literature review in media research

Literature Reviews for Media, Communication and Information: What is a "Literature Review"?

• What is a "Literature Review"?
• 1. Brainstorm
• 3. Refine Your Search Strategy and Topic
• 4. Structure Your Lit Review
• Helpful Sites

This guide is intended to assist you in writing the literature review section of a scholarly article or research paper.

The tabs offer a suggested series of steps that will help you research, organize, and write your review.

It is important to know that research is a messy process. You may find yourself repeating steps, doing them out of order, or even adjusting your topic or the focus of your review. This is a normal part of scholarly writing.

If you need help, please contact your librarian.

A literature review provides a summary of the previously published academic work on a topic. The literature review should help "make the case" for why someone is writing their paper or conducting their research. A literature review can be a section of a larger paper or it can be the focus of an entire paper.

Goals of a Literature Review:

• to provide an overview of the scholarly literature on a chosen topic, including the major theories, issues, works, and debates on the topic
• to synthesize the information in the literature into an organized summary
• to critique the information and current knowledge of a topic
• to identify aspects of the topic that need further investigation

Plagiarism and Citing

If you don't cite, you might plagiarize someone's ideas. Cite to:

• Give credit the author(s) of the works that you used to write your paper.
• Show that you know your topic well and have read and thought about what others have already said.
• Show your readers where to find the original sources of the information you present so they can read them fully.

When to cite? What to cite?

• Cite other people's words, ideas and other intellectual property that you use in your papers or that influence your ideas, including things such as books, articles, reports, data/statistics, speeches, academic articles, works of art, songs.
• Cite direct quotes, facts or statistics AND when you summarize or paraphrase others' ideas.

Helpful Sites on Literature Reviews

Much of the information in this guide and more information can be found on the websites listed on the  Helpful Sites tab .

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• University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
• Research Guides
• Literature Reviews for Media, Communication and Information
• Last Updated: Nov 14, 2023 10:47 AM
• URL: https://libguides.colorado.edu/c.php?g=1170610

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Journalism - Mass Media Research: Literature Review

• Literature Search Essentials
• Communication Theory
• Methodology
• Literature Review
• Annotated Bibliography
• Citation Managers
• J-Graduate Student Resources

What is a Literature Review?

A literature review is both a summary and synthesis of scholarly published research on a particular topic.  It should explain to your readers what knowledge and ideas have been established on the topic, along with their strengths and weaknesses.

Literature reviews are important because they are usually a required step in a thesis proposal.  They also help you learn important authors, researchers and ideas in your field. 

A Literature Review Synthesis Matrix can be a helpful when synthesizing themes and ideas.

Literature reviews can be a subsection or a stand alone bibliographic essay.

• Part of a research project/paper
• A chapter in a dissertation or thesis
• A section in a scholarly journal article
• Analysis of existing research in a research proposal
• Justification in a grant application
• A literature review assigned for class to understand and write about current research on a topic
• An analytical essay synthesizing an annotated bibliography into a formal paper
• A review article for a scholarly journal

Suggestions for Conducting the Literature Review

• Organize the review around a research question or hypothesis
• Create a synthesis matrix to organize your research (Matrix from FIU & NCSU Writing Center)
• Summarize with a synthesis of your results
• Identify gaps in the literature as well as controversy
• Formulate suggestions for further research
• Follow suggestions on "Research Tips & Techniques for Effective Searching" on the previous page
• Follow MU Libraries' Literature Review Guide
• Attend literature review workshops or view previously recorded workshops

Literature Review Resources

 Literature Reviews:  Books

Types of Literature Reviews

• Augumentative
• Integrative
• Methodological
• Theoretical

Argumentative Review

This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature.  The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint.

Integrative Review

Probably the most common form of review in the social sciences, the integrative review is a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way so that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated.  The body of the literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems.

Historical Review

Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline.  The purpose is to place research in a historical context.

Methodological Review

A review does not always focus on what someone said, but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis].  Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels, how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis.  This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review

This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review

The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

Organize Your Reviews

Decide how to organize your reviews

Since one of the purposes of the literature reviews is to provide an overview and synthesis of the information you read, grouping similar articles can provide structure to your overview.

Examples of ways to organize a literature review:

• Chronological - organize by how the topic has changed over time.  Define it; explain how it has evolved over time; and conclude with how it is viewed today.
• Comparison to Present Hypothesis - An empirical article or meta analysis involves an hypothesis and conclusion.  Organize the review to show articles supporting your hypothesis and those disagreeing with it. It enables you to effectively show strengths of the supporting research, discuss validity and methodologies that disagree with your findings, summing up with how past research leads up to and supports yours.
• Broad to Specific - Begin with the general and narrow down to specific issues until you reach articles similar to your research statement.
• Major Models or Major Theories - Group articles by the theoretical framework preferred by the author of the article.
• Prominent Authors - Use the bibliography or references to identify prominent authors who may have started or helped develop the field that is the topic of your review.
• Contrasting Thoughts - Authors have contrasting views about a topic, group the literature review by those schools of thought and contrast their different approaches.
• Problem to Solution - Group quotations from articles describing problems being addressed in your research, then group by solutions proposed in the articles.

North Carolina State University, Bluford Library. (2015). Literature Review - Libquide.  Retrieved from http://libguides.library.ncat.edu/content.php?pid=122999&sid=1232021 . 

Create an Outline

Once you have decided on the organization structure of your literature review, create an outline.  An outline is a good way to organize you ideas, articles, quotations and references.

Create the outline based on your organization.  If you have organized your review chronologically, label time periods that mark changes in the history of your topic. Example:

1.  Origins  1970s

• White, 1970, p 72-95
• George, 1972, p 3-19
• Wilder, 1972, p 45-60

2.  1980's-1990's

• White, 1983, p 77-85
• Underwood, 1985, p 125-140
• Jemison, 1998, p 42-56

3.  Current

• Thorson, 2013, p 28-45
• Duffy, 2014, p 67-82
• Rodgers, 2015, p 27-46

As you begin reading the articles, whenever you find a good quote, mark it with the part of the outline in which it fits.  Make note of the author, year and page number whenever you run across something in your reading that falls into a subsection in your review outline.  

Guides for Conducting Literature Reviews

• The Literature Review - University of Southern California (USC) Libguide
• The Literature Review:  A Few Tips on Conducting it - Dena Taylor, University of Toronto
• Literature Review Libguide - North Carolina State University
• Literature Reviews - The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
• Learn How to Write a Review of the Literature - Writing Center, University of Wisconsin- Madison
• Writing a Short Literature Review - William Ashton, PhD, York College, CUNY provides a step-by-step example for how to write a literature review.
• << Previous: Methodology
• Next: Annotated Bibliography >>
• Last Updated: Apr 22, 2024 10:03 AM
• URL: https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/j8000

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation
• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, June 07). What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 14 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/literature-review/

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• Library Catalogue

Media literature review guide: How to conduct a literature review of news sources

On this page, first steps: questions to ask, key things to keep in mind, sources by media type, online news, news websites, archival websites, library subscription news sources, archived broadcast/tv news, original audio-visual broadcasts, broadcast news transcripts, searching news sources methodically, how to do news content analysis, saving, exporting, and citing news from websites/databases, additional research help, related sfu resource guides.

Use this guide if you are conducting a literature review of news sources on a certain topic, and need help locating a sample of news sources for your analysis.  For example:

• BC newspaper articles covering RCMP sexual harassment claims over the past ten years
• Newspaper, online news website and TV news stories reporting on the marijuana 4/20 event in 2007 and later in 2017.

Ask yourself:

• Geography: Are there any geographic parameters to your news search (e.g., specific city or cities, provinces or countries of news sources)?
• Time frame: Are you searching within a specific time range, or at least before or after a particular day?
• News format: What news media types are you interested in (online news content, newspapers, etc.)?

A few things key things to keep in mind:

• Older newspaper content (1990s and earlier) may not be digitized yet.  A common exception is the digitization of much older newspaper content, such as the Globe and Mail Canada , which provides coverage from 1844. There is often a large digitization gap between the historical content and more recent news content. Alternative access may be available through SFU Library's microfilm collection.
• There are both free and library subscription news archives available. There is often overlapping coverage between the free and subscription sources.
• SFU library subscribes to several online news sources, also known as "subscription news sources", which may provide more reliable and comprehensive archival content.

Examples: CBC , Vancouver Sun , The Wall Street Journal

You can go directly to a commercial news website and search the site for its news archives.

A few things to note about general news websites:

• Archival content is limited and not comprehensive
• Extent of archival coverage is usually unknown/undocumented
• Links to older news stories may come and go, and older versions may have been edited
• Links may be unstable
• Bonus: Associated images are typically archived along with the article

Example: The Internet Archive

You may be able to obtain archival content through third party websites, which independently and intermittently scrape commercial web content for archiving.

Notes on archival websites:

• The Internet Archive scrapes a vast amount of web content for archiving (about 286 billion + web pages). Paste the newspaper's URL (e.g., http://vancouversun.com/) into the search bar to see which news web pages have been archived.
• Note that the Internet Archive only archives a sample of pages from news websites, and therefore does not provide complete historical coverage of a news source.
• View the  News & Public Affairs section of the Internet Archives for new collections by topic (e.g., "The Iraq War Collection"). Collections are primarily American.

Examples: Canadian Newsstream , CBCA , Factiva

SFU Library subscribes to a number of news databases which systematically archive news sources from both traditional print newspapers, and online and other media news sources. 

Notes on subscription news sources:

• Offers a much more comprehensive searching of backfiles; extent of historical coverage explicitly outlined
• Can search multiple news sources at once by various filters, for instance, all Canadian newspapers
• Smaller Canadian newspapers can be included in your search (e.g., Burnaby Now)
• Many of the articles found in these specialized databases will also show up in a general library catalogue search. However, going to the directly to the subscription database allows for much more targeted searching
• Some of these databases also archive scholarly journals, so be sure to set your search limiters so that newspapers are in your results
• Note: Original images as published in situ may be available in newspaper microform
• Note that you may find multiple versions of one article found across different news sources. This relates to how press releases are distributed, as well as how media conglomerations share and modify content.
• Some of these databases are more complicated to use , but offer a more powerful and robust search in exchange for your efforts

Examples: CTV National News, The National with Peter Mansbridge, PBS Newshour

• It is very challenging to find older, archived broadcast/TV news, as publicly available archival sources are limited.
• Some news archives focus on news originally broadcast through cable television , while others aim to capture news stories broadcast on the internet (" born digital ").
• Television companies may have their own private archives of news footage, not readily available to the public.
• SFU Library does not currently have a subscription to any broadcast news archives.

Some resources:

The  Internet Archive's TV News archive includes extensive archived video material, mostly from the US. Advanced search by news program and network is available. Keyword searching searches closed captions. Coverage begins around 2009.

CBC Archives incorporates news, images, and audio files from across Canada in its extensive archives. Select items are exhibited on a changing basis. Coverage may include news stories, such as 1993: World Trade Centre Bombed . Users can also explore the  CBC Archives Sales  website for items to purchase.

Vanderbilt News Archive is a searchable, private database of broadcast news, but is unfortunately not free nor available through SFU library. Materials may be loaned, arriving through the mail in a hardcopy format.

YouTube It's possible a particular news broadcast was uploaded to YouTube.

Transcripts may be available from prior broadcast news stories. These are a possible alternative to finding the original broadcast in audio-visual format.

The following SFU databases contain some transcripts.

Canadian Business & Current Affairs Database Under "Document type", select "transcript". Run a search and then narrow by source and add keywords. Extensive transcripts are available for The National (CBC television), Canada AM (CTV television), and others.

Film & Television Literature Index with Full Text

Canadian Newsstream Under "Document type", select "transcript". Run a search and then narrow by source and add keywords. Extensive transcripts are available for The National (CBC television), Canada AM (CTV television), and others.

​Nexis Uni Includes transcripts from about 123 (mostly American) news broadcasts such as ABC, BBC, NPR, Fox News Network, and CNN.

Factiva (see image below for search instructions) An international collection of news broadcast transcripts in a variety of languages.

Finding transcripts in Factiva:

• 1. Expand the option of searching Sources , by clicking on the small arrow next to that word. This will open up a drop-down menu with the option to select source category By Type . Choose this option. 2. Transcripts will appear as an option. Expand this category to see the option of Transcripts: Broadcast.

Google News  will find articles related to your topic from a variety of sources.

• The scope of Google's news coverage, while appealingly very broad , is also very unknown . This significantly limits efforts toward systematic searching.
• Advanced search allows you to search by particular news source or web domain . For instance, you can run a search for Vancouver Sun or site:vancouversun.com for the web site
• News trends can be found under the "Top Stories" section. 

It's effective to plan your search before you tackle the databases and to track the databases you search, as well as the terms that you use. Follow these steps for effective research;

Write down a sentence describing the topic of your search

​ Compared to corporate media, alternative media offers vastly different frames on the impact climate change has on jobs within the petroleum industry.

Identify the key concepts in your topic

Compared to corporate media, alternative media offers vastly different frames on the impact climate change has on jobs within the petroleum industry .

Brainstorm synonyms or related terms for these key concepts

• You may need to do some background reading to identify pertinent terminology.
• Group the terms that relate to one of your key concepts. Your key concepts can be as specific as corporate names or as broad as the industry. Keep adding or deleting key concepts as you search.

Track research: search terms, search expressions, databases

Track the terms that you use to search, using an Excel spreadsheet or other record, grouping them by concept, noting definitions. As you find literature, you will add to this list of terms.

Select an appropriate database for your search

• Are you researching coverage in "mainstream" sources? Or are you looking for coverage from an "alternative" perspective?
• What is the scope of the specific news database? Does it provide geographical and chronological coverage suitable for your search? Do all the news source have to be Canadian? If YES, you might consider whether you should limit at the outset or when evaluating your results.
• Many databases enable you to include a publication date range, in order to focus your search on a specific time period.

Review your search results

• Analyze your results in order to assess and modify your search terms or search statement.
• You can use the database limiters to scope your results according to subject, publication, etc. For example, focus on the news before and after a pivotal event, by time period, by figuring out the correct terminology, and so on.

Consider whether you need to focus your search, by date, by publication, or other parameters

• TIP: If you are receiving too many off-topic results, try searching for your keywords in just the article title field.
• Similarly, consider whether your research would be improved by concentrating on particular types of news stories, such as editorials, opinion, columns, sports, etc.

Capture your results, either by emailing them to yourself or saving to a file

You will need to support your nomination with documentation of your research.

And, of course, watch out for signs of fake news.

• The content analysis guidebook
• Newswatcher's guide to content analysis
• Sage Research Methods Online. A vast research portal on research methodology. 

There are a number of free citation management software and tools available for students through SFU. Use one of the citation managers  to export and save articles. When you are looking at articles found through the SFU database, there will be options to "save" the article through citation managers such as Mendeley or Zotero.

Depending on which citation style you are using, the SFU citation & style guides explain how to cite news articles and other document types.

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is not research, it is a review of the research that has been done on your topic.

A literature review is NOT just a summary, but a conceptually organized synthesis of the results of your search. It must

• organize information and relate it to the thesis or research question you are developing
• synthesize and critically analyze the results comparing and contrasting their findings
• identify controversy and themes that appear in the literature

A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarizing one piece of literature after another. It's usually a bad sign to see every paragraph beginning with the name of a researcher. Instead, organize the literature review into sections that present themes or identify trends, including relevant theory. You are not trying to list all the material published, but to synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your thesis or research question. (From Univ. of Toronto)

Check out these sites for more help understanding literature reviews

• How to ... Write a Literature Review, UC Santa Cruz Library
• The Literature Review: A few tips on conducting it, University of Toronto
• How to do a Literature Review, North Carolina A&T State University

Tips on conducting research for a literature review

• Use bibliographies and reference pages of articles to direct your research. You may start to see some trends with the people who are writing about your topic. Check the bibliography for more articles about your topic.
• Use the authors who you have found to be writing on your topic as starting points. Look for additional articles, and rebuttals, retractions or responses to their research

Use this chart to track articles you read for your literature review:

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In-Class Lit Review Activity

Barnes Jr., J. H., & Doston, M. J. (1990). An exploratory investigation into the nature of offensive television advertising.  Journal Of Advertising ,  19 (3), 61-69.

Phau, I., & Prendergast, G. (2001). Offensive advertising: A view from Singapore.  Journal Of Promotion Management ,  7 (1/2), 71.

Waller, D. S. (1999). Attitudes towards offensive advertising: An Australian study.  Journal of Consumer Marketing,   16 (3), 288.

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Mass Media Ethics (Anderson)

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Literature Review FAQs

WHAT IS A LITERATURE REVIEW?

A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.

A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.

HOW IS A LITERATURE REVIEW DIFFERENT FROM AN ACADEMIC RESEARCH PAPER?

