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Princeton Correspondents on Undergraduate Research

How to Make a Successful Research Presentation

Turning a research paper into a visual presentation is difficult; there are pitfalls, and navigating the path to a brief, informative presentation takes time and practice. As a TA for  GEO/WRI 201: Methods in Data Analysis & Scientific Writing this past fall, I saw how this process works from an instructor’s standpoint. I’ve presented my own research before, but helping others present theirs taught me a bit more about the process. Here are some tips I learned that may help you with your next research presentation:

More is more

In general, your presentation will always benefit from more practice, more feedback, and more revision. By practicing in front of friends, you can get comfortable with presenting your work while receiving feedback. It is hard to know how to revise your presentation if you never practice. If you are presenting to a general audience, getting feedback from someone outside of your discipline is crucial. Terms and ideas that seem intuitive to you may be completely foreign to someone else, and your well-crafted presentation could fall flat.

Less is more

Limit the scope of your presentation, the number of slides, and the text on each slide. In my experience, text works well for organizing slides, orienting the audience to key terms, and annotating important figures–not for explaining complex ideas. Having fewer slides is usually better as well. In general, about one slide per minute of presentation is an appropriate budget. Too many slides is usually a sign that your topic is too broad.

Limit the scope of your presentation

Don’t present your paper. Presentations are usually around 10 min long. You will not have time to explain all of the research you did in a semester (or a year!) in such a short span of time. Instead, focus on the highlight(s). Identify a single compelling research question which your work addressed, and craft a succinct but complete narrative around it.

You will not have time to explain all of the research you did. Instead, focus on the highlights. Identify a single compelling research question which your work addressed, and craft a succinct but complete narrative around it.

Craft a compelling research narrative

After identifying the focused research question, walk your audience through your research as if it were a story. Presentations with strong narrative arcs are clear, captivating, and compelling.

• Introduction (exposition — rising action)

Orient the audience and draw them in by demonstrating the relevance and importance of your research story with strong global motive. Provide them with the necessary vocabulary and background knowledge to understand the plot of your story. Introduce the key studies (characters) relevant in your story and build tension and conflict with scholarly and data motive. By the end of your introduction, your audience should clearly understand your research question and be dying to know how you resolve the tension built through motive.

• Methods (rising action)

The methods section should transition smoothly and logically from the introduction. Beware of presenting your methods in a boring, arc-killing, ‘this is what I did.’ Focus on the details that set your story apart from the stories other people have already told. Keep the audience interested by clearly motivating your decisions based on your original research question or the tension built in your introduction.

• Results (climax)

Less is usually more here. Only present results which are clearly related to the focused research question you are presenting. Make sure you explain the results clearly so that your audience understands what your research found. This is the peak of tension in your narrative arc, so don’t undercut it by quickly clicking through to your discussion.

• Discussion (falling action)

By now your audience should be dying for a satisfying resolution. Here is where you contextualize your results and begin resolving the tension between past research. Be thorough. If you have too many conflicts left unresolved, or you don’t have enough time to present all of the resolutions, you probably need to further narrow the scope of your presentation.

• Conclusion (denouement)

Return back to your initial research question and motive, resolving any final conflicts and tying up loose ends. Leave the audience with a clear resolution of your focus research question, and use unresolved tension to set up potential sequels (i.e. further research).

Use your medium to enhance the narrative

Visual presentations should be dominated by clear, intentional graphics. Subtle animation in key moments (usually during the results or discussion) can add drama to the narrative arc and make conflict resolutions more satisfying. You are narrating a story written in images, videos, cartoons, and graphs. While your paper is mostly text, with graphics to highlight crucial points, your slides should be the opposite. Adapting to the new medium may require you to create or acquire far more graphics than you included in your paper, but it is necessary to create an engaging presentation.

The most important thing you can do for your presentation is to practice and revise. Bother your friends, your roommates, TAs–anybody who will sit down and listen to your work. Beyond that, think about presentations you have found compelling and try to incorporate some of those elements into your own. Remember you want your work to be comprehensible; you aren’t creating experts in 10 minutes. Above all, try to stay passionate about what you did and why. You put the time in, so show your audience that it’s worth it.

For more insight into research presentations, check out these past PCUR posts written by Emma and Ellie .

— Alec Getraer, Natural Sciences Correspondent

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Home Blog Presentation Ideas How to Create and Deliver a Research Presentation

How to Create and Deliver a Research Presentation

Every research endeavor ends up with the communication of its findings. Graduate-level research culminates in a thesis defense , while many academic and scientific disciplines are published in peer-reviewed journals. In a business context, PowerPoint research presentation is the default format for reporting the findings to stakeholders.

Condensing months of work into a few slides can prove to be challenging. It requires particular skills to create and deliver a research presentation that promotes informed decisions and drives long-term projects forward.

Table of Contents

What is a Research Presentation

Key slides for creating a research presentation, tips when delivering a research presentation, how to present sources in a research presentation, recommended templates to create a research presentation.

A research presentation is the communication of research findings, typically delivered to an audience of peers, colleagues, students, or professionals. In the academe, it is meant to showcase the importance of the research paper , state the findings and the analysis of those findings, and seek feedback that could further the research.

The presentation of research becomes even more critical in the business world as the insights derived from it are the basis of strategic decisions of organizations. Information from this type of report can aid companies in maximizing the sales and profit of their business. Major projects such as research and development (R&D) in a new field, the launch of a new product or service, or even corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives will require the presentation of research findings to prove their feasibility.

Market research and technical research are examples of business-type research presentations you will commonly encounter.

In this article, we’ve compiled all the essential tips, including some examples and templates, to get you started with creating and delivering a stellar research presentation tailored specifically for the business context.

Various research suggests that the average attention span of adults during presentations is around 20 minutes, with a notable drop in an engagement at the 10-minute mark . Beyond that, you might see your audience doing other things.

How can you avoid such a mistake? The answer lies in the adage “keep it simple, stupid” or KISS. We don’t mean dumbing down your content but rather presenting it in a way that is easily digestible and accessible to your audience. One way you can do this is by organizing your research presentation using a clear structure.

Here are the slides you should prioritize when creating your research presentation PowerPoint.

1.  Title Page

The title page is the first thing your audience will see during your presentation, so put extra effort into it to make an impression. Of course, writing presentation titles and title pages will vary depending on the type of presentation you are to deliver. In the case of a research presentation, you want a formal and academic-sounding one. It should include:

• The full title of the report
• The date of the report
• The name of the researchers or department in charge of the report
• The name of the organization for which the presentation is intended

When writing the title of your research presentation, it should reflect the topic and objective of the report. Focus only on the subject and avoid adding redundant phrases like “A research on” or “A study on.” However, you may use phrases like “Market Analysis” or “Feasibility Study” because they help identify the purpose of the presentation. Doing so also serves a long-term purpose for the filing and later retrieving of the document.

Here’s a sample title page for a hypothetical market research presentation from Gillette .

2. Executive Summary Slide

The executive summary marks the beginning of the body of the presentation, briefly summarizing the key discussion points of the research. Specifically, the summary may state the following:

• The purpose of the investigation and its significance within the organization’s goals
• The methods used for the investigation
• The major findings of the investigation
• The conclusions and recommendations after the investigation

Although the executive summary encompasses the entry of the research presentation, it should not dive into all the details of the work on which the findings, conclusions, and recommendations were based. Creating the executive summary requires a focus on clarity and brevity, especially when translating it to a PowerPoint document where space is limited.

Each point should be presented in a clear and visually engaging manner to capture the audience’s attention and set the stage for the rest of the presentation. Use visuals, bullet points, and minimal text to convey information efficiently.

3. Introduction/ Project Description Slides

In this section, your goal is to provide your audience with the information that will help them understand the details of the presentation. Provide a detailed description of the project, including its goals, objectives, scope, and methods for gathering and analyzing data.

You want to answer these fundamental questions:

• What specific questions are you trying to answer, problems you aim to solve, or opportunities you seek to explore?
• Why is this project important, and what prompted it?
• What are the boundaries of your research or initiative? 
• How were the data gathered?

Important: The introduction should exclude specific findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

4. Data Presentation and Analyses Slides

This is the longest section of a research presentation, as you’ll present the data you’ve gathered and provide a thorough analysis of that data to draw meaningful conclusions. The format and components of this section can vary widely, tailored to the specific nature of your research.

For example, if you are doing market research, you may include the market potential estimate, competitor analysis, and pricing analysis. These elements will help your organization determine the actual viability of a market opportunity.

Visual aids like charts, graphs, tables, and diagrams are potent tools to convey your key findings effectively. These materials may be numbered and sequenced (Figure 1, Figure 2, and so forth), accompanied by text to make sense of the insights.

5. Conclusions

The conclusion of a research presentation is where you pull together the ideas derived from your data presentation and analyses in light of the purpose of the research. For example, if the objective is to assess the market of a new product, the conclusion should determine the requirements of the market in question and tell whether there is a product-market fit.

Designing your conclusion slide should be straightforward and focused on conveying the key takeaways from your research. Keep the text concise and to the point. Present it in bullet points or numbered lists to make the content easily scannable.

6. Recommendations

The findings of your research might reveal elements that may not align with your initial vision or expectations. These deviations are addressed in the recommendations section of your presentation, which outlines the best course of action based on the result of the research.

What emerging markets should we target next? Do we need to rethink our pricing strategies? Which professionals should we hire for this special project? — these are some of the questions that may arise when coming up with this part of the research.

Recommendations may be combined with the conclusion, but presenting them separately to reinforce their urgency. In the end, the decision-makers in the organization or your clients will make the final call on whether to accept or decline the recommendations.

7. Questions Slide

Members of your audience are not involved in carrying out your research activity, which means there’s a lot they don’t know about its details. By offering an opportunity for questions, you can invite them to bridge that gap, seek clarification, and engage in a dialogue that enhances their understanding.

If your research is more business-oriented, facilitating a question and answer after your presentation becomes imperative as it’s your final appeal to encourage buy-in for your recommendations.

A simple “Ask us anything” slide can indicate that you are ready to accept questions.

1. Focus on the Most Important Findings

The truth about presenting research findings is that your audience doesn’t need to know everything. Instead, they should receive a distilled, clear, and meaningful overview that focuses on the most critical aspects.

You will likely have to squeeze in the oral presentation of your research into a 10 to 20-minute presentation, so you have to make the most out of the time given to you. In the presentation, don’t soak in the less important elements like historical backgrounds. Decision-makers might even ask you to skip these portions and focus on sharing the findings.

2. Do Not Read Word-per-word

Reading word-for-word from your presentation slides intensifies the danger of losing your audience’s interest. Its effect can be detrimental, especially if the purpose of your research presentation is to gain approval from the audience. So, how can you avoid this mistake?

• Make a conscious design decision to keep the text on your slides minimal. Your slides should serve as visual cues to guide your presentation.
• Structure your presentation as a narrative or story. Stories are more engaging and memorable than dry, factual information.
• Prepare speaker notes with the key points of your research. Glance at it when needed.
• Engage with the audience by maintaining eye contact and asking rhetorical questions.

