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Food Security in India

Last updated on December 10, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

Food security in India has been a significant policy concern for many years. India’s economy may be the one that is booming most rapidly in the world, but it is also seeing an increase in food price inflation. Read here to understand the food insecurity in India.

The price of food began to rise rapidly in 2019 and has continued to grow ever since. Annual inflation in July 2023 hit 11%, which was the highest level in a decade.

A portion of the population may have difficulty obtaining food with sufficient nutritional content as a result of the ongoing high food price inflation.

The term “food security” refers to the availability, accessibility, and affordability of safe and nutritious food for all individuals in a country.

Table of Contents

Food insecurity in India

Food insecurity in India has been a longstanding and complex issue, despite significant improvements in food production and distribution over the years. Several factors contribute to food insecurity in the country:

• Poverty: A significant portion of India’s population lives below the poverty line. Low income and lack of economic opportunities can limit people’s access to nutritious food.
• Unequal Distribution: While India produces enough food to feed its population, the distribution of food is unequal. Food often doesn’t reach those who need it the most, leading to food shortages in certain regions.
• Price Fluctuations: Price fluctuations in essential food commodities, such as rice and wheat, can make them unaffordable for many people during times of high inflation.
• Agricultural Challenges: India’s agriculture sector faces challenges such as unpredictable weather patterns, water scarcity, soil degradation, and inadequate infrastructure. These factors can lead to lower crop yields and affect food production.
• Land Ownership: Unequal land ownership patterns can limit small-scale farmers’ access to land and resources, making it difficult for them to produce sufficient food for their families.
• Food Wastage: A significant amount of food is lost or wasted during production, storage, and distribution. This wastage contributes to food scarcity.
• Malnutrition: Food insecurity is often linked to malnutrition. Even when food is available, it may lack the necessary nutrients for a balanced diet, leading to malnutrition issues, especially among children.
• Urbanization: Rapid urbanization has led to changes in dietary habits, with a greater reliance on processed and less nutritious foods, contributing to health-related food insecurity issues.
• Natural Disasters: India is prone to natural disasters like droughts, floods, and cyclones. These events can disrupt food production and lead to food shortages in affected areas.
• COVID-19 Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdowns further exacerbated food insecurity by disrupting supply chains, affecting livelihoods, and increasing the vulnerability of marginalized populations.

While India has implemented various food security programs like the Public Distribution System (PDS) , the National Food Security Act (NFSA), and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme, there are often challenges in their effective implementation, including issues related to leakages and corruption.

Also read: Global Food Security Index 2021

Food security in India

India has made significant progress in improving food security, but challenges still exist.

• Food Production: India has made remarkable progress in increasing food production, particularly in staple crops like rice and wheat. The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s played a crucial role in boosting agricultural productivity.
• Buffer Stocks: India maintains strategic grain reserves, known as buffer stocks , to stabilize food prices and meet emergencies. These stocks are managed by agencies like the Food Corporation of India (FCI) .
• Addressing Malnutrition: India has implemented programs to address malnutrition, particularly among children and pregnant women. These programs focus on improving nutritional intake and health outcomes.
• Containing Pandemic Impact: The COVID-19 pandemic exposed vulnerabilities in India’s food security system, as lockdowns disrupted supply chains and livelihoods. The government implemented relief measures, including distributing free food grains to vulnerable populations.
• Nutrition Quality: While food availability has improved, the focus is shifting toward improving the quality of food and addressing issues of hidden hunger, where people lack essential vitamins and minerals in their diet.
• Sustainable Agriculture: There is a growing emphasis on sustainable agriculture practices, including organic farming, to ensure long-term food security while protecting the environment.
• Climate Change Resilience: Building resilience to climate change is a priority for ensuring food security in the face of changing weather patterns and extreme events.
• Role of Technology: Technology is being increasingly harnessed for better crop management , weather forecasting, and food distribution, which can enhance food security efforts.

Government initiatives

National Food Security Act (NFSA):

• The NFSA, enacted in 2013, is a landmark legislation aimed at providing legal entitlements to food for a large section of India’s population. It aims to ensure that a specified quantity of food grains is made available to eligible beneficiaries at affordable prices.

Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)

• The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme, which began on October 2, 1975, is one of the Government of India’s flagship programs and one of the world’s largest and most innovative early childhood care and development programs.

Public Distribution System

• It is defined as the system in which food procured by the FCI is distributed among the weaker or poorer sections of society.

Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY)

• This scheme was launched in December 2000. Under this scheme, one crore of the poorest among the BPL families covered under the targeted public distribution system was identified. In this scheme, the State Rural Development Department has identified poor families through the Below poverty line survey.

Other schemes and initiatives:

• Eat Right India Movement
• POSHAN Abhiyan
• Food Fortification
• National Innovations Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)

Way forward

Improving food security in India is a multifaceted challenge that requires a combination of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at increasing food availability, access, and utilization.

Enhance Agricultural Productivity:

• Invest in agricultural research and development to develop high-yield and climate-resilient crop varieties.
• Promote sustainable farming practices, including organic farming and precision agriculture.
• Improve access to modern farming technologies, such as improved seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation systems.

Increase Crop Diversification:

• Encourage diversification of crops to reduce dependency on a few staple crops and improve dietary diversity.
• Promote the cultivation of nutritious crops, fruits, and vegetables to address malnutrition issues.

Support Small-Scale Farmers:

• Provide small-scale farmers with access to credit, affordable crop insurance, and agricultural extension services.
• Promote farmer cooperatives and self-help groups to enhance collective bargaining power.

Water Management:

• Invest in water conservation and management techniques to address water scarcity issues.
• Promote efficient irrigation practices, such as drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting.

Infrastructure Development:

• Improve rural infrastructure, including roads, storage facilities, and markets, to reduce post-harvest losses and connect farmers to consumers.

Food Distribution and Supply Chain Enhancement:

• Strengthen the Public Distribution System (PDS) and other food distribution networks to ensure efficient and equitable access to food.
• Address issues related to food wastage during storage and transportation.

Nutrition Education:

• Launch public awareness campaigns to educate people about balanced nutrition and healthy eating habits.
• Implement school-based nutrition programs to improve the health and nutrition of children.

Social Safety Nets:

• Expand and strengthen social safety net programs like the National Food Security Act (NFSA) and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme to provide subsidized food to vulnerable populations.

Support for Women in Agriculture:

• Empower women in agriculture by providing training, credit, and land rights.
• Recognize and value the crucial role of women in food production and household nutrition.

Climate Resilience:

• Develop climate-resilient farming practices and provide support to farmers to adapt to changing climate patterns.
• Promote agroforestry and sustainable land use practices.

Reduce Food Loss and Waste:

• Implement measures to reduce food loss and waste at all stages of the supply chain, from farm to fork.
• Encourage food donation and redistribution programs to redirect surplus food to those in need.

Research and Innovation:

• Invest in research and innovation to find solutions to food security challenges, including crop diseases, pests, and climate-related issues.

Policy and Governance:

• Strengthen governance and transparency in food-related policies and programs to reduce corruption and ensure effective implementation.
• Monitor and evaluate food security initiatives to assess their impact and make necessary improvements.

International Cooperation:

• Collaborate with international organizations and neighboring countries on food security initiatives, trade agreements, and disaster response.

Also read: Malnutrition in India

Addressing food insecurity in India requires a multi-pronged approach that includes improving agricultural practices, ensuring equitable distribution, reducing food wastage, enhancing access to social safety nets, and addressing poverty and malnutrition.

Government policies and programs, as well as international cooperation and support, play crucial roles in mitigating food insecurity and improving food access for all segments of the population.

India has made significant strides in improving food security, but challenges such as poverty, inequality, and the impacts of climate change continue to influence the nation’s efforts to ensure that all its citizens have access to adequate and nutritious food.

Addressing these challenges requires ongoing policy measures, investment in agriculture and rural development, and a commitment to social safety nets and nutrition programs.

Also read:  Biofortification

-Article by Swathi Satish

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The Public Distribution System and Food Security in India

The Public Distribution System (PDS) of India plays a crucial role in reducing food insecurity by acting as a safety net by distributing essentials at a subsidised rate. While the PDS forms a cornerstone of government food and nutrition policy, India continues to be home to a large population of hungry and malnourished people. This review seeks to explore the functioning and efficiency of the PDS in achieving food and nutritional security in India. A comprehensive and systematic search using the key terms “food insecurity” OR “food security” AND “Public Distribution System” OR “PDS” OR “TPDS” AND “India” identified 23 articles which met the inclusion criteria. This review draws attention to the lack of published literature in areas of PDS and food security in India. The findings of the review emphasise the role of PDS in tackling hunger and malnutrition while highlighting its limited role in improving food security and childhood mortality due to operational inefficiencies. The PDS has the potential to act as a solution to food insecurity in India if the operational inefficiencies and environmental footprints are addressed by adequate policy reforms.

1. Introduction

Food insecurity is a situation of limited access to safe and healthy food [ 1 ], while food security refers to a situation when ‘all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’ [ 2 ]. Food insecurity can be understood as a continuum that progresses from uncertainty and anxiety about access to sufficient and appropriate food at the household level, to the extreme condition of hunger among children because they do not have enough to eat [ 3 ]. The experience of food insecurity has been found to be more severe in low-income communities, and for those who already experience poor health [ 4 , 5 ]. While factors contributing to poverty are important when considering food insecurity, it is not the only determinant. Other influences include policy, the distribution of food across populations, countries, and regions, unstable political conditions, and climate change induced adverse environmental conditions including severe droughts, lack of water, and soil degradation and erosion [ 1 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

2. Food Security in India

While overall global rates of food insecurity have decreased, there remains a large population of people experiencing food insecurity living in sub-Saharan African and South Asia. Countries most affected are typically characterised by high rates of disease and mortality associated with nutritional deficiencies coupled with high rates of poverty [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Despite rapid economic growth over the last two decades, many Indians have not benefited from the economic improvement, and continue to experience food insecurity and hunger, a high burden of malnutrition and undernourishment, and increasing obesity [ 13 ]; in 2016, over 190 million people were reported undernourished—the highest in any single country [ 14 ].

The reasons behind food insecurity and hunger in India are complex. Some research indicates that high rates of migration from rural to urban areas may play a role [ 15 ], as evidenced by the concentration of economic gains in urban areas, and the significant changes to the contribution of the agriculture sector to GDP [ 16 ]. The adverse effects of climate change are also an emerging contributor to food insecurity, with uneven weather patterns and increasing droughts to blame for uneven growth and production of food stock [ 5 ]. The most recent Global Hunger Index (GHI) ranks India at the high end of the ‘serious’ category, as India continues to perform poorly in addressing hunger and malnutrition; currently one in three Indian children is stunted representing one third of the world’s stunted population, and one in five is wasted [ 17 ]. Many in India also experiences hidden hunger. Hidden hunger refers to a situation of chronic micronutrient deficiency, where a person might have access to sufficient calories, but lacks adequate micronutrients [ 18 ]. Hidden hunger can have lasting effects on health and wellbeing, and is especially problematic for children [ 19 ].

The government of India have adopted a range of policies over the last 60 years in an attempt to strengthen food security [ 5 ]. One of the key responses to food insecurity and hunger in India is the distribution of food grains through the government controlled Public Distribution System (PDS) [ 20 ]. Established after World War Two with an aim of increasing domestic agricultural production and improving food security, the PDS has evolved to the largest universal distribution system in the world for the supply of subsidised food grains [ 20 , 21 ]. Through a partnership between central and state governments, the food-safety net program aims to supplement essential household supplies including wheat, rice, sugar, and kerosene. However, like other solutions to food scarcity, this program is not intended to provide all required household foods, but rather provide goods to supplement purchased or farmed goods [ 20 , 22 ]. To facilitate the distribution, the Food Corporation of India (FCI) acts a central nodal agency responsible for the procurement of food grains from farmers at a price that is often higher than market price [ 20 , 23 ]. The individual state governments then procure the food grains at a subsidised price known as the ‘central issue price’ from the FCI [ 20 , 24 ], these goods are then distributed to consumers via fair price or ration shops [ 20 ].