The main focus of an academic research paper is to develop a new argument, and a research paper is likely to contain a literature review as one of its parts. In a research paper, you use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new insight that you contribute. The focus of a literature review, however, is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new contributions.

WHY DO WE WRITE LITERATURE REVIEWS?

Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers.

• Source: UNC Chapel Hill Writing Center

Anatomy of a Scholarly Article

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• v.23(4); 2021 Apr

Social Media and Health Care, Part I: Literature Review of Social Media Use by Health Care Providers

Deema farsi.

1 Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

As the world continues to advance technologically, social media (SM) is becoming an essential part of billions of people’s lives worldwide and is affecting almost every industry imaginable. As the world is becoming more digitally oriented, the health care industry is increasingly visualizing SM as an important channel for health care promotion, employment, recruiting new patients, marketing for health care providers (HCPs), building a better brand name, etc. HCPs are bound to ethical principles toward their colleagues, patients, and the public in the digital world as much as in the real world.

This review aims to shed light on SM use worldwide and to discuss how it has been used as an essential tool in the health care industry from the perspective of HCPs.

A literature review was conducted between March and April 2020 using MEDLINE, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science for all English-language medical studies that were published since 2007 and discussed SM use in any form for health care. Studies that were not in English, whose full text was not accessible, or that investigated patients’ perspectives were excluded from this part, as were reviews pertaining to ethical and legal considerations in SM use.

The initial search yielded 83 studies. More studies were included from article references, and a total of 158 studies were reviewed. SM uses were best categorized as health promotion, career development or practice promotion, recruitment, professional networking or destressing, medical education, telemedicine, scientific research, influencing health behavior, and public health care issues.

Conclusions

Multidimensional health care, including the pairing of health care with SM and other forms of communication, has been shown to be very successful. Striking the right balance between digital and traditional health care is important.

Introduction

A key characteristic of being human is the ability and desire for social networking. Over the ages, humanity has thrived in social communities in which members shared knowledge, opinions, and experiences, empowered by a sense of belonging. As the world continues to advance in terms of technology, social media (SM)—defined as “a group of Internet-based applications (apps) that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content”—is becoming an essential part of billions of people’s lives worldwide and is affecting almost every industry imaginable [ 1 ]. The definition of SM (the “read, write web,” “Web 2.0,” or “social networking”) is constantly evolving [ 2 ]. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines it as “any form of electronic communication through which users create web-based communities to share information, personal messages, ideas, and other content such as photos and videos” [ 3 ]. SM is considered one of the most powerful communication tools of the 21st century. There has been a proliferation of SM tools in recent years, creating new opportunities to communicate, connect, create, and share information, without requiring exceptional coding skills to create or retrieve content [ 4 ].

Specifically, SM is increasingly becoming an augmenting tool in health care by enabling its users to acquire and share information; connect with others in the field; and communicate with colleagues, patients, or the public regarding health topics. Furthermore, SM supports patient empowerment by expanding the knowledge of the patients and placing them in a position where they can take control of their own health care needs [ 5 ]. This review is based on numerous studies and reviews that have investigated the different uses of SM in health care and its limitations and shortcomings. Consequently, this narrative is comprehensive and up to date, including the recent use of SM during the COVID-19 pandemic. The topic is relevant in today’s scenario because the use of SM and social networking sites (SNSs) is increasing worldwide, especially in the health care industry. The findings presented in this review have strong implications for health care professionals, educators, and researchers.

This review aims to shed light on SM use worldwide and discuss how SM has been an essential tool in the health care industry from the perspective of health care providers (HCPs). The review will be continued in Part II, where the use of SM from the perspective of patients will be discussed.

Search Strategy and Information Sources

Between March and April 2020, a comprehensive search on 4 databases (MEDLINE, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science) was conducted for all English-language medical studies that were published since 2007 and discussed SM use in any form for health care. A combination of the following keywords was used to search for titles and abstracts: “social media” (MeSH term) OR “social networking” OR “internet” (MeSH term) OR “WhatsApp” OR “Instagram” OR “Facebook” OR “YouTube” OR “Twitter” OR “LinkedIn” AND “healthcare” OR “health” (MeSH term) OR “medicine” (MeSH term) OR “physician” (MeSH term) OR “nursing” (subheading) OR “dentistry” (MeSH term) OR “telemedicine” (MeSH term), “recruitment” OR “education” (subheading) OR “career” OR “behavior” (MeSH term) OR “research” (MeSH term). Each of the 9 words in the first set was separately searched with each of the 12 words in the second set using “AND.”

Screening Process

The articles were entered into an EndNote library, and duplicate publications were removed. Articles published before 2007 were excluded, as the words social and media at that time did not represent the current definition of SM. Titles and abstracts were assessed for eligibility. Studies that were not in English were excluded, along with those with inaccessible full text after unsuccessful attempts to access them. Irrelevant studies, such as studies that were not related to health care, studies whose primary outcome was not the use of SM in health care, or studies that discussed the negative impact of SM on health, were also excluded. Dissertations were also excluded from the study. The full texts of the studies were then appraised. Several relevant studies investigating SM use from patients’ perspectives were found. Reviews on legal and ethical issues pertaining to the use of SM in health care were also obtained, following which, the publications were divided into 4 groups: HCP , patient or the public , ethics and legal considerations , and shortcomings . A decision was made to defer reviewing the last 3 groups and focus on this review on SM use by HCPs.

Categorization

After accessing the complete texts of the articles of interest, their reference lists were searched for additional studies, and the cited studies were also located. Thereafter, the articles were comprehensively reviewed. On the basis of the key findings, articles were initially grouped as follows: sharing information , recruitment , education , and marketing . As the review proceeded and more information was obtained, the groups were modified. Sharing information was divided into 2 groups: health promotion , focusing on HCPs sharing scientific information with the public, and critical public health care issues , which focuses on health announcements in crisis, especially COVID-19–related publications that warrant special attention. Recruitment was also divided into 2 groups: recruitment , which included job employment and residency program enrollment, and scientific research , in which studies discussed recruiting research participants and analyzing SM data. Education was renamed professional medical education , as this name specifies medical education. Studies related to continuous education were added to marketing , and the group was renamed career development and practice promotion . Another group was created— professional networking and destressing —which included findings from sharing information that discussed peer-to-peer communication and those from education that did not reflect professional education or career development. Finally, an additional group was created, telemedicine , as studies on this subject were abundant.

Summary and Characteristics of Included Studies

The search yielded 5683 titles that were scanned with their abstracts. After exclusion of duplicates and noneligible studies, the initial sample comprised 73 publications. The full-text papers were retrieved. Additional studies from the article references or those emerged from the review but were not identified earlier were also added. This was because of variation in the keywords with respect to spellings (eg, behavior and behaviour), terminology (social networking and social network), and synonyms (eg, recruitment and employment) that were not accounted for in the initial search. A total of 142 articles (63 original studies) and 3 textbook chapters were reviewed ( Figure 1 ).

Flowchart of the selection procedure.

The studies were conducted in the United States (61), Canada (12), Brazil (2), the United Kingdom (12), Europe (22), the Middle East (9), India (9), Asia (8), and Australia (7). The earliest study was published in 2008, and the latest studies were published in 2020, with most of them being published after 2014 ( Figure 2 ).

Number of included publications per year.

SM Platforms

Most reviews discussed SM in general and did not specify a particular platform; however, some original studies investigated specific platforms. The platforms investigated were WhatsApp/WeChat (15), Facebook (8), Twitter/Weibo (9), YouTube (4), Instagram (1), LinkedIn (1), Podcast (1), and Wikipedia (1).

Medical Specialties

Some reviews discussed SM use in a particular medical specialty, whereas others reviewed studies from diverse or unspecified specialties. Researchers from a variety of medical specialties investigated SM use in their original studies. These specialties were surgery (1), plastic surgery (4), neurosurgery (1), maxillofacial surgery (2), medicine (2), emergency medicine (2), psychiatry (3), orthopedics (3), otolaryngology (1), immunology (2), dermatology (1), radiology (1), urology (2), anesthesia (1), cardiology (1), pediatrics (1), oncology (3), nursing (5), dentistry (11), and pharmacy (1).

Principal Findings

This literature review aimed to examine SM use in the modern world and how it has been recently incorporated into health care. Most of the reviewed articles were published in the past decade, suggesting that this review is both relevant and contemporary. It is evident from the published studies that SM has broad applications in modern health care. As discussed in the subsequent sections, HCPs (the term is used in this review as including physicians, dentists, nurses, medical and dental allied personnel, and health care organizations) not only use SM to provide care to their patients but also for personal development and destressing.

SM use is one of the most common web-based activities, with an estimated 2.9 billion users worldwide as of 2019, a number that is projected to increase to 3.4 billion by 2023 [ 6 ]. With this, digital networking has witnessed a massive growth, and social communities have become boundless. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp, and Google are relatively new platforms, but they are being used every day by millions of people worldwide. SM platforms are among the most commonly used sources for acquiring and disseminating information [ 7 , 8 ]. They are not only used for socialization, knowledge acquisition, and entertainment, but they have also been linked to significant political events led by young users [ 2 ].

Many SM tools have been introduced, and they continue to evolve. They may be categorized as tools for social networking (eg, Facebook and Instagram), professional networking (eg, Doximity and Sermo), media sharing (eg, YouTube and WhatsApp), content production (eg, Twitter), and blogs [ 9 ].

In terms of technological knowledge, SM users belong to 1 of the following 2 groups, as classified by Prensky [ 10 ]: digital natives and digital immigrants. Digital natives are those born after 1980, who are skilled in using technology, and who rely heavily on technology and social networking. Most digital natives were introduced to technology at an early age. Conversely, digital immigrants are those who acquired technological skills and adopted technology later in their careers [ 9 ]. SM use is generally high among digital natives, who explicitly prefer it over traditional media [ 11 ]. Some researchers believe that there is no dichotomous divide between internet users and nonusers. Although the terms are commonly used, Prensky’s model and its usefulness have been challenged [ 12 ]. First, basic digital skills are not difficult to acquire, especially with repetitive use. With practice, a person born in the 1960s can become as digitally fluent as a millennial. Second, the distinction between both generations implies that digital immigrants can never completely acquire digital abilities and that digital natives are automatically technologically skilled. This approach is neither scientific nor based on any empirical evidence. Third, the model overlooks the fact that age is not the only factor in determining digital skills. Socioeconomic and cultural factors of digital capability must not be ignored. For instance, a millennial who lacks access to technology is not a digital native.

Regarding SM demographics, its use is prevalent across all ages and professions [ 13 ]. However, different SM platforms differ in their demographics. The demographics of some of the most commonly used SM platforms worldwide can be further explored. Facebook has 2.7 billion monthly active users. According to a 2020 report, the highest number of Facebook users were aged between 18 to 29 years and 30 to 49 years, with more female than male users and more urban than suburban or rural users [ 13 ]. India had the largest number of users, followed by the United States, Indonesia, and Brazil. Regarding Instagram, there are 1 billion users globally. As of August 2020, there were more female than male users, and the United States had the highest number of users [ 13 ]. Users aged between 25 and 34 years represented the largest group of users [ 14 ]. Twitter had over 330 million users, who were predominantly male [ 13 ]. The top 3 countries for Twitter use were the United States, Japan, and India [ 13 ]. Approximately 30% of all users were aged between 25 and 34 years [ 15 ]. The Chinese Twitter-like SM platform is Weibo, and it had an estimated 480 million users [ 16 ]. WhatsApp is a mobile messaging app that is used by 2 billion users in 180 countries and in 60 different languages [ 17 ]. WhatsApp is more commonly used by younger people [ 17 ]. WhatsApp’s direct Chinese competitor is WeChat, and it has about 1.17 billion users [ 18 ]. YouTube is commonly used worldwide, particularly in the United States. It is estimated that it has approximately 2 billion users. The users are more commonly male than female, and its use is prevalent in urban, suburban, and rural locations [ 13 ]. Finally, there were about 46 million students and recent college graduates on LinkedIn out of 675 million users [ 19 ]. Male users constituted 67% of the total users, and the United States had the highest number of users, followed by India, China, and Brazil.

Although most SM platforms share common features such as free registration, public and private communication, and fast content upload and retrieval, each platform is unique and has distinctive uses. It is common for users to have different accounts across multiple platforms, using each platform for different purposes. Facebook is an SNS that can be accessed from any internet-enabled device, such as personal computers and smartphones. Registration on Facebook is free, and users can create a profile that reveals selective information about themselves [ 20 ]. Users can post text, photos, and multimedia that become available to any user in their friend list . Users generally begin by adding family members and friends to their friend list, which can be expanded to include colleagues, acquaintances, and strangers with or without common interests. Apart from being able to share public comments and likes , a few years after Facebook was founded, a messaging feature was added that allows users to send private messages to individuals and groups. Users can use a variety of embedded apps; join and create groups and pages ; play games; and receive updates regarding the activities of their friends, pages, and groups. Although the platform was initially limited to students in certain American universities, Facebook now has users worldwide. Instagram is a newer SM platform owned by Facebook and is designed primarily for free photo and video sharing [ 21 ]. By modifying their privacy preferences, Instagram users can opt to have either public accounts or limit their content to users that they accepted as followers . The platform also allows viewing, commenting on, and liking posts shared by users that they follow as well as private messaging between users. WhatsApp, which was acquired by Facebook in 2014, is a text and voice messaging app that has become incredibly popular owing to its features, flexibility, and compatibility with various phone and computer operating systems [ 22 ]. Although a free service, WhatsApp allows exchange of messages and calls on both desktop and mobile devices, in addition to media sharing and group features. WhatsApp’s objective was to provide an alternative to SMS. Using WhatsApp, billions of users across the globe can simultaneously and instantly connect with others.

“Twitter is what’s happening in the world and what people are talking about right now”—this is how Twitter describes itself [ 23 ]. It is a microblogging platform that allows users to post and access short text, image, or video posts called tweets. Although tweets were originally limited to 140 characters, the limit was increased to 280 characters in 2018, along with permitting the sharing of website links and multimedia. Twitter’s mission is to provide users with the ability to create and share ideas and information instantly and without barriers. Users follow other personal, official, or organizational accounts. They can either create their own tweets or retweet those by others to their followers. YouTube is a web-based video-sharing platform that allows users to upload, view, share, rate, report, comment on videos, and subscribe to other users [ 24 ]. Its mission is to provide users with a voice through video sharing, stemming from the belief that the world would be a better place when people listen, share, and build a community through their stories. The name of this platform is straightforward: You represents content that is user-generated and not created by the site itself, and Tube is an older term for television. Most YouTube content is uploaded by individuals, but some media corporations have established partnerships with YouTube to offer some of their materials on this platform. LinkedIn, acquired by Microsoft in 2016, is a business and employment-oriented SM service that operates as both a website and mobile app. LinkedIn is mainly used for professional networking, allowing employers to post about job openings and seekers to share their curricula vitae [ 25 ]. Using the platform, users can build strategic professional relationships rather than expand their friend circle. LinkedIn’s vision is to provide professional opportunities to its users, and its mission is to connect professionals worldwide. It originated in the living room of one of its cofounders a year before its launch in 2003. LinkedIn today has a diversified business model that has generated successful recruitments.

SM users have claimed that they have more digital friends and connections than real-world ones, which highlights the transformation of the ways in which people connect with each other and the importance of web-based relationships in today’s world [ 26 ]. Over time, social networking platforms have targeted different age cohorts, making SM use widespread among the general population. For example, as of April 2020, men aged between 25 and 34 years constituted the largest demographic group of Facebook users, and those aged 65 years and older were the fastest-growing group [ 27 , 28 ]. Similarly, the largest group of Twitter users were people aged 25 to 34 years, whereas 15% of users were older than 50 years [ 15 ].

The public attitude toward SM use has drastically changed over the years as it became more accessible and diverse in its offerings. Consequently, SM has become a universal communication channel, and responses in reality and on the web have increasingly become intertwined and concurrent [ 29 , 30 ]. Furthermore, SM offers lucrative opportunities to disseminate information and thoughts directly to the public, share experiences, build communities, and connect people with common interests, something unthinkable 20 years ago [ 31 ].

SM Use in Health Care

The more digitally oriented the world becomes, the more the health care industry visualizes SM as an important channel for health care promotion, employment, recruitment of new clients or patients, marketing for HCPs, and building a captivating brand name. HCPs have realized that SM is not just a platform to post vacation photos and interact with followers. Perhaps the 4 most common areas where SM plays a major role in the health care industry are health promotion, research, marketing and branding for individuals and practices, and recruitment. It has been evident that web-based content can be spread to offline environments, such as classrooms and meeting rooms. Furthermore, SM has undeniably changed patient-practitioner relationships because of patients’ better understanding of health information and their more active role in health maintenance [ 32 ].