3. Don’t Go Without Handouts

Handouts are paper copies of your presentation slides that you distribute to your audience. They typically contain the summary of your key points, but they may also provide supplementary information supporting data presented through tables and graphs.

The purpose of distributing presentation handouts is to easily retain the key points you presented as they become good references in the future. Distributing handouts in advance allows your audience to review the material and come prepared with questions or points for discussion during the presentation.

4. Actively Listen

An equally important skill that a presenter must possess aside from speaking is the ability to listen. We are not just talking about listening to what the audience is saying but also considering their reactions and nonverbal cues. If you sense disinterest or confusion, you can adapt your approach on the fly to re-engage them.

For example, if some members of your audience are exchanging glances, they may be skeptical of the research findings you are presenting. This is the best time to reassure them of the validity of your data and provide a concise overview of how it came to be. You may also encourage them to seek clarification.

5. Be Confident

Anxiety can strike before a presentation – it’s a common reaction whenever someone has to speak in front of others. If you can’t eliminate your stress, try to manage it.

People hate public speaking not because they simply hate it. Most of the time, it arises from one’s belief in themselves. You don’t have to take our word for it. Take Maslow’s theory that says a threat to one’s self-esteem is a source of distress among an individual.

Now, how can you master this feeling? You’ve spent a lot of time on your research, so there is no question about your topic knowledge. Perhaps you just need to rehearse your research presentation. If you know what you will say and how to say it, you will gain confidence in presenting your work.

All sources you use in creating your research presentation should be given proper credit. The APA Style is the most widely used citation style in formal research.

In-text citation

Add references within the text of your presentation slide by giving the author’s last name, year of publication, and page number (if applicable) in parentheses after direct quotations or paraphrased materials. As in:

The alarming rate at which global temperatures rise directly impacts biodiversity (Smith, 2020, p. 27).

If the author’s name and year of publication are mentioned in the text, add only the page number in parentheses after the quotations or paraphrased materials. As in:

According to Smith (2020), the alarming rate at which global temperatures rise directly impacts biodiversity (p. 27).

Image citation

All images from the web, including photos, graphs, and tables, used in your slides should be credited using the format below.

Creator’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Image.” Website Name, Day Mo. Year, URL. Accessed Day Mo. Year.

Work cited page

A work cited page or reference list should follow after the last slide of your presentation. The list should be alphabetized by the author’s last name and initials followed by the year of publication, the title of the book or article, the place of publication, and the publisher. As in:

Smith, J. A. (2020). Climate Change and Biodiversity: A Comprehensive Study. New York, NY: ABC Publications.

When citing a document from a website, add the source URL after the title of the book or article instead of the place of publication and the publisher. As in:

Smith, J. A. (2020). Climate Change and Biodiversity: A Comprehensive Study. Retrieved from https://www.smith.com/climate-change-and-biodiversity.

1. Research Project Presentation PowerPoint Template

A slide deck containing 18 different slides intended to take off the weight of how to make a research presentation. With tons of visual aids, presenters can reference existing research on similar projects to this one – or link another research presentation example – provide an accurate data analysis, disclose the methodology used, and much more.

Use This Template

2. Research Presentation Scientific Method Diagram PowerPoint Template

Whenever you intend to raise questions, expose the methodology you used for your research, or even suggest a scientific method approach for future analysis, this circular wheel diagram is a perfect fit for any presentation study.

Customize all of its elements to suit the demands of your presentation in just minutes.

3. Thesis Research Presentation PowerPoint Template

If your research presentation project belongs to academia, then this is the slide deck to pair that presentation. With a formal aesthetic and minimalistic style, this research presentation template focuses only on exposing your information as clearly as possible.

Use its included bar charts and graphs to introduce data, change the background of each slide to suit the topic of your presentation, and customize each of its elements to meet the requirements of your project with ease.

4. Animated Research Cards PowerPoint Template

Visualize ideas and their connection points with the help of this research card template for PowerPoint. This slide deck, for example, can help speakers talk about alternative concepts to what they are currently managing and its possible outcomes, among different other usages this versatile PPT template has. Zoom Animation effects make a smooth transition between cards (or ideas).

5. Research Presentation Slide Deck for PowerPoint

With a distinctive professional style, this research presentation PPT template helps business professionals and academics alike to introduce the findings of their work to team members or investors.

By accessing this template, you get the following slides:

• Introduction
• Problem Statement
• Research Questions
• Conceptual Research Framework (Concepts, Theories, Actors, & Constructs)
• Study design and methods
• Population & Sampling
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis

Check it out today and craft a powerful research presentation out of it!

A successful research presentation in business is not just about presenting data; it’s about persuasion to take meaningful action. It’s the bridge that connects your research efforts to the strategic initiatives of your organization. To embark on this journey successfully, planning your presentation thoroughly is paramount, from designing your PowerPoint to the delivery.

Take a look and get inspiration from the sample research presentation slides above, put our tips to heart, and transform your research findings into a compelling call to action.

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How to Use Emotions in a Presentation (and Why They Matter)

• By: Scott Schwertly

“ There’s a large body of research that shows the emotional component of a message trumps the analytical .” – Carmine Gallo, Forbes

The concept is easy to grasp and difficult to master: inserting genuine feeling into your presentation incites genuine response. This requires you to share your motivations, hopes, and fears rather than suppress them. It’s counter-intuitive when you think of the way we have been taught to approach presentations, which conjures up the image of a gray boardroom and a dozen stuffy CEOs. Trust us, any emotion this inspires is completely accidental.

Emotions captivate. We are united in our love of things that make us “feel.” Think of the times you’ve cried during a movie or held your breath along with the main character. Even though we know it’s blanketed in the magic of Hollywood, our natural empathy is kickstarted when we see other’s emotions.

“What’s my motivation?” According to Dale Carnegie , a presentation usually falls into one of four categories. It either makes something clear, impresses or convinces, incites action, or entertains. Your presentation didn’t pop out of a robot, it was crafted to share something memorable with the audience. Where did that come from within yourself? What inspired you? When deciding on what emotions to share, start with this question.

How does your motivation make you feel? After you’ve decided what fuels your presentation, list three emotions that this motivation inspires in you. “Excitement for the future,” “anger about the existing problem to solve,” or “happiness about the present” are some examples. Focus on ways to utilize these three emotions when you are speaking.

Be mindful. Using emotion doesn’t mean you have to re-enact the final scene of Titanic during your presentation. Utilize them to enhance content, not distract. For instance, show that you mean it when you describe where you came from. Also consider using expressive language when you describe where you plan to go, etc. If your emotions are genuine, you will always hit the right note.

Stories rule. The best way to insert emotion into your presentation is the most natural: a true story. If you are have trouble seeming excited in a 50 slide deck about budget, consider opening with a story about how challenging working on the project was for you.

No matter what your content or delivery style, revealing the emotion beneath the message will succeed with your audience every time.

Question: How can you use emotion in your next presentation? 

Scott Schwertly

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Essentials of Clinical Research pp 437–447 Cite as

Presentation Skills: How to Present Research Results

• Stephen P. Glasser M.D. 2  
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This book is about designing, implementing and interpreting clinical research. This chapter is aimed at a discussion of how to present the research that has been performed. Although almost no one currently disagrees that a formal curriculum in research methodology is critical for a new investigator, the manner in which the results of a study are presented is presumed to be obvious, and training in the art of presentations is much less common. The belief is that good speakers are born, not made, and this is no more true than good researchers are born and not made. And so, the methodology of presentations should be an important part of a young investigators training. This chapter provides an introduction to delivering an effective presentation.

Speech is power; Speech is to persuade, to convert, to compel Ralph Wald Emerson I know from experience that “sometimes it is better to be quiet and be thought a fool than to open your mouth and remove all doubt”… Abraham Lincoln

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The majority of this chapter was taken from personal experience and extensive notes that I had taken from a large number or Presentation Skills Workshops that I have attended. Although I cannot give specific credit for individual pieces of information, I can credit the Instructors of those workshops as follows:

Sue Castorino, President, The Speaking Specialist, Chicago, IL, 1993.

Gerald Kelliher PhD, Associate Dean, Medical College of Pennsylvania.

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Power Speaking, and More, Joyce Newman Communications Inc.

Jerry Michaels-Senior Consultant CommCore Communication Strategies.

Science and Medicine Canada, Presentation and Platform Skills Workshop, 1992.

Wyeth Ayerst Laboratories, Ciba-Geigy, Schering, Pfizer, and KOS Pharmaceuticals for sponsoring many of the Presentation Skills Workshops that I attended.

Foley RP, Smilansky J. Teaching techniques, a handbook for health professionals. New York: McGraw-Hill Book; 1980. p. 1–14.

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Garson A, Gutgesell H, Pinsky WW, McNamara DG. The 10-minute talk, slides, writing, and delivery. Am Heart J. 1985;111:193–203.

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Griswold A. 9 ways to sound like you know what you are talking about Business Insider. www.businessinsider.com/common-speaking-mistakes-2013

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How To Create & Give A Research Presentation

Table of contents.

When you’re creating a presentation, you’re doing so to share information with the ultimate goal of educating, influencing, persuading or motivating someone to act in a certain way.

A research presentation is no different.

The ultimate goal of a research presentation is often to share new findings, data or to spark inspiration for where future research should go. All these incorporate the goals of educating, influencing, persuading and motivating someone to act in a certain way.

In this article, we combine two very important topics. We go over not only how to create a research presentation, but how to give one as well.

Let’s begin.

Creating A Research Presentation

Creating a research presentation isn’t like creating a winning RFP presentation .

Unlike RFP presentations or client pitch presentations , a research presentation is less about subjective content and more objective content .

What do we mean by this?

Consider a sales pitch or a presentation aimed to sell you something. Basic presentation psychology suggests the presenter and the content target what human’s desire most. Depending on where they are in life, this can be easily deconstructed into Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs .

These are all subjective feelings a presenter is trying to illicit from you.

On the other hand, a research presentation targets objective content. It doesn’t matter who you are or what you’re feeling, the presentation type is meant to be used to communicate the importance of your research, clearly state findings and prompt people in the world of academia to ask questions, provide feedback and to seek further information.

Let’s take a further look into how we can structure a research presentation properly along with the technical aspects that will be prominent throughout the entire presentation.

Technical Aspects

Technical aspects are items or the fundamentals you’ll be keeping consistent throughout the entire presentation. This includes style, coloring, tone of voice, font size, etc.

For the overall slide layout, you want to make sure your slides aren’t too text heavy. Funny enough, your research will probably be a couple hundred pages long but now you’re tasked with condensing everything to a few sentences.

You’ll want to avoid using full paragraphs on your slides. Instead, input 2 – 3 sentences per slides and use these as talking points. During your presentation, you should be facilitating most of the discussion through orally speaking. If the audience was tasked to read, they would be better off reading the actual research paper you produced.

If you find yourself using too many sentences, try incorporating visuals such as graphs or images you can speak to as well. These are all elements on how you can make a more engaging PowerPoint presentation through the use of visuals aids .