Amendments made to the PDS in June 1992 sought to improve coverage, especially to those living in disadvantaged, remote, or difficult to access areas [ 20 ]. The PDS was re-structured again in June 1997, to better target lower socio-economic areas [ 20 ]. This Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) aimed to provide over seven million tonnes of foods to 60 million households identified as below the poverty line [ 20 ]. This was followed by the introduction (in December 2000 and expansion in 2003–2006) of the Antyodaya Anna Yojana (a Hindi term meaning “grain scheme for the downtrodden” [ 25 ]) scheme to provide highly subsidised foods to India’s poor. The scheme was an attempt to streamline the PDS to more efficiently target the poorest of the poor. This expansion of the PDS also included provision of food and goods to senior citizens and pensioners over 60 years, as well as widows and people affected by disease or infirmity [ 20 ].

These measures to strengthen the PDS received statutory backing through the introduction of the National Food Security Act (NFSA) [ 20 , 26 , 27 ]. Through the adoption of a life cycle approach, the importance of food security was emphasised by the NFSA. Through its implementation, the PDS achieved 75% coverage of the rural population, and around half of the urban population, monetary and nutritional support was mandated to pregnant and lactating women, and through the Integrated Child Development Services and Mid-Day Meal Schemes, children aged 6 months to 14 years were also covered [ 20 , 26 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. The NFSA marked an important milestone in that it awarded India’s food safety network a legal standing in accordance with the fundamental right to good health and nutritious food [ 20 , 26 , 31 ]. The NSFA also went some way to address the challenges faced by the TPDS in the form of corruption and diversion by enforcing more accountability on stakeholders while improving the transparency of its operation [ 21 , 28 ].

While a number of studies have identified the role of the PDS and NFSA in improving the food security of India, at least through the provision of calories [ 32 , 33 ], there is some concern relating to issues of miss-targeting, under-coverage, corruption and diversion affecting the implementation and operation of the food safety network in India [ 13 , 26 , 34 ]. Understanding these concerns is challenging, as while a number of non-government organisations and government bodies provide reports on the quantity of food distributed [ 35 ], and the number of people reached through the PDS [ 36 , 37 ], there is little analysis or evidence surrounding the broader issues related to food insecurity and the PDS. Furthermore, these reports rarely provide the method for data collection and/or analysis, making further interpretation difficult. This current review seeks to bring together the published literature on the PDS, in order to investigate the role it plays in addressing food insecurity in India. This review seeks to understand this large and expensive food distribution system and its role in one of the most populist, but inequitable countries. This is the first review of its kind of this program, with the objective of providing a clear overview of current knowledge in this area. By investigating the available peer-reviewed literature, this review seeks to understand the role of the PDS in any attempt to achieve food security in India.

Specifically, there are two main objectives to this review:

• To investigate the role of the PDS in delivering an efficient food-safety network in India;
• To investigate the barriers and enablers of the PDS.

3. Method and Approach

A systematic literature search was conducted in November 2018 to identify articles that investigated the role of the PDS in responding to food insecurity in India. Databases included; Academic Search Complete, CINAHL Complete, EconLit, Global Health, GreenFILE, Health Policy Reference Center, Legal Source, Scopus, and Medline. Search terms included “food insecurity” OR “food security” AND “Public Distribution System” OR “PDS” OR “TPDS” AND “India”. Limits restricted the search to those articles with full text published in English. In order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the role of the PDS in achieving food security over time, no temporal limitations were placed on articles.

Articles were included in this review if they (1) included food security or food insecurity as an exposure of interest; (2) investigated the role of the PDS in addressing food security; and (3) were peer-reviewed. Editorials or commentaries [ 34 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ] were excluded. Both authors reviewed all articles to identify relevancy. Articles were first screened by title and abstract based on the inclusion criteria. The full text of selected articles was obtained for assessment for final inclusion.

The database search utilising the key words identified 457 articles, of which 35 were duplicates. The titles and abstracts of the remaining 422 articles were reviewed to determine eligibility. Of these 334 articles were rejected based on the title or abstract, the full text of the remaining 88 articles was reviewed, leaving 23 that met the inclusion criteria ( Figure 1 ).

Flow chart showing article selection.

4.1. Study Characteristics

Reflecting recent interest in issues of the role of the PDS in addressing food insecurity, most articles ( n = 19) were published between 2010 and 2018. While some ( n = 11) articles reported on data collected by the National Sample Survey (NSS), India’s nation-wide household survey conducted on various socio-economic issues, only three articles reported on data that was collected at a national level [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. The remaining studies focused on single states or a group of states, the most included states were Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh (see Table 1 ).

Summary of included studies.

Four studies employed mixed methods [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ]. These studies employed a variety of methods including household interviews, and interviews with individual household members, surveys and interviews with PDS beneficiaries, and interviews with shop owners. Three studies were qualitative; Chopra, et al. [ 49 ] conducted interviews with 98 key informants including rice millers, production workers and shop owners; Dar [ 50 ] conducted interviews with 266 households in Kashmir to investigate a range of issues related to food access and entitlement; while Panigrahi and Pathak [ 51 ] conducted 50 interviews with above poverty line (APL) households and 50 interviews with below poverty line (BPL) households in Odisha to better understand their experiences with the PDS. All the remaining studies employed quantitative methods. Studies that focused on households ranged in participant household numbers from 50 [ 51 ] to more than half a million [ 44 ], while studies focused on individuals ranged in participant numbers from 98 [ 49 ] to 7124 [ 45 ].

4.2. Effectiveness of the PDS

Eight articles specifically examined the effectiveness of the PDS [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 49 , 53 , 54 , 56 , 58 ]. Each of these studies suggested that the PDS was not working effectively, with large amounts of food not reaching the intended recipients, and significant wastage resulting in high costs for limited benefits. For example, Dhanaraj and Gade [ 53 ] estimated that in Tamil Nadu, for every 5.43 kgs of PDS rice distributed by the government, only 1 kg reached those in need; the distribution was less efficient in the case of sugar, where only 1 kg for each 8.21 kgs distributed was consumed by those in need. Kumar [ 58 ], in a large investigation spanning 12 states, found that up to 100% of wheat was diverted in some cases, with diversion and provision of rice and wheat being different across all states. Khera [ 54 ], suggested that households cannot access their full entitlement to goods, and as a result are forced to purchase much of their food from the free market. Conversely, a positive trend was identified in the state of Bihar, where in 1993, 90% of food grains were diverted away from those in need; by 2001 this figure was down to just 12.5% of diverted food grain [ 56 ]. Similar findings were reported by Nair [ 61 ] in Kerala. In both states, this was attributed to better transparency and infrastructure.

4.3. Barriers and Enablers to the Efficient Working of the PDS

A number of barriers and enablers influencing the efficient working of the PDS were investigated across the studies included in this review. One key barrier to a more efficient system was the presence of illegal (or ghost) cards, with the finding that some households hold multiple cards [ 51 , 58 ]. The illegal cards were identified in several states, with Kumar [ 58 ] suggesting that there were approximately 230 million excess cards across the country in 2006.

Despite a number of significant, system-wide changes over recent years, high levels of corruption and leakage continue to plague the PDS [ 48 , 53 , 54 ]. Part of this leakage occurs at the level of the fair price shops, where Gupta and Singh [ 48 ] reported that some store owners exchanged the high quality goods provided from the government for distribution through the PDS with lesser quality goods from the general stores. Both Khera [ 54 ] and Dhanaraj and Gade [ 53 ] reported very high rates of corruption within the system, in some states this was up to 100% leakage or ‘diversion’ from the supply chain. Transparency, better governance, technology and the introduction of computerisation, along with use of global positioning system and distribution via doorstep delivery have been suggested as potential ways to address these issues [ 45 , 56 ].

Targeting errors, specifically the problems associated with targeting BPL and APL households were identified as areas where efficiencies could be made [ 45 , 52 , 58 ]. These studies suggest that while there was some effort to target the BPL households, the targeting has had a marginal effect on poor households [ 52 ]. There is also a suggestion from Kumar [ 58 ] that non-poor households have been included in the PDS to the detriment of the system. This is consistent with the work of Nair [ 61 ], who suggest that better targeting and the removal of APL households, that is, a removal of universal nature of the system, would have significant positive impacts on the operation and effects of the PDS.

4.4. Food Security in India—A Concept Map

In attempting to dissect the various areas that affect the effectiveness of the PDS and incorporate the involvement of multiple interrelated factors in addressing food security in India, a concept map was created ( Figure 2 ). In the conceptual representation of the factors that determine the national food security, blue arrows signify those factors that can be influenced by policy changes. The red arrows and negative polarity indicate elements that act as barriers while the green arrows and positive polarity specify variables that act as enablers.

A concept of the various determinants that affect effectiveness of the PDS and NFSA in addressing the food security in India. NFSA: National Food Security Act; PDS: Public Distribution System.

As shown in Figure 2 , there are multiple cross-links between the domains influencing food insecurity; the complex nature of the problem means that there is no one single overarching solution. One of the main responses to food insecurity in India, the PDS, is riddled with problems of targeting, diversion, and corruption [ 45 , 54 , 56 ]. As shown here, increased corruption decreases the accessibility which in turn affects the overall functioning of the PDS [ 54 , 56 ]. Despite the existence of multiple barriers, the PDS can be fortified if the enablers identified here are concentrated on. Efficient and well monitored administration was observed as a conclusive answer to not just problems with targeting but is also an effective solution for diversion [ 21 , 45 , 54 , 56 ]. Subsidised rates for commodities and an efficient transport system can also be drivers of success [ 21 , 45 ], as can an efficient food chain system that fosters greater inclusivity while reducing transaction costs [ 21 , 45 ]. Finally, increased wages in the agricultural sector were also recognised as a facilitating factor for the functioning of the PDS and agriculture in India [ 45 , 64 ].

The NFSA also plays a key role in responding to food insecurity. Having been a positive reinforcement for the PDS, it has the capacity to boost agriculture and reduce hunger and malnutrition by enhancing economic growth [ 65 ]. However, the NFSA fails to support environmental sustainability which is vital for the economy and long-term sustenance of the agricultural sector [ 64 , 65 ]. As shown in Figure 2 , the NFSA is a double-edged sword which requires careful monitoring and modifications in order to achieve its full potential [ 65 ].

While each determinant present in the concept map is vital for safeguarding food security in India, the key driver that influences most of the factors is policy change. Policy amendments have the capacity to establish food security within the country by regulating the barriers and enablers that affect the operational efficiency of the PDS [ 21 , 45 , 54 , 56 ]. Positive steps towards the eradication of hunger, malnutrition, childhood mortality, and environmental sustainability can be attained with effective policies [ 44 , 66 ]. The economy of a country, including the pricing strategies, is also influenced by policy reforms and thus affects subsidised rates which are vital for the effective penetration of the PDS [ 21 ]. The concept map thus helps to understand that policy changes coupled with reforms in PDS and NFSA are crucial for India to achieve food security for its inhabitants.

5. Discussion

This review examined 23 studies to investigate the role of the PDS in addressing food insecurity in India. The key finding of this review is that, while the PDS has been strengthened over recent years, particularly through efforts to target those most in need, more work remains, particularly around transparency and accountability [ 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 ].