The effect of behavioral and social factors on health outcomes has evolved significantly in recent decades [ 33 ]. HCPs continually search for new and more efficient methods to reach larger populations, especially those who were inaccessible via traditional methods. It is incumbent upon them to use every available tool to reach their intended audience. Thus, HCPs and health organizations should capitalize on the opportunities provided by SM and update strategies to reach communities and age cohorts at a relatively low cost [ 7 , 34 ]. In other words, SM brings a new dimension to health care and is changing the nature and speed of health-related interactions between individuals and health organizations. For example, communicating through photos and videos along with text is part of the mobile revolution, and messaging apps are now regarded as a viable medium for sharing knowledge and discussing clinical cases [ 35 ]. In summary, using SM could be a key strategy in addressing some of the challenges and limitations often faced by HCPs in traditional health communication through faster and cheaper dissemination, more accessibility, better interaction, and increased patient empowerment [ 7 ]. Moreover, information can now be easily brought to audiences with special needs or low literacy [ 36 ].

In the fast-paced modern world, time constraints are common in medical practice, and when combined with the demands of individuals with chronic conditions or unplanned emergency situations, it is challenging for HCPs to dedicate extra time to patients. SM can provide efficient and easy-to-use platforms that encourage patient-practitioner interaction and facilitate necessary actions from both ends [ 37 ]. In fact, as of April 2018, there were more than 200,000 health apps, including social networks for people living with a specific medical condition; approximately 19% of smartphone users have at least one health app on their phones [ 38 ]. Furthermore, in a 2013 survey of more than 4000 physicians, 65% stated that they used SM for professional reasons [ 39 ]. SM use has not been limited to HCPs. Patients have also incorporated SM in their daily lives, which encourages HCPs to explore different ways of making their mark in this growing market [ 31 ].

Technology is evolving very rapidly [ 40 ]. Competition produces better services, and the diversity of options enables users to choose a tool that best matches their individual needs. Although different platforms often have different target demographics, audience overlapping may occur and should be considered by health organizations when devising their SM health promotion strategies. In health care, SM tools can be used for different purposes (health promotion; dissemination of health information; education; professional development; recruitment; communication with the public, colleagues, and patients; and research) and in diverse medical specialties (cardiology, nursing, radiology, dentistry, surgery, pathology, pediatrics, pharmacy, emergency, and critical and palliative care) [ 41 ]. As of August 4, 2020, 27,546 results appeared when searching for social media on PubMed, demonstrating the growing interest in SM within the health care industry.

Health care systems, especially in times of crisis and outbreaks, require the dissemination of information to practitioners, patients, and the general public rapidly and effectively [ 34 ]. Health organizations and officials, by taking upon a more active SM presence, gain access to vast global networks capable of quickly spreading information and promptly mobilizing large numbers of people toward public health goals [ 2 , 42 ]. Never before has the entire world united as it has in recent months in its fight against the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, more commonly known as COVID-19. Searching COVID-19 on PubMed on August 4, 2020, yielded 37,576 results, which exposes the abundance of information and data that has become available in 7 months since the beginning on the pandemic [ 8 ]. However, the World Health Organization (WHO) has expressed concerns about fighting 2 battles at once: the pandemic and the infodemic —the latter refers to a rapid and far-reaching spread of both accurate and inaccurate information about the disease [ 43 ].

It is important to mention that the popularity of SM is directly linked to its many advantages. Advantages of using SM in health care include its expressive nature, accessibility from a smartphone, prompt content sharing and response generation, improved and two-sided communication, reduction of consultation time, smoothing of hierarchy, more efficient teamwork, ability to forge connections between people, and ability to reach large masses [ 44 , 45 ]. Furthermore, SM facilitates the access to health information for extended population groups, regardless of geographic location, age, or education, compared with traditional communication methods [ 41 ]. However, the most influential advantage of SM remains its cost-benefit feature: it can reach an increasing number of people without the high cost of traditional means and the information remains available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

Similar to most technologies, SM has its disadvantages. In the health care industry, these include increased workload, risk of unprofessional behavior, disparity in the sense of urgency, a demanding sense of needing to stay connected 24 hours a day, difficulty in obtaining discussion records, worries about leading to or identifying patients, privacy breech, change of patient-practitioner relationship from a professional to a personal one, and the risk of reducing the autonomy of junior doctors [ 45 ]. Those who choose to use SM should be aware of the potential risks and problems that they could encounter but should not shy away from using SM because it can greatly increase the reach and impact of HCPs’ work and improve patients’ health [ 34 ]. In the following section, the specific uses of SM in health care are discussed in more depth.

SM Use From the Perspective of HCPs

The literature review yielded an abundance of information. The studies were categorized as follows to best present the findings: health promotion, career development or practice promotion, recruitment, professional networking and destressing, professional medical education, telemedicine, scientific research, and critical public health care issues.

Health Promotion

Producing and disseminating information has played a pivotal role in the history of humanity. Over the years, an increasing number of public health organizations, medical institutes, and HCPs are using SM tools to disseminate visually rich public health messages to the general public. The primary goal is to share solid, evidence-based, and up-to-date health information that educates and affects millions of SM users and to dispel common misconceptions and counterbalance inaccurate material rapidly spreading through SM [ 2 , 32 ]. Examples of how SM can increase the accessibility of a massive number of recipients to health care information around the world include concise educational tweets on Twitter, a pediatric dentistry group on Facebook where fellow specialists discuss anonymized cases and share ideas, photos of a salvation mission to an underprivileged community on Instagram, and the results of a clinical study broadcasted via WhatsApp. These are all examples of how SM can not only increase accessibility, but it can do so at a faster rate than any other means, and perhaps in the cheapest way possible.

Access to oral health care services is limited by a lack of universal coverage. SM, which is a method of mass communication, offers an alternative to traditional communication, which extends to reach underprivileged and underserved communities. The WHO and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are among many other public health institutions that use SM to communicate with the public during public health crises and natural disasters [ 8 , 29 , 35 ]. Physicians also use SM to promote patient health care education on a smaller scale within their networks. Research has shed light on the many tools that have been used for this purpose. For example, HCPs can tweet, record videos, and participate in health-related discussion forums, which provides an opportunity for physicians to share scientific information and broaden their knowledge [ 46 , 47 ]. Furthermore, information from international conferences and findings from the latest research and clinical trials can be presented in mainstream media to be shared with millions of people [ 48 ].

Sharing such information not only helps improve knowledge but can also improve attitudes and practices related to health. For example, in dentistry, SM has played a role in helping patients cope with challenges such as dental anxiety and in presenting dental management options in a convenient and nonthreatening manner [ 42 , 49 ]. Evidence now shows that SM-based interventions are linked to healthy practices such as tobacco cessation, increased physical activity, and diversion from risky sexual behaviors [ 39 , 50 ].

In conclusion, there is evidence that SM helps to improve access to health information. When designing SM campaigns and interventions to disseminate health information, it is important to develop messages that may be more likely to resonate with and elicit reactions from individuals [ 2 ]. Messages tailored to certain population segments are more effective than generic messages, as tailored messages address the specific needs of their recipients [ 51 ]. Furthermore, interactive (two-way) communication is more effective than linear (one way) communication [ 7 ]. Importantly, SM must complement rather than replace traditional health promotion. More research is needed to investigate strategies that can increase access to health information for minorities and marginalized communities and for populations deprived of internet access.

Career Development or Practice Promotion

One of the measures of the success of HCPs is their ability to attract and retain patients. This will not only maximize income but will also boost reputation. SM has played an important role in enhancing practice or practitioner ranking on search engines, even more than academic pedigree and experience [ 52 ]. As search engines generally direct patients’ traffic, a strong presence on the web can be crucial to attract patients to a practice.

HCPs at all stages of their careers can use SM to brand their name. SM aids in developing their name, expanding their network, and learning about career-enhancing opportunities [ 53 ]. It can also be used as a marketing strategy to attract patients of various demographics and has been proven to be effective in engaging and obtaining new patients [ 54 ]. In a survey conducted in 2013, 12.5% of health care organizations reported attracting new patients through SM [ 39 ]. Moreover, a 2012 study of dental practices in the United States revealed that 51% of the practices used SM, of which 91% used it for marketing purposes and 73% used it to increase their presence on the web [ 55 ].

With the extended use of SM among patients and HCPs, practitioners must now compete for patients’ attention and need to be strategic regarding the content they share and platforms they use [ 7 ]. HCPs should advertise their professional trajectories, areas of experience, and treatment outcomes by focusing on information tailored to the target audience in an educational manner that does not typify commodification or unfair competition. The eagerness to achieve popularity and to attract new customers or compete with colleagues results in some HCPs thinking only with a short-term approach and prioritizing greater financial gains. For example, some orthodontists and plastic surgeons post before-and-after photographs with drastic improvements without explaining that biological variations among patients, differences in response to treatment, and other external factors may affect the course and outcome of the intervention. Without such information, patients tend to have unrealistic expectations and end up being disappointed [ 56 ]. Unfortunately, some practitioners tend to digitally modify images to accentuate treatment-led improvements. This misuse of technology could lead to serious reputational damage for the practitioner and the profession in general in addition to unfavorable court decisions [ 56 ].

HCPs build their status using SM in diverse ways. They begin by creating a profile page on one or multiple platforms, which allows them to create and upload content. By connecting with colleagues, they can begin to establish a digital social network. Moreover, groups based on common interests further expand their social network and raise the practitioner’s name in bigger circles. These processes can create a haven for viral marketing, which can be leveraged to create a name, develop a digital voice, and disseminate health information in a timely and cost-efficient way [ 7 , 30 , 42 ]. Moreover, for newly qualified practitioners, contributing to discussions on forums and virtual meetings raises their profile among more experienced practitioners who may be geographically distant. This can leverage word-of-mouth referrals and attract fellow researchers to collaborate.

In terms of cost-effectiveness, a 2017 study on the SM return on investment (ROI) showed an upward trend that represented stable growth for Facebook, whereas Instagram demonstrated substantial ROI. It was concluded that SM resources were superior to standard internet-based resources. When all SM platforms were combined into one graph, there was a consistent finding of growth associated with all SM sources over time [ 57 ]. As the following quote summarizes, “physicians have to realize that our patients are doing it (SM), so this is where we need to be” [ 58 ].

In summary, there is no one-size-fits-all SM platform, and there is no single way to share content that is superior to all others. It is essential for an HCP to emphasize the importance of their specialty; present the strengths in their particular practice; understand the features and user demographics for SM platforms; and, most importantly, know their target audience. For example, a plastic surgeon or orthodontist may find it beneficial to share pre- and posttreatment or procedure photos of anonymized patients, for which Instagram may be the ideal platform. A practice that is community friendly may invest in a Facebook page to keep the audience updated on offers and services. A family medicine office may share announcements regarding the arrival of a flu-vaccine and post photos of staff members vaccinating themselves to motivate people. Twitter may be useful for posting specialty-related educational messages or sharing information on health-related matters to make HCPs more visible. A pediatric dentist may use YouTube to share videos of tricks used in the office to make the experience less threatening for children. More training courses and talks on how to leverage SM to establish a presence and build a name may be beneficial for HCPs who are not SM savvy.

Recruitment

SM is making great strides not only in the modern world of technology but also in the workplace: it is transforming the way people find and engage in work. It seems that the conventional channels for recruiting employees are not as effective as they once were. Instead, we are shifting toward SM not only as a platform for social interaction, photograph exhibition, and creative expression but also as a space for far-reaching, low-cost job searches. Regarding employment, the interest in SM is bidirectional. On the one hand, employers are often keen to know more about a candidate applying for a position than what is stated in their resumé. On the other hand, employees, especially millennials, will first want to know more about the dynamics of a firm and the personalities of their future boss and coworkers before they commit to the job. Recruitment in the medical field requires more than an application. In this section, the recruitment of HCPs for employment or students for residency programs is discussed.

Human capital is of major importance to any organization because humans produce income and are a source of competitive advantage [ 59 ]. Recruitment of qualified employees who are fit for the job is not a simple, one-way decision as it used to be. Performing due diligence in hiring a new employee is more essential than ever and is a multidimensional process, including at least one interview, drug screenings, and background checks. More recently, employers have turned to nontraditional methods and to SM to further analyze potential candidates [ 60 ]. SM prescreening may have the potential to offer information about the applicant above and beyond what is stated in the resumé and can be assessed in a more traditional screening [ 61 ]. For job seekers, because of the large number of SM users and the relatively low cost of setting up, SM platforms are ideal for finding employment. Furthermore, many organizations are now investing in SM to display their employer brand and, in return, attract qualified applicants [ 59 , 62 ]. Organizations aiming to attract applicants, especially in fields where competition and demand are high, such as in nursing, must make every effort to promote a unique brand image and attract potential candidates [ 59 , 63 ].

There is evidence that recruiters can accurately determine productivity-related traits solely on the basis of personal information about a candidate available on SNSs [ 64 ]. Baert [ 65 ] found that personal photographs have become more effective as objects of communication than of memory. This research described interesting theoretical mechanisms that underlie better labor market outcomes for more attractive people. For example, it proposed that self-confidence from good looks could drive productivity, leading to emotional stability, and, consequently, labor market success [ 66 ]. The study also found a higher impact of face pictures seen on Facebook’s profile photo compared with those attached to a resumé [ 65 ].

From a job seeker’s point of view, SM makes it possible to apply to hundreds of jobs, even globally, at once. Through SM, job applicants can increase their presence on the web to grab the attention of employers [ 60 ]. In the health care industry, it is advisable for job seekers to be active in various medical societies to expand their connections and to make a positive impression on future employers. Similar to the real world, it is advisable for applicants to attend virtual conferences and discussion boards and to introduce themselves to others at every reasonable opportunity [ 67 ]. It is important to note that employers do not use only professional platforms such as LinkedIn for hiring. In fact, they check many SM platforms when screening for prospective employees [ 60 ]. It is not a bad idea that employers and applicants conduct periodic searches for their own names to ensure that their SM persona projects a professional image [ 2 ].

Several studies have investigated the effects of SM on recruitment in health care. It was found that a hospital’s profile on SM can shape employer brand perceptions and attract nurses. In addition, nurses who visited the hospital’s Facebook page were more attracted to work there [ 59 ]. In another study, over 92% of employers stated that they were planning to use SM for recruiting [ 68 ]. Moreover, a study conducted in 2012 found that the recruitment and screening costs were reduced by 50% by using SM and that 65% of employers were evaluating the integrity and character of potential employees based on their SM profiles [ 60 ]. As shown in a review by Davison et al [ 61 ], a study found that 20% of the organizations surveyed were planning to use SM for applicant screening. Furthermore, LinkedIn was the most commonly used SM platform for screening applicants, whereas the use of Twitter for screening purposes increased from 11% to 31% between 2011 and 2013 [ 61 ]. Interestingly, a study found that there were 38% more job interview invitations to candidates with the most beneficial Facebook pictures [ 65 ]. In addition, a Microsoft survey revealed that 79% of employers searched for web-based information regarding prospective employees, but only 7% of the candidates were aware of this possibility [ 69 , 70 ].

Regarding residency programs, SM is a mechanism to accentuate the programs’ visibility on the web and to screen residency applicants [ 71 ]. It is important to note that it is not only credentials and high scores that secure a spot in a specialty program; personality traits and characters are becoming more significant than ever. Program directors (PDs) now want to know applicants on a personal level. As much of this information would be illegal to obtain in a traditional interview, they may search for it on SM [ 72 ]. Admission officers and PDs are now capitalizing on the abundance of information and the popularity of SM [ 72 ]. They may encounter content that seems unprofessional or exposes negative character traits that are useful in making decisions about applicants. Many residency programs now search Facebook and other personal SM platforms to screen applicants [ 73 ]. Even residents are now using SM platforms to obtain information on possible postgraduate opportunities [ 71 ].

There is an abundance of research on the use of SM for applicant selection in residency programs. In one study, 17% of PDs screened applicants on SM, 33% gave lower rankings to applicants based on SM findings, and 69% stated that they will continue to use SM for applicant screening [ 74 ]. In another survey, most school children who were interested in studying medicine felt that behaviors on SM should be considered for admission to medical schools [ 75 ]. Furthermore, a study conducted in 2016 found that 18% of PDs visited the SM profiles of residency applicants, 10% gave a lower rank or completely disqualified an applicant because of negative web-based behavior, and 10% took formal disciplinary action against a resident because of negative web-based behavior, with Facebook being the platform used by most PDs [ 76 , 77 ]. Another survey found that 97% and 90% of PDs agreed that candidates should be held accountable for illegal acts and unprofessional behavior on the web, respectively, whereas 89% of them agreed that information voluntarily published on the web is fair to use in judging character and professionalism. Furthermore, 82.4% of PDs indicated that they would favor the candidate with a sterile Facebook profile if they were choosing between 2 mock candidates [ 78 ]. Moreover, student pharmacists demonstrated a general attitude that web-based personas on SM should not be used to judge professional attitudes and abilities [ 79 ]. Although most medical school PDs believed that screening applicants on SM does not constitute a violation of the applicants’ privacy, the topic remains controversial and views regarding the appropriateness of using SM profiles to judge character and professionalism vary [ 78 , 80 ]. There is general agreement that SM information is open for judgment by others, especially among older PDs [ 78 ].