Title Slide

Each presentation, no matter the field of study, will have a title slide.

The title of the presentation will be the same title you used for your paper submission.

If given the option, people will decide whether or not they’re interested and will attend your presentation based on the title. As great as it would be to have a full audience, don’t be deceiving. Remember, this isn’t a sales presentation.

You must include your name and all colleagues, your mentor or advisor’s name, the department, class, location, name of the educational institution and the date the presentation is given. Avoid inputting any contact details.

All this information should be contained to one slide only.

Introduction

The introduction acts as a preface to your presentation where you’ll give context as to why your research is prevalent and interesting. Explain the broader impact your research has.

Consider this as the hook.

This section of the presentation allows you to speak to the research which has already been conducted prior to yours and what inspired you to do further research. Be sure to include why your research is different from the research which has already been conducted.

Here, you may want to list the resources and authors you’ve been inspired by, specifically the work if they are a scholar with a broad background in research.

Don’t mix this up with references. This portion is more informal and is not a proper MLA, APA or Chicago style reference section. You may also opt to include an image of the book cover if there is a specific piece of literature you’ve read that you believe is worth mentioning.

Thesis / Question

Next, you’ll want to include a standalone slide which houses the research question.

Nothing else should be featured on this slide. This slide is only for the research question and a moment to allow the audience to absorb, digest and understand what the research is aiming to answer.

Research Methods

Your research methods slide should outline and describe how you went about collecting your information.

If you did actual experimentations, consider presenting an example or image of the experiment you’ve conducted. Ensuring proper methods of data collection is a key part of giving authenticty to your research.

Now that your audience knows how you went about collecting the data, you should now present the findings.

This is where you really want to focus your attention on developing appropriate graphics, images, charts or graphs to help convey the information in a clear and concise manner.

You really want the data itself to speak for itself. You may want to help break down a chart if it seems too convoluted but you shouldn’t be regurgitating numbers.

Once you’ve presented your data, you want to provide a summary of your findings.

This is where you come full circle. Ultimately at this point you should be able to answer the initial question or thesis you’ve mentioned at the beginning of the presentation.

You will also use this as an opportunity to analyze and discuss the answers you’ve derived from your findings on the previous slides.

Future Research

Depending on your presentation, you may decide to include this slide or not.

Based on your research goals, you may want to include what your future aspirations are when it comes to this line of research.

Have you sparked your own interest in furthering researching this topic?

If so, you may want to include this slide.

Note, you don’t need to include all your references on your reference slide but you should include the top 3 – 5 key references you’ve used.

Remember to format this slide in the appropriate referencing format required by your institution or department. This could be MLA style, APA style, Chicago style or another alternate format.

Acknowledgements

Unlike references, acknowledgements are used to give thanks to important people or institutions.

If you’ve had help from a mentor or advisor, you may want to give recognition here.

Furthermore, if you were provided funding or a grant, it’s best practice to give some form of acknowledgement here.

If you’re wondering how to end your presentation , a question slide is a great way to end.

By having a questions slide you’re providing the audience with an invite to participate in the discussion. It’s a great way to subtly get feedback on your presentation or help spark further questions you don’t have the answer to that you’d like to find the answer to in further research.

Be sure to take mental notes or written notes so you’re able to follow up at a later date with a proper answer.

Never fake an answer.

If you don’t know the answer to a question, you’re completely valid to state you don’t know the question but you’re planning on finding an answer for it.

Although it may seem intimidating putting together a research presentation, it doesn’t have to be. Depending on the nature of the project, you may consider outsourcing your presentation design to a team who specializes in various presentation design services like Presentation Geeks.

Giving An Oral Research Presentation

Now that we’ve covered the fundamentals of how the presentation should be structured and how it should look, that’s only 50% of a presentation.

You are the other 50%.

How you carry yourself in a research presentation is just as important as the slides that are accompanying you. In this portion of the article we’ll go over how you can polish up your presentation skills to ensure you’re acing your presentation – virtual or in-person.

Know Your Audience

First, you want to know who you’re presenting to.

More than likely it will be other academics. You may have family members joining in to support you and the educational journey you’ve been through but for the most part it’s academics.

In most cases, when presenting in front of other scholars and academics, the rule of thumb is to consider the presentation a formal presentation. There are both formal and informal presentations you’ll encounter in life, but a research presentation is a formal presentation.

It’s important to know your audience because everyone has different learning styles and how they want information presented to them.

Luckily, since you’ll be presenting primarily to other scholars, you don’t need to summarize your information too much. You can just industry related terminology which in other cases wouldn’t work.

Practice Your PowerPoint Presentation

As we’ve grown up, we’ve always heard the saying, “practice makes perfect”.

Your presentation is no different.

Before you present for real, make sure to practice your powerpoint presentation more than once. By practicing your presentation, you’ll be more confident in the flow of your presentation and you’ll solidify yourself as the expert in the field.

What To Wear

What you wear for your presentation plays an important role in how people establish their first impression of you.

Since we already know the presentation is going to be a formal presentation, consider wearing something to match the occasion.

This may include a suit, a blouse or anything else that might be deemed formal in our society.

Stick To The Time

We should all respect one another’s time.

If you’ve been giving a specific time slot for your presentation, stick to it.

Sticking to the time is not only respectful but is oftentimes critical to maintaining your audience’s interest.

For example, if your audience has been given handouts outlining the program of presentations for the day, then they are likely planning what presenters they want to see. They are also predetermining and anchoring their attention span. If they’re expecting a 10 minute presentation, they’re subconsciously limiting their attention span to the 10 minutes. Once you go over, they will begin to lose interest since they know you’re running longer than expected.

Don’t Read Your Slides

Lastly, do not read your slides.

Since this is your research presentation, you should be reviewed as the expert on the topic. Reading slides make you appear that you’re unsure of the content and needing supplementary guidance to help you speak to the overall research.

If you’re confident in your ability to speak on the topic without the slides, you’re solidifying yourself as the expert.

If you implement these two portions for your next research presentation, we’re confident you’ll excel.

Congratulations on completing your research!

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Of course you are.

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Unlike other popular powerpoint agencies, Presentation Geeks offers a variety of presentation design services across multiple industries.

Author:  Ryan

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How to Present Your Research (Guidelines and Tips)

Published on 01 Feb 2023

Presenting at a conference can be stressful, but can lead to many opportunities, which is why coming prepared is super beneficial.

The internet is full to the brim with tips for making a good presentation. From what you wear to how you stand to good slide design, there’s no shortage of advice to make any old presentation come to life. 

But, not all presentations are created equal. Research presentations, in particular, are unique. 

Communicating complex concepts to an audience with a varied range of awareness about your research topic can be tricky. A lack of guidance and preparation can ruin your chance to share important information with a conference community. This could mean lost opportunities in collaboration or funding or lost confidence in yourself and your work.

So, we’ve put together a list of tips with research presentations in mind. Here’s our top to-do’s when preparing to present your research.

Take every research presentation opportunity

The worst thing you could do for your research is to not present it at all. As intimidating as it can be to get up in front of an audience, you shouldn’t let that stop you from seizing a good opportunity to share your work with a wider community.

These contestants from the Vitae Three Minute Thesis Competition have some great advice to share on taking every possible chance to talk about your research. 

Double-check your research presentation guidelines

Before you get started on your presentation, double-check if you’ve been given guidelines for it. 

If you don’t have specific guidelines for the context of your presentation, we’ve put together a general outline to help you get started. It’s made with the assumption of a 10-15 minute presentation time. So, if you have longer to present, you can always extend important sections or talk longer on certain slides:

• Title Slide (1 slide) - This is a placeholder to give some visual interest and display the topic until your presentation begins.
• Short Introduction (2-3 slides) - This is where you pique the interest of your audience and establish the key questions your presentation covers. Give context to your study with a brief review of the literature (focus on key points, not a full review). If your study relates to any particularly relevant issues, mention it here to increase the audience's interest in the topic.
• Hypothesis (1 slide) - Clearly state your hypothesis.
• Description of Methods (2-3 slides) - Clearly, but briefly, summarize your study design including a clear description of the study population, the sample size and any instruments or manipulations to gather the data.
• Results and Data Interpretation (2-4 slides) - Illustrate your results through simple tables, graphs, and images. Remind the audience of your hypothesis and discuss your interpretation of the data/results.
• Conclusion (2-3 slides) - Further interpret your results. If you had any sources of error or difficulties with your methods, discuss them here and address how they could be (or were) improved. Discuss your findings as part of the bigger picture and connect them to potential further outcomes or areas of study.
• Closing (1 slide) - If anyone supported your research with guidance, awards, or funding, be sure to recognize their contribution. If your presentation includes a Q&A session, open the floor to questions.

Plan for about one minute for each slide of information that you have. Be sure that you don’t cram your slides with text (stick to bullet points and images to emphasize key points).

And, if you’re looking for more inspiration to help you in scripting an oral research presentation. University of Virginia has a helpful oral presentation outline script .

A PhD Student working on an upcoming oral presentation.

Put yourself in your listeners shoes

As mentioned in the intro, research presentations are unique because they deal with specialized topics and complicated concepts. There’s a good chance that a large section of your audience won’t have the same understanding of your topic area as you do. So, do your best to understand where your listeners are at and adapt your language/definitions to that.

There’s an increasing awareness around the importance of scientific communication. Comms experts have even started giving TED Talks on how to bridge the gap between science and the public (check out Talk Nerdy to Me ). A general communication tip is to find out what sort of audience will listen to your talk. Then, beware of using jargon and acronyms unless you're 100% certain that your audience knows what they mean. 

On the other end of the spectrum, you don’t want to underestimate your audience. Giving too much background or spending ages summarizing old work to a group of experts in the field would be a waste of valuable presentation time (and would put you at risk of losing your audience's interest). 

Finally, if you can, practice your presentation on someone with a similar level of topic knowledge to the audience you’ll be presenting to.

Use scientific storytelling in your presentation

In scenarios where it’s appropriate, crafting a story allows you to break free from the often rigid tone of scientific communications. It helps your brain hit the refresh button and observe your findings from a new perspective. Plus, it can be a lot of fun to do!

If you have a chance to use scientific storytelling in your presentation, take full advantage of it. The best way to weave a story for your audience into a presentation is by setting the scene during your introduction. As you set the context of your research, set the context of your story/example at the same time. Continue drawing those parallels as you present. Then, deliver the main message of the story (or the “Aha!”) moment during your presentation’s conclusion.

If delivered well, a good story will keep your audience on the edge of their seats and glued to your entire presentation.

Emphasize the “Why” (not the “How”) of your research

Along the same lines as using storytelling, it’s important to think of WHY your audience should care about your work. Find ways to connect your research to valuable outcomes in society. Take your individual points on each slide and bring things back to the bigger picture. Constantly remind your listeners how it’s all connected and why that’s important.

One helpful way to get in this mindset is to look back to the moment before you became an expert on your topic. What got you interested? What was the reason for asking your research question? And, what motivated you to power through all the hard work to come? Then, looking forward, think about what key takeaways were most interesting or surprised you the most. How can these be applied to impact positive change in your research field or the wider community?