5.1. Failure of PDS

The PDS is the largest food distribution network in the world [ 20 , 71 , 72 ], and its effective and efficient functioning is an essential component of any response to food insecurity. However, inefficiencies, miss-targeting, and corruption mean that there remain a large number of food insecure people in India. This review has found two key reasons for the failure of PDS in addressing food security: (1) problems with targeting; and (2) problems of diversion and corruption.

5.1.1. Targeting

In 1997, the PDS was restructured, shifting from a universal system, where all Indians, in principle, were eligible to receive a food subsidy, to a system that targeted those most in need. This targeting had two main purposes: (1) to bring down the ever increasing costs of the system; and (2) to provide more food to those in need [ 73 ]. Under this change BPL households continued to receive subsidised foods, while subsidies for APL households were phased out [ 54 ]. BPL households were identified via household income, compared against an absolute income line. However, households with any assets (such as televisions, fans, two or four wheeled vehicles, or land) were classified as APL under this change, and despite owning such goods, many of these APL households were food insecure, and with the removal of rations were unable to purchase sufficient goods [ 21 , 45 , 74 ]. The problem of targeting is compounded by the lack of good quality regular data; no regular official estimates of the actual income of households are conducted, with many households BPL not classified as such, and some BPL households not holding ration cards [ 73 ]. These problems with targeting limit the usefulness of the PDS in acting as an effective food safety network [ 58 , 75 ], and are further exacerbated by the existence of illegal cards [ 76 ].

5.1.2. Diversion and Corruption

Leakage and diversion continue to limit the efficiency of the PDS [ 77 ]. Whole India data have shown mixed results over the past two decades, with figures from 2007–2008 showing a 44 percent diversion rate for grain, down from 55 percent three years earlier. While these figures reflect a decrease in losses from the system, there remains a significant amount of food displaced in the system [ 78 ]. These diversions of commodities, intended for the PDS, into the general market result in shortages for those who rely on subsidised rations [ 73 ]. Targeting has not resolved problems with leakage and diversion, some suggest that it has in fact made it worse [ 79 ]. Dual pricing introduced through the TPDS is seen by some as an incentive for stakeholders to divert commodities into the open market where they can command a higher price [ 80 ]. These diversions and leakages coupled with the inefficiency in monitoring partly due to the decentralised operation increase the likelihood of ingrained, and ongoing corruption [ 80 ].

5.2. Mechanisms to Strengthen the PDS

While there are many challenges with the working of the PDS, it has the potential to play an important role in addressing food security in India. This review has identified two mechanisms to reinforce efficiency into the functioning of the PDS: (1) the National Food Security Act, 2013; and (2) tracking and electronic governance.

5.2.1. The National Food Security Act

The introduction of the NFSA in 2013 was a constructive step towards strengthening the PDS. Representing a shift from a traditional welfare approach, to an approach underpinned by the acceptance of the human right to food and adequate nutrition, the NFSA formalises the aim of the PDS to provide subsidised food grains to over 800 million people, or approximately two thirds of India’s population. The broad nature of the NSFA allowed for a number of existing food security measures to be entered into law. The NSFA is underpinned by a life cycle approach, that is, it considers the nutritional requirements of the population across all age groups [ 81 ], and it includes both universal aspects, available to all Indians, such as the Midday Meal Scheme and the Integrated Child Development Services Scheme, while retaining PDS targeting. Under the NFSA, 75 percent of the rural and 50 percent of the urban population are entitled to 5 kg food grains per month at Rs 3, Rs 2, and Rs 1 for a kg of rice, wheat, and millet, respectively (100 Rupees (Rs) is equal to 1.39 USD).

In addition to the formalisation of a number of pre-existing entitlements, the NFSA aimed to reinforce the role of the states in the coordination of the PDS, as well as improving transparency and accountability [ 26 ]. With empowerment of women and the vulnerable sections of society among the key objectives of the NFSA, monitoring measures to address issues of corruption, diversion and leakages through better partnerships between the central and state governments are also highlighted [ 26 , 28 ].

While the NFSA has every potential to be a “game changer” to strengthen the agricultural industry and the economy of the country, the ability of the NFSA to have a sustained effect on nutrition is questionable [ 10 , 65 ]. Problems with identifying those households in need have not been resolved by the NSFA, and there remains problems with illegal cards [ 82 ]. Finally, the expanding need of food grain associated with the NFSA may be detrimental to the environmental sustainability as it demands increased fertiliser, water, and land use, which if unchecked, may lead to land, air, and water pollution [ 65 ].

5.2.2. Tracking and Electronic Governance

The role of information and communications technology has the potential to be a critical element of success if endorsed and implemented. With the dissemination of digitalisation into the public sector, computerisation can improve the operation of PDS reducing some leakage [ 83 ]. It can aid in the identification of beneficiaries and reduce inclusion and exclusion errors associated with targeting while increasing transparency and accountability [ 56 ]. Other technology currently trialed in some areas is the application of global positioning system in tracking the food supply chain. This approach works by ensuring that goods are scanned in and out at all points of the supply chain, and has so far shown a reduction in corruption, leakages, and diversion [ 57 , 76 ], and has also shown that goods provided to consumers are higher after the implementation of the system [ 84 ].

5.2.3. Food Insecurity in India in a Global Context

India is not alone in seeking a range of measures to combat food insecurity. China, like India has a growing economy and a large population. Despite economic growth in China over recent years, like India, China is home to one of the largest populations of hungry people [ 85 ]. While India relies on the PDS to mitigate food insecurity, China has focused significant attention on programs that seek to redistribute wealth, and non-food based social security. China is also experiencing a shift in diet patterns, a shift that is having an impact on agricultural production and on the use of land [ 86 ]. Likewise, the food insecurity situation in Brazil is undergoing a transformation in the agricultural sector. Like the populations in China and India, the people of Brazil have an increasingly global diet, forcing a change in agricultural patterns. This transition, however, is being supported by the government, alongside cash transfers and school meal programs as an avenue to address increasing food insecurity, with initial indications suggesting some success [ 87 , 88 ]. Given the very large populations in need in these countries, there is unlikely to be a single solution that will work within or across countries. What is important going forward, is that complete and comprehensive data are collected to effectively evaluate these programs.

5.3. Limitations

Several limitations within the literature studied needs to be acknowledged. The limited information on recruitment, data collection, and analysis across the 23 articles included in the review makes comparison difficult and makes any attempt at meta-analysis impossible. The use of secondary data by most of the studies can also affect the quality of the results as it could be outdated or inaccurate among many other pitfalls leading to measurement errors or bias [ 21 , 44 , 54 , 56 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 89 ].

While the authors have attempted to ensure a comprehensive search strategy and methodology for undertaking the literature review, additional articles may have been missed. The complexity of the research topic including the multi-sectoral and multi-dimensional nature of food security has also posed limitations on the literature review. There is also a possibility of relevant grey literature, or literature not available to the public having been missed. Publications in languages other than English may also have been missed.

6. Conclusions

The findings of the review suggest a failure at the policy level. The PDS is a cornerstone of government policy responding to nutrition and food security. However, it is riddled with inefficiencies that decrease its capacity to effectively distribute food to those in need. One positive response has been the implementation of the NFSA in 2013, which has strengthened the PDS by providing statutory backing. As evidenced by the review, policy reforms targeted at improving the operational efficiencies and sustainability aspect of the PDS and NFSA are vital for its success. The PDS may not be able to eliminate the issue of malnutrition and childhood morbidity or mortality in India, but it can reduce the levels of hunger in India if implemented effectively. Integrating the PDS with other interventions including those that will increase transparency and accountability may increase its potential to realise every citizen’s right to nutritious food while propagating good health.

The review is the first of its kind to examine the effectiveness of PDS in addressing food insecurity in India. The study also observed the lack of published research around PDS, NFSA and food security in India. This raises the possibility of missing out on existing interventions that have the potential to improve the food distribution network in India. Overall, the review brings out the need for more dedicated research in the field of food security in India which is vital for identifying best practice solutions that will improve the efficacy and operation of the PDS.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.A.G. and F.H.M.; Data curation, N.A.G. and F.H.M.; Formal analysis, N.A.G. and F.H.M.; Investigation, N.A.G. and F.H.M.; Methodology, N.A.G.and F.H.M.; Project administration, N.A.G.and F.H.M; Supervision, F.H.M.; Writing–original draft, N.A.G. and F.HM.; Writing–review, editing, N.A.G. and F.H.M.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

India: widespread food insecurity may be damaging children’s ability to learn – and the future economy

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There has been an impressive expansion in school enrolment in India since the early 2000s. Despite this, India is in the midst of a “ learning crisis ”, with improvements in learning lagging behind increases in enrolment.

Worldwide, India also has one of the highest rates of child undernutrition and household food insecurity – that is, inadequate or inconsistent access to enough safe and nutritious food to sustain a healthy life.

Both of these issues have negative implications for the long-term health, well-being and productivity of young people, as well as for the economy more broadly.

In our recent study , we used survey data from the Young Lives study of childhood poverty to examine whether there is a link between food insecurity and learning for Indian adolescents.

There are good theoretical reasons why learning and food insecurity may be linked. When households experience food insecurity, they may have to make difficult decisions in order to meet the family’s nutritional needs.

For instance, households that need money for food might reduce spending on school fees and materials. Children might miss school, have less time available to study, or even drop out altogether so that they can contribute to the household economy.

Food insecurity can also cause children to experience hunger, undernutrition, and micronutrient deficiencies. This can lead children to have problems with concentration and memory . It can even impair their cognitive development .

Children who experience food insecurity might also feel irritability and shame. This could impact negatively on their interactions with their parents, teachers and peers.

In the Young Lives data, 47% of 12-year-olds had experienced household food insecurity at some stage during the observation period. And even 18% of the wealthiest families had experienced food insecurity; food insecurity is not exclusively a matter of poverty.

Associations with learning

The study followed the same children over time, beginning in 2002. It tracked both food insecurity and children’s learning outcomes in four domains: reading, English, maths, and local language vocabulary.

In order to test for a link between food insecurity and learning, we applied statistical modelling. We used information on whether households had experienced food insecurity when the children were aged five and eight, and when they entered adolescence at age 12.

We found that food insecurity was negatively linked to learning outcomes in all four domains. This was true even after we accounted for other important factors.

For example, it could be that poverty affects both food insecurity and learning – and so any link between these outcomes is actually the result of poverty. We accounted for this and other possible explanations in our robust models, and still consistently found a negative association between food insecurity and learning across domains.

We also considered the timing and persistence of food insecurity. Do early life experiences affect later learning? Or can adolescents recover from earlier food insecurity? Are there differences if adolescents experience shorter versus longer periods of food insecurity?

We found that both timing and persistence do matter, but they have different effects in different learning domains. For vocabulary and reading, early and persistent food insecurity were very detrimental for learning. English and maths were more complex.

For English, early food insecurity didn’t matter as much, but later and persistent food insecurity were linked to poorer learning outcomes. This may reflect that, at the time of the study, English language learning happened later in the curriculum.

For maths, food insecurity at any time was strongly and negatively associated with learning. This may reflect the fact that maths learning at one level is built directly on learning at a previous level. In other words, a child who does not learn basic addition due to food insecurity will struggle with more complex maths. In contrast, for subjects such as reading, once foundational skills are established, some catch-up for missed material may be possible in the short term.

Feeding the future

Our work demonstrates the lasting effects of early life experiences. Addressing food insecurity may be an important part of resolving India’s learning crisis.

