructor of Culinary Arts, from Auguste Escoffier School of Culinary Arts

Initiatives

The Program & Education Committee, appointed by the AFBF president, hosts a variety of initiatives and trainings, open to any Farm Bureau member.

Digital Toolbox: Agricultural Resources

Sign on to Farm Bureau University to find the P&E Digital Toolbox of activities and resources to help Farm Bureau members share with the public about where their food comes from. Tools such as the digital Sustainability Breakout Box activity, recordings of the Amplify Agriculture Webinar Series, activity planning guides, and more can be found here.

Communicate, Collaborate and Influence Workshops

During the American Farm Bureau Convention, the AFBF P&E Committee offers any Farm Bureau member the chance to participate in an action-oriented consumer engagement program, including training sessions and interactive workshops, to better equip volunteers with the knowledge and skills to confidently and effectively share about agriculture.

Target Training is a premier consumer engagement training for Farm Bureau members from any state who are passionate about sharing the story of agriculture. This event is hosted by the AFBF P&E Committee and occurs every other year (even years) at various locations across the country. Each Target Training focuses on inspiring and equipping farmers and ranchers to successfully convey the significance of agriculture and bridge the gap between field and fork.

FUSION Conference

Promotion & Education volunteers join Young Farmers & Ranchers and Women’s Leadership programs in planning and implementing the FUSION conference every other year (odd years). FUSION is an opportunity to connect, learn and develop as leaders in Farm Bureau. During this conference, we hope to inspire the grassroots agricultural community all across the U.S. to engage as members and leaders within Farm Bureau so that together we can influence a stronger and more sustainable future for our industry.

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• v.14(7); 2022 Jul

Empowering Patients: Promoting Patient Education and Health Literacy

Pradnya brijmohan bhattad.

1 Cardiovascular Medicine, Saint Vincent Hospital, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, USA

Luigi Pacifico

Patients are generally keen to understand and obtain more information about their medical conditions. There exists a need to develop updated and thorough yet concise patient education handouts and to encourage healthcare providers (HCPs) to use uniform patient education methods.

A thorough review of literature on patient education material was performed prior to starting the study. A comparison with different resources regarding the appropriateness of patient education was done. Educating HCPs to effectively use patient educational materials incorporated into the electronic health record system, including electronic methods, such as the use of a patient portal, to help educate patients. 

Strategies were formulated to reduce the amount of processing and attending time required for fetching appropriate materials and lead to fast, efficient, and effective patient education. To improve the physical and psychosocial wellbeing of a patient, personalized patient education handouts, in addition to verbal education by the HCPs, augment the betterment of patient care via shared decision making and by improving patient satisfaction and health literacy.

Introduction

Patients are often eager to understand and know more about their medical conditions and health situation, and educating them with the most relevant, current, consistent, and updated information helps patients and their families significantly in the medical care and decision-making process [ 1 ]. 

Patients need formal education on the disease condition; they need to know their ailment, understand their symptoms, be educated on the diagnostics, appropriate medication use, and should be taught when to call for help. Several patient education handouts for various conditions are available, and there exists a need to assess which one is better suited for a particular disease/condition encountered and provides concise information. Patient education materials help educate the patients on their health conditions, improves their health literacy, and enhances and promotes informed decision-making based on the most current and updated medical and clinical evidence as well as patient preference [ 2 ].

The aim of this study was to develop updated patient education handouts and materials in addition to verbal counseling of the patients to help them understand the disease condition, diagnostic studies, proper advice on medications, and when to call for help. And to encourage healthcare providers (HCPs) to use uniform patient education materials.

The objectives of this study are 1) the implementation of quality improvement techniques of Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycles on patient education in clinical settings; 2) to enhance the delivery of patient education and create awareness amongst the HCPs regarding the importance of patient education and improved health literacy; 3) to verify if patient education handouts have the minimum necessary information that patient should know; 4) to compare patient education handouts from databases integrated in the electronic health record (EHR) with standard patient education database websites like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, and MedlinePlus® site to make sure that they have the minimum necessary information; and 5) to educate and encourage HCPs on the use of appropriate patient education articles in the EHR and utilize an electronic patient portal for patient education, help transition the patient education to an electronic form, and increase efficacy and consistent patient education.