Be picky about what you include

It’s tempting to discuss all the small details of your methods or findings. Instead, focus on the most important information and takeaways that you think your audience will connect with. Decide on these takeaways before you script your presentation so that you can set the scene properly and provide only the information that has an added value.

When it comes to choosing data to display in your presentation slides, keep it simple. Wherever possible, use visuals to communicate your findings as opposed to large tables filled with numbers. This article by Richard Chambers has some great tips on using visuals in your slides and graphs.

Hide your complex tables and data in additional slides

With the above tip in mind: Just because you don’t include data and tables in your main presentation slides, doesn’t mean you can’t keep them handy for reference. If there’s a Q&A session after your presentation (or if you’ll be sharing your slides to view on-demand after) one great trick is to include additional slides/materials after your closing slide. You can keep these in your metaphorical “back pocket” to refer to if a specific question is asked about a data set or method. They’re also handy for people viewing your presentation slides later that might want to do a deeper dive into your methods/results.

However, just because you have these extra slides doesn’t mean you shouldn’t make the effort to make that information more accessible. A research conference platform like Fourwaves allows presenters to attach supplementary materials (figures, posters, slides, videos and more) that conference participants can access anytime.

Leave your audience with (a few) questions

Curiosity is a good thing. Whether you have a Q&A session or not, you should want to leave your audience with a few key questions. The most important one:

“Where can I find out more?”

Obviously, it’s important to answer basic questions about your research context, hypothesis, methods, results, and interpretation. If you answer these while focusing on the “Why?” and weaving a good story, you’ll be setting the stage for an engaging Q&A session and/or some great discussions in the halls after your presentation. Just be sure that you have further links or materials ready to provide to those who are curious. 

Conclusion: The true expert in your research presentation

Throughout the entire process of scripting, creating your slides, and presenting, it’s important to remember that no one knows your research better than you do. If you’re nervous, remind yourself that the people who come to listen to your presentation are most likely there due to a genuine interest in your work. The pressure isn’t to connect with an uninterested audience - it’s to make your research more accessible and relevant for an already curious audience.

Finally, to practice what we preached in our last tip: If you’re looking to learn more about preparing for a research presentation, check out our articles on how to dress for a scientific conference and general conference presentation tips .

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Coping with Presentation Nerves

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It is entirely natural to feel nervous before making a presentation.

Many seasoned teachers, lecturers and other presenters feel nervous beforehand despite having given hundreds of presentations. The same is true of actors and actresses, celebrities, politicians, preachers and other people working in the media or in the public eye.

Being nervous is not a problem or a weakness, you just need to channel your nervous energy wisely. On the other hand, being over-confident and not nervous could be a weakness!

The symptoms of nerves (or stage fright) can include "butterflies" or a queasy feeling in your stomach, sweaty palms, a dry throat and the panic that your mind has gone blank about your opening lines.

Fortunately, there are some tried and tested strategies and techniques to manage your nerves so that you can concentrate on delivering an effective and engaging presentation.

These techniques will not get rid of your nerves; instead they will help you to use your nervous energy to your advantage. When you are in a heightened state from the adrenaline that is being pumped around your body, you can use that energy to communicate enthusiastically, convincingly, and passionately. The key is to decrease your level of nervousness so you can focus your energy on these positive activities, not on trying to control your nerves.

Managing Presentation Nerves

Leading up to the presentation.

It is essential to always be well prepared and well-rehearsed in order to feel confident.

Do not fixate on the presentation delivery at the expense of good preparation. 

Spend time preparing, good preparation, knowing your subject well, and knowing what you are going to say and how you are going to say it, will boost your confidence and help reduce your nerves. 

Think of a presentation like an iceberg: what your audience sees - the delivery - is a small percentage of the whole.  What goes on out of sight, the planning and preparation, should make up the bulk of the work.

Read our Presentation Skills pages for tips and advice on how to best prepare for your presentation, starting with: What is a Presentation?

Practice your presentation; rehearse to family, friends or just in front of a mirror. Listen to any feedback. Check your timings, speak slowly and think about the types of questions that your audience may have.

If possible visit the presentation venue before the event to see the room layout and check what facilities are available. This will help ensure that everything runs smoothly on the day and help you visualise giving your presentation, which can help reduce feelings of nervousness.

Keep Your Mind and Body Healthy

Nervousness can be heightened if you're not feeling 100%.

Avoid alcohol the night before and on the day of your presentation. Reduce or avoid your caffeine intake from coffee, tea and other sources.

Try to engage in some exercise the day before your presentation. This will not only release endorphins, which make you feel better, but exercise will also make it more likely that you'll sleep well and feel more refreshed on the day of your presentation.

See our pages The Importance of Exercise and The Importance of Sleep for more information.

Eat healthy. If you're feeling nervous then you may not feel like eating. However eating something healthy, fruit and vegetables are always good choices, will make you feel better and give you the energy you need to get through presentation day.

Immediately before the presentation

When you feel nervous immediately before a presentation, the following strategies and exercises should help you:

Practice Deep Breathing

Adrenalin causes your breathing to shallow. By deliberately breathing deeply, your brain will get the oxygen it needs and the slower pace will trick your body into believing you are calmer. This also helps with voice quivers, which can occur when your breathing is shallow and irregular.

Drink Water

Adrenalin can cause a dry mouth, which in turn leads to getting tongue-tied. Have a glass or bottle of water handy and take sips before you start your presentation and occasionally during your presentation, especially when you wish to pause or emphasize a point. Take care not to take large gulps of water.

Chewing gum before a presentation may help you to feel more relaxed. Research has shown that the act of chewing can increase your alertness and help to reduce anxiety. It is usually best to get rid of the gum when you start your presentation.

Use Visualization Techniques

Imagine that you are delivering your presentation to an audience that is interested, enthused, smiling, and reacting positively. Cement this positive image in your mind and recall it just before you are ready to start.

Self-Massage

Press and massage your forehead to energize the front of the brain and speech centre.

Relaxation Exercises

Although you may not feel relaxed before you give your presentation relaxation, exercises can help.  Try the following relaxation exercises, but do not continue with them if they cause any pain or discomfort although remember that you may use some muscles you have not exercised for a while and so feel a little stiff afterwards.

Quick Relaxation Exercises

• Stand in an easy position with your feet one pace apart, knees 'unlocked' and not rigidly pushed back, spine straight, shoulders not tense, and head balanced.  Try to keep your face muscles relaxed by not clenching your jaw or clamping your teeth together.
• Now stretch SLOWLY upwards, aim to touch the ceiling but keep your feet flat on the floor.  Then flop forward from the waist bending your knees slightly as you go.  You are now hanging forward like a rag doll - your arms and head totally unsupported and relaxed.
• Straighten up SLOWLY, almost vertebra by vertebra, as if you were puppet and a giant puppet master was pulling you up by the strings keeping your head until last, when you are standing in your original easy position.

Repeat this exercise three times.

Alternatively you can relax in a chair:

• Sit comfortably with your lower spine pressed into the back of the chair.
• Raise your arms above your head and stretch as high as possible.
• Release your arms to your sides and bend forwards with your legs stretched out and stretch your arms out far as possible.
• Return to your starting position.

See our section: Relaxation Techniques for more information and ideas of how you can learn to relax effectively.

During the presentation

Many people find that once they are actually giving their presentation or speech they feel a lot better and more relaxed. But it's important to remember to:

Just before you start talking, pause, make eye contact, and smile. This last moment of peace is very relaxing and gives you time to adjust to being the centre of attention.

Smiling is a natural relaxant that sends positive chemical messages through your body. Smiling and maintaining eye contact also help you build rapport with your audience.

Speak more slowly than you would in a conversation, and leave longer pauses between sentences. This slower pace will calm you down, and it will also make you easier to hear, especially at the back of a large room.

Move Around

Move around a little during your presentation as this will expend some of your nervous energy. However, try not to pace backwards and forwards, or rock on your heels, as these activities can be distracting or irritating to your audience.

Stop Thinking About Yourself

Remember that the audience is there to get some information and that it is your job to put that information across to them. Try to put your nerves aside and think about communicating your message as effectively as possible.

After the event

It's important to focus on the positives of your presentation once you've finished. Experience is the single most effective way of overcoming presentation nerves and delivering better presentations in the future.

Get feedback

When possible, ask members of your audience for constructive feedback on your presentation. Listen to what they say and focus on areas that need improvement. Try to see any negative points not as a measure of failure but as learning opportunities for future presentations. Our page on Giving and Receiving Feedback may help here.

Use reflective practice

Reflective practice is a useful technique to help you think about and analyse your experiences and can be used for many aspects of life. The use of reflective practice for a presentation can be particularly useful for helping to minimise feelings of nervousness for future presentations. See our page of Reflective Practice for more help and information.

Don't beat yourself up

Like most things in life, presentations are unlikely to be perfect and there are always ways you can improve. When you get feedback from others and reflect on your own performance, it is important that you understand this and give yourself a break. Think about the positives and what went well, and learn from any mistakes or elements that you feel unhappy with.

Treat yourself

Treat yourself to something that you'll enjoy. Perhaps a glass of wine, or a nice cake or just a relaxing soak in the bath. Something to make you feel a bit special and recognise your achievement.

Continue to: Dealing with Presentation Questions Stress and Stress Management

See also: Preparing for a Presentation | Organising the Material The Newbie Blueprint for Virtual Presentation Success

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68 Self-Presentation, Attitudes, and Persuasion

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe social roles and how they influence behavior
• Explain what social norms are and how they influence behavior
• Define script
• Describe the findings of Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment
• Define attitude
• Describe how people’s attitudes are internally changed through cognitive dissonance
• Explain how people’s attitudes are externally changed through persuasion
• Describe the peripheral and central routes to persuasion

Self-presentation

As you’ve learned, social psychology is the study of how people affect one another’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. We have discussed situational perspectives and social psychology’s emphasis on the ways in which a person’s environment, including culture and other social influences, affect behavior. In this section, we examine situational forces that have a strong influence on human behavior including social roles, social norms, and scripts. We discuss how humans use the social environment as a source of information, or cues, on how to behave. Situational influences on our behavior have important consequences, such as whether we will help a stranger in an emergency or how we would behave in an unfamiliar environment.

SOCIAL ROLES

One major social determinant of human behavior is our social roles. A  social role  is a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group (Hare, 2003). Each one of us has several social roles. You may be, at the same time, a student, a parent, an aspiring teacher, a son or daughter, a spouse, and a lifeguard. How do these social roles influence your behavior? Social roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge. That is, nearly everyone in a given culture knows what behavior is expected of a person in a given role. For example, what is the social role for a student? If you look around a college classroom you will likely see students engaging in studious behavior, taking notes, listening to the professor, reading the textbook, and sitting quietly at their desks ( Figure ). Of course you may see students deviating from the expected studious behavior such as texting on their phones or using Facebook on their laptops, but in all cases, the students that you observe are attending class—a part of the social role of students.