It may also contribute to achieving some of the UN Sustainable Development Goals . Goal #2 aims to end hunger and achieve food security. Our findings suggest that meeting this goal may have ripple effects by reducing inequalities (goal #10) and ensuring inclusive, quality education for all (goal #4).

As we have argued elsewhere , early intervention to prevent food insecurity is important to ensure that children are not disadvantaged while learning foundational skills. Scaling up early childhood feeding programs may be useful for targeting early food insecurity.

Offering free remedial learning classes for children who experience food insecurity may also enable them to catch up with peers. Finally, where social protection is inadequate to prevent children from working, providing safe, well-paid employment opportunities over school breaks may help children to work without missing learning opportunities.

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COVID-19 is creating a hunger catastrophe in India – here's an opportunity to break the cycle

Solutions must both address food insecurity and provide livelihood opportunities for vulnerable people. Image:  REUTERS/Rupak De Chowdhuri

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• COVID-19 has exacerbated hunger and poverty worldwide, especially in India.
• The crisis highlights the importance of putting relief directly into the hands of vulnerable people.
• Solutions must address both immediate food insecurity and provide livelihood opportunities so as to break the cycle of hunger and poverty.

COVID-19 has proven to be not only a health crisis, but also a livelihood crisis – quickly turning into a hunger and malnutrition catastrophe.

The pandemic has led to increase in global food insecurity, affecting vulnerable households in almost every country. It has exacerbated existing inequalities, pushing millions of people into the vicious cycles of economic stagnation, loss of livelihood and worsening food insecurity.

Have you read?

Global hunger fell for decades, but it's rising again.

The World Bank estimates that 71 million people will be pushed into extreme poverty across the globe as a result of the pandemic . The World Food Programme estimates that an additional 130 million people could fall into the category of “food insecure” over and above the 820 million who were classified as such by the 2019 State of Food Insecurity in the World Report .

As the deadly second wave ravages India, individual states have imposed lockdowns and strict restrictions to curb the spread of the virus. During the first phase, the plight and misery of the migrant workers and other vulnerable communities was laid bare. But this time, the health crisis has overwhelmed the existing livelihood and hunger crisis which still looms large in most of our towns and villages.

The CMIE Unemployment Data reveals a grim picture , with rural unemployment spiralling to 14.34% and urban unemployment reaching 14.71% as of 16 May 2021. In a country where a majority of the workforce is in informal sector, people have been massively affected due to loss of jobs and the lack of access to the benefits (including social security) that come with formal employment. The daily wagers, construction workers, street vendors and domestic helpers have been disproportionately affected by the pandemic and lockdowns and are living a life of uncertainty and disrupted incomes. Agriculture is the primary occupation in the villages, but due to frequent lockdowns, there has been a disruption of supply chains and access to market for the sale of agricultural produce, impacting the income of rural households. And while there is no gender-disaggregated data on the impact of COVID-19 specifically on women, experience shows women are disproportionately affected during pandemics, economic downturns and times of food insecurity.

In the 2020 Global Hunger Index , India ranks 94th out of 107 countries . The pandemic and resulting unemployment has made India’s hunger crisis worse. The First Phase of the National Family Health Survey (2019-2020) has revealed alarming findings, with as many as 16 states showing an increase in underweight and severely wasted children of under the age of 5 . The pandemic is becoming a nutrition crisis, due to overburdened healthcare systems, disrupted food patterns and income loss, along with the disruption of programmes like the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) and the mid-day meal.

The crisis highlights the importance of the existing welfare schemes like Mahatma Gandhi Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) , Public Distribution System (PDS) and Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY) , which put cash and relief directly into the hands of the most vulnerable people to help them ride out the economic distress. It is imperative to improve food security by increasing local food production and strengthening food supply chains. The availability of high food stocks presents an opportunity for universal PDS, which is much needed. As many young people who were the breadwinners of their families have succumbed to the virus during the second wave, it is of utmost importance that support is provided to these families with adequate cash, food support and employment opportunities to prevent them from slipping further below the poverty line.

Since the onset of the pandemic, a plethora of civil society organisations have risen to the occasion to provide humanitarian relief. We founded Samarpann ( www.samarpann.org ) to provide sustainable solutions for health, education, food and livelihood for the most marginalised communities in the rural and tribal areas of India.

During the first wave of COVID-19 during March-June 2020, we distributed 2.5 million meals across six states in India to daily wagers, migrant workers and slum dwellers when livelihood and incomes had stalled completely because of the lockdown. When, along with our team, we visited the villages in Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Kashmir, we realised that nothing had changed for these families in the second wave as compared to the first wave, other than more people falling sick and families losing loved ones due to lack of timely medical aid. Though we are providing immediate relief in the form of rations and sanitation kits, it is important to start rebuilding the lives of these families, especially those who have lost their earning members. Hence, we are purchasing food relief material from the Self Help Groups (SHGs) in order to increase their sources of income and provide the same material as aid to the marginalised in the community itself. We believe that the solution to the hunger crisis should follow a two-pronged approach of addressing food insecurity as well as providing livelihood opportunities to the people whose voices have largely been left unheard in this second wave.

6 ways social entrepreneurs are saving lives during India's COVID-19 crisis

COVID-19 presents both a challenge in our long-standing problems with food security and nutrition ­– and an opportunity to address it. The need of the hour is to come up with sustainable solutions which help us not only tide over the current crisis but also lift millions of people out of the cycle of hunger and poverty.

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The second most populous country in the world, India has enjoyed steady economic growth and has achieved self-sufficiency in grain production in recent years. Despite this, high levels of poverty, food insecurity and malnutrition persist. Around 21.25 percent of the population lives on less than US$1.90 a day , and levels of inequality and social exclusion are very high.

India is home to a quarter of all undernourished people worldwide , making the country a key focus for tackling hunger on a global scale. In the last two decades, per capita income more than tripled, yet the minimum dietary intake fell. The gap between rich and poor increased during this period of high economic growth.

WFP has been working in India since 1963 , with work transitioning from food distribution to technical assistance since the country achieved self-sufficiency in cereal production . With the Government now providing its own food distribution systems, our work focuses on supporting the strengthening of these systems to ensure they become more efficient and reach the people who need them most.

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Food Insecurity and Health in India Essay

Introduction, social determinants of health.

Food insecurity is an issue that raises serious concerns to a country. Hence, it should be a government’s priority. According to Bhatt (2004) “food is an incentive, particularly appropriate in areas of high food insecurity” (p. 58). Provision of sufficient farm inputs such as fertilizer, high breed seeds, farm machines and agricultural loans is likely to increase production. High breed seeds have a high production capacity and they mature over a short time. Farm mechanization is critical in increasing food production. It helps farmers to cultivate large tracts of land with ease as opposed to when they rely on human labor. It is unfortunate that sometimes, during the harvest seasons, farmers lose their produce due to poor storage facilities. The government may introduce Cereals and Produce Boards in the main agricultural areas such as Burma and Punjab to improve food storage facilities. Hence, it ought to educate farmers on better food preservation methods.

The farmers may practice crop diversification and adoption of drought-resistant crops. Such crops are useful in regions which receive insufficient rainfall on an annual basis. They chip in to address food insecurity in regions where other food crops cannot survive due to high temperatures.

Social determinants of health refer to conditions which affect people’s health statuses. The World Health Organization (2013) defines social determinants of health as the “conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age” (n. p). Some of them include:

• Poverty : poor people are likely to exhibit poor health statuses. Many of them cannot afford preventive and curative healthcare. Moreover, they depend on public health facilities which may be ineffective due to a large number of patients who flock in the facilities. Many people in poverty stricken areas live below the poverty line (Marmot & Wilkinson, 2006). Their sanitation facilities are poor, thus, increasing their chances of contracting waterborne diseases.
• Education : Educated people are quite innovative when it comes to finding solutions to their problems. Similarly, they are knowledgeable on some disease prevention measures. They respond appropriately to a health threat such as an outbreak. Illiteracy is directly related to poor health (WHO, 2014).
• Occupation : One’s occupation determines their health. People of low social class are likely to work in high-risk areas and vice versa. High-risk areas include quarries and sewerage systems. Such occupations are not only tedious but also risky to their health.

Food insecurity has been prevalent in India for a long time. Although the country has experienced some agricultural development over the recent decades, it is unfortunate that it has failed to address the recurrent food shortage. The case can be attributed to the high population density and inefficient methods of production. It is sad that a nation such as India grapples with food shortage in the twenty-first century despite the agricultural potential of regions such Karnataka, Punjab, Burma and Bihar.

The government may address some of the social determinants of health such as poverty. Poverty, disease and illiteracy are three inseparable factors. An illiterate person is intellectually and economically deprived, because their production capacity is low. A person’s occupation depends on their educational achievement. Therefore, an illiterate person is likely to serve as a manual laborer. The government may partner with international agricultural organizations to educate its citizens on better farming methods and inputs to address the issue of food insecurity. It may also collude with the Indian Ministry of Agriculture to fund irrigation schemes in dry, but economically viable regions. Irrigation enables such areas to produce food to feed them and their neighbors. In addition, the government may provide incentives to farmers as some of them do not get the anticipated produce due to use of ineffective production methods.

Bhatt, M. S. (2004). Poverty and Food Security in India: Problems and Policies . Delhi: Aakar Books.

Marmot, M., & Wilkinson, R. G. (2006). Social Determinants of Health . Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

WHO. (2014). Health Impact Assessment: The Determinants of Health . Web.

WHO. (2013). Social Determinants of Health: Progress on the Implementation of the Rio Political Declaration . Web.

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IvyPanda. (2022, January 24). Food Insecurity and Health in India. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-insecurity-and-health-in-india/

"Food Insecurity and Health in India." IvyPanda , 24 Jan. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/food-insecurity-and-health-in-india/.

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IvyPanda . 2022. "Food Insecurity and Health in India." January 24, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-insecurity-and-health-in-india/.

1. IvyPanda . "Food Insecurity and Health in India." January 24, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-insecurity-and-health-in-india/.

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IvyPanda . "Food Insecurity and Health in India." January 24, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-insecurity-and-health-in-india/.

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Measuring Food Insecurity in India: A Systematic Review of the Current Evidence

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• Published: 06 April 2023
• Volume 12 , pages 358–367, ( 2023 )

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• Fiona H. McKay   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0498-3572 1 , 2 ,
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Purpose of Review

India is home to an estimated 200 million malnourished people, suggesting widespread food insecurity. However, variations in the methods used for determining food insecurity status mean there is uncertainty in the data and severity of food insecurity across the country. This systematic review investigated the peer-reviewed literature examining food insecurity in India to identify both the breadth of research being conducted as well as the instruments used and the populations under study.

Recent Findings

Nine databases were searched in March 2020. After excluding articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria, 53 articles were reviewed. The most common tool for measuring food insecurity was the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), followed by the Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM), and the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES). Reported food insecurity ranged from 8.7 to 99% depending on the measurement tool and population under investigation. This study found variations in methods for the assessment of food insecurity in India and the reliance on cross-sectional studies.

Based on the findings of this review and the size and diversity of the Indian population, there is an opportunity for the development and implementation of an Indian-specific food security measure to allow researchers to collect better data on food insecurity. Considering India’s widespread malnutrition and high prevalence of food insecurity, the development of such a tool will go part of way in addressing nutrition-related public health in India.

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Introduction

Food insecurity has been identified as a “pressing public health concern” in India [ 1 •]. At the household level, food security exists when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life [ 2 ••]. Individuals who are food secure do not live with hunger or fear starvation. Across urban settings, the prevalence of food insecurity has been found to range from 51 to 77%, yet over 70% of India’s population resides rurally, where data concerning food insecurity is limited [ 3 ].