Professionalism is advocated by the American College of Surgeons as a quality that extends beyond the clinic, operating room, and hospital and into the community in the real world and on the web [ 81 ]. There are some issues associated with using SM to judge a possible employee’s or resident’s professionalism and character. First, screening is usually done by a single person without a standardized scoring rubric. Second, content is unstandardized among the different SM platforms, and the information displayed differs across platforms; for instance, it would not be fair to compare someone’s Facebook photo album of a Spring Break trip with someone’s contribution to a medical discussion on Twitter. Moreover, screening SM content showed poor test-retest reliability, especially as the content could change rapidly. Interrater reliability is potentially affected by the content being rated and the characteristics of the rater. Construct validity also seems to be weak as no specific construct is usually in mind; instead, a rater casually scans profiles to make a judgment on an applicant or screen potential new hires. Finally, there is a problem with generalizability across platforms. It is suggested that personality traits should be judged from platforms with flexible formats (eg, Facebook), whereas professional traits and experiences should be judged from more structured platforms (eg, LinkedIn) [ 61 ].

In summary, although e-professionalism is a new topic, it is receiving considerable attention from recruiters and is being taught as a part of medical curricula [ 76 , 79 , 82 , 83 ]. It is necessary in this age to educate job or residency candidates about their digital voice and persona management [ 65 ]. Job or residency candidates should consider their publicly available web-based information as an extension of their resumé and should be aware that many employees use SM to investigate applicants. Therefore, candidates should ensure that their public SM profiles include nothing unprofessional about themselves [ 65 , 67 ]. Finally, the establishment of clear and equitable guidelines for searching candidates on SM is essential to prevent potential bias.

Professional Networking and Destressing

Professional connections represent important channels through which HCPs exchange knowledge, share expertise, refer patients, seek a second opinion, collaborate on research, hire and employ, provide social support, and improve health care outcomes. In the last few years, work-related communication has changed considerably with the advent of electronic communication tools, especially with the aid of instant messaging on smartphones [ 30 , 84 ]. Virtual professional communities can enable members to quickly access evidence-based information and disseminate work, which can lead to increased immediate impact [ 85 , 86 ]. Most SM platforms are found to be easy to implement, effective, quick, and low cost [ 87 ]. In a recent systematic review, positive predictors for using SM among HCPs were identified to be younger age, lower rank, and fewer years of experience, and the most commonly used platforms for communicating with colleagues were Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and WhatsApp [ 88 ].

Owing to the exceedingly large number of HCPs on SM, platforms that are designed only for medical personnel have been introduced. Digital communication and social interactions occur between people who may or may not be known to each other [ 44 ]. In addition to medical issues, discussions usually address diverse subjects such as politics, practice management, career enhancement opportunities, and even dating in a medical environment [ 2 , 89 ]. Sermo, the world’s largest virtual doctors’ lounge, is a leading social network for physicians that is now available in 30 countries [ 90 ]. Doximity is a newer physician-only social networking platform with more than 500,000 members as of 2020 [ 91 ]. In addition, there is the Medical Directors Forum, which is an SNS exclusively for medical directors that provides a secure environment for peer-to-peer interaction [ 92 ]. Studies on HCPs’ preferred SM platform showed that Facebook was used most frequently (86%). Other commonly used platforms were Medscape Physician Connect (52%), Sermo (44%), LinkedIn (42%), YouTube (40%), Blogging (25%), and Twitter (20%) [ 26 ]. These statistics have been confirmed in subsequent studies [ 32 ]. For health-related reasons, physicians primarily used LinkedIn (70.7%) and Twitter (51.2%) [ 32 ]. Another study reported that HCPs spent an average of 11 to 13 hours per week on medical professional networking sites [ 26 ].

WhatsApp has been used as an intradepartmental, patient-related communication method because of its instant and more efficient handovers [ 93 ]. When physical proximity was a barrier, physicians preferred to use WhatsApp to exchange work-related knowledge over traditional text messages [ 84 ]. The American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry has a private group on Facebook with fewer than 3800 members who share clinical cases, clinical experiences, research results, new products, and relevant events [ 9 ]. Facebook has many other groups for dentists that are open to the public to view and join [ 30 ]. Microblogs such as Twitter allow a dynamic and concise exchange of information that is instantly accessible by an increasingly large number of readers [ 89 ]. Furthermore, the dissemination of scientific literature on SM (eg, Twitter) has increased the number of citations and downloads of published articles [ 94 - 96 ]. LinkedIn serves as a professional space for HCPs to demonstrate their expertise and capabilities; 54% of physicians have used it to communicate with colleagues [ 32 , 42 ].

SM also has a positive impact on students. The sense of belonging is crucial for undergraduate training. By being part of a well-respected learning environment, students benefit educationally and socially [ 97 ]. Moreover, having guidance and support on a 24/7 basis can ease their transition from university to more independent training centers [ 30 ].

In recent months, SM platforms have become helpful in maintaining communication with friends and family and reducing isolation and sense of loneliness, which could have a negative psychological impact [ 98 ]. Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, many practices have been affected and many jobs have been lost worldwide [ 99 ]. The sense of unity and comradery introduced by SM among users has helped countless individuals overcome hardships, including HCPs. In the first half of 2020, HCPs were deployed into unfamiliar environments because of the COVID-19 pandemic, worked beyond their areas of expertise and over long hours, and had to involuntarily isolate themselves from their families. This crisis has been anxiety inducing and stressful for HCPs, who often resorted to SM to voice their frustrations, experiences, and opinions not only with family and friends but also with the global network of frontline staff enduring similar challenges. The unique virtual siblinghood united the global health care community like never before. A Facebook page was created to facilitate the renting of recreational vehicles for HCPs to self-isolate outside their homes [ 100 ]. The public played an important role in paying due respect to HCPs, who were often referred to as heroes, both literally and figuratively. Illustrations portraying their pivotal role were shared on every known SM platform. Videos showing countless people applauding for HCPs at certain hours of the day went viral. Many HCPs engaged in what was labeled as COVID-19–free zones to escape, even if momentarily, from the pandemic stress. Clinicians from all specialties in diverse locations joined forces against a single enemy. Their voices echoed louder when they addressed lawmakers demanding improved access to personal protective equipment (PPE), increased testing for COVID-19, reduced reimbursement barriers to telemedicine, and improved mental health care.

To conclude, SM plays an important role in the lives of HCPs at a personal level. Whether SM is used for amusement, zoning out , or commiserating, it provides a safe haven for HCPs to put off their metaphoric heroes’ capes and find comfort in their humanhood again. Future research should investigate the role of SM in helping HCPs individually and collectively tackle the challenges resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Professional Medical Education

Millennial students of health professions are increasing in numbers each year. They possess qualities consistent with being lifelong learners [ 71 ]. As Prensky [ 10 ] discussed, traditional education systems are no longer suitable for contemporary students. Millennials and younger generations process information in a fundamentally different manner from their predecessors. SM offers formal and informal educational opportunities and has the ability to remove physical barriers that could otherwise impede access to educational resources [ 51 ]. Not only is SM rich in educational resources but coupling the information with the interactive exchange of ideas and the live discussions has also made it a valuable educational tool. When SM was integrated into teaching, students were motivated by content obtained from SM, and positive behavioral changes were promoted [ 101 ]. Moreover, when SM was incorporated into clinical education, students perceived better collaboration with their peers, improved professional and career development, and larger supportive learning communities [ 102 ].

Social networks are an underutilized educational resource, not only for trainees but also for experienced clinicians. A large array of educational material is abundant on SM from seniors with advanced experience and from fellow trainees as well, usually at no cost to the user [ 30 ]. The differences between experts and novices are slowly diminishing because of novel forms of peer learning and knowledge production facilitated by SM [ 35 ]. Most platforms are frequently used to engage learners. YouTube in particular is more commonly used to teach technical skills and has been acknowledged by dentists as a convenient educational platform [ 30 , 71 , 103 , 104 ]. YouTube can also be used in classrooms to forge discussion, illustrate a procedure, or reinforce information, which promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills [ 70 ]. A study conducted in Saudi Arabia found that YouTube was the most commonly used SM platform in medical education [ 105 ].

Evidence suggests that SM has a place in health care education. Universities use SM to create virtual classrooms and increase access to academic libraries [ 70 ]. In the United States, 95% of medical schools have some Facebook presence, and 71% of them have student groups [ 106 ]. In a study on nursing students, Twitter was used to view videos of clinical scenarios, and students tweeted their observations for instructor feedback [ 70 ]. Internet and SM content have been successfully used to train older caregivers to improve the caregivers’ and patients’ quality of life [ 5 ]. In a unique experience, the University of Rhode Island managed to connect students to geriatric patients on Facebook. It promoted students’ empathy and communication skills while helping patients advance their SM skills to battle loneliness [ 2 ]. In addition, students in an oral and maxillofacial radiology course perceived using Twitter as a helpful learning tool that enhanced access to faculty [ 107 ]. Moreover, medical students and professionals in cardiology reported the use of social networks for education and professional training [ 103 ].

Learning may be considered a social activity [ 106 ]. The more senses the students stimulate in their learning process, the more likely the information acquired is to be retained. Thus, the greater the engagement and contribution of the students, the better the learning outcomes. SM provides a medium for active collaboration rather than passive learning. In nursing, 92.4% of students perceived a positive learning impact from the podcasting of lecture materials [ 108 ]. In another study, students who were more heavily engaged in blog-based discussion of relevant learning material had higher grades than peers who had contributed less to the discussion [ 109 ]. Passing an examination was significantly associated with combining discussion on a WhatsApp group with the web-based question bank, and so were their higher grades [ 110 ]. Medical students who used Wikipedia had superior short-term knowledge acquisition compared with those who used a digital textbook, which suggested a potential role for Wikipedia in medical education [ 111 ]. In addition, medical students who integrated the use of SM in 2 elective courses were satisfied with the new approach [ 112 ]. Twitter and Instagram have also been described as helpful tools in radiology education [ 113 ]. Participants in a study reported that SM was perceived as helpful and very helpful for improving knowledge, creativity, decision making, critical skills, and problem-solving abilities [ 114 ].

In a study by Alsuraihi et al [ 105 ], YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter were among the most commonly used resources for learning. Although 95.8% of the students believed that SM was beneficial for learning, 40% thought it might be distracting [ 105 ]. In a review by Chan et al [ 85 ], it was found that multiple residencies used SM to broaden the horizons of trainees and facilitate engagement in journal clubs using virtual classrooms; a wide range of SM platforms were featured, including Facebook, blogs, Wikipedia, and podcasts. Specifically, dermatologists in a study agreed that WhatsApp discussions enriched their scientific knowledge of clinical cases and promoted learning about relevant references and upcoming meetings [ 115 ]. Participants of a 2015 study on surgical teams expressed that WhatsApp helped to flatten the hierarchy among students, residents, and experienced consultants, enabling them all to actively contribute to discussions without inhibition. This comfortable environment is especially helpful for shy and marginalized students [ 116 ].

Once students move beyond structured, supervised learning environments, they must recognize their own gaps in knowledge and skills over time and make every effort to fill them, adopting skills for lifelong learning [ 106 ]. The increasing mutability of knowledge in the digital age and its exchangeability and accessibility on mobile phones make learning thorough SM platforms a common practice for many medical students [ 35 , 117 ]. However, learning cannot be done through SM alone but is used to augment learning from textbooks, peer-reviewed research publications, and mentors, and just like with other sources of information, critical appraisal to information retrieved from SM must be applied; this is what lays the foundation for a future competent web-based learner [ 85 , 106 , 118 ]. It is important that students understand that educational material shared through SM cannot be accepted as is without a great degree of skepticism and objective evaluation.

To summarize, today’s students are unique in how they learn and acquire skills. Current educational systems must adapt to the needs and qualities of modern students and augment, if not replace, the traditional teaching methods with more digital means. It is essential for educators to put every effort in determining the best means of presenting information to their students and guiding them in their information search and appraisal. Retrospective research can be planned to compare the performances, learning outcomes, and teaching strategies between 2 student cohorts: those that were taught in a traditional manner and those that relied on SM.

Telemedicine

As people are becoming increasingly fluent in using novel technologies, health care has recently changed when, where, and how patients and HCPs communicate [ 119 ]. Telemedicine is the use of communication technologies and electronic information to provide health care support to patients or health care workers who are physically distant from HCPs [ 120 ]. Many branches of medicine are now adopting electronically mediated care; terms such as teledentistry and telepsychiatry are not uncommon, and publications related to telemedicine have been increasing [ 121 - 123 ]. Among the specialties that use telemedicine are pediatrics, psychiatry, diabetes, dentistry, nursing, palliative care, and allergies [ 124 - 130 ]. HCPs can now overcome their limited clinical time by communicating with their patients remotely. With the aid of novice technology, they provide a more convenient type of care for patients, especially for following up patients with chronic health care needs [ 131 ].

As young and highly qualified HCPs prefer staying in urban communities, telemedicine significantly augments clinical care, especially in underprivileged and underserved communities in rural areas [ 2 , 82 , 132 , 133 ]. Furthermore, as health care costs continue to increase, organizations are aiming to reduce costs without jeopardizing the quality of care being provided [ 134 ]. Recruitment and workforce sustainability are often an issue, and some countries with large, sparsely populated rural areas have grappled with how to overcome medical and dental provider shortages in these rural areas. Telemedicine and teledentistry can be of great use to ensure that new practitioners appointed in rural locations are not secluded and have the advice and support they need to promote their clinical work and psychological well-being [ 135 ]. It may also be used to connect HCPs in third-world countries with specialists in more medically advanced regions; for example, surgical procedures may be streamed live, and questions can be asked in real time [ 69 ].

Smartphones are fast, portable, and simple to use; mobile apps now seem to be ideal for quick learning or communication between colleagues or HCPs and the public or patients. Mobile apps are among the most commonly used tools for telemedicine [ 82 ]. Globally, but particularly in low- and middle-income countries, communication among HCPs is facilitated via WhatsApp, providing faster diagnosis and immediate management of acute findings [ 136 - 138 ]. A systematic review on telehealth concluded that 74% of the studies reported economic benefits of eHealth interventions for different medical conditions [ 134 ].

Programs for electronically monitoring intensive care units allowed HCPs to remotely monitor the conditions of up to 100 patients in multiple hospitals [ 139 ]. Pandemics and natural disasters pose challenges to effective and prompt health care delivery. Although telemedicine and eHealth might not solve them all, they can aid HCPs in providing the necessary management in scenarios in which the infrastructure is intact. In recent weeks, the distant triage that allowed patients to be efficiently screened for COVID-19 was patient centered and in compliance with self-quarantine; thus, it protected patients, clinicians, and the community from exposure to the virus [ 139 ]. For instance, replacing scheduled office visits with telemedicine visits in case HCPs were quarantined, absent, or sick was a productive initiative at Jefferson Health, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania [ 139 ]. An interesting model of telemedicine was explained by Baker and Stanley [ 40 ], in which patients use an app to navigate to a specific medical site, answer a few triage questions about their medical condition, wait in a virtual queue to be connected by video to an HCP, and discuss their condition or concern.

Sending clinical photographs privately between colleagues for a second opinion or to enrich discussion is not uncommon. A comprehensive review by Boulos et al [ 35 ] shares findings from multiple studies on the use of WhatsApp and Instagram in those contexts. One study found excellent inter- and intraobserver agreement in the assessment images of tibial fractures using WhatsApp [ 140 ]. There was a report of a life-saving use of WhatsApp in a resource-limited situation in which the life of a critically ill patient was saved by sending clinical monitor images with electrocardiogram changes and receiving feedback from an expert consultant who was 40 km away from the center where the patient was admitted [ 141 ]. Moreover, evaluating maxillofacial computed tomography scans using WhatsApp has been reported to be easy and rapid [ 142 ]. WhatsApp was also useful for communication between emergency department consultants when they were not onsite [ 143 ]. In dentistry, a study showed that 67.32% of dentists used WhatsApp to send clinical images to colleagues seeking second opinions, and 35.29% of them did so on a weekly basis. About 60.29% of the dentists received a prompt response, whereas 38.23% received delayed responses. In addition, about 98.52% of dentists sent radiographs on WhatsApp for a second opinion [ 144 ].