Social roles, and our related behavior, can vary across different settings. How do you behave when you are engaging in the role of son or daughter and attending a family function? Now imagine how you behave when you are engaged in the role of employee at your workplace. It is very likely that your behavior will be different. Perhaps you are more relaxed and outgoing with your family, making jokes and doing silly things. But at your workplace you might speak more professionally, and although you may be friendly, you are also serious and focused on getting the work completed. These are examples of how our social roles influence and often dictate our behavior to the extent that identity and personality can vary with context (that is, in different social groups) (Malloy, Albright, Kenny, Agatstein & Winquist, 1997).

SOCIAL NORMS

As discussed previously, social roles are defined by a culture’s shared knowledge of what is expected behavior of an individual in a specific role. This shared knowledge comes from social norms. A  social norm  is a group’s expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members—how they are supposed to behave and think (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955; Berkowitz, 2004). How are we expected to act? What are we expected to talk about? What are we expected to wear? In our discussion of social roles we noted that colleges have social norms for students’ behavior in the role of student and workplaces have social norms for employees’ behaviors in the role of employee. Social norms are everywhere including in families, gangs, and on social media outlets. What are some social norms on Facebook?

My 11-year-old daughter, Jessica, recently told me she needed shorts and shirts for the summer, and that she wanted me to take her to a store at the mall that is popular with preteens and teens to buy them. I have noticed that many girls have clothes from that store, so I tried teasing her. I said, “All the shirts say ‘Aero’ on the front. If you are wearing a shirt like that and you have a substitute teacher, and the other girls are all wearing that type of shirt, won’t the substitute teacher think you are all named ‘Aero’?”

My daughter replied, in typical 11-year-old fashion, “Mom, you are not funny. Can we please go shopping?”

I tried a different tactic. I asked Jessica if having clothing from that particular store will make her popular. She replied, “No, it will not make me popular. It is what the popular kids wear. It will make me feel happier.” How can a label or name brand make someone feel happier? Think back to what you’ve learned about  lifespan development . What is it about pre-teens and young teens that make them want to fit in ( Figure )? Does this change over time? Think back to your high school experience, or look around your college campus. What is the main name brand clothing you see? What messages do we get from the media about how to fit in?

Because of social roles, people tend to know what behavior is expected of them in specific, familiar settings. A  script  is a person’s knowledge about the sequence of events expected in a specific setting (Schank & Abelson, 1977). How do you act on the first day of school, when you walk into an elevator, or are at a restaurant? For example, at a restaurant in the United States, if we want the server’s attention, we try to make eye contact. In Brazil, you would make the sound “psst” to get the server’s attention. You can see the cultural differences in scripts. To an American, saying “psst” to a server might seem rude, yet to a Brazilian, trying to make eye contact might not seem an effective strategy. Scripts are important sources of information to guide behavior in given situations. Can you imagine being in an unfamiliar situation and not having a script for how to behave? This could be uncomfortable and confusing. How could you find out about social norms in an unfamiliar culture?

ZIMBARDO’S STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

The famous  Stanford prison experiment , conducted by social psychologist Philip  Zimbardo  and his colleagues at Stanford University, demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts. In the summer of 1971, an advertisement was placed in a California newspaper asking for male volunteers to participate in a study about the psychological effects of prison life. More than 70 men volunteered, and these volunteers then underwent psychological testing to eliminate candidates who had underlying psychiatric issues, medical issues, or a history of crime or drug abuse. The pool of volunteers was whittled down to 24 healthy male college students. Each student was paid $15 per day and was randomly assigned to play the role of either a prisoner or a guard in the study. Based on what you have learned about research methods, why is it important that participants were randomly assigned?

A mock prison was constructed in the basement of the psychology building at Stanford. Participants assigned to play the role of prisoners were “arrested” at their homes by Palo Alto police officers, booked at a police station, and subsequently taken to the mock prison. The experiment was scheduled to run for several weeks. To the surprise of the researchers, both the “prisoners” and “guards” assumed their roles with zeal. In fact, on day 2, some of the prisoners revolted, and the guards quelled the rebellion by threatening the prisoners with night sticks. In a relatively short time, the guards came to harass the prisoners in an increasingly sadistic manner, through a complete lack of privacy, lack of basic comforts such as mattresses to sleep on, and through degrading chores and late-night counts.

The prisoners, in turn, began to show signs of severe anxiety and hopelessness—they began tolerating the guards’ abuse. Even the Stanford professor who designed the study and was the head researcher, Philip Zimbardo, found himself acting as if the prison was real and his role, as prison supervisor, was real as well. After only six days, the experiment had to be ended due to the participants’ deteriorating behavior. Zimbardo explained,

At this point it became clear that we had to end the study. We had created an overwhelmingly powerful situation—a situation in which prisoners were withdrawing and behaving in pathological ways, and in which some of the guards were behaving sadistically. Even the “good” guards felt helpless to intervene, and none of the guards quit while the study was in progress. Indeed, it should be noted that no guard ever came late for his shift, called in sick, left early, or demanded extra pay for overtime work. (Zimbardo, 2013)

The Stanford prison experiment demonstrated the power of social roles, norms, and scripts in affecting human behavior. The guards and prisoners enacted their social roles by engaging in behaviors appropriate to the roles: The guards gave orders and the prisoners followed orders. Social norms require guards to be authoritarian and prisoners to be submissive. When prisoners rebelled, they violated these social norms, which led to upheaval. The specific acts engaged by the guards and the prisoners derived from scripts. For example, guards degraded the prisoners by forcing them do push-ups and by removing all privacy. Prisoners rebelled by throwing pillows and trashing their cells. Some prisoners became so immersed in their roles that they exhibited symptoms of mental breakdown; however, according to Zimbardo, none of the participants suffered long term harm (Alexander, 2001).

The Stanford Prison Experiment has some parallels with the abuse of prisoners of war by U.S. Army troops and CIA personnel at the Abu Ghraib prison in 2003 and 2004. The offenses at Abu  Ghraib  were documented by photographs of the abuse, some taken by the abusers themselves ( Figure ).

Visit this  website  to hear an NPR interview with Philip  Zimbardo  where he discusses the parallels between the Stanford prison experiment and the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq.

Human behavior is largely influenced by our social roles, norms, and scripts. In order to know how to act in a given situation, we have shared cultural knowledge of how to behave depending on our role in society. Social norms dictate the behavior that is appropriate or inappropriate for each role. Each social role has scripts that help humans learn the sequence of appropriate behaviors in a given setting. The famous Stanford prison experiment is an example of how the power of the situation can dictate the social roles, norms, and scripts we follow in a given situation, even if this behavior is contrary to our typical behavior.

Review Questions

A(n) ________ is a set of group expectations for appropriate thoughts and behaviors of its members.

• social role
• social norm
• attribution

On his first day of soccer practice, Jose suits up in a t-shirt, shorts, and cleats and runs out to the field to join his teammates. Jose’s behavior is reflective of ________.

• social influence
• good athletic behavior
• normative behavior

When it comes to buying clothes, teenagers often follow social norms; this is likely motivated by ________.

• following parents’ rules
• saving money
• looking good

In the Stanford prison experiment, even the lead researcher succumbed to his role as a prison supervisor. This is an example of the power of ________ influencing behavior.

• social norms
• social roles

Critical Thinking Questions

Why didn’t the “good” guards in the Stanford prison experiment object to other guards’ abusive behavior? Were the student prisoners simply weak people? Why didn’t they object to being abused?

Describe how social roles, social norms, and scripts were evident in the Stanford prison experiment. How can this experiment be applied to everyday life? Are there any more recent examples where people started fulfilling a role and became abusive?

Personal Application Questions

Try attending a religious service very different from your own and see how you feel and behave without knowing the appropriate script. Or, try attending an important, personal event that you have never attended before, such as a bar mitzvah (a coming-of-age ritual in Jewish culture), a quinceañera (in some Latin American cultures a party is given to a girl who is turning 15 years old), a wedding, a funeral, or a sporting event new to you, such as horse racing or bull riding. Observe and record your feelings and behaviors in this unfamiliar setting for which you lack the appropriate script. Do you silently observe the action, or do you ask another person for help interpreting the behaviors of people at the event? Describe in what ways your behavior would change if you were to attend a similar event in the future?

Name and describe at least three social roles you have adopted for yourself. Why did you adopt these roles? What are some roles that are expected of you, but that you try to resist?

Attitudes and Persuasion

Social psychologists have documented how the power of the situation can influence our behaviors. Now we turn to how the power of the situation can influence our attitudes and beliefs.  Attitude  is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. We have attitudes for many things ranging from products that we might pick up in the supermarket to people around the world to political policies. Typically, attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or negative (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). And, they have three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960).

For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This attitude should result in positive feelings toward recycling (such as “It makes me feel good to recycle” or “I enjoy knowing that I make a small difference in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in landfills”). Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our behavior: You actually recycle as often as you can. Finally, this attitude will be reflected in favorable thoughts (for example, “Recycling is good for the environment” or “Recycling is the responsible thing to do”).

Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. Like our behavior, our attitudes and thoughts are not always changed by situational pressures, but they can be consciously changed by our own free will. In this section we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change our own attitudes and beliefs.

WHAT IS COGNITIVE DISSONANCE?

Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Often, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our self-esteem or positive self-image. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) defined  cognitive dissonance  as psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance states that when we experience a conflict in our behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort (dissonance). For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you continue to smoke, you experience conflict between your belief and behavior ( Figure ).

Later research documented that only conflicting cognitions that threaten individuals’ positive self-image cause dissonance (Greenwald & Ronis, 1978). Additional research found that dissonance is not only psychologically uncomfortable but also can cause physiological arousal (Croyle & Cooper, 1983) and activate regions of the brain important in emotions and cognitive functioning (van Veen, Krug, Schooler, & Carter, 2009). When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable. We can reduce  cognitive dissonance  by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors in line—that is, making them harmonious. This can be done in different ways, such as:

• changing our discrepant behavior (e.g., stop smoking),
• changing our cognitions through rationalization or denial (e.g., telling ourselves that health risks can be reduced by smoking filtered cigarettes),
• adding a new cognition (e.g., “Smoking suppresses my appetite so I don’t become overweight, which is good for my health.”).

A classic example of cognitive dissonance is John, a 20-year-old who enlists in the military. During boot camp he is awakened at 5:00 a.m., is chronically sleep deprived, yelled at, covered in sand flea bites, physically bruised and battered, and mentally exhausted ( Figure ). It gets worse. Recruits that make it to week 11 of boot camp have to do 54 hours of continuous training.

Not surprisingly, John is miserable. No one likes to be miserable. In this type of situation, people can change their beliefs, their attitudes, or their behaviors. The last option, a change of behaviors, is not available to John. He has signed on to the military for four years, and he cannot legally leave.

If John keeps thinking about how miserable he is, it is going to be a very long four years. He will be in a constant state of cognitive dissonance. As an alternative to this misery, John can change his beliefs or attitudes. He can tell himself, “I am becoming stronger, healthier, and sharper. I am learning discipline and how to defend myself and my country. What I am doing is really important.” If this is his belief, he will realize that he is becoming stronger through his challenges. He then will feel better and not experience cognitive dissonance, which is an uncomfortable state.