The concept of food security consists of six main dimensions: availability, access, utilization, stability, agency, and sustainability. The first three dimensions are interlinked and hierarchical. Food availability is concerned with ensuring that sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality are supplied through domestic production or imports (including food aid). Access to food is necessary but not sufficient for access. Access is concerned with ensuring adequate resources, or entitlements, are available for the acquisition of appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. Access is necessary but not sufficient for utilization. Utilization is concerned with the ability of an individual to access an adequate diet, clean water, sanitation, and health care to reach a state of nutritional well-being. The three other concepts have become increasingly accepted as important, as risks such as climatic fluctuations, conflict, job loss, and epidemic disease can disrupt any one of the first three factors. Stability refers to the constancy of the first three dimensions. Agency is recognized as the capacity of individuals or groups to make their own food decisions, including about what they eat, what and how they produce food, and how that food is distributed within food systems and governance. Finally, sustainability refers to the long-term ability of food systems to provide food security and nutrition in a way that does not compromise the economic, social, and environmental bases that generate food security and nutrition for future generations [ 4 ••].

Two hundred million people living in India are estimated to be malnourished [ 5 •]. Poverty, a lack of clean drinking water, and poor sanitation have been identified as common factors contributing to malnutrition in India [ 1 •]. Yet to date, despite high rates of malnutrition pointing toward widespread food insecurity [ 6 ], the link between food insecurity and malnutrition in India has seldom been explored. Of the limited data available, associations have been found between household food insecurity and child stunting, wasting, and being underweight [ 7 ], highlighting the urgency of food insecurity as a public health priority.

Considering the high rates of child stunting, wasting, and overall malnutrition in India, exploring past and emerging research which has both assessed and addressed food insecurity is a crucial step in better understanding nutrition-related health at the population level. Currently, to the best of our knowledge, there is no published systematic review which has explored household food insecurity in India. To understand the factors that contribute to food insecurity at the household level, the related health and nutrition outcomes, and to conceptualize potential strategies which target food insecurity in India, a systematic review of published research undertaken to date which has focused on food insecurity in India is urgently needed. This review seeks to (1) systematically investigate the peer-reviewed literature that purports to investigate food insecurity in India, (2) identify the breadth of research being conducted in India, including the instruments used and the populations under study, and (3) provide an overview of the severity of food insecurity in India as presented by these studies.

A systematic search was undertaken to identify all food security research conducted at the household level in India. The search was conducted in March 2020. Key search terms were based on the FAO [ 8 ] definition of food security: “food access*,” OR “food afford*,” OR “food insecur*,” OR “food poverty*,” OR “food secur*,” OR “food suppl*,” OR “food sufficien*,” OR “food insufficien*,” OR “hung*” AND “household*” OR “house*” AND “India.” Searched databases included Academic Search Complete, CINAHL Complete, Global Health, MEDLINE, Embase, SCOPUS, ProQuest, PsychInfo, and Web of Science. To gain a full collection of articles that reported on research investigating household food security in India, no limits were placed on publication dates. Only peer-reviewed articles published in English were considered; unpublished articles, books, theses, dissertations, and non-peer-reviewed articles were excluded. This review adheres to the PRISMA statement [ 9 , 10 ], see Fig. 1  for a flowchart describing the process of screened included and excluded articles.

Flow chart of articles meeting search criteria, number of articles excluded, and final number of articles meeting inclusion criteria for review

Two authors (FHM and AS) and a research assistant reviewed all articles to identify relevant studies. Articles underwent a three-step review process (see Fig. 1 ). All articles were downloaded into EndNote X7, duplicates were identified and removed, and the article titles, journal titles, year, and author names were then exported to Microsoft Excel 365 to facilitate reviewing. Articles were first screened by title and abstract based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria described above by two authors independently. Any article that clearly did not meet the inclusion criteria was removed at this stage, any that did, or possibly could meet the inclusion criteria on further inspection, were retained. The full text of the remaining articles was obtained, and at least two authors (FHM and AS) or a research assistant independently read all 161 articles that remained at this stage to determine if the article met the inclusion criteria. Any articles at this stage that clearly did not meet the inclusion criteria were removed. Any disagreements on those that were retained were discussed and settled by consensus between the authors.

Articles that discussed food insecurity in general but collected no new data (for example, Gopalan [ 11 ] and Gustafson [ 12 ]) were excluded, as were previously conducted reviews in the region (for example, del Ninno, Dorosh [ 13 ], Harris-Fry, Shrestha [ 14 ]). As this review was primarily interested in studies that purported to measure food insecurity in India, studies that discussed food insecurity, either as the standard measured construct or as a construct created by the authors but termed food insecurity, were included. While there are many non-government organizations and inter-government organizations that work to measure food or nutritional insecurity, the construct of “hunger,” the associated conditions of malnutrition (either with overweight or obesity) or conditions that might indicate malnutrition (including anemia or under-5 mortality), these reports generally do not include a complete description of the method used to collect data if data were collected at the household level and often use the sale or production of crops as a proxy; as such, these reports have been excluded from this review.

Data were extracted from each article by the three authors. Data were extracted into a Microsoft Excel 365 spreadsheet that allowed for the capture of specific information across all included articles. Data extracted at this stage included the following: location; population group; findings; measured food security (Y/N); method for determining food insecurity; and prevalence of food insecurity.

The search identified 1018 articles, of which 395 were duplicates. The titles and abstracts of the remaining 616 articles were read, with 518 articles excluded as they did not refer, either directly or indirectly, to food insecurity research in India, leaving 161 articles for further investigation. The full text of the 161 articles was reviewed; 108 articles were excluded as they did not meet the inclusion criteria. The remaining 53 articles were included in this review.

Most articles ( n  = 48, 90%) were cross-sectional studies; three were longitudinal, with data covering 27 years [ 15 ], 11 years [ 16 ], and 4 years [ 17 ], and one was a randomized controlled trial [ 18 ]. Eight studies employed a mixed methods approach, seven were qualitative, and the remaining 38 were quantitative studies. Participant numbers ranged in size from the smallest study with 10 participants [ 19 ] to population-level studies with over 100,000 participants [ 15 , 20 ]. See the supplementary material for an overview of the studies included.

Most food insecurity research was conducted in the state of West Bengal, where 9 studies were conducted, followed by 6 studies each in Maharashtra and the union territory of Delhi (see Fig. 2 ). India consists of 28 states and 8 union territories; this review found research from 17 states and five union territories, as well as four nationwide studies showing good coverage across the country.

Distribution of studies exploring food insecurity in India

Measuring Food Insecurity

All studies included in this review purported to measure food insecurity directly, with the main aim of the majority ( n  = 45, 85%) of articles to determine the prevalence of food insecurity. These articles employed a range of measurement tools to achieve this aim. The most common way to measure food insecurity was via the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) which was employed in 17 studies. The second most common method employed to measure food insecurity was via the Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM), employed in 13 studies. Other measures of food insecurity include the Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES), used in three studies, the Comprehensive Nutrition Survey in Maharashtra used in two studies, and the Radimer/Cornell used in one study. The remaining 17 studies used a proxy measure, either one devised by the authors or by using data from the India National Sample Survey (NSS). See Table 1 for an overview of these measurement tools.

The prevalence of food insecurity in these studies ranged from 8.7 to 99%; 13 studies stated that they measured food insecurity but did not report food insecurity results. The most common way for food insecurity to be measured in India was through employing Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). This experiential scale was designed to be used cross-culturally and consists of nine questions, with frequency questions asked if participants experience the condition. Responses to these questions are scored so that “never” receives a score of 0, “rarely” is scored 1, “sometimes” is scored 2, and “often” is scored 3, so that when summed, the lowest possible score is 0 and the highest is 27. A higher score represents greater food insecurity, with continuous scores typically divided into four categories, representing food-secure and mildly, moderately, and severely food-insecure households according to the scheme recommended by the HFIAS Indicator Guide [ 21 ]. The scale is based on a household’s experience of problems regarding access to food and represents three aspects of food insecurity found to be universal across cultures [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. This scale measures feelings of uncertainty or anxiety about household food supplies, perceptions that household food is of insufficient quality, and insufficient food intake [ 21 ]. The questions asked in the HFIAS allow households to assign a score along a continuum of severity, from food secure to food insecure. Food insecurity measured via the HFIAS ranged from 77.2% in a population of 250 women who resided in an urban area in South Delhi [ 25 ] to 8.7% in Indian children [ 26 ].

The second most common measurement tool identified in this search is the US Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM). This tool was developed to measure whether households have enough food or money to meet basic food needs and what their behavioral and subjective responses to that condition were [ 27 ]. The HFSSM module consists of a set of 18 items, 8 of which are specific to households with children. It captures four types of household food insecurity experiences: (1) uncertainty and worry, (2) inadequate food quality, and insufficient food quantity for (3) adults and (4) children [ 28 ]. It is available in an 18-item and 6-item forms and allows households to be assigned a category of food insecurity: high food security, marginal food insecurity, low food insecurity, and very low food insecurity. In accordance with the method proposed by Coleman-Jensen et al. [ 29 ], food security scores are combined to create one measure for the level of food security for a household. Food security status is determined by the number of food-insecure conditions and behaviors that the household reports. Households are classified as food secure if they report fewer than two food-insecure conditions. They are classified as food insecure if they report three or more food-insecure conditions, or two or more food-insecure conditions if they have children. Food-insecure households are further classified as having either low food security if they report between three and five food-insecure conditions (or three and seven if they have children), or very low food security if they have six or more food-insecurity conditions (eight if they have children). Studies that employed the HFSSM reported food insecurity ranging from 15.4 [ 30 , 31 , 32 ] to over 80% of study participants [ 33 ]. The HFSSM is a commonly used measure of food insecurity and can be used in several valid forms. Studies included in this review used the 4-, 6-, and 18-item versions of the HFSSM.

The Food Insecurity Experience Scale (FIES) module was used by three studies included in this review. The FIES questions refer to the experiences of the individual or household. This scale was created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and has been tested for use globally [ 28 ]. The questions focus on self-reported food-related behaviors and experiences associated with increasing difficulties in accessing food due to resource constraints. The FIES allows for the calibration of other measures, including the HFIAS and the HSSM with the FIES against a standard reference scale allowing for comparability of the estimated prevalence rates of food insecurity [ 34 ], as well as a raw score that can be used by authors as a way to create discrete categories of food insecurity severity [ 35 ]. The three studies that employed the FIES all reported food insecurity within a range of 66–77%, despite different population groups, locations, and sample sizes.

One study employed the Radimer/Cornell scale, a widely used and validated scale [ 36 ]. The scale includes ten items that relate to food anxiety and the quantity and quality of food available. The instrument allows for the categorization of households into four categories of food insecurity: food security, household food insecurity, individual food insecurity, and child hunger.

The Comprehensive National Nutrition Survey (CNNS) was used in two studies. It is a state-specific (Maharashtra) nutrition survey with a focus on infants and children under two and their mothers. The CNSM measured household food security using nine questions [ 37 ]. The questions capture experiences of uncertainty or anxiety over food, insufficient quality, insufficient quantity, and reductions in food intake [ 38 ]. Households are categorized as food secure, mildly food insecure, moderately food insecure, or severely food insecure.

The National Sample Survey (NSS) organization conducts nationwide household consumer expenditure surveys at regular intervals in “rounds,” typically 1 year. These surveys are conducted through interviews with a representative sample of households [ 20 ]. This survey includes only one question about household daily access to food [ 39 ], and while it does provide a method for estimating food insecurity in India, it assumes that financial access equates to physical access to available food; as such, this survey is unlikely to be able to comprehensively capture the intensity of household food insecurity in India [ 40 ]. Four studies employed the NSS. Given that these studies did not specifically collect food insecurity data, the use of the NSS has been considered a proxy indicator here as it generally reflects the measurement of food availability or acquisition rather than food insecurity per se.