In conclusion, it is noteworthy that telemedicine is not a practice in and of itself [ 145 ]. It is not the most suitable model of care for every patient and is not the preferred approach when physicians cannot meet clinical standards of care. Patients using telemedicine must also have access to traditional emergency care, if needed. Although these innovations have significant potential benefits, the electronic exchange of health information and care may pose risks to patients’ privacy, confidentiality, and safety and to quality and continuity of care. Furthermore, the limitations of electronically mediated physical examination may weaken the relationship between patients and HCPs, thereby jeopardizing care [ 119 ]. High-quality research is needed to improve the utilization of telemedicine, and more well-designed studies comparing telemedicine with traditional patient care are essential.

Scientific Research

The perceived benefits of using SM in health care include the ability to connect with geographically distant researchers and to build and foster research communities [ 4 ]. SM is a potential tool to revolutionize health research, as it has fewer temporal and spatial limitations and can overcome boundaries between research communities and the public [ 146 , 147 ]. SM can aid research in several ways: by recruiting participants, disseminating surveys, connecting with fellow researchers, identifying research opportunities, sharing study findings, and gaining access to published work.

There are conveniences in taking scientific research to the digital world. Publishing study findings on SM provides enhanced dissemination of research and increases the access to valid evidence-based information for patients. Furthermore, because not all studies end in a publication in a traditional journal, their findings can thus be shared via SM to a wider audience and be of substantial value to a broader research community [ 4 ]. Another advantage of SM for scientific research became evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, which made it possible to break geographical barriers and arrange collaborative research projects, surveys, and multicenter studies [ 8 ]. Sites such as Google Scholar and ResearchGate create communities for researchers to network, collaborate with each other, and promote publications [ 53 , 148 ]. The anonymity of posts, not having to answer questions in the presence of others and acquiring large samples that attenuate the effect of false information or extreme views were viewed as advantages unique to SM surveys and possible factors that improve research accuracy [ 146 ]. Content posted on the web may be used as data for research without interacting with the authors of the content, and perhaps without even considering them to be human subjects [ 146 ]. Moreover, compared with traditional recruitment methods, web-based surveys have the ability to store large numbers of responses, which can be easily accessed for analysis [ 5 ].

Recruiting research participants on SM has gained popularity in recent years. In a review by Lafferty and Manca [ 4 ], it was found that the most common tools used for recruiting participants were Facebook, Twitter, and a combination of both. Snowballing sampling method involves participants themselves recruiting more participants by contacting people in their networks [ 149 ]. A study on 8252 participants found that web-based recruitment was more efficient and had lower costs per recruited participant compared with traditional methods [ 150 ].

Disseminating surveys on the web is now a common practice. One study chose SM platforms to send its survey because it was cost effective, time saving, and easily accessible [ 151 ]. In another dentist or patient study, the survey for dentists was distributed via a dentist-only Facebook group that had more than 4500 members; for patients, the survey distribution was mainly through Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter, and the recipients were asked to share it with their connections [ 42 ]. Furthermore, in a study involving health care quality personnel, the survey was distributed through WhatsApp [ 114 ]. In a study in Saudi Arabia, the link to the web-based questionnaire was made available through Twitter and Facebook, the 2 most popular SNSs in the country [ 152 ]. Over half of university students strongly or somewhat liked using Facebook for research conducted by university researchers [ 153 ]. Zaballos et al [ 154 ] developed a web-based multiplatform that integrated WhatsApp and emails to assess the quality of life of individuals with hearing loss issues; the tool facilitated data collection in an easy-to-use platform.

A review by Topolovec-Vranic and Natarajan [ 155 ] showed that 40% of the studies found SM to be the most effective recruitment method, whereas 50% of them stated that their target population was hard to reach . Approximately 43% of the studies reported cost-effectiveness [ 155 ]. In addition, SM helped in recruiting a large number of individuals and reached challenging populations such as adolescents and young adults. Another review found that traditional recruitment methods tend to underrepresent users of marijuana, ecstasy, cocaine, or alcohol or people with at-risk sexual behavior; in comparison, Facebook recruitment yielded more representative results [ 156 ].

Researchers who plan to recruit participants on SM must consider their target populations’ SM use patterns and preferences. For example, a study on sexual health might consider dating sites for recruitment, whereas Facebook may be more suitable for a nonsexual health study [ 157 ]. To best tailor recruitment campaigns, the selection of hashtags or keywords that reflect the interests of the target population might be useful [ 45 ].

Regarding shortcomings, it is important to note that research participants recruited from web-based environments may not truly represent the population of interest as a whole, suggesting that SM should only augment traditional recruitment methods [ 4 ]. A study suggested that people with disabilities may disproportionately be living in conditions with lower standards of living and may not have access to the internet [ 158 ]. In another study, subjects recruited from SM were largely middle class, whereas those recruited at a local hospital were more disadvantaged [ 159 ]. A review by Whitaker et al [ 156 ] showed an overrepresentation of young White women resulting from web-based recruitment.

Other limitations of using SM for research include that researchers have little control over distractions, the research idea may be copied, or participants may share research information with other participants, which puts the scientific integrity of the study at risk [ 4 ]. In a review by Denecke et al [ 5 ], the most reported ethical concerns for using SM for research recruitment were self-selection—that is, users with an interest in the study area will be recruited preferentially, which will affect the representativeness of the sample—and a skew toward well-educated and higher socioeconomic status cohorts on the web [ 5 ].

Ethical and privacy concerns regarding SM for research recruitment must be addressed because tracking, profiling, and targeting of users are common in the digital world [ 45 ]. Bender et al [ 160 ] proposed privacy-enhanced SM recruitment guidelines, including proactive measures to protect privacy and declaration of potential risks. Vulnerable groups such as children and teenagers, homosexuals in regions where homosexuality is illegal, and individuals with mental illnesses require extra emphasis on respect, confidentiality, and caution in obtaining consent [ 146 ].

To summarize, there is growing evidence to suggest that SM is a useful research tool that enables researchers to connect with each other, recruit participants, and share their findings with the public. Moreover, the data obtained from SM can be investigated. Nevertheless, researchers must not overlook the shortcomings of SM that may ultimately debilitate the integrity of the study. Privacy concerns and ethical considerations must also be considered. The development of guidelines for ethical conduct in web-based research should be based on the best available practices and should be comprehensive and standardized to minimize a study’s error margin. Future studies that compare different recruitment methods and varying participant demographics recruited using various methods should be encouraged. Research investigating the cost-effectiveness of SM research and those with large sample sizes that enable the generalizability of findings is also recommended.

Critical Public Health Care Issues

SM can be used by emergency notification systems to mass communicate information to large groups in a fast and low-cost manner. Studies have shown that SM can be a source of data to detect outbreaks, infection distribution, and areas of acute health care needs [ 29 ]. It can also help understand the public’s knowledge, fears, attitudes, and behaviors during a crisis [ 161 - 163 ]. For example, the Red Cross tracks Twitter posts during natural disasters, such as hurricanes and earthquakes, to assess where the greatest needs lie [ 50 , 164 ]. Perhaps one of the first publications investigating SM use during a pandemic is a study that analyzed tweets posted during the 2009 H1N1 outbreak; this study found that SM can be a useful tool for disseminating information and for the public to share their opinions and experiences [ 165 ]. Twitter posts were also helpful in monitoring disease activity during the cholera and influenza outbreaks [ 166 , 167 ]. When interaction and collaboration were essential, as with the influenza A-H1N1 pandemic, SM provided an unmatched opportunity to engage the public and was used by prominent health organizations such as the WHO [ 7 , 41 ]. However, coordination between web-based and real-world response activities is also important [ 29 ].

Perhaps there is no more powerful example of SM use during a health crisis than what has happened during the COVID-19 pandemic. The dissemination of information during a pandemic has never been this quick and effective in the past. Information on the virus spread as quickly as the virus itself and dominated conversations on SM. On March 11, 2020, there were more than 20 million mentions of coronavirus-related terms on SM [ 168 ]. Since the beginning of the outbreak, SM has been one of the most commonly used communication channels by international health organizations such as the WHO and the CDC to possibly disseminate information to every person on earth with access to SM. Thousands of smaller health authorities may have also used SM to communicate with local communities. Although traditional access to medical guidelines and policies often requires some form of affiliation or membership, it is available to internet users today with a tap on a keyboard or a finger slide on a smartphone. The distribution of PPE, sharing treatment protocols, clinical trial results, and allocation of medical resources have been efficient with the aid of SM [ 8 ]. A recent study evaluated the 100 most viewed coronavirus videos on YouTube; as of March 5, 2020 (very early in the pandemic), these videos had 165 million views [ 169 ]. Another study in China collected data from 250 million Weibo users, a Twitter-like SM platform. Posts mentioning symptoms or diagnoses significantly predicted daily case counts ahead of the statistics announced by officials in Hubei Province, the epicenter of the initial outbreak, and the rest of China [ 170 ].

Perhaps the founders of Twitter did not expect it to become a helpful tool in the fight against COVID-19. For example, using Twitter, a cardiologist was able to expedite the delivery of a drug to a COVID-19 patient within just 6 hours of his tweet [ 171 ]. The American Heart Association launched a registry on Twitter to aggregate COVID-19 cases to better understand risk factor profiles and treatment algorithms [ 171 ]. Hashtags such as #GetUsPPE highlighted the scarcity of PPE, resulting in technology pioneers ramping up their production of PPE [ 171 ]. After calls were raised on Twitter and other SM platforms, HCPs flew to other parts of their countries that were in crisis, retired clinicians volunteered to rejoin the work force in several countries, and those who were unable to be present helped colleagues through telemedicine. Another example of SM use during the pandemic is the COVIDBRONCH Initiative—an international network of airway specialists who foster rapid acquisition and dissemination of knowledge regarding airway procedures during the pandemic [ 172 ].

Despite its catastrophic impact and the substantial loss of lives, humans will overcome the existential threat brought by COVID-19 and will also likely overcome future pandemics. Over time, humans have survived environmental, biological, and man-made calamities because of their innate adaptability, resilience, innovativeness, and persistence. Today, humans use SM to disseminate information quickly and to a large number of people, thus eliciting an almost immediate response. More research is already taking place and will continue to investigate the key role of SM in the fight against pandemics, not only from a medical perspective but also from social and economic viewpoints.

This review provided an overview of the different uses of SM in health care. It is evident that SM use indicates not a trend but a fundamental shift in how people communicate today. Multidimensional health care, which includes SM and other forms of communication, has been shown to be highly successful. Not only can SM be used to improve direct patient care but it can also be used to increase the public’s knowledge, facilitate research, connect HCPs, improve medical education, and combat public health crises. However, striking the right balance between digital and traditional health care is imperative. As SM is a relatively recent phenomenon, further research is needed to determine its long-term effectiveness and to identify the best strategies for maximizing its advantages and limiting risks. This review will be continued in the second part, in which the use of SM from patients’ perspectives will be discussed. This discussion will be supplemented with specific barriers, ethical considerations, and disadvantages reported in the extant literature.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges the steadfast support and telementoring of Professor Paul Casamassimo.

Abbreviations

Conflicts of Interest: None declared.

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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 

How to write a good literature review 

• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal? 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 

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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

Whether you’re exploring a new research field or finding new angles to develop an existing topic, sifting through hundreds of papers can take more time than you have to spare. But what if you could find science-backed insights with verified citations in seconds? That’s the power of Paperpal’s new Research feature!  

How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?

Paperpal, an AI writing assistant, integrates powerful academic search capabilities within its writing platform. With the Research feature, you get 100% factual insights, with citations backed by 250M+ verified research articles, directly within your writing interface with the option to save relevant references in your Citation Library. By eliminating the need to switch tabs to find answers to all your research questions, Paperpal saves time and helps you stay focused on your writing.   

Here’s how to use the Research feature:  

• Ask a question: Get started with a new document on paperpal.com. Click on the “Research” feature and type your question in plain English. Paperpal will scour over 250 million research articles, including conference papers and preprints, to provide you with accurate insights and citations. 
• Review and Save: Paperpal summarizes the information, while citing sources and listing relevant reads. You can quickly scan the results to identify relevant references and save these directly to your built-in citations library for later access. 
• Cite with Confidence: Paperpal makes it easy to incorporate relevant citations and references into your writing, ensuring your arguments are well-supported by credible sources. This translates to a polished, well-researched literature review. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.  

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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• Published: 08 May 2024

Exploring the dynamics of consumer engagement in social media influencer marketing: from the self-determination theory perspective

• Chenyu Gu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6059-0573 1 &
• Qiuting Duan 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  587 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Business and management
• Cultural and media studies

Influencer advertising has emerged as an integral part of social media marketing. Within this realm, consumer engagement is a critical indicator for gauging the impact of influencer advertisements, as it encompasses the proactive involvement of consumers in spreading advertisements and creating value. Therefore, investigating the mechanisms behind consumer engagement holds significant relevance for formulating effective influencer advertising strategies. The current study, grounded in self-determination theory and employing a stimulus-organism-response framework, constructs a general model to assess the impact of influencer factors, advertisement information, and social factors on consumer engagement. Analyzing data from 522 samples using structural equation modeling, the findings reveal: (1) Social media influencers are effective at generating initial online traffic but have limited influence on deeper levels of consumer engagement, cautioning advertisers against overestimating their impact; (2) The essence of higher-level engagement lies in the ad information factor, affirming that in the new media era, content remains ‘king’; (3) Interpersonal factors should also be given importance, as influencing the surrounding social groups of consumers is one of the effective ways to enhance the impact of advertising. Theoretically, current research broadens the scope of both social media and advertising effectiveness studies, forming a bridge between influencer marketing and consumer engagement. Practically, the findings offer macro-level strategic insights for influencer marketing.

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Introduction.

Recent studies have highlighted an escalating aversion among audiences towards traditional online ads, leading to a diminishing effectiveness of traditional online advertising methods (Lou et al., 2019 ). In an effort to overcome these challenges, an increasing number of brands are turning to influencers as their spokespersons for advertising. Utilizing influencers not only capitalizes on their significant influence over their fan base but also allows for the dissemination of advertising messages in a more native and organic manner. Consequently, influencer-endorsed advertising has become a pivotal component and a growing trend in social media advertising (Gräve & Bartsch, 2022 ). Although the topic of influencer-endorsed advertising has garnered increasing attention from scholars, the field is still in its infancy, offering ample opportunities for in-depth research and exploration (Barta et al., 2023 ).

Presently, social media influencers—individuals with substantial follower bases—have emerged as the new vanguard in advertising (Hudders & Lou, 2023 ). Their tweets and videos possess the remarkable potential to sway the purchasing decisions of thousands if not millions. This influence largely hinges on consumer engagement behaviors, implying that the impact of advertising can proliferate throughout a consumer’s entire social network (Abbasi et al., 2023 ). Consequently, exploring ways to enhance consumer engagement is of paramount theoretical and practical significance for advertising effectiveness research (Xiao et al., 2023 ). This necessitates researchers to delve deeper into the exploration of the stimulating factors and psychological mechanisms influencing consumer engagement behaviors (Vander Schee et al., 2020 ), which is the gap this study seeks to address.

The Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) framework has been extensively applied in the study of consumer engagement behaviors (Tak & Gupta, 2021 ) and has been shown to integrate effectively with self-determination theory (Yang et al., 2019 ). Therefore, employing the S-O-R framework to investigate consumer engagement behaviors in the context of influencer advertising is considered a rational approach. The current study embarks on an in-depth analysis of the transformation process from three distinct dimensions. In the Stimulus (S) phase, we focus on how influencer factors, advertising message factors, and social influence factors act as external stimuli. This phase scrutinizes the external environment’s role in triggering consumer reactions. During the Organism (O) phase, the research explores the intrinsic psychological motivations affecting individual behavior as posited in self-determination theory. This includes the willingness for self-disclosure, the desire for innovation, and trust in advertising messages. The investigation in this phase aims to understand how these internal motivations shape consumer attitudes and perceptions in the context of influencer marketing. Finally, in the Response (R) phase, the study examines how these psychological factors influence consumer engagement behavior. This part of the research seeks to understand the transition from internal psychological states to actual consumer behavior, particularly how these states drive the consumers’ deep integration and interaction with the influencer content.

Despite the inherent limitations of cross-sectional analysis in capturing the full temporal dynamics of consumer engagement, this study seeks to unveil the dynamic interplay between consumers’ psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—and their varying engagement levels in social media influencer marketing, grounded in self-determination theory. Through this lens, by analyzing factors related to influencers, content, and social context, we aim to infer potential dynamic shifts in engagement behaviors as psychological needs evolve. This approach allows us to offer a snapshot of the complex, multi-dimensional nature of consumer engagement dynamics, providing valuable insights for both theoretical exploration and practical application in the constantly evolving domain of social media marketing. Moreover, the current study underscores the significance of adapting to the dynamic digital environment and highlights the evolving nature of consumer engagement in the realm of digital marketing.