Materials and methods

A comprehensive review of the patient education materials on the most common medical ailments in various clinical settings was performed. We compared the existing patient education database integrated in the EHR with the standard resources such as the CDC, MedlinePlus via retrospective chart study format to ensure the minimum necessary information is available. 

A comparison of existing educational material was completed by analyzing other patient education materials from resources such as UpToDate (the basics/beyond the basics), MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine of NIH, CDC, and the US Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that effective, most updated, current, and evidence-based information is provided to the patients from the educational materials.

Search words were incorporated to help search for the educational articles in the existing EHR by the title of the article. Educational materials studied were relevant to the common medical ailments in various clinical settings. The patient handouts were made available in such a way that these should be able to be sent either through an electronic patient portal or printed out.

HCPs were educated in a session with pre- and post-lecture survey qualitative and quantitative questionnaires. The impact of these interventions was further assessed by pre- and post-intervention surveys after educating the HCPs.

Uniform updated patient education handouts were created after comparing them with standard resources. A pre-test survey questionnaire was obtained to discuss with HCPs regarding the current knowledge and practices of the usage of patient education handouts and the understanding of EHR to utilize uniform and standardized patient education handouts. After educating the HCPs, their knowledge regarding the use of EHR to effectively use patient education handouts was tested in a post-test survey questionnaire. After completion of the pre and post-test survey questionnaire by HCPs, analysis of the data performed (Figures ​ (Figures1 1 - ​ -20 20 ).

HCPs - healthcare providers

"Do you feel that attending and processing times required for fetching appropriate educational articles will be reduced if standard materials are outlined?"

“Do you think that efficient patient education is effective in creating and improving adherence to treatment, medication compliance, and for improving overall patient health?”

Quality improvement (QI), problem-solving, and gap analysis

QI techniques, including PDSA cycles, to improve patient education implemented in various clinical settings [ 1 ].

Reasons for Action

There is a need for updated and uniform patient education materials in addition to verbal counseling of the patient to help them understand the disease condition, diagnostic studies, proper advice on medications, and when to call for help, thereby enhancing health literacy. There exists several patient education materials for various ailments, and the need to assess which one is better suited for a disease condition and contains concise information.

Initial State

We reviewed the available patient education material from the patient education database integrated in the EHR, and compared it with current standardized resources such as MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine of NIH, CDC, and the US Department of Health and Human Services. A thorough review of literature on patient education material was performed prior to starting the study.

We compared more than one source regarding the appropriateness of patient education, most specifically, how to use the medications and when to call for help. The quality of educational materials regarding disease education, diagnostics education, education on medication use, and education on when to call for help was assessed. The resources described above were utilized for comparison.

Gap Analysis

A graph of the gap analysis is displayed in Figure ​ Figure21 21 below.

Solution Approach

It was noticed that the educational materials were available only in printed format. Enrolling patients on the electronic patient portal helps send educational materials to the patient as a soft copy in a faster and more efficient electronic format. 

Higher attending and processing time is required for fetching appropriate materials due to the unavailability of exact materials and using non-updated educational materials. Therefore, creating an index of educational articles on commonly encountered medical situations and ensuring that these articles are current and updated might make the process more efficient. 

There is a very limited time availability to impart specific educational elements with the limited appointment times. Appropriately detailed educational materials can be sent to the patient via a patient portal even after the patient encounter has ended. For patients with limited technology/computer use, educational materials can be mailed if they're missed during the encounter. 

Inadequate educational methods were utilized; thus, incorporating educational articles from resources other than the databases in the existing EHR, and using the index of educational articles on commonly encountered medical situations were applied.

Inefficient usage of the operational capacity of EHR for patient education, using database integrated in the EHR, and lack of training were identified. As a result, HCPs were trained on using educational materials for their patients in an efficient manner, and patient education was prioritized.

Rapid Experiment: Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle

Plan: Plan to use appropriate patient education material from several sources made available in the index of the educational articles.

Do: Counsel and verbally educate the patients, along with providing educational materials. Obtain a verbal read-back from the patients about how to use medications and when to call for help.

Study: Use the teach-back method to make patients explain back the information provided in their own words to see if they understood the disease, diagnostics, medication use, and when to call for help to improve health literacy.

Act: If a patient has questions, address them appropriately and if need be, set up a follow-up appointment. 