Other proxy measures were commonly used. The variety of proxy measures included information on calorie intake, purchasing power, the quantity of food consumed, and agricultural productivity. These proxy measures provide only a partial, usually indirect, measure of food insecurity [ 41 ]. There are also challenges with these measures, as the relationship between food and caloric quantity and household food security is unpredictable [ 42 ]. For example, in a study of households in Gujarat, Sujoy [ 43 ] found that around 85% of households are food insecure at some point in a typical year. This study employed a range of measures to explore the experiences of hunger and food insecurity and the strategies employed by these population groups to mitigate hunger. Exploring the food insecurity experiences of farmers in Bihar, Sajjad and Nasreen [ 44 ] found that 75% of households had very low food security. While not using a standard measure, Sajjad and Nasreen [ 44 ] interviewed households alongside interviews with government officials, food production, food costs, and food acquisition to form an index of food security that could be applied at the household level. A study by George and Daga [ 45 ] using calorie consumption as a proxy for food security identified 57% of participants were food insecure, with the suggestion that income and family size play a role in food security among children. Of the 17 studies that employed a proxy measure of food insecurity, 10 provided no indication of the level of food security in their results.

Population Groups Under Investigation

Studies identified in this review included a variety of population groups. Most studies ( n  = 30) focused on food insecurity at the household level; half of these studies employed one of the standard food insecurity measurement tools, while the other half relied on proxy measures.

Fourteen studies focused specifically on young children, and one on teenagers. These studies used a variety of methods to determine food insecurity among this population, with rates of food insecurity shown to range from 8.7 [ 26 ] to 80.3% [ 33 ]; within this range, most studies reported that food insecurity among children was in the range of 40 to 60%. Interestingly, while the study conducted by Humphries [ 26 ] reported lower levels of child food insecurity (8.7%) than the other studies included in this review, other findings of this study were consistent with other research reviewed. Across all studies that explored food insecurity among children and teenagers, findings suggest problematic infant and young child feeding practices, caregiving, and hygiene practices, with many studies reporting impaired growth in children and teenagers due to these practices.

Seven studies focused specifically on the experiences of women or used the experiences of women as an indicator of food insecurity in their households. All of these studies employed one of the standard measures of food insecurity, with food insecurity in these studies ranging from 32 [ 3 ] to 77.9% [ 46 ]. These studies identified a range of health outcomes related to food insecurity and hunger. For example, in a study of mothers of children under the age of 5, Das and Krishna [ 47 ] found that two-thirds of households were food insecure and that younger mothers were more likely to be food insecure, with the children of these mothers more likely to be underweight and stunted. Among mothers in a study by Chyne et al. [ 48 ], those who had low literacy levels, low income, and large family size were more likely to be food insecure, with many of the children of these mothers being vitamin A deficient, anemic, stunted, and/or wasted. This is consistent with the work of Chatterjee et al. [ 49 ] who found that food insecurity among women was associated with low income and a range of socioeconomic measures including education, employment, and relationship status.

Thirteen studies were conducted in slums. Four of these studies were conducted in slums in Delhi, finding that food insecurity among slum populations ranges between 12% among children aged 1–2 years [ 50 ] and 77% in households more broadly [ 25 ]. Three studies were located in slums in Kolkata, all conducted by Maitra and colleagues [ 30 , 31 , 32 ]. These studies found food insecurity to be 15.4%, finding that low income, household composition, and education are all predictors of household food insecurity. The remaining studies were conducted in slums in Jaipur [ 51 ], Mumbai [ 49 ], Varanasi [ 52 ], Vellore [ 53 ], and West Bengal [ 33 , 54 ]. Slums are an important setting for an exploration of food insecurity, especially in India, where 25% of the urban population resides in slums or slum-like settings. People living in slums have been found to have poorer quality of life, are generally lower income, and have lower educational attainment than non-slum-dwelling populations—all factors that are known to contribute to food insecurity [ 49 ].

Five studies explored food insecurity among people with an underlying health condition. Four of these explored food insecurity among people living with HIV/AIDS [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ]. These studies found that food insecurity ranged from 16 to 99% with people who are food insecure and also living with HIV/AIDS more likely to experience depression and a lower quality of life [ 57 ] and that low income [ 58 ] and low education [ 55 ] are contributing factors to food insecurity, while ownership of a pressure cooker was found to be protective against food insecurity [ 56 ]. Finally, one study explored the experiences of food insecurity among people with tuberculosis [ 59 ]. This study found that around 34% of study participants were food insecure, with low income and employment being associated with food insecurity status.

India has seen massive growth and economic change over the past 2 decades; however, this increase in financial wealth has had little impact on food insecurity and population nutrition [ 60 ]. While India has increased production and, overall, the availability of food has increased [ 61 ], these increases have not yet translated into gains for the general population. Overall, India is seeing increasing income inequality which is having a negative impact on health [ 62 ]. As a result of the disconnect between economic growth and positive health outcomes, there has been an increased interest in food insecurity and nutrition in India over the past two decades, resulting in research that seeks to measure food insecurity.

The main finding of this study is the variation in the methods for the assessment of food insecurity prevalence in India and the reliance on cross-sectional studies to elicit food insecurity data. This may be explained by the fact that food security is notoriously difficult to measure. Initial descriptions of food insecurity were conceptualized through the lens of famine [ 63 ], meaning that solutions were often confined to domestic agriculture [ 41 ]. However, in an increasingly globalized world where countries easily sell and buy goods from each other, it is now important to consider food security in a holistic manner, incorporating the whole definition of food insecurity. By considering the six main dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, stability, agency, and sustainability, we can better understand the experiences and drivers of food security. However, as this review has found, few studies measure more than one dimension.

Studies included in this review utilized scales that focused on household food access or availability and were assessed through experience-based scales. Experiential food insecurity scales have been used since the 1990s [ 64 ], first used in the USA and later adopted for use in low- and middle-income countries [ 21 , 65 ]. Experiential measures are based on the notion that food insecurity is associated with a set of knowable and predictable characteristics that can be assessed and quantified [ 17 , 21 ]. This assumes that households will attempt to mitigate food insecurity through a generalizable or standard pattern of responses [ 17 , 22 ]. Strategies include reducing expenditure on education expenses [ 66 ], selling assets or seeking increased employment [ 67 ], and skipping meals or limiting the sizes of meals [ 68 ]. Measures of food insecurity that are based on experience seek to capture some of these strategies and actions, and compared to other metrics, such as agriculture production, caloric intake, or anthropometric measures, they enable direct measurement of the prevalence and severity of the extent of household food insecurity, as well as the perception of the quality of their diets [ 31 ].

Given the wide variety of measurement tools used, it is difficult to present a comprehensive understanding of food insecurity in India. What is clear is that some households are experiencing food insecurity but are not hungry, while others are both hungry and food insecure. Finding a way to identify and measure at-risk households and intervene to reduce hunger is essential to closing the economic-income gap in India. However, without a measure that can be used consistently across the country that takes into consideration each of the dimensions of food security and the diversity within the Indian population, this will not be possible.

Limitations

There are some limitations to this review that should also be acknowledged. While every attempt was made to ensure this review was comprehensive, additional articles may have been missed, particularly if articles were written in a language other than English. However, given that this is the first review of its kind, with the inclusion of several databases and broad key terms, the authors are confident that there is little information that is not presented here. The articles presented in this review are largely cross-sectional, and as such, the quality of the studies means that the conclusions drawn by their authors are limited to the study population and are not widely generalizable. The cross-sectional nature of many of the studies limited the potential impact of quality assessment; as such, no quality assessment was conducted. This is a limitation of both this review and the studies included, and in general, a reflection on the rigor with which food security research has been conducted in these settings. Given the variety of approaches taken to measure food insecurity as found in this review, there are challenges in comparing the outcomes of different studies; as such, this review has not sought to present a meta-analysis. If, in the future, there can be some consistency in the use of measurement tools by researchers and agencies, a meta-analysis may be appropriate. The authors do not feel this should invalidate these findings at this time.

An Indian-specific food security measure needs to be urgently developed and implemented so that food insecurity data can more accurately and consistently be collected and contrasted for the purpose of developing suitable responses to food insecurity. Considering India’s widespread malnutrition and high prevalence of food insecurity, future work should prioritize the development of such a tool in addressing nutrition-related public health in India.

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McKay, F.H., Sims, A. & van der Pligt, P. Measuring Food Insecurity in India: A Systematic Review of the Current Evidence. Curr Nutr Rep 12 , 358–367 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-023-00470-3

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Essay on Food Security in India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Food Security in India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Food Security in India

Introduction.

Food security is a vital concern for any nation. In India, it means access to sufficient food for all people at all times.

Importance of Food Security

Food security ensures that everyone, regardless of their economic status, can get nutritious food. It is crucial for health, growth, and survival.

Challenges in India

Despite being an agrarian economy, India faces food security issues. Poverty, inadequate public distribution, and climate change are major challenges.

Government Initiatives

The Indian government has launched schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS) and National Food Security Act (NFSA) to address food insecurity.

While challenges persist, concerted efforts can ensure food security in India, promoting health and reducing poverty.

250 Words Essay on Food Security in India

Food security, a global concern, is particularly pressing in India, a country home to a quarter of the world’s undernourished population. It involves ensuring that all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food, meeting their dietary needs for an active and healthy life.

The State of Food Security in India

Despite being one of the world’s largest food producers, India faces a paradox of high malnutrition rates juxtaposed with significant food grain wastage. The Global Hunger Index 2020 placed India at an alarming 94th position out of 107 countries.

Challenges in Achieving Food Security

The primary challenges include inadequate food distribution systems, socio-economic disparities, and agricultural issues like low farm productivity and climate change. The Public Distribution System (PDS), a safety net for the poor, has been criticized for corruption, inefficiency, and exclusion of the genuinely needy.

Strategies for Improvement

To enhance food security, India must focus on improving agricultural productivity through sustainable practices, enhancing the efficiency of the PDS, and empowering women who play a significant role in agriculture and nutrition. Technological innovations such as precision farming, digital platforms for market access, and improved storage facilities can also play a pivotal role.

Food security is a complex issue requiring a multi-dimensional approach. While India has made strides, much work remains. By addressing the root causes of food insecurity and implementing comprehensive strategies, India can ensure food security for all its citizens, thus moving towards a healthier and more prosperous future.

500 Words Essay on Food Security in India

Food security is a critical issue in India, a country with a diverse population of over 1.3 billion individuals. The concept of food security encompasses not only the availability of food but also access to it, its utilization, and stability over time. Despite significant strides in agriculture and economic growth, India struggles with the challenge of providing adequate food security to all its citizens.

The State of Food Insecurity

According to the Global Hunger Index 2020, India ranks 94 out of 107 countries, indicating a serious level of hunger. This grim situation is primarily due to the high prevalence of undernourishment, child stunting, and wasting. It is alarming that despite being one of the world’s largest food producers, India is unable to ensure food security for all its citizens.

Challenges to Food Security

The major challenges to food security in India include population growth, poverty, climate change, and inefficient supply chains. Rapid population growth exerts immense pressure on the food supply. Poverty, on the other hand, restricts access to food, with many unable to afford nutritious meals. Climate change threatens agricultural productivity, and inefficient supply chains lead to significant food wastage.