Literature review

Stimulus-organism-response (s-o-r) model.

The Stimulus-Response (S-R) model, originating from behaviorist psychology and introduced by psychologist Watson ( 1917 ), posits that individual behaviors are directly induced by external environmental stimuli. However, this model overlooks internal personal factors, complicating the explanation of psychological states. Mehrabian and Russell ( 1974 ) expanded this by incorporating the individual’s cognitive component (organism) into the model, creating the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) framework. This model has become a crucial theoretical framework in consumer psychology as it interprets internal psychological cognitions as mediators between stimuli and responses. Integrating with psychological theories, the S-O-R model effectively analyzes and explains the significant impact of internal psychological factors on behavior (Koay et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2021 ), and is extensively applied in investigating user behavior on social media platforms (Hewei & Youngsook, 2022 ). This study combines the S-O-R framework with self-determination theory to examine consumer engagement behaviors in the context of social media influencer advertising, a logic also supported by some studies (Yang et al., 2021 ).

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory, proposed by Richard and Edward (2000), is a theoretical framework exploring human behavioral motivation and personality. The theory emphasizes motivational processes, positing that individual behaviors are developed based on factors satisfying their psychological needs. It suggests that individual behavioral tendencies are influenced by the needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Furthermore, self-determination theory, along with organic integration theory, indicates that individual behavioral tendencies are also affected by internal psychological motivations and external situational factors.

Self-determination theory has been validated by scholars in the study of online user behaviors. For example, Sweet applied the theory to the investigation of community building in online networks, analyzing knowledge-sharing behaviors among online community members (Sweet et al., 2020 ). Further literature review reveals the applicability of self-determination theory to consumer engagement behaviors, particularly in the context of influencer marketing advertisements. Firstly, self-determination theory is widely applied in studying the psychological motivations behind online behaviors, suggesting that the internal and external motivations outlined within the theory might also apply to exploring consumer behaviors in influencer marketing scenarios (Itani et al., 2022 ). Secondly, although research on consumer engagement in the social media influencer advertising context is still in its early stages, some studies have utilized SDT to explore behaviors such as information sharing and electronic word-of-mouth dissemination (Astuti & Hariyawan, 2021 ). These behaviors, which are part of the content contribution and creation dimensions of consumer engagement, may share similarities in the underlying psychological motivational mechanisms. Thus, this study will build upon these foundations to construct the Organism (O) component of the S-O-R model, integrating insights from SDT to further understand consumer engagement in influencer marketing.

Consumer engagement

Although scholars generally agree at a macro level to define consumer engagement as the creation of additional value by consumers or customers beyond purchasing products, the specific categorization of consumer engagement varies in different studies. For instance, Simon and Tossan interpret consumer engagement as a psychological willingness to interact with influencers (Simon & Tossan, 2018 ). However, such a broad definition lacks precision in describing various levels of engagement. Other scholars directly use tangible metrics on social media platforms, such as likes, saves, comments, and shares, to represent consumer engagement (Lee et al., 2018 ). While this quantitative approach is not flawed and can be highly effective in practical applications, it overlooks the content aspect of engagement, contradicting the “content is king” principle of advertising and marketing. We advocate for combining consumer engagement with the content aspect, as content engagement not only generates more traces of consumer online behavior (Oestreicher-Singer & Zalmanson, 2013 ) but, more importantly, content contribution and creation are central to social media advertising and marketing, going beyond mere content consumption (Qiu & Kumar, 2017 ). Meanwhile, we also need to emphasize that engagement is not a fixed state but a fluctuating process influenced by ongoing interactions between consumers and influencers, mediated by the evolving nature of social media platforms and the shifting sands of consumer preferences (Pradhan et al., 2023 ). Consumer engagement in digital environments undergoes continuous change, reflecting a journey rather than a destination (Viswanathan et al., 2017 ).

The current study adopts a widely accepted definition of consumer engagement from existing research, offering operational feasibility and aligning well with the research objectives of this paper. Consumer engagement behaviors in the context of this study encompass three dimensions: content consumption, content contribution, and content creation (Muntinga et al., 2011 ). These dimensions reflect a spectrum of digital engagement behaviors ranging from low to high levels (Schivinski et al., 2016 ). Specifically, content consumption on social media platforms represents a lower level of engagement, where consumers merely click and read the information but do not actively contribute or create user-generated content. Some studies consider this level of engagement as less significant for in-depth exploration because content consumption, compared to other forms, generates fewer visible traces of consumer behavior (Brodie et al., 2013 ). Even in a study by Qiu and Kumar, it was noted that the conversion rate of content consumption is low, contributing minimally to the success of social media marketing (Qiu & Kumar, 2017 ).

On the other hand, content contribution, especially content creation, is central to social media marketing. When consumers comment on influencer content or share information with their network nodes, it is termed content contribution, representing a medium level of online consumer engagement (Piehler et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, when consumers actively upload and post brand-related content on social media, this higher level of behavior is referred to as content creation. Content creation represents the highest level of consumer engagement (Cheung et al., 2021 ). Although medium and high levels of consumer engagement are more valuable for social media advertising and marketing, this exploratory study still retains the content consumption dimension of consumer engagement behaviors.

Theoretical framework

Internal organism factors: self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, and information trust.

In existing research based on self-determination theory that focuses on online behavior, competence, relatedness, and autonomy are commonly considered as internal factors influencing users’ online behaviors. However, this approach sometimes strays from the context of online consumption. Therefore, in studies related to online consumption, scholars often use self-disclosure willingness as an overt representation of autonomy, innovativeness as a representation of competence, and trust as a representation of relatedness (Mahmood et al., 2019 ).

The use of these overt variables can be logically explained as follows: According to self-determination theory, individuals with a higher level of self-determination are more likely to adopt compensatory mechanisms to facilitate behavior compared to those with lower self-determination (Wehmeyer, 1999 ). Self-disclosure, a voluntary act of sharing personal information with others, is considered a key behavior in the development of interpersonal relationships. In social environments, self-disclosure can effectively alleviate stress and build social connections, while also seeking societal validation of personal ideas (Altman & Taylor, 1973 ). Social networks, as para-social entities, possess the interactive attributes of real societies and are likely to exhibit similar mechanisms. In consumer contexts, personal disclosures can include voluntary sharing of product interests, consumption experiences, and future purchase intentions (Robertshaw & Marr, 2006 ). While material incentives can prompt personal information disclosure, many consumers disclose personal information online voluntarily, which can be traced back to an intrinsic need for autonomy (Stutzman et al., 2011 ). Thus, in this study, we consider the self-disclosure willingness as a representation of high autonomy.

Innovativeness refers to an individual’s internal level of seeking novelty and represents their personality and tendency for novelty (Okazaki, 2009 ). Often used in consumer research, innovative consumers are inclined to try new technologies and possess an intrinsic motivation to use new products. Previous studies have shown that consumers with high innovativeness are more likely to search for information on new products and share their experiences and expertise with others, reflecting a recognition of their own competence (Kaushik & Rahman, 2014 ). Therefore, in consumer contexts, innovativeness is often regarded as the competence dimension within the intrinsic factors of self-determination (Wang et al., 2016 ), with external motivations like information novelty enhancing this intrinsic motivation (Lee et al., 2015 ).

Trust refers to an individual’s willingness to rely on the opinions of others they believe in. From a social psychological perspective, trust indicates the willingness to assume the risk of being harmed by another party (McAllister, 1995 ). Widely applied in social media contexts for relational marketing, information trust has been proven to positively influence the exchange and dissemination of consumer information, representing a close and advanced relationship between consumers and businesses, brands, or advertising endorsers (Steinhoff et al., 2019 ). Consumers who trust brands or social media influencers are more willing to share information without fear of exploitation (Pop et al., 2022 ), making trust a commonly used representation of the relatedness dimension in self-determination within consumer contexts.

Construction of the path from organism to response: self-determination internal factors and consumer engagement behavior

Following the logic outlined above, the current study represents the internal factors of self-determination theory through three variables: self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, and information trust. Next, the study explores the association between these self-determination internal factors and consumer engagement behavior, thereby constructing the link between Organism (O) and Response (R).

Self-disclosure willingness and consumer engagement behavior

In the realm of social sciences, the concept of self-disclosure willingness has been thoroughly examined from diverse disciplinary perspectives, encompassing communication studies, sociology, and psychology. Viewing from the lens of social interaction dynamics, self-disclosure is acknowledged as a fundamental precondition for the initiation and development of online social relationships and interactive engagements (Luo & Hancock, 2020 ). It constitutes an indispensable component within the spectrum of interactive behaviors and the evolution of interpersonal connections. Voluntary self-disclosure is characterized by individuals divulging information about themselves, which typically remains unknown to others and is inaccessible through alternative sources. This concept aligns with the tenets of uncertainty reduction theory, which argues that during interpersonal engagements, individuals seek information about their counterparts as a means to mitigate uncertainties inherent in social interactions (Lee et al., 2008 ). Self-disclosure allows others to gain more personal information, thereby helping to reduce the uncertainty in interpersonal relationships. Such disclosure is voluntary rather than coerced, and this sharing of information can facilitate the development of relationships between individuals (Towner et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, individuals who actively engage in social media interactions (such as liking, sharing, and commenting on others’ content) often exhibit higher levels of self-disclosure (Chu et al., 2023 ); additional research indicates a positive correlation between self-disclosure and online engagement behaviors (Lee et al., 2023 ). Taking the context of the current study, the autonomous self-disclosure willingness can incline social media users to read advertising content more attentively and share information with others, and even create evaluative content. Therefore, this paper proposes the following research hypothesis:

H1a: The self-disclosure willingness is positively correlated with content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H1b: The self-disclosure willingness is positively correlated with content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H1c: The self-disclosure willingness is positively correlated with content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Innovativeness and consumer engagement behavior

Innovativeness represents an individual’s propensity to favor new technologies and the motivation to use new products, associated with the cognitive perception of one’s self-competence. Individuals with a need for self-competence recognition often exhibit higher innovativeness (Kelley & Alden, 2016 ). Existing research indicates that users with higher levels of innovativeness are more inclined to accept new product information and share their experiences and discoveries with others in their social networks (Yusuf & Busalim, 2018 ). Similarly, in the context of this study, individuals, as followers of influencers, signify an endorsement of the influencer. Driven by innovativeness, they may be more eager to actively receive information from influencers. If they find the information valuable, they are likely to share it and even engage in active content re-creation to meet their expectations of self-image. Therefore, this paper proposes the following research hypotheses:

H2a: The innovativeness of social media users is positively correlated with content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H2b: The innovativeness of social media users is positively correlated with content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H2c: The innovativeness of social media users is positively correlated with content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Information trust and consumer engagement

Trust refers to an individual’s willingness to rely on the statements and opinions of a target object (Moorman et al., 1993 ). Extensive research indicates that trust positively impacts information dissemination and content sharing in interpersonal communication environments (Majerczak & Strzelecki, 2022 ); when trust is established, individuals are more willing to share their resources and less suspicious of being exploited. Trust has also been shown to influence consumers’ participation in community building and content sharing on social media, demonstrating cross-cultural universality (Anaya-Sánchez et al., 2020 ).

Trust in influencer advertising information is also a key predictor of consumers’ information exchange online. With many social media users now operating under real-name policies, there is an increased inclination to trust information shared on social media over that posted by corporate accounts or anonymously. Additionally, as users’ social networks partially overlap with their real-life interpersonal networks, extensive research shows that more consumers increasingly rely on information posted and shared on social networks when making purchase decisions (Wang et al., 2016 ). This aligns with the effectiveness goals of influencer marketing advertisements and the characteristics of consumer engagement. Trust in the content posted by influencers is considered a manifestation of a strong relationship between fans and influencers, central to relationship marketing (Kim & Kim, 2021 ). Based on trust in the influencer, which then extends to trust in their content, people are more inclined to browse information posted by influencers, share this information with others, and even create their own content without fear of exploitation or negative consequences. Therefore, this paper proposes the following research hypotheses:

H3a: Information trust is positively correlated with content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H3b: Information trust is positively correlated with content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H3c: Information trust is positively correlated with content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Construction of the path from stimulus to organism: influencer factors, advertising information factors, social factors, and self-determination internal factors

Having established the logical connection from Organism (O) to Response (R), we further construct the influence path from Stimulus (S) to Organism (O). Revisiting the definition of influencer advertising in social media, companies, and brands leverage influencers on social media platforms to disseminate advertising content, utilizing the influencers’ relationships and influence over consumers for marketing purposes. In addition to consumer’s internal factors, elements such as companies, brands, influencers, and the advertisements themselves also impact consumer behavior. Although factors like the brand image perception of companies may influence consumer behavior, considering that in influencer marketing, companies and brands do not directly interact with consumers, this study prioritizes the dimensions of influencers and advertisements. Furthermore, the impact of social factors on individual cognition and behavior is significant, thus, the current study integrates influencers, advertisements, and social dimensions as the Stimulus (S) component.

Influencer factors: parasocial identification

Self-determination theory posits that relationships are one of the key motivators influencing individual behavior. In the context of social media research, users anticipate establishing a parasocial relationship with influencers, resembling real-life relationships. Hence, we consider the parasocial identification arising from users’ parasocial interactions with influencers as the relational motivator. Parasocial interaction refers to the one-sided personal relationship that individuals develop with media characters (Donald & Richard, 1956 ). During this process, individuals believe that the media character is directly communicating with them, creating a sense of positive intimacy (Giles, 2002 ). Over time, through repeated unilateral interactions with media characters, individuals develop a parasocial relationship, leading to parasocial identification. However, parasocial identification should not be directly equated with the concept of social identification in social identity theory. Social identification occurs when individuals psychologically de-individualize themselves, perceiving the characteristics of their social group as their own, upon identifying themselves as part of that group. In contrast, parasocial identification refers to the one-sided interactional identification with media characters (such as celebrities or influencers) over time (Chen et al., 2021 ). Particularly when individuals’ needs for interpersonal interaction are not met in their daily lives, they turn to parasocial interactions to fulfill these needs (Shan et al., 2020 ). Especially on social media, which is characterized by its high visibility and interactivity, users can easily develop a strong parasocial identification with the influencers they follow (Wei et al., 2022 ).

Parasocial identification and self-disclosure willingness

Theories like uncertainty reduction, personal construct, and social exchange are often applied to explain the emergence of parasocial identification. Social media, with its convenient and interactive modes of information dissemination, enables consumers to easily follow influencers on media platforms. They can perceive the personality of influencers through their online content, viewing them as familiar individuals or even friends. Once parasocial identification develops, this pleasurable experience can significantly influence consumers’ cognitions and thus their behavioral responses. Research has explored the impact of parasocial identification on consumer behavior. For instance, Bond et al. found that on Twitter, the intensity of users’ parasocial identification with influencers positively correlates with their continuous monitoring of these influencers’ activities (Bond, 2016 ). Analogous to real life, where we tend to pay more attention to our friends in our social networks, a similar phenomenon occurs in the relationship between consumers and brands. This type of parasocial identification not only makes consumers willing to follow brand pages but also more inclined to voluntarily provide personal information (Chen et al., 2021 ). Based on this logic, we speculate that a similar relationship may exist between social media influencers and their fans. Fans develop parasocial identification with influencers through social media interactions, making them more willing to disclose their information, opinions, and views in the comment sections of the influencers they follow, engaging in more frequent social interactions (Chung & Cho, 2017 ), even if the content at times may be brand or company-embedded marketing advertisements. In other words, in the presence of influencers with whom they have established parasocial relationships, they are more inclined to disclose personal information, thereby promoting consumer engagement behavior. Therefore, we propose the following research hypotheses:

H4: Parasocial identification is positively correlated with consumer self-disclosure willingness.

H4a: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of parasocial identification on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H4b: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of parasocial identification on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H4c: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of parasocial identification on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Parasocial identification and information trust

Information Trust refers to consumers’ willingness to trust the information contained in advertisements and to place themselves at risk. These risks include purchasing products inconsistent with the advertised information and the negative social consequences of erroneously spreading this information to others, leading to unpleasant consumption experiences (Minton, 2015 ). In advertising marketing, gaining consumers’ trust in advertising information is crucial. In the context of influencer marketing on social media, companies, and brands leverage the social connection between influencers and their fans. According to cognitive empathy theory, consumers project their trust in influencers onto the products endorsed, explaining the phenomenon of ‘loving the house for the crow on its roof.’ Research indicates that parasocial identification with influencers is a necessary condition for trust development. Consumers engage in parasocial interactions with influencers on social media, leading to parasocial identification (Jin et al., 2021 ). Consumers tend to reduce their cognitive load and simplify their decision-making processes, thus naturally adopting a positive attitude and trust towards advertising information disseminated by influencers with whom they have established parasocial identification. This forms the core logic behind the success of influencer marketing advertisements (Breves et al., 2021 ); furthermore, as mentioned earlier, because consumers trust these advertisements, they are also willing to share this information with friends and family and even engage in content re-creation. Therefore, we propose the following research hypotheses:

H5: Parasocial identification is positively correlated with information trust.