The Effect of Initiation

The military example demonstrates the observation that a difficult  initiation  into a group influences us to like the group  more , due to the justification of effort. We do not want to have wasted time and effort to join a group that we eventually leave. A classic experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrated this justification of effort effect. College students volunteered to join a campus group that would meet regularly to discuss the psychology of sex. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no initiation, an easy initiation, and a difficult initiation into the group. After participating in the first discussion, which was deliberately made very boring, participants rated how much they liked the group. Participants who underwent a difficult initiation process to join the group rated the group more favorably than did participants with an easy initiation or no initiation ( Figure ).

Similar effects can be seen in a more recent study of how student effort affects course evaluations. Heckert, Latier, Ringwald-Burton, and Drazen (2006) surveyed 463 undergraduates enrolled in courses at a midwestern university about the amount of effort that their courses required of them. In addition, the students were also asked to evaluate various aspects of the course. Given what you’ve just read, it will come as no surprise that those courses that were associated with the highest level of effort were evaluated as being more valuable than those that did not. Furthermore, students indicated that they learned more in courses that required more effort, regardless of the grades that they received in those courses (Heckert et al., 2006).

Besides the classic military example and group initiation, can you think of other examples of  cognitive dissonance ? Here is one: Marco and Maria live in Fairfield County, Connecticut, which is one of the wealthiest areas in the United States and has a very high cost of living. Marco telecommutes from home and Maria does not work outside of the home. They rent a very small house for more than $3000 a month. Maria shops at consignment stores for clothes and economizes where she can. They complain that they never have any money and that they cannot buy anything new. When asked why they do not move to a less expensive location, since Marco telecommutes, they respond that Fairfield County is beautiful, they love the beaches, and they feel comfortable there. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance apply to Marco and Maria’s choices?

In the previous section we discussed that the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance leads us to change our attitudes, behaviors, and/or cognitions to make them consonant.  Persuasion  is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. How do people convince others to change their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors ( Figure )? What communications do you receive that attempt to persuade you to change your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors?

A subfield of social psychology studies persuasion and social influence, providing us with a plethora of information on how humans can be persuaded by others.

Yale Attitude Change Approach

The topic of persuasion has been one of the most extensively researched areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World War, Carl  Hovland  extensively researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. After the war, Hovland continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this work came a model called the  Yale attitude change approach , which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953).

Features of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility of the speaker (Hovland & Weiss, 1951) and the physical attractiveness of the speaker (Eagly & Chaiken, 1975; Petty, Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or have expertise on the topic, and who are deemed as trustworthy are more persuasive than less credible speakers. Similarly, more attractive speakers are more persuasive than less attractive speakers. The use of famous actors and athletes to advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale & Albarracín, 2004).

Features of the message itself that affect persuasion include subtlety (the quality of being important, but not obvious) (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Walster & Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than one side) (Crowley & Hoyer, 1994; Igou & Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine & Janis, 1953); timing (Haugtvedt & Wegener, 1994; Miller & Campbell, 1959), and whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct messages. Arguments that occur first, such as in a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back. However, if there is a delay after the first message, and before the audience needs to make a decision, the last message presented will tend to be more persuasive (Miller & Campbell, 1959).

Features of the audience that affect persuasion are attention (Albarracín & Wyer, 2001; Festinger & Maccoby, 1964), intelligence, self-esteem (Rhodes & Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes & Wood, 1992). Finally, younger adults aged 18–25 are more persuadable than older adults.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

An especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). The  elaboration likelihood model  considers the variables of the attitude change approach—that is, features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when attitude change will occur. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral ( Figure ).

The  central route  is logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness. For example, a car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the car’s safety features and fuel economy. This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change.

The central route to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information. From an advertiser’s perspective, what products would be best sold using the central route to persuasion? What audience would most likely be influenced to buy the product? One example is buying a computer. It is likely, for example, that small business owners might be especially influenced by the focus on the computer’s quality and features such as processing speed and memory capacity.

The  peripheral route  is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product’s quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behavior change. The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of product placement. Product placement refers to putting a product with a clear brand name or brand identity in a TV show or movie to promote the product (Gupta & Lord, 1998). For example, one season of the reality series  American Idol prominently showed the panel of judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What other products would be best sold using the peripheral route to persuasion? Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

Researchers have tested many persuasion strategies that are effective in selling products and changing people’s attitude, ideas, and behaviors. One effective strategy is the foot-in-the-door technique (Cialdini, 2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, & Saari, 1974). Using the  foot-in-the-door technique , the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item. The foot-in-the-door technique was demonstrated in a study by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in which participants who agreed to post small sign in their yard or sign a petition were more likely to agree to put a large sign in their yard than people who declined the first request ( Figure ). Research on this technique also illustrates the principle of consistency (Cialdini, 2001): Our past behavior often directs our future behavior, and we have a desire to maintain consistency once we have a committed to a behavior.

A common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents for a small permission (for example, extending curfew by a half hour) and then asking them for something larger. Having granted the smaller request increases the likelihood that parents will acquiesce with the later, larger request.

How would a store owner use the foot-in-the-door technique to sell you an expensive product? For example, say that you are buying the latest model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best data plan. You agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger purchase—the three-year extended warranty. After agreeing to the smaller request, you are more likely to also agree to the larger request. You may have encountered this if you have bought a car. When salespeople realize that a buyer intends to purchase a certain model, they might try to get the customer to pay for many or most available options on the car.

Attitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, or object and typically are positive or negative. Our attitudes and beliefs are influenced not only by external forces, but also by internal influences that we control. An internal form of attitude change is cognitive dissonance or the tension we experience when our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are in conflict. In order to reduce dissonance, individuals can change their behavior, attitudes, or cognitions, or add a new cognition. External forces of persuasion include advertising; the features of advertising that influence our behaviors include the source, message, and audience. There are two primary routes to persuasion. The central route to persuasion uses facts and information to persuade potential consumers. The peripheral route uses positive association with cues such as beauty, fame, and positive emotions.

Attitudes describe our ________ of people, objects, and ideas.

• evaluations

Cognitive dissonance causes discomfort because it disrupts our sense of ________.

• unpredictability
• consistency

In order for the central route to persuasion to be effective, the audience must be ________ and ________.

• analytical; motivated
• attentive; happy
• intelligent; unemotional
• gullible; distracted

Examples of cues used in peripheral route persuasion include all of the following  except

• celebrity endorsement
• positive emotions
• attractive models
• factual information

Give an example (one  not  used in class or your text) of cognitive dissonance and how an individual might resolve this.

Imagine that you work for an advertising agency, and you’ve been tasked with developing an advertising campaign to increase sales of Bliss Soda. How would you develop an advertisement for this product that uses a central route of persuasion? How would you develop an ad using a peripheral route of persuasion?

Cognitive dissonance often arises after making an important decision, called post-decision dissonance (or in popular terms, buyer’s remorse). Describe a recent decision you made that caused dissonance and describe how you resolved it.

Describe a time when you or someone you know used the foot-in-the-door technique to gain someone’s compliance.

[glossary-page] [glossary-term]attitude:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]evaluations of or feelings toward a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]central route persuasion:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]logic-driven arguments using data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]cognitive dissonance:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person’s behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to one’s positive self-perception[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]foot-in-the-door technique:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]peripheral route persuasion:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]persuasion:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]process of changing our attitude toward something based on some form of communication[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]script:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]person’s knowledge about the sequence of events in a specific setting[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]social norm:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for the thoughts and behavior of its members[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]social role:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group[/glossary-definition]

[glossary-term]stanford prison experiment:[/glossary-term] [glossary-definition]Stanford University conducted an experiment in a mock prison that demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts[/glossary-definition] [/glossary-page]

General Psychology Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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2024 Showcase Presentations

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7 facts about americans and taxes.

Spring reliably brings a whirlwind of number-crunching and form-filing as Americans finish their tax returns. Altogether, the IRS expects to process more than 160 million individual and business tax returns this season.

Ahead of Tax Day on April 15, here are seven facts about Americans and federal taxes, drawn from Pew Research Center surveys and analyses of federal data.

Ahead of Tax Day 2024, Pew Research Center sought to understand Americans’ views of the federal tax system and outline some of its features.

The public opinion data in this analysis comes from Pew Research Center surveys. Links to these surveys, including details about their methodologies, are available in the text.

The external data comes from the U.S. Office of Management and Budget and the IRS Data Book . Data is reported by fiscal year, which for the federal government begins Oct. 1 and ends Sept. 30. For example, fiscal 2024 began Oct. 1, 2023, and ends Sept. 30, 2024.

A majority of Americans feel that corporations and wealthy people don’t pay their fair share in taxes, according to a Center survey from spring 2023 . About six-in-ten U.S. adults say they’re bothered a lot by the feeling that some corporations (61%) and some wealthy people (60%) don’t pay their fair share.

Democrats are far more likely than Republicans to feel this way. Among Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents, about three-quarters say they’re bothered a lot by the feeling that some corporations (77%) and some wealthy people (77%) don’t pay their fair share. Much smaller shares of Republicans and GOP leaners share these views (46% say this about corporations and 43% about the wealthy).

Meanwhile, about two-thirds of Americans (65%) support raising tax rates on large businesses and corporations, and a similar share (61%) support raising tax rates on households with annual incomes over $400,000. Democrats are much more likely than Republicans to say these tax rates should increase.

Just over half of U.S. adults feel they personally pay more than what is fair, considering what they get in return from the federal government, according to the same survey.

This sentiment has grown more widespread in recent years: 56% of Americans now say they pay more than their fair share in taxes, up from 49% in 2021. Roughly a third (34%) say they pay about the right amount, and 8% say they pay less than their fair share.

Republicans are more likely than Democrats to say they pay more than their fair share (63% vs. 50%), though the share of Democrats who feel this way has risen since 2021. (The share among Republicans is statistically unchanged from 2021.)

Many Americans are frustrated by the complexity of the federal tax system, according to the same survey. About half (53%) say its complexity bothers them a lot. Of the aspects of the federal tax system that we asked about, this was the top frustration among Republicans – 59% say it bothers them a lot, compared with 49% of Democrats.

Undeniably, the federal tax code is a massive document, and it has only gotten longer over time. The printed 2022 edition of the Internal Revenue Code clocks in at 4,192 pages, excluding front matter. Income tax law alone accounts for over half of those pages (2,544).

The public is divided in its views of the IRS. In a separate spring 2023 Center survey , 51% of Americans said they have an unfavorable opinion of the government tax agency, while 42% had a favorable view of the IRS. Still, of the 16 federal agencies and departments we asked about, the IRS was among the least popular on the list.

Views of the IRS differ greatly by party:

• Among Republicans, 29% have a favorable view and 64% have an unfavorable view.
• Among Democrats, it’s 53% favorable and 40% unfavorable.