Actions Taken

An index of educational materials relevant to the common medical ailments in various clinical settings was created. This index of educational materials was to guide HCPs in choosing appropriate and relevant articles in an efficient, quick, and timely manner for patients in various clinical settings. Effective use of patient educational materials in the database incorporated into the EHR, including electronic methods such as the use of the patient portal to help educate patients, was promoted. Alternate resources other than those from the database in the existing EHR were utilized. Educational materials in printed format were made available for patients with limited technology access. The amount of time required for fetching appropriate materials was reduced by creating and referencing to an index for commonly encountered medical situations.

Efficient and faster patient education was imparted with reduced processing and attending time required. Prioritized health education to improve health literacy. Efficient usage of operational capacity of database integrated in the EHR was undertaken to improve health literacy. HCPs were trained to use patient education materials efficiently. 

What Helped

Fast, efficient, and effective patient education helped patients and their families significantly in medical care and shared decision-making based on the most current and updated clinical evidence and patient preference. Creating an index of educational materials relevant to the medical conditions commonly encountered thereby reduced the amount of processing and attending time required for fetching appropriate materials. Effectively using patient educational materials in the database incorporated into the EHR, including electronic methods such as the use of a patient portal to help educate patients, using soft copy (electronic-copy) reduced requirement of printed materials. Correction of misconceptions that patients may have helped improve health literacy. 

What Went Well

Helping engage, encourage, and empower the patients in participating in their own health care and treatment decisions. Enhanced patient satisfaction and better outcomes (for instance, educating a patient on osteopenia encouraged them to continue/start the vitamin D supplementation, participate in regular exercise, healthy diet preferences, and health promotion). 

What Hindered

High HCP turnover rate with changing schedules hindered consistent use of patient education materials. Insufficient number of HCPs trained for patient education.

What Could Improve

Incorporating educational materials in the video format for patients who do not wish to read or talk about their health situations. Enhanced training of all the HCPs for effective and efficient use of patient education resources to allow consistency in effective patient education.

Personalized patient education engages, encourages, and empowers patients in participating in their own health care and treatment decisions and leading to better outcomes, decreased need for excess diagnostic testing, and enhanced patient satisfaction [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. This needs motivation on the part of the resident doctors, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, physicians, and the allied staff. 

The Advisory Committee on Training in Primary Care Medicine (ACTPCMD) recommends that Health Resources & Services Administration’s (HRSA) Title VII, Part C, Section 747 and 748 education and training programs should prepare students, faculty, and practitioners to involve patients and caretakers in shared medical decision-making which can happen well with better patient education process [ 6 ].

We as HCPs should cultivate good habits amongst ourselves to ensure patients know about their condition and treatment well. This will help increase medication and treatment compliance amongst patients and enhance the physician-patient relationship to a higher level.

Conclusions

To improve the physical and psychosocial well-being of a patient, personalized patient education materials, in addition to verbal education by the HCPs, augment the betterment of patient care via shared decision making and by improving patient satisfaction. There is a need to reiterate that HCPs understand patients' concerns and provide effective patient education and counseling for effective health care delivery.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Human Ethics

Consent was obtained or waived by all participants in this study

Animal Ethics

Animal subjects: All authors have confirmed that this study did not involve animal subjects or tissue.

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• About the Diabetes Self-Management Education and Support (DSMES) Toolkit
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• The DSMES Promotion Playbook contains customizable materials with consistent messaging about DSMES.
• Access DSMES Promotion Playbook resources including flyers, posters, postcards, and digital ads.

The DSMES Promotion Playbook helps CDC and its partners promote DSMES services with consistent messaging. This helps to create an identity for DSMES. Hearing consistent messaging encourages people with diabetes to learn more and ask a health care provider for a referral.

Customize the resources

You can customize the outreach materials in the DSMES Promotion Playbook with your local program information. A free PDF reader can help you fill in some of the areas that allow edits, including changing photos. If you need to add or edit text or images in other areas, you may have to purchase additional software.

Each material has a recommended printing size (see the table below), but you can print materials at a different size. You will just need to change the printer settings to your desired paper size.

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DSMES outreach flyer

Learn ways to manage your diabetes that fit your life..

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Support that helps you manage your diabetes. find services near you..

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Support that helps you manage your diabetes. learn more today..

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Diabetes Self-Management Education and Support (DSMES) Toolkit

The DSMES Toolkit is a comprehensive resource for achieving success in diabetes self-management education and support (DSMES) services.