H5a: Information trust mediates the impact of parasocial identification on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H5b: Information trust mediates the impact of parasocial identification on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H5c: Information trust mediates the impact of parasocial identification on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Influencer factors: source credibility

Source credibility refers to the degree of trust consumers place in the influencer as a source, based on the influencer’s reliability and expertise. Numerous studies have validated the effectiveness of the endorsement effect in advertising (Schouten et al., 2021 ). The Source Credibility Model, proposed by the renowned American communication scholar Hovland and the “Yale School,” posits that in the process of information dissemination, the credibility of the source can influence the audience’s decision to accept the information. The credibility of the information is determined by two aspects of the source: reliability and expertise. Reliability refers to the audience’s trust in the “communicator’s objective and honest approach to providing information,” while expertise refers to the audience’s trust in the “communicator being perceived as an effective source of information” (Hovland et al., 1953 ). Hovland’s definitions reveal that the interpretation of source credibility is not about the inherent traits of the source itself but rather the audience’s perception of the source (Jang et al., 2021 ). This differs from trust and serves as a precursor to the development of trust. Specifically, reliability and expertise are based on the audience’s perception; thus, this aligns closely with the audience’s perception of influencers (Kim & Kim, 2021 ). This credibility is a cognitive statement about the source of information.

Source credibility and self-disclosure willingness

Some studies have confirmed the positive impact of an influencer’s self-disclosure on their credibility as a source (Leite & Baptista, 2022 ). However, few have explored the impact of an influencer’s credibility, as a source, on consumers’ self-disclosure willingness. Undoubtedly, an impact exists; self-disclosure is considered a method to attempt to increase intimacy with others (Leite et al., 2022 ). According to social exchange theory, people promote relationships through the exchange of information in interpersonal communication to gain benefits (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005 ). Credibility, deriving from an influencer’s expertise and reliability, means that a highly credible influencer may provide more valuable information to consumers. Therefore, based on the social exchange theory’s logic of reciprocal benefits, consumers might be more willing to disclose their information to trustworthy influencers, potentially even expanding social interactions through further consumer engagement behaviors. Thus, we propose the following research hypotheses:

H6: Source credibility is positively correlated with self-disclosure willingness.

H6a: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of Source credibility on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H6b: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of Source credibility on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H6c: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of Source credibility on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Source credibility and information trust

Based on the Source Credibility Model, the credibility of an endorser as an information source can significantly influence consumers’ acceptance of the information (Shan et al., 2020 ). Existing research has demonstrated the positive impact of source credibility on consumers. Djafarova, in a study based on Instagram, noted through in-depth interviews with 18 users that an influencer’s credibility significantly affects respondents’ trust in the information they post. This credibility is composed of expertise and relevance to consumers, and influencers on social media are considered more trustworthy than traditional celebrities (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017 ). Subsequently, Bao and colleagues validated in the Chinese consumer context, based on the ELM model and commitment-trust theory, that the credibility of brand pages on Weibo effectively fosters consumer trust in the brand, encouraging participation in marketing activities (Bao & Wang, 2021 ). Moreover, Hsieh et al. found that in e-commerce contexts, the credibility of the source is a significant factor influencing consumers’ trust in advertising information (Hsieh & Li, 2020 ). In summary, existing research has proven that the credibility of the source can promote consumer trust. Influencer credibility is a significant antecedent affecting consumers’ trust in the advertised content they publish. In brand communities, trust can foster consumer engagement behaviors (Habibi et al., 2014 ). Specifically, consumers are more likely to trust the advertising content published by influencers with higher credibility (more expertise and reliability), and as previously mentioned, consumer engagement behavior is more likely to occur. Based on this, the study proposes the following research hypotheses:

H7: Source credibility is positively correlated with information trust.

H7a: Information trust mediates the impact of source credibility on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H7b: Information trust mediates the impact of source credibility on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H7c: Information trust mediates the impact of source credibility on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Advertising information factors: informative value

Advertising value refers to “the relative utility value of advertising information to consumers and is a subjective evaluation by consumers.” In his research, Ducoffe pointed out that in the context of online advertising, the informative value of advertising is a significant component of advertising value (Ducoffe, 1995 ). Subsequent studies have proven that consumers’ perception of advertising value can effectively promote their behavioral response to advertisements (Van-Tien Dao et al., 2014 ). Informative value of advertising refers to “the information about products needed by consumers provided by the advertisement and its ability to enhance consumer purchase satisfaction.” From the perspective of information dissemination, valuable advertising information should help consumers make better purchasing decisions and reduce the effort spent searching for product information. The informational aspect of advertising has been proven to effectively influence consumers’ cognition and, in turn, their behavior (Haida & Rahim, 2015 ).

Informative value and innovativeness

As previously discussed, consumers’ innovativeness refers to their psychological trait of favoring new things. Studies have shown that consumers with high innovativeness prefer novel and valuable product information, as it satisfies their need for newness and information about new products, making it an important factor in social media advertising engagement (Shi, 2018 ). This paper also hypothesizes that advertisements with high informative value can activate consumers’ innovativeness, as the novelty of information is one of the measures of informative value (León et al., 2009 ). Acquiring valuable information can make individuals feel good about themselves and fulfill their perception of a “novel image.” According to social exchange theory, consumers can gain social capital in interpersonal interactions (such as social recognition) by sharing information about these new products they perceive as valuable. Therefore, the current study proposes the following research hypothesis:

H8: Informative value is positively correlated with innovativeness.

H8a: Innovativeness mediates the impact of informative value on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H8b: Innovativeness mediates the impact of informative value on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H8c: Innovativeness mediates the impact of informative value on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Informative value and information trust

Trust is a multi-layered concept explored across various disciplines, including communication, marketing, sociology, and psychology. For the purposes of this paper, a deep analysis of different levels of trust is not undertaken. Here, trust specifically refers to the trust in influencer advertising information within the context of social media marketing, denoting consumers’ belief in and reliance on the advertising information endorsed by influencers. Racherla et al. investigated the factors influencing consumers’ trust in online reviews, suggesting that information quality and value contribute to increasing trust (Racherla et al., 2012 ). Similarly, Luo and Yuan, in a study based on social media marketing, also confirmed that the value of advertising information posted on brand pages can foster consumer trust in the content (Lou & Yuan, 2019 ). Therefore, by analogy, this paper posits that the informative value of influencer-endorsed advertising can also promote consumer trust in that advertising information. The relationship between trust in advertising information and consumer engagement behavior has been discussed earlier. Thus, the current study proposes the following research hypotheses:

H9: Informative value is positively correlated with information trust.

H9a: Information trust mediates the impact of informative value on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H9b: Information trust mediates the impact of informative value on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H9c: Information trust mediates the impact of informative value on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Advertising information factors: ad targeting accuracy

Ad targeting accuracy refers to the degree of match between the substantive information contained in advertising content and consumer needs. Advertisements containing precise information often yield good advertising outcomes. In marketing practice, advertisers frequently use information technology to analyze the characteristics of different consumer groups in the target market and then target their advertisements accordingly to achieve precise dissemination and, consequently, effective advertising results. The utility of ad targeting accuracy has been confirmed by many studies. For instance, in the research by Qiu and Chen, using a modified UTAUT model, it was demonstrated that the accuracy of advertising effectively promotes consumer acceptance of advertisements in WeChat Moments (Qiu & Chen, 2018 ). Although some studies on targeted advertising also indicate that overly precise ads may raise concerns about personal privacy (Zhang et al., 2019 ), overall, the accuracy of advertising information is effective in enhancing advertising outcomes and is a key element in the success of targeted advertising.

Ad targeting accuracy and information trust

In influencer marketing advertisements, due to the special relationship recognition between consumers and influencers, the privacy concerns associated with ad targeting accuracy are alleviated (Vrontis et al., 2021 ). Meanwhile, the informative value brought by targeting accuracy is highlighted. More precise advertising content implies higher informative value and also signifies that the advertising content is more worthy of consumer trust (Della Vigna, Gentzkow, 2010 ). As previously discussed, people are more inclined to read and engage with advertising content they trust and recognize. Therefore, the current study proposes the following research hypotheses:

H10: Ad targeting accuracy is positively correlated with information trust.

H10a: Information trust mediates the impact of ad targeting accuracy on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H10b: Information trust mediates the impact of ad targeting accuracy on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H10c: Information trust mediates the impact of ad targeting accuracy on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Social factors: subjective norm

The Theory of Planned Behavior, proposed by Ajzen ( 1991 ), suggests that individuals’ actions are preceded by conscious choices and are underlain by plans. TPB has been widely used by scholars in studying personal online behaviors, these studies collectively validate the applicability of TPB in the context of social media for researching online behaviors (Huang, 2023 ). Additionally, the self-determination theory, which underpins this chapter’s research, also supports the notion that individuals’ behavioral decisions are based on internal cognitions, aligning with TPB’s assertions. Therefore, this paper intends to select subjective norms from TPB as a factor of social influence. Subjective norm refers to an individual’s perception of the expectations of significant others in their social relationships regarding their behavior. Empirical research in the consumption field has demonstrated the significant impact of subjective norms on individual psychological cognition (Yang & Jolly, 2009 ). A meta-analysis by Hagger, Chatzisarantis ( 2009 ) even highlighted the statistically significant association between subjective norms and self-determination factors. Consequently, this study further explores its application in the context of influencer marketing advertisements on social media.

Subjective norm and self-disclosure willingness

In numerous studies on social media privacy, subjective norms significantly influence an individual’s self-disclosure willingness. Wirth et al. ( 2019 ) based on the privacy calculus theory, surveyed 1,466 participants and found that personal self-disclosure on social media is influenced by the behavioral expectations of other significant reference groups around them. Their research confirmed that subjective norms positively influence self-disclosure of information and highlighted that individuals’ cognitions and behaviors cannot ignore social and environmental factors. Heirman et al. ( 2013 ) in an experiment with Instagram users, also noted that subjective norms could promote positive consumer behavioral responses. Specifically, when important family members and friends highly regard social media influencers as trustworthy, we may also be more inclined to disclose our information to influencers and share this information with our surrounding family and friends without fear of disapproval. In our subjective norms, this is considered a positive and valuable interactive behavior, leading us to exhibit engagement behaviors. Based on this logic, we propose the following research hypotheses:

H11: Subjective norms are positively correlated with self-disclosure willingness.

H11a: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of subjective norms on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H11b: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of subjective norms on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H11c: Self-disclosure willingness mediates the impact of subjective norms on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Subjective norm and information trust

Numerous studies have indicated that subjective norms significantly influence trust (Roh et al., 2022 ). This can be explained by reference group theory, suggesting people tend to minimize the effort expended in decision-making processes, often looking to the behaviors or attitudes of others as a point of reference; for instance, subjective norms can foster acceptance of technology by enhancing trust (Gupta et al., 2021 ). Analogously, if a consumer’s social network generally holds positive attitudes toward influencer advertising, they are also more likely to trust the endorsed advertisement information, as it conserves the extensive effort required in gathering product information (Chetioui et al., 2020 ). Therefore, this paper proposes the following research hypotheses:

H12: Subjective norms are positively correlated with information trust.

H12a: Information trust mediates the impact of subjective norms on content consumption in consumer engagement behavior.

H12b: Information trust mediates the impact of subjective norms on content contribution in consumer engagement behavior.

H12c: Information trust mediates the impact of subjective norms on content creation in consumer engagement behavior.

Conceptual model

In summary, based on the Stimulus (S)-Organism (O)-Response (R) framework, this study constructs the external stimulus factors (S) from three dimensions: influencer factors (parasocial identification, source credibility), advertising information factors (informative value, Ad targeting accuracy), and social influence factors (subjective norms). This is grounded in social capital theory and the theory of planned behavior. drawing on self-determination theory, the current study constructs the individual psychological factors (O) using self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, and information trust. Finally, the behavioral response (R) is constructed using consumer engagement, which includes content consumption, content contribution, and content creation, as illustrated in Fig. 1 .

Consumer engagement behavior impact model based on SOR framework.

Materials and methods

Participants and procedures.

The current study conducted a survey through the Wenjuanxing platform to collect data. Participants were recruited through social media platforms such as WeChat, Douyin, Weibo et al., as samples drawn from social media users better align with the research purpose of our research and ensure the validity of the sample. Before the survey commenced, all participants were explicitly informed about the purpose of this study, and it was made clear that volunteers could withdraw from the survey at any time. Initially, 600 questionnaires were collected, with 78 invalid responses excluded. The criteria for valid questionnaires were as follows: (1) Respondents must have answered “Yes” to the question, “Do you follow any influencers (internet celebrities) on social media platforms?” as samples not using social media or not following influencers do not meet the study’s objective, making this question a prerequisite for continuing the survey; (2) Respondents had to correctly answer two hidden screening questions within the questionnaire to ensure that they did not randomly select scores; (3) The total time taken to complete the questionnaire had to exceed one minute, ensuring that respondents had sufficient time to understand and thoughtfully answer each question; (4) Respondents were not allowed to choose the same score for eight consecutive questions. Ultimately, 522 valid questionnaires were obtained, with an effective rate of 87.00%, meeting the basic sample size requirements for research models (Gefen et al., 2011 ). Detailed demographic information of the study participants is presented in Table 1 .

Measurements

To ensure the validity and reliability of the data analysis results in this study, the measurement tools and scales used in this chapter were designed with reference to existing established research. The main variables in the survey questionnaire include parasocial identification, source credibility, informative value, ad targeting accuracy, subjective norms, self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, information trust, content consumption, content contribution, and content creation. The measurement scale for parasocial identification was adapted from the research of Schramm and Hartmann, comprising 6 items (Schramm & Hartmann, 2008 ). The source credibility scale was combined from the studies of Cheung et al. and Luo & Yuan’s research in the context of social media influencer marketing, including 4 items (Cheung et al., 2009 ; Lou & Yuan, 2019 ). The scale for informative value was modified based on Voss et al.‘s research, consisting of 4 items (Voss et al., 2003 ). The ad targeting accuracy scale was derived from the research by Qiu Aimei et al., 2018 ) including 3 items. The subjective norm scale was adapted from Ajzen’s original scale, comprising 3 items (Ajzen, 2002 ). The self-disclosure willingness scale was developed based on Chu and Kim’s research, including 3 items (Chu & Kim, 2011 ). The innovativeness scale was formulated following the study by Sun et al., comprising 4 items (Sun et al., 2006 ). The information trust scale was created in reference to Chu and Choi’s research, including 3 items (Chu & Choi, 2011 ). The scales for the three components of social media consumer engagement—content consumption, content contribution, and content creation—were sourced from the research by Buzeta et al., encompassing 8 items in total (Buzeta et al., 2020 ).

All scales were appropriately revised for the context of social media influencer marketing. To avoid issues with scoring neutral attitudes, a uniform Likert seven-point scale was used for each measurement item (ranging from 1 to 7, representing a spectrum from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’). After the overall design of the questionnaire was completed, a pre-test was conducted with 30 social media users to ensure that potential respondents could clearly understand the meaning of each question and that there were no obstacles to answering. This pre-test aimed to prevent any difficulties or misunderstandings in the questionnaire items. The final version of the questionnaire is presented in Table 2 .

Data analysis

Since the model framework of the current study is derived from theoretical deductions of existing research and, while logically constructed, does not originate from an existing research model, this study still falls under the category of exploratory research. According to the analysis suggestions of Hair and other scholars, in cases of exploratory research model frameworks, it is more appropriate to choose Smart PLS for Partial Least Squares Path Analysis (PLS) to conduct data analysis and testing of the research model (Hair et al., 2012 ).

Measurement of model

In this study, careful data collection and management resulted in no missing values in the dataset. This ensured the integrity and reliability of the subsequent data analysis. As shown in Table 3 , after deleting measurement items with factor loadings below 0.5, the final factor loadings of the measurement items in this study range from 0.730 to 0.964. This indicates that all measurement items meet the retention criteria. Additionally, the Cronbach’s α values of the latent variables range from 0.805 to 0.924, and all latent variables have Composite Reliability (CR) values greater than the acceptable value of 0.7, demonstrating that the scales of this study have passed the reliability test requirements (Hair et al., 2019 ). All latent variables in this study have Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values greater than the standard acceptance value of 0.5, indicating that the convergent validity of the variables also meets the standard (Fornell & Larcker, 1981 ). Furthermore, the results show that the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values for each factor are below 10, indicating that there are no multicollinearity issues with the scales in this study (Hair, 2009 ).

