mcleod 2019 qualitative research

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

Saul Mcleod, PhD

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis.

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded.

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy: Edition 2

About this ebook.

Leading expert John McLeod helps readers through each stage of the research process, explaining techniques for gathering data, writing up the study and evaluating the findings. Each qualitative method is clearly described and critically assessed in terms of its own strengths and weaknesses. Examples from actual research studies are given to show how the methods work in practice. This new edition incorporates developments in qualititative research over the last ten years and includes eight new chapters, covering:

- interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)

- autoethnographic methods

- action research

- case study methods

For all those involved in research - whether as part of academic study or in practice -this book will be essential reading. As an introduction to qualitative methods, it is the perfect course text for all training programmes in counselling, counselling psychology and psychotherapy, and will also be of interest to those who work in areas such as psychiatry, clinical psychology and mental health nursing, or who provide counselling in other professional areas such as teaching, nursing and social work.

McLeod is Professor of Counselling, University of Abertay Dundee.

About the author

John McLeod has held appointments in universities in the UK, New Zealand and Italy, and is currently Professor of Counselling at the Institute for Integrative Counselling and Psychotherapy, Dublin, and Professor of Psychology, University of Oslo. He is committed to promoting the relevance of research as a means of informing therapy practice and improving the quality of services that are available to clients, and has received an award from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy for his exceptional contribution to research. His writing has influenced a generation of trainees in the field of counselling, counselling psychology and psychotherapy, and his books are widely adopted on training programmes across the world.

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Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy

• John McLeod - University of Oslo, Norway
• Description
• Author(s) / Editor(s)

Leading expert, John McLeod helps readers through each stage of the research process, explaining techniques for gathering data, writing up the study and evaluating the findings. Each qualitative method is clearly described and critically assessed in terms of its own strengths and weaknesses. Examples from actual research studies are given to show how the methods work in practice. This new edition incorporates developments in qualitative research over the last ten years and includes many new chapters, covering:

• interpretative phenomenological analysis
• heuristic research and autoethnography
• action research
• case study methods
• narrative analysis

For all those involved in research - whether as part of academic study or in practice -this book will be essential reading. As an introduction to qualitative methods, it is the perfect course text for counselling and counselling psychology, and psychotherapy, and will also be of interest to those who provide counselling in other professional areas such as teaching, nursing and social work.

'The book is an excellent reference book for researchers in counseling and psychotherapy field who want to situate their research practice based on qualitative distinctions that they wish to bring forward on particular phenomenon of counseling and psychotherapy' - The Qualitative Report

'I highly recommend this thoughtful scholarly book for readers at all levels who want to learn about qualitative research. John McLeod has an excellent grasp on the philosophical underpinnings of qualitative research. And he presents various qualitative methods in a clear, fair, even-handed manner, encouraging readers to see the best in what the approaches have to offer. I really like his stance of not saying that there is one "right" method, but that all have different things to offer.' Clara E. Hil University of Maryland

'Once again John McLeod has created a wonderful resource for counselling and psychotherapy researchers in this updated book which demonstrates his impressive range and depth of knowledge. This book is of value to beginning and more experienced researchers in the field, as well as to those who teach and supervise research at Masters and Doctoral stages. McLeod produces finely balanced arguments for all research approaches and does not shy away from the political and methodological issues that engage therapy researchers and practitioners at this time.'

Kim Etherington Ph.D. Emeritus Professor, University of Bristol

Students really like this book as it is comprehensive and easy to understand.

I really enjoyed the first edition of this book and was keen to read the second edition to see if it would be suitable to recommend to students. I have not been disappointed, this is an excellent book, very well written, easy to read, understand and digest, and specifically focused on research in counselling and psychotherapy. I will be recommending this as an essential reading resource on qualitative methods for my MSc research students

This book supports the qualitative research discussed on the module

Excellent book which I recommended to be included in several units, apart from Introduction to Health Psychology and COunselling that I teach on

This text is a new resource in qualitative methods in counseling psychology research. It will enhance the class with ample resources in this area.

This is an excelling book for introducing and advancing students knowledge of counselling research. It is well written, taking the student through essentials of the subject.

One of the best books I have ever read. It has been recommended and students will learn much of it

This is a useful book for teaching qualitative research methods and to guide students conducting quaitative research. I've chosen a more generic research text as my core reading.