On balance, Democrats offer much more positive opinions than Republicans when it comes to most of the federal agencies we asked about. Even so, the IRS ranks near the bottom of their list.

Individual income taxes are by far the government’s largest single source of revenue, according to estimates from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).

The federal government expects to collect about $2.5 trillion in individual income taxes in fiscal year 2024. That accounts for nearly half (49%) of its total estimated receipts for the year. The next largest chunk comes from Social Security taxes (including those for disability and retirement programs), which are projected to pull in $1.2 trillion this fiscal year (24%).

By comparison, corporate income taxes are estimated to bring in $612.8 billion, or 12% of this fiscal year’s federal receipts. And excise taxes – which include things like transportation trust fund revenue and taxes on alcohol, tobacco and crude oil – are expected to come to $99.7 billion, or 2% of receipts.

American tax dollars mostly go to social services. Human services – including education, health, Social Security, Medicare, income security and veterans benefits – together will account for 66% ($4.6 trillion) of federal government spending in fiscal 2024, according to OMB estimates.

An estimated 13% ($907.7 billion) will go toward defense spending. Another 13% ($888.6 billion) will repay net interest on government debt, and 10% ($726.9 billion) will fund all other functions, including energy, transportation, agriculture and more.

Related: 6 facts about Americans’ views of government spending and the deficit

The vast majority of Americans e-file their taxes, according to IRS data . In fiscal 2022, 150.6 million individual federal income tax returns were filed electronically, accounting for 94% of all individual filings that year.

Unsurprisingly, e-filing has become more popular since the turn of the century. Fiscal 2000, the earliest year for which comparable data is available, saw 35.4 million individual income tax returns filed electronically (including those filed over the phone). These accounted for just 28% of individual filings that year.

By fiscal 2005, more than half of individual income tax returns (52%) were filed electronically.

Note: This is an update combining information from two posts originally published in 2014 and 2015.

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College of Engineering

April 15, 2024

Graduate Research Symposium creates opportunities to collaborate

May 2 event is free, open to public.

The 2024 Michigan State University College of Engineering Graduate Research Symposium will be held Thursday, May 2 in the Engineering Building and showcase the work of nearly 200 students. This event, created by the college in 2012, gives participants ranging from first-year graduates to those nearing completion of their Ph.D. the opportunity to share their work and network with faculty, staff and industry partners. They will also gain valuable experience giving research presentations that capture the priorities and mission of the college’s eight academic departments. The Graduate Research Symposium is free and open to the public. Attendees are encouraged to register by Friday, April 19 at the following link: https://www.eventbrite.com/e/2024-engineering-graduate-research-symposium-tickets-687947307917. Guests expected to attend the symposium and provide welcome remarks include Engineering Dean Leo Kempel, MSU President Kevin Guskiewicz, Interim Provost Thomas Jeitschko and Graduate School Dean and Vice Provost Pero Dagbovie. The symposium fosters a spirit of collaboration that helps graduate students learn what it takes to give effective presentations and use these skills in academic and professional settings. The highest scoring presentations will be recognized by judges. “The goal is to showcase research conducted by graduate students across the college and provide connections for faculty, staff, industry partners and graduate students,” said Sandra Christlieb, the college’s assistant director for graduate student services “This event creates opportunities to learn, engage and collaborate.” Sampling of presentation to be given at 2024 symposium:

• “Opening a pill bottle can be a pain: Quantifying adult and child abilities for access to child resistant packaging”
• “Smooth Moves: Kinematic smoothness as an assessment tool for functional movement disorder and outcomes from a one-week intensive therapy.”
• “The Hospital Patient: Identifying changes in average and peak pressures with a new positioning system used to mitigate tissue injury”
• “Tracking of sexually transmitted diseases in the Detroit metro area by molecular analysis of environmental samples”
• “Conflict resolution behavior of autonomous vehicles in mixed traffic environment”
• “Electrifying travels along Lake Michigan circuit”
• “Safety and operational evaluation of acceleration and deceleration lanes at freeway interchanges”
• “Understanding the importance of communication in the evolution of cooperation.”

Symposium schedule for Thursday, May 2:

• 8 - 9 am: Registration, check-in, poster set up
• 9 - 9:30 am: Welcome remarks
• 9:30 – 11 am: First poster session
• 11 am - 12:30 pm: Second poster session
• 12:30 – 1:30 pm: Lunch
• 1:30 – 3 pm: Symposium Showcase and afternoon refreshments
• 3-3:30 pm: 3-Minute Thesis Awards, Poster awards and event closing

Community, industry and corporate sponsors:

• DOW Chemical
• Jackson National Life
• Michigan Department of Transportation
• MSU Facility for Rare Isotope Beams
• MSU AgBioResearch

For more information about the symposium and the College of Engineering’s graduate studies programs, visit engineering.msu.edu/academics/graduate-studies/symposium. Written by Eric Lacy, [email protected]. See more at the Engineering Media and Public Relations page.

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Impact of Shyness on Self-Esteem: The Mediating Effect of Self-Presentation

Associated data.

The datasets used during the current study are available from the corresponding author.

Background: Although the relationship between shyness and self-esteem is well described in the psychological literature, far less is known about the potential mechanisms that underlie this association. The main goal of the current work is to verify whether self-presentation acts as a mediating variable between both constructs. Methods: The study was carried out among 198 adults. The Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Self-Presentation Style Questionnaire were applied. Results: A large and positive correlation coefficient was observed between the following variables: (1) self-esteem/self-promotion; (2) shyness/self-deprecation. All other variables correlated negatively: (1) shyness/self-esteem; (2) shyness/self-promotion; (3) self-esteem/self-deprecation; (4) self-promotion/self-deprecation. Moreover, both self-promotion and self-deprecation acted as mediators between life satisfaction and self-esteem. Conclusion: The outcomes of the present study show a new mediating aspect for the direct relationship between shyness and self-esteem in the form of two styles of self-presentation. The results indicate that the tendency of shy people to avoid others can have a lower effect on their overall sense of self-esteem when they try to present themselves in a clearly favorable light. By contrast, shyness may have a stronger impact on their sense of self-worth when they present themselves as helpless, unsure, and incompetent.

1. Introduction

The research problem of the article is the relationship between shyness, self-esteem, and styles of self-presentation. Although the concept of shyness is difficult to describe [ 1 ], there is some agreement that shyness is a tendency to avoid people [ 2 ] and feel inhibition, tension, unpleasant emotions, or discomfort in social interactions [ 3 ]. It affects many fields of the shy person’s functioning [ 4 , 5 ].

According to different researchers, shyness may be considered both as an emotional state and a personality trait [ 2 , 4 , 5 ]. A state of situational shyness denotes an emotional and cognitive response to some specific, novel, temporary, and threatening social circumstances that everyone can experience in the presence of others [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Cheek and Buss [ 2 ] consider shyness as a stable construct and one of the most widespread and common personality traits. Shyness can be a source of unpleasant emotions or discomfort (frequent embarrassment or fear). It can also make it difficult to experience positive emotions when it is the source of a sense of loss (e.g., “I didn’t try it, even though I had the opportunity”). Finally, it can affect the way a shy person is perceived by the environment (e.g., “He looks worse during a job interview”). It can be assumed that when shyness is strongly increased, it reduces the quality of life of the person it concerns. Indeed, a study on a Chinese group of students shows that shyness is negatively associated with life satisfaction [ 8 ].

Extensive research shows that a reduced self-esteem is one of the crucial factors associated with shyness [ 9 ]. Self-esteem is a complex and multidimensional concept that refers to a person’s attitude toward oneself [ 10 ]. Blascovich and Tomaka [ 11 ] define self-esteem as “the sum of evaluations across salient attributes of one’s (…) personality” (p. 115). In psychology research, self-esteem is considered to be a construct consisting of two different dimensions [ 12 ]. The competence facet expresses the degree to which individuals perceive themselves as skilled and successful. The worth dimension denotes the degree to which people experience themselves as valuable. Self-esteem has been viewed as a motive [ 12 , 13 , 14 ], buffer [ 12 , 15 , 16 ], and outcome variable [ 12 , 15 , 17 ]. Assuming the third perspective, some researchers have found that self-esteem may depend on personality traits [ 18 , 19 ], interpersonal factors such as social feedback, approval or disapproval [ 20 , 21 , 22 ], the relationships with parents and significant others [ 23 , 24 ], personal achievement [ 25 ] or career success [ 26 ], and shyness [ 27 ].

The last of these variables is of interest for at least two reasons. First, shyness occurs in a considerable number of people at some point in their lives [ 28 , 29 , 30 ] and, second, shyness is a social phenomenon and, as such, may affect the sense of self-esteem [ 31 ]. Empirical findings display that shyness correlates negatively with self-esteem among preschoolers [ 32 ], school children [ 33 , 34 ], adolescents [ 35 , 36 ], as well as younger [ 37 , 38 , 39 ] and older adults [ 31 ]. In other words, people who are shy typically tend to have a lower perception of self-worth [ 40 ] and have a lower [ 38 , 41 ] or negatively unrealistic [ 40 ] self-evaluation of themselves and their abilities. Based on the above studies, we hypothesized that:

Shyness is negatively correlated with self-esteem.

It may seem that Hypothesis 1 (H1), considered in isolation from the other hypotheses, adds little new knowledge to the existing literature. However, some research on shyness cited as the foundation for this hypothesis dates to the 1980s. The authors of the studies at that time could not predict to what extent the socio-cultural conditions would change, i.e., that self-image, the attitude toward oneself, and self-esteem (potentially important for shyness) are now built in a slightly different way, using different tools and experiences (social media), and that this process is attended by, inter alia, people unknown to the subject (observers and subscribers). All of the participants in this survey are regular social media users. Saunders and Chester [ 1 ] write about the role of social media in the functioning of shy people. They can be attractive because self-image can be freely created and information about yourself can be better controlled, while strengthening the real isolation of shy people. At the same time, they are indicated as a disinhibiting medium and help to train social skills. Therefore, it seems justified to verify the seemingly known relationship of shyness with self-esteem.

There are relatively few studies reporting a direct relationship between shyness and self-presentation. According to Schlenker and Leary [ 42 ], self-presentation is a process by which people “attempt to control images of the self before real or imagined audiences” (p. 643). People adopt self-presentation styles to gain a certain outcome or to induce an evaluation by others [ 43 ]. Different types of self-presentation are used to affect other peoples’ impressions of the self [ 44 ]. Acquisitive self-presentation occurs when people try to accentuate pleasing aspects of themselves to receive others’ approval [ 45 ]. Conversely, protective self-presentation takes place when people want to avoid disapproval. Assertive self-presentation involves behaviors directed at focusing attention on an identity [ 44 ]. In contrast, defensive self-presentation denotes actions intended for defending an identity. Attributive self-presentation refers to claiming positive, kind, desirable characteristics [ 43 , 46 ]. On the other hand, repudiative self-presentation implies denying negative, undesirable characteristics. Finally, self-promotion is related to the enhancement of the self [ 47 ] through emphasizing competences, strengths, and talents [ 48 ]. On the contrary, self-deprecation reflects being incompetent, insecure, and helpless [ 49 ].