The Indian government has implemented several initiatives to combat food insecurity. The National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013, aims to provide subsidized food grains to approximately two-thirds of India’s population. Other initiatives like the Mid-Day Meal Scheme, Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), and Public Distribution System (PDS) also contribute to improving food security.

The Role of Technology

Technology can play a pivotal role in enhancing food security. Precision farming, use of drones, remote sensing, and AI can increase agricultural productivity, reduce wastage, and improve supply chains. Digital platforms can help in better implementation of government schemes, ensuring benefits reach the intended recipients.

While India has made some progress in addressing food security, much remains to be done. It requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the root causes of food insecurity, such as poverty and inequality. Government initiatives need to be strengthened and effectively implemented. The use of technology should be promoted to increase agricultural productivity and improve supply chains. Ensuring food security for all is not just a matter of policy but a fundamental right that needs to be upheld.

In conclusion, food security in India is a complex issue that needs urgent attention. It is a challenge that requires the collective efforts of the government, private sector, civil society, and individuals. Only then can India hope to achieve the goal of a hunger-free nation.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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FAO / GLOBAL REPORT FOOD CRISES

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STORY: FAO / GLOBAL REPORT FOOD CRISES TRT: 4:39 SOURCE: FAO RESTRICTIONS: PLEASE CREDIT FAO ON SCREEN LANGUAGE: ENGLISH / NATS

DATELINE: ROME, ITALY, 22 APRIL 2024 / RECENT

4-8 APRIL 2024, GAZA STRIP

1. Wide shot, livestock keepers feeding sheep 2. Close up, sheep eating

3-4 NOVEMBER 2021, KANDAHAR AREA, AFGHANISTAN

3. Wide shot, farmers working their land with shovels

19 MAY 2021, NANGARHAR PROVINCE, AFGHANISTAN

4. Close up, a wheat farmer harvesting

JULY 2017, KASAI PROVINCE, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

5. Wide shot, farmers at work, watering plants

9 - 10 NOVEMBER 2020, AZAZA VILLAGE, SUDAN

6. Med shot, women tilling the soil

8 FEBRUARY 2022, MARSABIT, KENYA

7. Wide shot, woman standing by skinny cows

2021, MAURITANIA

8. Close-up, man tapping dry ground

FILE – ROME, ITALY

9. Wide shot, FAO Headquarters

22 APRIL 2024, ROME, ITALY

10. SOUNDBITE (English) Rein Paulsen, Director of the Office of Emergencies and Resilience, FAO: “Even more than the absolute numbers, I think one of the most important findings is that the prevalence, so the percentage of the assessed population in acute food insecurity, remained stubbornly high in 2023.”

11. Wide shot, farmers queueing for animal fodder 12. Med shot, FAO staff talking with farmer inside warehouse 13. Close up, animal fodder being poured into a bag 14. Med shot, FAO staff helping a farmer carry a fodder bag

1 SEPTEMBER 2020 GAIBANDHA DISTRICT, BANGLADESH

15. Wide shot, FAO staff talking with a farmer

18 JULY 2017, AL GHEZLANEYE, SYRIA

16. Med shot, farmer feeding a sheep after parasite control

8 NOVEMBER 2021, DAMAN DISTRICT, KANDAHAR PROVINCE, AFGHANISTAN

17. Wide shot, aid workers in a warehouse preparing wheat seeds bags for distribution

18. SOUNDBITE (English) Rein Paulsen, Director of the Office of Emergencies and Resilience, FAO: “More than 80 percent of people in need of humanitarian assistance, living in situations of acute food insecurity, are connected to agriculture, live in rural areas, and yet only 4 percent of the funding that goes to food security activities, in food crisis context, only 4 percent goes to agriculture. So that's telling us we need to have some fairly significant shifts and changes there.”

17 DECEMBER 2022, SALAXLEY, SOMALIA

19. Aerial shot, dry land

1-5 OCTOBER 2023, KAPOETA SOUTH COUNTY, SOUTH SUDAN

20. Med shot, pastoralist gathering his livestock 21. Close up, hand pouring flour into boiling water 22. Med shot, woman preparing a meal

19-25 March 2018, BANGLADESH

23. Tilt up, Kutupalong refugee camp 24. Wide shot, Rohingya kids in the camp 25. Med shot, Rohingya woman inside camp

26. SOUNDBITE (English) Rein Paulsen, Director of the Office of Emergencies and Resilience, FAO: “The single most significant driver of acute food insecurity is conflict and violence. This was the primary driver in 20 of the 59 countries [studied in the report], and represented in absolute terms, the key driver for the largest number of people in acute food insecurity. The second driver then relates to extreme weather events. We've had the hottest year on record, the El Nino phenomenon, just to name one of the factors, has been a key driver behind it, so climatic events was the second most significant driver. And economic shocks was the third most important driver. And again here, I think it's important not to view these three drivers in isolation. What we see is that often, typically, these three have been mutually reinforcing and together exacerbated the acute food insecurity situation.”

17 APRIL 2024, SHATA VILLAGE, SUDAN

27. Wide shot, Paulsen walking with villagers 28. Wide shot, Paulsen with villagers 29. Med shot, Paulsen listening 30. Wide shot, Paulson watching a man operating a well

31. SOUNDBITE (English) Rein Paulsen, Director of the Office of Emergencies and Resilience, FAO: “We've seen a significant deterioration in the last 12 months, and it's in the last 12 months because it's 12 months ago this month that fighting started in the country, again showing this direct relationship between conflict and acute food insecurity. But the other thing that we've seen in Sudan is the impact of the climate crisis and climate change. Some of the communities I visited in Red Sea State, for example, showed me basic agricultural infrastructure that had been washed away the last time that there were significant rains, earth dams that were required to keep water in place to allow for hand irrigation of fields, for example, had been broken through because the rains came much more quickly and with larger amounts than they were anticipating. And so again, we see this overlap geographically between conflicts, between climate crisis, and indeed economic shocks as well.”

NOVEMBER 2017, INDIA

32. Wide shot, lunch being served at Thane Municipal Corporation School 33. Track shot, student holding a food dish 34. Tilt up, young student eating

OCTOBER 2022, SRI LANKA

35. Drone shot, farmers preparing soil 36. Close up, farmer working on land 37. Close up, farmer removing soil

Over 282 million people in 59 countries and territories suffered acute food insecurity in 2023, according to the 2024 Global Report on Food Crisis. These numbers represent a 24 million increase in comparison to the previous year.

Conflict, extreme weather events, and economic shocks are the main drivers behind acute hunger worldwide, reveals the report, authored by the Global Network Against Food Crises (GNAFC), an alliance of humanitarian and development actors launched by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) with other partners in 2016.

The increase in the number of people facing acute food insecurity is explained by greater analysis coverage and the deteriorating acute food insecurity in some countries and territories, such as conflict hotspots like Gaza and the Sudan.

The five countries with the largest number of people facing high levels of acute food insecurity are Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nigeria, the Sudan, Afghanistan, and Ethiopia, while Palestine, South Sudan, Yemen, the Syrian Arab Republic, and Haiti have the largest share of analysed population facing high levels of hunger, according to the report.

The Director of the FAO Office of Emergencies and Resilience, Rein Paulsen, said that one of the report’s takeaways is that the percentage of the population that faced hunger crisis in 2023 (21.5 percent of the analysed population) continues to be persistently high over the years.

“Even more than the absolute numbers, I think one of the most important findings is that the prevalence, so the percentage of the assessed population in acute food insecurity, remained stubbornly high in 2023,” said Paulsen.

Initially launched in 2016, the 2024 Global Report on Food Crisis shows that food crises are severe and protracted, with 36 countries facing hunger crises for eight consecutive years.

The Global Network urged to shift towards a more integrated approach for prevention, anticipation, and preparedness to break this vicious cycle, while Paulsen called for a “significant change” in the strategies aimed at tackling food crisis.

“More than 80 percent of people in need of humanitarian assistance, living in situations of acute food insecurity, are connected to agriculture, live in rural areas, and yet only 4 percent of the funding that goes to food security activities, in food crisis context, only 4 percent goes to agriculture. So that's telling us we need to have some fairly significant shifts and changes there,” explained Paulsen.

The report identifies conflicts, extreme weather events, and economic shocks as the three main drivers behind the exacerbation of food crises in the world.

Paulsen explained that these drivers often operate interlinked and superimposed on structural vulnerabilities, making it harder for households to cope with and recover from shocks.

“The single most significant driver of acute food insecurity is conflict and violence. This was the primary driver in 20 of the 59 countries [studied in the report], and represented in absolute terms, the key driver for the largest number of people in acute food insecurity. The second driver then relates to extreme weather events. We've had the hottest year on record, the El Niño phenomenon, just to name one of the factors, has been a key driver behind it, so climatic events was the second most significant driver. And economic shocks was the third most important driver. And again here, I think it's important not to view these three drivers in isolation. What we see is that often, typically, these three have been mutually reinforcing and together exacerbated the acute food insecurity situation,” explained Director of the FAO Office of Emergencies and Resilience.

Paulsen specifically commented on the situation in the Sudan, which represents one of the worst hunger crises in the world, with 18 million people facing acute food insecurity.

Commenting on the findings of a recent trip he made to the country, Paulsen said he witnessed how the overlapping effects of the ongoing civil war and the climate crisis have profoundly deteriorated food insecurity.

“We've seen a significant deterioration in the last 12 months, and it's in the last 12 months because it's 12 months ago this month that fighting started in the country, again showing this direct relationship between conflict and acute food insecurity. But the other thing that we've seen in Sudan is the impact of the climate crisis and climate change. Some of the communities I visited in Red Sea State, for example, showed me basic agricultural infrastructure that had been washed away the last time that there were significant rains, earth dams that were required to keep water in place to allow for hand irrigation of fields, for example, had been broken through because the rains came much more quickly and with larger amounts than they were anticipating. And so again, we see this overlap geographically between conflicts, between climate crisis and indeed economic shocks as well.”

The Global Network promotes the need for more complementary humanitarian and development responses to food and nutrition crises that also contribute to peace as a critical approach to tackling the multidimensional drivers. The partners stressed that peace is a prerequisite of food security.

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How can we reduce global food insecurity?

New report warns that 282 million people faced acute hunger last year.

Hunger around the world has reached alarming levels, according to a new multi-agency report on global food insecurity.

For the fifth year, acute food insecurity has increased, impacting hundreds of millions of people.

Keep reading

About 282 million people faced acute hunger last year: un-led report, nearly 55 million face hunger in west and central africa, un warns, videos of malnourished children show gaza’s starvation crisis, gaza headed towards famine amid israeli aid curbs: what to know.

The issue is posing a major challenge to the United Nations goal of ending hunger by 2030.

Conflict – rather than climate change – is the biggest cause.

Has enough been done to address the crisis?

Presenter: Mohammed Jamjoom

Alex de Waal – Executive director of World Peace Foundation at Tufts University in the US

Mamadou Goita – Member of the International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems, a Brussels-based think-tank

Jemilah Mahmood – Executive Director of the Sunway Centre for Planetary Health at Sunway University in Malaysia

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Around 282 million people faced acute hunger in 2023: UN report

2023 was the fifth consecutive year of rises in the number of people suffering acute food insecurity.

Food insecurity worsened around the world in 2023, with some 282 million people suffering from acute hunger due to conflicts, particularly in Gaza and Sudan, UN agencies and development groups said Wednesday.

Extreme weather events and economic shocks also added to the number of those facing acute food insecurity, which grew by 24 million people compared with 2022, according to the latest global report on food crises from the Food Security Information Network (FSIN).

The report, which called the global outlook "bleak" for this year, is produced for an international alliance bringing together UN agencies, the European Union and governmental and non-governmental bodies.