Clearly written, a good overview that stimulates reflection and engagement witht the issues. Easy to understand for students at different levels

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John McLeod has held appointments in universities in the UK, New Zealand and Italy, and is currently Professor of Counselling at the Institute for Integrative Counselling and Psychotherapy, Dublin, and Professor of Psychology, University of Oslo. He is committed to promoting the relevance of research as a means of informing therapy practice and improving the quality of services that are available to clients, and has received an award from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy for his exceptional contribution to research. His writing has influenced a generation of trainees in the field of counselling, counselling... More About Author

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has been cited by the following article:

TITLE: An Assessment for Record Keeping and Cemetery Management: A Case of Lusaka City Council, Zambia Based on Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

KEYWORDS: Record Keeping , Cemetery Management , Lusaka City Council and (TAM) Model

JOURNAL NAME: Open Journal of Business and Management , Vol.10 No.2 , February 14, 2022

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the factors that affect record keeping on cemetery management using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). The study focuses on Public Cemeteries which are managed by the municipality city council Lusaka Zambia. The study aimed to assess perceptions on adopting the electronic model for cemetery record management at Lusaka City Council (LCC). This was a cross-sectional design using descriptive quantitative approach in Lusaka District with a population of over 1,733,821. Study stratified seven constituencies due to high population density and applied Taro Yamane formula for sample size of 313/400 (78.3%). Researcher-Led Interviews were used and questionnaires pretested for precision and consistency. Statistical package for the social science (SPSS) software was used to report frequencies and Chi-Square to test the hypothesis. Of the 313 respondents, the study found not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis and that electronic data management of records would affect access to cemetery services at the LCC. While access to services at LCC was statistically significant (P-V = 0.01). Similarly, the null hypothesis was rejected and it was concluded that association between perceived risks of electronic record management and Cemetery Management at LCC should migrate to the electronic management of cemetery records.

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Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy Second Edition

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Leading expert, John McLeod helps readers through each stage of the research process, explaining techniques for gathering data, writing up the study and evaluating the findings. Each qualitative method is clearly described and critically assessed in terms of its own strengths and weaknesses. Examples from actual research studies are given to show how the methods work in practice. This new edition incorporates developments in qualitative research over the last ten years and includes many new chapters, covering:

• interpretative phenomenological analysis
• heuristic research and autoethnography
• action research
• case study methods
• narrative analysis

For all those involved in research - whether as part of academic study or in practice -this book will be essential reading. As an introduction to qualitative methods, it is the perfect course text for counselling and counselling psychology, and psychotherapy, and will also be of interest to those who provide counselling in other professional areas such as teaching, nursing and social work.

• ISBN-10 1849200629
• ISBN-13 978-1849200622
• Edition Second
• Publisher SAGE Publications
• Publication date April 6, 2011
• Language English
• Dimensions 6.69 x 0.8 x 9.53 inches
• Print length 352 pages
• See all details

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Editorial Reviews

′I highly recommend this thoughtful scholarly book for readers at all levels who want to learn about qualitative research. John McLeod has an excellent grasp on the philosophical underpinnings of qualitative research. And he presents various qualitative methods in a clear, fair, even-handed manner, encouraging readers to see the best in what the approaches have to offer. I really like his stance of not saying that there is one "right" method, but that all have different things to offer.′ Clara E. Hil University of Maryland

′Once again John McLeod has created a wonderful resource for counselling and psychotherapy researchers in this updated book which demonstrates his impressive range and depth of knowledge. This book is of value to beginning and more experienced researchers in the field, as well as to those who teach and supervise research at Masters and Doctoral stages. McLeod produces finely balanced arguments for all research approaches and does not shy away from the political and methodological issues that engage therapy researchers and practitioners at this time.′

Kim Etherington Ph.D. Emeritus Professor, University of Bristol

About the Author

John McLeod has held appointments in universities in the UK, New Zealand and Italy, and is currently Professor of Counselling at the Institute for Integrative Counselling and Psychotherapy, Dublin, and Professor of Psychology, University of Oslo. He is committed to promoting the relevance of research as a means of informing therapy practice and improving the quality of services that are available to clients, and has received an award from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy for his exceptional contribution to research. His writing has influenced a generation of trainees in the field of counselling, counselling psychology and psychotherapy, and his books are widely adopted on training programmes across the world.

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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ SAGE Publications; Second edition (April 6, 2011)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 352 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1849200629
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1849200622
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.34 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6.69 x 0.8 x 9.53 inches
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