The current study then further verified the discriminant validity of the variables, with specific results shown in Table 4 . The square roots of the average variance extracted (AVE) values for all variables (bolded on the diagonal) are greater than the Pearson correlation coefficients between the variables, indicating that the discriminant validity of the scales in this study meets the required standards (Fornell & Larcker, 1981 ). Additionally, a single-factor test method was employed to examine common method bias in the data. The first unrotated factor accounted for 29.71% of the variance, which is less than the critical threshold of 40%. Therefore, the study passed the test and did not exhibit serious common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ).

To ensure the robustness and appropriateness of our structural equation model, we also conducted a thorough evaluation of the model fit. Initially, through PLS Algorithm calculations, the R 2 values of each variable were greater than the standard acceptance value of 0.1, indicating good predictive accuracy of the model. Subsequently, Blindfolding calculations were performed, and the results showed that the Stone-Geisser Q 2 values of each variable were greater than 0, demonstrating that the model of this study effectively predicts the relationships between variables (Dijkstra & Henseler, 2015 ). In addition, through CFA, we also obtained some indicator values, specifically, χ 2 /df = 2.528 < 0.3, RMSEA = 0.059 < 0.06, SRMR = 0.055 < 0.08. Given its sensitivity to sample size, we primarily focused on the CFI, TLI, and NFI values, CFI = 0.953 > 0.9, TLI = 0.942 > 0.9, and NFI = 0.923 > 0.9 indicating a good fit. Additionally, RMSEA values below 0.06 and SRMR values below 0.08 were considered indicative of a good model fit. These indices collectively suggested that our model demonstrates a satisfactory fit with the data, thereby reinforcing the validity of our findings.

Research hypothesis testing

The current study employed a Bootstrapping test with a sample size of 5000 on the collected raw data to explore the coefficients and significance of the paths in the research model. The final test data results of this study’s model are presented in Table 5 .

The current study employs S-O-R model as the framework, grounded in theories such as self-determination theory and theory of planned behavior, to construct an influence model of consumer engagement behavior in the context of social media influencer marketing. It examines how influencer factors, advertisement information factors, and social influence factors affect consumer engagement behavior by impacting consumers’ psychological cognitions. Using structural equation modeling to analyze collected data ( N  = 522), it was found that self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, and information trust positively influence consumer engagement behavior, with innovativeness having the largest impact on higher levels of engagement. Influencer factors, advertisement information factors, and social factors serve as effective external stimuli, influencing psychological motivators and, consequently, consumer engagement behavior. The specific research results are illustrated in Fig. 2 .

Tested structural model of consumer engagement behavior.

The impact of psychological motivators on different levels of consumer engagement: self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, and information trust

The research analysis indicates that self-disclosure willingness and information trust are key drivers for content consumption (H1a, H2a validated). This aligns with previous findings that individuals with a higher willingness to disclose themselves show greater levels of engagement behavior (Chu et al., 2023 ); likewise, individuals who trust advertisement information are more inclined to engage with advertisement content (Kim, Kim, 2021 ). Moreover, our study finds that information trust has a stronger impact on content consumption, underscoring the importance of trust in the dissemination of advertisement information. However, no significant association was found between individual innovativeness and content consumption (H3a not validated).

Regarding the dimension of content contribution in consumer engagement, self-disclosure willingness, information trust, and innovativeness all positively impact it (H1b, H2b, and H3b all validated). This is consistent with earlier research findings that individuals with higher self-disclosure willingness are more likely to like, comment on, or share content posted by influencers on social media platforms (Towner et al., 2022 ); the conclusions of this paper also support that innovativeness is an important psychological driver for active participation in social media interactions (Kamboj & Sharma, 2023 ). However, at the level of consumer engagement in content contribution, while information trust also exerts a positive effect, its impact is the weakest, although information trust has the strongest impact on content consumption.

In social media advertising, the ideal outcome is the highest level of consumer engagement, i.e., content creation, meaning consumers actively join in brand content creation, seeing themselves as co-creators with the brand (Nadeem et al., 2021 ). Our findings reveal that self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, and information trust all positively influence content creation (H1c, H2c, and H3c all validated). The analysis found that similar to the impact on content contribution, innovativeness has the most significant effect on encouraging individual content creation, followed by self-disclosure willingness, with information trust having the least impact.

In summary, while some previous studies have shown that self-disclosure willingness, innovativeness, and information trust are important factors in promoting consumer engagement (Chu et al., 2023 ; Nadeem et al., 2021 ; Geng et al., 2021 ), this study goes further by integrating and comparing all three within the same research framework. It was found that to trigger higher levels of consumer engagement behavior, trust is not the most crucial psychological motivator; rather, the most effective method is to stimulate consumers’ innovativeness, thus complementing previous research. Subsequently, this study further explores the impact of different stimulus factors on various psychological motivators.

The influence of external stimulus factors on psychological motivators: influencer factors, advertisement information factors, and social factors

The current findings indicate that influencer factors, such as parasocial identification and source credibility, effectively enhance consumer engagement by influencing self-disclosure willingness and information trust. This aligns with prior research highlighting the significance of parasocial identification (Shan et al., 2020 ). Studies suggest parasocial identification positively impacts consumer engagement by boosting self-disclosure willingness and information trust (validated H4a, H4b, H4c, and H5a), but not content contribution or creation through information trust (H5b, H5c not validated). Source credibility’s influence on self-disclosure willingness was not significant (H6 not validated), thus negating the mediating effect of self-disclosure willingness (H6a, H6b, H6c not validated). Influencer credibility mainly affects engagement through information trust (H7a, H7b, H7c validated), supporting previous findings (Shan et al., 2020 ).

Advertisement factors (informative value and ad targeting accuracy) promote engagement through innovativeness and information trust. Informative value significantly impacts higher-level content contribution and creation through innovativeness (H8b, H8c validated), while ad targeting accuracy influences consumer engagement at all levels mainly through information trust (H10a, H10b, H10c validated).

Social factors (subjective norms) enhance self-disclosure willingness and information trust, consistent with previous research (Wirth et al., 2019 ; Gupta et al., 2021 ), and further promote consumer engagement across all levels (H11a, H11b, H11c, H12a, H12b, and H12c all validated).

In summary, influencer, advertisement, and social factors impact consumer engagement behavior by influencing psychological motivators, with influencer factors having the greatest effect on content consumption, advertisement content factors significantly raising higher-level consumer engagement through innovativeness, and social factors also influencing engagement through self-disclosure willingness and information trust.

Implication

From a theoretical perspective, current research presents a comprehensive model of consumer engagement within the context of influencer advertising on social media. This model not only expands the research horizon in the fields of social media influencer advertising and consumer engagement but also serves as a bridge between two crucial themes in new media advertising studies. Influencer advertising has become an integral part of social media advertising, and the construction of a macro model aids researchers in understanding consumer psychological processes and behavioral patterns. It also assists advertisers in formulating more effective strategies. Consumer engagement, focusing on the active role of consumers in disseminating information and the long-term impact on advertising effectiveness, aligns more closely with the advertising effectiveness measures in the new media context than traditional advertising metrics. However, the intersection of these two vital themes lacks comprehensive research and a universal model. This study constructs a model that elucidates the effects of various stimuli on consumer psychology and engagement behaviors, exploring the connections and mechanisms through different mediating pathways. By differentiating levels of engagement, the study offers more nuanced conclusions for diverse advertising objectives. Furthermore, this research validates the applicability of self-determination theory in the context of influencer advertising effectiveness. While this psychological theory has been utilized in communication behavior research, its effectiveness in the field of advertising requires further exploration. The current study introduces self-determination theory into the realm of influencer advertising and consumer engagement, thereby expanding its application in the field of advertising communication. It also responds to the call from the advertising and marketing academic community to incorporate more psychological theories to explain the ‘black box’ of consumer psychology. The inclusion of this theory re-emphasizes the people-centric approach of this research and highlights the primary role of individuals in advertising communication studies.

From a practical perspective, this study provides significant insights for adapting marketing strategies to the evolving media landscape and the empowered role of audiences. Firstly, in the face of changes in the communication environment and the empowerment of audience communication capabilities, traditional marketing approaches are becoming inadequate for new media advertising needs. Traditional advertising focuses on direct, point-to-point effects, whereas social media advertising aims for broader, point-to-mass communication, leveraging audience proactivity to facilitate the viral spread of content across online social networks. Secondly, for brands, the general influence model proposed in this study offers guidance for influencer advertising strategy. If the goal is to maximize reach and brand recognition with a substantial advertising budget, partnering with top influencers who have a large following can be an effective strategy. However, if the objective is to maximize cost-effectiveness with a limited budget by leveraging consumer initiative for secondary spread, the focus should be on designing advertising content that stimulates consumer creativity and willingness to innovate. Thirdly, influencers are advised to remain true to their followers. In influencer marketing, influencers attract advertisers through their influence over followers, converting this influence into commercial gain. This influence stems from the trust followers place in the influencer, thus influencers should maintain professional integrity and prioritize the quality of information they share, even when presented with advertising opportunities. Lastly, influencers should assert more control over their relationships with advertisers. In traditional advertising, companies and brands often exert significant control over the content. However, in the social media era, influencers should negotiate more creative freedom in their advertising partnerships, asserting a more equal relationship with advertisers. This approach ensures that content quality remains high, maintaining the trust influencers have built with their followers.

Limitations and future directions

while this study offers valuable insights into the dynamics of influencer marketing and consumer engagement on social media, several limitations should be acknowledged: Firstly, constrained by the research objectives and scope, this study’s proposed general impact model covers three dimensions: influencers, advertisement information, and social factors. However, these dimensions are not limited to the five variables discussed in this paper. Therefore, we call for future research to supplement and explore more crucial factors. Secondly, in the actual communication environment, there may be differences in the impact of communication effectiveness across various social media platforms. Thus, future research could also involve comparative studies and explorations between different social media platforms. Thirdly, the current study primarily examines the direct effects of various factors on consumer engagement. However, the potential interaction effects between these variables (e.g., how influencers’ credibility might interact with advertisement information quality) are not extensively explored. Future research could investigate these complex interrelationships for a more holistic understanding. Lastly, our study, being cross-sectional, offers preliminary insights into the complex and dynamic nature of engagement between social media influencers and consumers, yet it does not incorporate the temporal dimension. The diverse impacts of psychological needs on engagement behaviors hint at an underlying dynamism that merits further investigation. Future research should consider employing longitudinal designs to directly observe how these dynamics evolve over time.

The findings of the current study not only theoretically validate the applicability of self-determination theory in the field of social media influencer marketing advertising research but also broaden the scope of advertising effectiveness research from the perspective of consumer engagement. Moreover, the research framework offers strategic guidance and reference for influencer marketing strategies. The main conclusions of this study can be summarized as follows.

Innovativeness is the key factor in high-level consumer engagement behavior. Content contribution represents a higher level of consumer engagement compared to content consumption, as it not only requires consumers to dedicate attention to viewing advertising content but also to share this information across adjacent nodes within their social networks. This dissemination of information is a pivotal factor in the success of influencer marketing advertisements. Hence, companies and brands prioritize consumers’ content contribution over mere viewing of advertising content (Qiu & Kumar, 2017 ). Compared to content consumption and contribution, content creation is considered the highest level of consumer engagement, where consumers actively create and upload brand-related content, and it represents the most advanced outcome sought by enterprises and brands in advertising campaigns (Cheung et al., 2021 ). The current study posits that to pursue better outcomes in social media influencer advertising marketing, enhancing consumers’ willingness for self-disclosure, innovativeness, and trust in advertising information are effective strategies. However, the crux lies in leveraging the consumer’s subjective initiative, particularly in boosting their innovativeness. If the goal is simply to achieve content consumption rather than higher levels of consumer engagement, the focus should be on fostering trust in advertising information. There is no hierarchy in the efficacy of different strategies; they should align with varying marketing contexts and advertising objectives.

The greatest role of social media influencers lies in attracting online traffic. information trust is the core element driving content consumption, and influencer factors mainly affect consumer engagement behaviors through information trust. Therefore, this study suggests that the primary role of influencers in social media advertising is to attract online traffic, i.e., increase consumer behavior regarding ad content consumption (reducing avoidance of ad content), and help brands achieve the initial goal of making consumers “see and complete ads.” However, their impact on further high-level consumer engagement behaviors is limited. This mechanism serves as a reminder to advertisers not to overestimate the effects of influencers in marketing. Currently, top influencers command a significant portion of the ad budget, which could squeeze the budget for other aspects of advertising, potentially affecting the overall effectiveness of the campaign. Businesses and brands should consider deeper strategic implications when planning their advertising campaigns.

Valuing Advertising Information Factors, Content Remains King. Our study posits that in the social media influencer marketing context, the key to enhancing consumer contribution and creation of advertising content lies primarily in the advertising information factors. In other words, while content consumption is important, advertisers should objectively assess the role influencers play in advertising. In the era of social media, content remains ‘king’ in advertising. This view indirectly echoes the points made in the previous paragraph: influencers effectively perform initial ‘online traffic generation’ tasks in social media, but this role should not be overly romanticized or exaggerated. Whether it’s companies, brands, or influencers, providing consumers with advertisements rich in informational value is crucial to achieving better advertising outcomes and potentially converting consumers into stakeholders.

Subjective norm is an unignorable social influence factor. Social media is characterized by its network structure of information dissemination, where a node’s information is visible to adjacent nodes. For instance, if user A likes a piece of content C from influencer I, A’s follower B, who may not follow influencer I, can still see content C via user A’s page. The aim of marketing in the social media era is to influence a node and then spread the information to adjacent nodes, either secondarily or multiple times (Kumar & Panda, 2020 ). According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, an individual’s actions are influenced by significant others in their lives, such as family and friends. Previous studies have proven the effectiveness of the Theory of Planned Behavior in influencing attitudes toward social media advertising (Ranjbarian et al., 2012 ). Current research further confirms that subjective norms also influence consumer engagement behaviors in influencer marketing on social media. Therefore, in advertising practice, brands should not only focus on individual consumers but also invest efforts in groups that can influence consumer decisions. Changing consumer behavior in the era of social media marketing doesn’t solely rely on the company’s efforts.

As communication technology advances, media platforms will further empower individual communicative capabilities, moving beyond the era of the “magic bullet” theory. The distinction between being a recipient and a transmitter of information is increasingly blurred. In an era where everyone is both an audience and an influencer, research confined to the role of the ‘recipient’ falls short of addressing the dynamics of ‘transmission’. Future research in marketing and advertising should thus focus more on the power of individual transmission. Furthermore, as Marshall McLuhan famously said, “the medium is the extension of man.” The evolution of media technology remains human-centric. Accordingly, future marketing research, while paying heed to media transformations, should emphasize the centrality of the ‘human’ element.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to privacy issues. Making the full data set publicly available could potentially breach the privacy that was promised to participants when they agreed to take part, and may breach the ethics approval for the study. The data are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank all the participants of this study. The participants were all informed about the purpose and content of the study and voluntarily agreed to participate. The participants were able to stop participating at any time without penalty. Funding for this study was provided by Minjiang University Research Start-up Funds (No. 324-32404314).

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Conceptualization: CG; methodology: CG and QD; software: CG and QD; validation: CG; formal analysis: CG and QD; investigation: CG and QD; resources: CG; data curation: CG and QD; writing—original draft preparation: CG; writing—review and editing: CG; visualization: CG; project administration: CG. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Gu, C., Duan, Q. Exploring the dynamics of consumer engagement in social media influencer marketing: from the self-determination theory perspective. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 587 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03127-w

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Different open access routes, varying societal impacts: evidence from the Royal Society biological journals

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Compared to academic impacts (e.g., the citation advancement) brought by Open Access (OA), societal impacts of scientific studies have not been well elaborated in prior studies. In this article, we explore different OA routes (i.e., gold OA, hybrid OA, and bronze OA) and their varying effects on multiple types of societal impacts (i.e., social media and web) by using the case of four biological journals founded by the Royal Society. The results show that (1) gold OA is significantly and positively related to social media indicators (Twitter counts and Facebook counts), but significantly and negatively associated with web indicators (Blog counts and News counts); (2) hybrid OA has a significant and positive effect on both social media and web indicators; and (3) bronze OA is significantly and positively associated with social media indicators, but it turns to be negative albeit nonsignificant for web indicators. The findings suggest that OA policies could increase the societal impact on the public by varying degrees. Specifically, OA policies could amplify the societal impacts of research articles on social media, but the effects are inconsistent for societal impacts on the web.

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Acknowledgements

We thank altmetric.com for sharing the data used in this study.

Financial support is from Beijing Social Science Fund (No. 21DTR058), National Social Science Fund of China (20&ZD071; 23&ZD080), and National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 72274203, No. 72241434).

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Zhang, L., Ma, L. Different open access routes, varying societal impacts: evidence from the Royal Society biological journals. Scientometrics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-05032-0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-024-05032-0

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