2023 was the fifth consecutive year of rises in the number of people suffering acute food insecurity -- defined as when populations face food deprivation that threatens lives or livelihoods, regardless of the causes or length of time.

Much of last year's increase was due to report's expanded geographic coverage, as well as deteriorating conditions in 12 countries.

More geographical areas experienced "new or intensified shocks" while there was a "marked deterioration in key food crisis contexts such as Sudan and the Gaza Strip", Fleur Wouterse, deputy director of the emergencies office within the UN's Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), told AFP.

Some 700,000 people, including 600,000 in Gaza, were on the brink of starvation last year, a figure that has since climbed yet higher to 1.1 million in the war-ridden Palestinian territory.

Children starving

Since the first report by the Global Food Crisis Network covering 2016, the number of food-insecure people has risen from 108 million to 282 million, Wouterse said.

Meanwhile, the share of the population affected within the areas concerned has doubled 11 percent to 22 percent, she added.

Protracted major food crises are ongoing in Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Syria and Yemen.

"In a world of plenty, children are starving to death," wrote UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres in the report's foreword.

"War, climate chaos and a cost-of-living crisis -- combined with inadequate action -- mean that almost 300 million people faced acute food crisis in 2023."

"Funding is not keeping pace with need," he added.

This is especially true as the costs of distributing aid have risen.

For 2024, progress will depend on the end of hostilities, said Wouterse, who stressed that aid could "rapidly" alleviate the crisis in Gaza or Sudan, for example, once humanitarian access to the areas is possible.

Floods and droughts

Worsening conditions in Haiti were due to political instability and reduced agricultural production, "where in the breadbasket of the Artibonite Valley, armed groups have seized agricultural land and stolen crops", Wouterse said.

The El Nino weather phenomenon could also lead to severe drought in West and Southern Africa, she added.

According to the report, situations of conflict or insecurity have become the main cause of acute hunger in 20 countries or territories, where 135 million people have suffered.

Extreme climatic events such as floods or droughts were the main cause of acute food insecurity for 72 million people in 18 countries, while economic shocks pushed 75 million people into this situation in 21 countries.

"Decreasing global food prices did not transmit to low-income, import-dependent countries," said the report.

At the same time, high debt levels "limited government options to mitigate the effects of high prices".

On a positive note, the situation improved in 17 countries in 2023, including the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ukraine, the report found.

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Breezeline Employees Volunteer to Fight Food Insecurity in South Florida

WEST PALM BEACH, Fla., April 23, 2024 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) — Employees from Breezeline, a leading internet, TV and voice provider in the U.S., worked to fight food insecurity earlier this month. A total of 17 Breezeline volunteers sorted, checked, and repackaged over 9,000 pounds of donated food on April 11 at Feeding South Florida, a nonprofit located in Pembroke Park focused on ending hunger.    

“Much of what we do at Feeding South Florida depends on volunteer help in the warehouse,” said Ruth Bonet, volunteer coordinator at Feeding South Florida. “Volunteers play a vital part in our daily operations by helping us sort through donated food and ensuring that it is safe to go back out to the community.”

According to the Florida Department of Health, more than 10 percent of Florida adults and more than 14 percent of children in the state face food insecurity. Furthermore, according to the American Heart Association, food insecurity is associated with chronic diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.  

“Part of Breezeline’s mission is to connect the community,” said Kurt Decker, region director of operations for Breezeline. “As members of the South Florida community, Breezeline colleagues work to make a positive difference in the lives of their neighbors.” 

Feeding South Florida processes and distributes more than 85 million pounds of food annually. The nonprofit says that volunteers are essential to their mission. To learn more about Feeding South Florida, including how to become a volunteer, please visit https://feedingsouthflorida.org/volunteer/.

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Global military spending surges amid war, rising tensions and insecurity

(Stockholm, 22 April 2024) Total global military expenditure reached $2443 billion in 2023, an increase of 6.8 per cent in real terms from 2022. This was the steepest year-on-year increase since 2009. The 10 largest spenders in 2023—led by the United States, China and Russia—all increased their military spending, according to new data on global military spending published today by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), available at  www.sipri.org . 

Read this press release in Catalan ( PDF ), French ( PDF ), Spanish ( PDF ) or Swedish ( PDF ).

Click here to download the SIPRI Fact Sheet.

Military expenditure increases in all regions

World military expenditure rose for the ninth consecutive year to an all-time high of $2443 billion. For the first time since 2009, military expenditure went up in all five of the geographical regions defined by SIPRI, with particularly large increases recorded in Europe, Asia and Oceania and the Middle East. 

‘ The unprecedented rise in military spending is a direct response to the global deterioration in peace and security,’ said Nan Tian, Senior Researcher with SIPRI’s Military Expenditure and Arms Production Programme. ‘States are prioritizing military strength but they risk an action–reaction spiral in the increasingly volatile geopolitical and security landscape.’

Military aid to Ukraine narrows spending gap with Russia 

Russia ’s military spending increased by 24 per cent to an estimated $109 billion in 2023, marking a 57 per cent rise since 2014, the year that Russia annexed Crimea. In 2023 Russia’s military spending made up 16 per cent of total government spending and its military burden (military spending as a share of gross domestic product, GDP) was 5.9 per cent. 

Ukraine was the eighth largest spender in 2023, after a spending surge of 51 per cent to reach $64.8 billion. This gave Ukraine a military burden of 37 per cent and represented 58 per cent of total government spending.

Ukraine’s military spending in 2023 was 59 per cent the size of Russia’s. However, Ukraine also received at least $35 billion in military aid during the year, including $25.4 billion from the USA. Combined, this aid and Ukraine’s own military spending were equivalent to about 91 per cent of Russian spending.

USA remains NATO’s major spender but European members increase share

In 2023 the 31 NATO members accounted for $1341 billion, equal to 55 per cent of the world’s military expenditure. Military spending by the USA rose by 2.3 per cent to reach $916 billion in 2023, representing 68 per cent of total NATO military spending. In 2023 most European NATO members increased their military expenditure. Their combined share of the NATO total was 28 per cent, the highest in a decade. The remaining 4 per cent came from Canada and Türkiye .

‘For European NATO states, the past two years of war in Ukraine have fundamentally changed the security outlook,’ said  Lorenzo Scarazzato, Researcher with SIPRI’s Military Expenditure and Arms Production Programme.  ‘This shift in threat perceptions is reflected in growing shares of GDP being directed towards military spending, with the NATO target of 2 per cent increasingly being seen as a baseline rather than a threshold to reach.’

A decade after NATO members formally committed to a target of spending 2 per cent of GDP on the military, 11 out of 31 NATO members met or surpassed this level in 2023 —the highest number since the commitment was made.  Another target — of directing at least 20 per cent of military spending to ‘equipment spending’ — was met by 28 NATO members in 2023, up from 7 in 2014.

China’s rising military expenditure drives up spending by neighbours

China , the world’s second largest military spender, allocated an estimated $296 billion to the military in 2023, an increase of 6.0 per cent from 2022. This was the 29th consecutive year-on-year rise in China’s military expenditure. China accounted for half of total military spending across the Asia and Oceania region. Several of China’s neighbours have linked their own spending increases to China’s rising military expenditure. 

Japan allocated $50.2 billion to its military in 2023, which was 11 per cent more than in 2022.  Taiwan ’s military expenditure also grew by 11 per cent in 2023, reaching $16.6 billion.

‘China is directing much of its growing military budget to boost the combat readiness of the People’s Liberation Army,’ said Xiao Liang, Researcher with SIPRI’s Military Expenditure and Arms Production Programme. ‘This has prompted the governments of Japan, Taiwan and others to significantly build up their military capabilities, a trend that will accelerate further in the coming years.’

War and tensions in the Middle East fuel biggest spending increase of past decade

Estimated military expenditure in the Middle East increased by 9.0 per cent to $200 billion in 2023. This was the highest annual growth rate in the region seen in the past decade. 

Israel ’s military spending—the second largest in the region after Saudi Arabia —grew by 24 per cent to reach $27.5 billion in 2023. The spending increase was mainly driven by Israel’s large-scale offensive in Gaza in response to the attack on southern Israel by Hamas in October 2023. 

‘The large increase in military spending in the Middle East in 2023 reflected the rapidly shifting situation in the region—from the warming of diplomatic relations between Israel and several Arab countries in recent years to the outbreak of a major war in Gaza and fears of a region-wide conflict,’ said Diego Lopes da Silva, Senior Researcher with SIPRI’s Military Expenditure and Arms Production Programme. 

Military action against organized crime pushes up spending in Central America and the Caribbean

Military spending in Central America and the Caribbean in 2023 was 54 per cent higher than in 2014. Escalating crime levels have led to the increased use of military forces against criminal gangs in several countries in the subregion.

Military spending by the Dominican Republic  rose by 14 per cent in 2023 in response to worsening gang violence in neighbouring Haiti. The Dominican Republic’s military spending has risen steeply since 2021, when the assassination of Haitian President Jovenel Moïse threw Haiti into crisis.

In Mexico , military expenditure reached $11.8 billion in 2023, a 55 per cent increase from 2014 (but a 1.5 per cent decrease from 2022). Allocations to the Guardia Nacional (National Guard)—a militarized force used to curb criminal activity—rose from 0.7 per cent of Mexico’s total military expenditure in 2019, when the force was created, to 11 per cent in 2023.

‘The use of the military to suppress gang violence has been a growing trend in the region for years as governments are either unable to address the problem using conventional means or prefer immediate—often more violent—responses,’ said Diego Lopes da Silva, Senior Researcher with SIPRI’s Military Expenditure and Arms Production Programme.

Other notable developments

• India was the fourth largest military spender globally in 2023. At $83.6 billion, its military expenditure was 4.2 per cent higher than in 2022.
• The largest percentage increase in military spending by any country in 2023 was seen in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (+105 per cent), where there has been protracted conflict between the government and non-state armed groups. South Sudan recorded the second largest percentage increase (+78 per cent) amid internal violence and spillover from the Sudanese civil war.
• Poland ’s military spending, the 14th highest in the world, was $31.6 billion after growing by 75 per cent between 2022 and 2023—by far the largest annual increase by any European country.
• In 2023 Brazil ’s military spending increased by 3.1 per cent to $22.9 billion. Citing the NATO spending guideline, members of Brazil’s Congress submitted a constitutional amendment to the Senate in 2023 that aims to increase Brazil’s military burden to an annual minimum of 2 per cent of GDP (up from 1.1 per cent in 2023).
• Algeria ’s military spending grew by 76 per cent to reach $18.3 billion. This was the highest level of expenditure ever recorded by Algeria and was largely due to a sharp rise in revenue from gas exports to countries in Europe as they moved away from Russian supplies.
• Iran was the fourth largest military spender in the Middle East in 2023 with $10.3 billion. According to available data, the share of military spending allocated to the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps grew from 27 per cent to 37 per cent between 2019 and 2023.

For editors

SIPRI monitors developments in military expenditure worldwide and maintains the most comprehensive, consistent and extensive publicly available data source on military expenditure. The annual update of the SIPRI Military Expenditure Database is accessible from today at  www.sipri.org .

All percentage changes are expressed in real terms (constant 2022 prices). Military expenditure refers to all government spending on current military forces and activities, including salaries and benefits, operational expenses, arms and equipment purchases, military construction, research and development, and central administration, command and support. SIPRI therefore discourages the use of terms such as ‘arms spending’ when referring to military expenditure, as spending on armaments is usually only a minority of the total.

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For information or interview requests contact Mimmi Shen ( [email protected] , +46 766 286 133) or Stephanie Blenckner ( [email protected] , +46 8 655 97 47).