In the context of shyness, researchers suggest that people with higher levels of social fear are more convinced of their inability to make a favorable impact on others. At the same time, they are highly motivated to create a desired image of themselves. Szmajke [ 50 ] explains that shy people tend to use defensive styles of self-presentation, aimed more at avoiding negative impressions than actively striving to exert a positive one. In other words, they do not aim to demonstrate their strengths, instead preferring to not disclose unfavorable information about themselves. Along the lines of the previous studies, we hypothesized that:

Shyness is negatively correlated with self-promotion, and positively associated with self-deprecation.

Although there is some empirical evidence that self-presentation is not related to self-esteem [ 51 , 52 ], Hermann and Arkin [ 43 ] suggest that individual differences in adapting various self-presentation tactics are related to people’s self-esteem. Given that people aspire to sustain, defend, and strengthen their self-esteem [ 1 ], different self-presentation styles may contribute [ 53 ] positively or negatively to the realization of this goal. For example, Leary [ 46 ] observes that a lack of success in self-presenting may lower one’s self-esteem, leading to an increase in negative emotions. Conversely, an achievement in self-presentation may raise self-esteem and elicit positive emotions. Other studies [ 11 ] show that an acquisitive strategy of self-presentation characterizes people who demonstrate a higher self-esteem, while a protective self-presentation distinguishes people who declare a lower self-esteem. In turn, Hewitt et al. [ 54 ] observed that the perfectionistic tactic of self-presentation, one that consists of creating an image of flawlessness to others, correlates negatively with self-esteem. Based on a literature review, we postulated that:

Self-promotion correlates positively with self-esteem, and self-deprecation is negatively associated with self-esteem.

Although the relationship between shyness and self-esteem is well described in the psychological literature, far less is known about the potential mechanisms that underlie this association. Hence, the main goal of the current work is to verify whether self-presentation could act as a mediating variable between both constructs. There are several reasons for selecting self-presentation as a mediator from a range of different options. Specifically, shyness is “an extreme concern with self-presentation” (p. 2650) [ 23 ]. Moreover, self-presentation, besides its important function of “pleasing the audience,” plays an equally essential role of self-construction. According to Baumeister [ 55 ], people not only try to look good in the eyes of others or impress them, but also seek to act according to their own ideals and values. In doing so, their self-presentation motivates people to “create, maintain, and modify” (p. 3) [ 56 ] their image, and this may be important in influencing their self-esteem. Moreover, in some other studies, self-presentation mediated the relationship between perfectionistic concerns and subjective well-being [ 57 ], and life satisfaction and self-esteem [ 58 ]. Based on the presented insights, we hypothesized that:

Self-promotion and self-deprecation act as mediators between shyness and self-esteem.

Overall, our main purpose is to check whether feeling inhibited and tense in social interactions has a greater or lesser effect on one’s general sense of value when they enhance aspects of the self or disparage one’s own abilities.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. participants and data collection.

The study was carried out among 198 Polish adults—157 women (79.3%) and 41 men (20.7%) aged 15 to 70 years ( M = 26.66; SD = 8.97). The data were collected through a set of self-reported questionnaires with the use of the internet (e.g., Facebook). In the present work, we used a cross-sectional study and a convenience sample as such a methodology involves less time and fewer resources while being simple to apply [ 59 ]. All of the participants were given an accurate explanation of the goals of the study and about the confidentiality of the data, and were required to complete a web-based informed consent form. After providing their agreement, the respondents were asked to complete all of the scales. The topic and the procedure were accepted by the Institutional Bioethics Committee (KB 17/2021). The study was completed in line with the ethical recommendations present in the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.2. Measurements

Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale (RCBS). A self-report measure, developed by Cheek and Buss [ 24 ] and adapted into Polish by Kwiatkowska et al. [ 60 ], which is used to assess shyness understood as a personality trait. It is conceived as a unidimensional questionnaire and consists of 13 items (e.g., “I feel tense when I’m with people I don’t know well”; “I feel inhibited in social situations”). The participant assesses the extent to which each of the statements applies to his or her life. The answers are given using a five-point Likert scale (from 1—“very uncharacteristic or untrue”—to 7—“very characteristic or true”). Scores range from 13 to 65, with higher results reflecting greater levels of shyness. In the current study, the RCBS presented very good reliability, with a Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of α = 0.89.

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). A self-report research instrument, created by Rosenberg [ 61 ] and adapted into Polish by Łaguna et al. [ 62 ], which is used to measure one’s global perception of worthiness. This unidimensional tool consists of 10 items. Five of them are positively worded (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”) and five are negatively worded (e.g., “I feel I do not have much to be proud of”). The participants declare on a four-point scale (from 1—“strongly agree”—to 4—“strongly disagree”) to what degree they agree with each of the items. The total score for the RSES is created by summing the values of the items, with higher scores denoting higher self-esteem. The present study had an excellent value of Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient (α = 0.90).

Self-Presentation Style Questionnaire (SSQ). A two-factor questionnaire, developed by Wojciszke [ 63 ], which estimates styles of self-presentation, understood as intended behavior aimed at altering the way other people regard themselves and inducing the desired impact on others. These styles are generally consistent with what people really think about themselves. The questionnaire consists of 30 items forming 2 factors of 15 items each that make up the distinguished styles of self-presentation: self-promotion—presenting oneself in a clearly favorable light as a competent person equipped with knowledge and numerous skills (e.g., “I emphasize my own merits”); self-deprecation—presenting oneself as a modest, helpless, unsure, and incompetent person burdened with faults (e.g., “I belittle the importance of my achievements”). The participants respond to all statements using a 5-point scale (from 1—“never”—to 5—“very often”). The present study had high α values of Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for both styles of self-presentation: self-promotion (α = 0.87) and self-deprecation (α = 0.84).

2.3. Statistical Analysis

All statistical analyses were completed using IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 with a 95% confidence level. Because the set of questionnaires was administered via the internet, no missing data were detected among the considered observations. Moreover, pre-analysis screening was performed, using Mahalanobis and Cook’s distance indicators to detect possible outliers. To assess the extent of correlation between all of the variables, the Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated.

The verification of H3, concerning the analysis of the two simple mediation models, was conducted using a bootstrapping-based technique with 5000 resamples and PROCESS macro 3.4 (Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany) (Model 4) [ 64 ]. The analyses displayed statistically significant values of standardized regression coefficients for both mediation models, where shyness was considered as the independent variable (X), self-esteem as the dependent variable (Y), with self-promotion in model 1 and self-deprecation in model 2 as the mediators (M).

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the mean, standard deviation, possible range of variables, skewness, and kurtosis for shyness, self-esteem, and both dimensions of self-presentation. Although there is no unequivocal cutoff to designate an unacceptable level of skewness and kurtosis, we assumed a conservative approach to both indices of lower than +/− 1. No variables exceeded this cutoff.

Descriptive statistics for shyness, self-esteem, self-promotion, and self-deprecation (N = 198).

3.2. Correlations

The analysis carried out with the use of Pearson’s r coefficient ( Table 2 ) showed statistically significant ( p < 0.001) correlations between shyness, self-esteem, and both dimensions of self-presentation. In accordance with H1, shyness correlated negatively with self-esteem ( r = −0.50). Secondly, H2 was confirmed as shyness was associated negatively with self-promotion ( r = −0.52) and positively with self-deprecation ( r = 0.54). Likewise, self-esteem was positively correlated with self-promotion ( r = 0.51) and negatively with self-deprecation ( r = −0.56).

Pearson correlation coefficients between the analyzed variables.

*** p < 0.001.

On the bases of the correlational results obtained in the present study, it can be acknowledged that linear relationships between variables were large and medium. Shy people showed a lower self-esteem and self-presentation, and displayed higher self-deprecation. Moreover, individuals with higher levels of self-esteem revealed a higher self-presentation and lower self-deprecation.

3.3. Mediation Analyses

In terms of H4, the two simple mediation analyses revealed a statistically significant effect related to both self-presentation dimensions on the relationship between shyness and self-esteem. The strength of the total indirect effect was slightly higher for the model with self-deprecation as a mediator (total indirect effect = −0.13) than for self-promotion (total indirect effect = −0.10).

More specifically, for the first model ( Figure 1 ), statistically significant ( p < 0.001) values of the regression coefficients were observed between shyness and self-promotion—path a (β = −0.43)—, and between the style of self-promotion and self-esteem—path b (β = 0.23). After including self-promotion as the mediator, the original value of the regression coefficient decreased from β = −0.28 (c) to β = −0.18 (c’), remaining with the same significance level.

Results of mediation analysis of self-promotion in the relationship between shyness and self-esteem. *** p < 0.001.

Likewise, in the second model ( Figure 2 ), statistically significant ( p < 0.001) non-standardized coefficients were found between shyness and self-deprecation—path a (β = 0.47)—and self-deprecation and self-esteem—path b (β = −0.26). Furthermore, according to the higher value of the total indirect effect for the second model, the initial value of the regression between the independent and the dependent variable (β = −0.28) decreased to a greater extent than in the case of the first analyzed model (β = −0.16).

Results of mediation analysis of self-deprecation in the relationship between shyness and self-esteem. *** p < 0.001.

In both cases, the confidence interval did not include the value “0”, which confirmed their statistical significance. For the first model, it was B (SE) = −0.1013 (0.0253), 95% CI [−0.1546; −0.0567]. For the second model it was B (SE) = −0.1262 (0.0249), 95% CI [−0.1769; −0.0781].

4. Discussion

The present work supported the following hypotheses: shyness is negatively related to self-esteem (Hypothesis 1 (H1)) and self-promotion (Hypothesis 2 (H2)); shyness is positively associated with self-deprecation (Hypothesis 2 (H2)); self-promotion correlates positively with self-esteem, and self-deprecation is negatively associated with self-esteem (Hypothesis 3 (H3)); self-promotion and self-deprecation act as mediators between shyness and self-esteem (Hypothesis 4 (H4)).

First, the inverse correlation between shyness and self-esteem was in line with several other studies, which provided evidence that shy individuals are typically inclined to have a low opinion and to maintain negative self-images of themselves [ 19 ]. Although the cross-sectional character of the present study did not allow us to assume that shyness leads to self-esteem, Brown et al. [ 65 , 66 ] suggested that self-esteem depends on interpersonal and temperamental factors. In fact, the self develops in a relational context of being with other people, perceiving their acceptance, and experiencing different social activities [ 67 , 68 ]. Moreover, shyness has a strong genetic component [ 69 ], which predisposes people to feel awkwardness on exposure to unknown people or novel situations [ 70 , 71 ]. Carducci and Golant [ 72 ] observed that shyness affects all aspects of people’s existence, influencing their behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. The classic view of well-being consists of three components [ 73 ], which include the level of life satisfaction, positive feelings, and no negative feelings. In this context, shyness is an important factor in building well-being, for example, shyness decreases self-efficacy [ 29 , 74 ] and self-confidence [ 41 ]. Shy individuals reported self-blame [ 74 ], anger [ 74 ], and emotion-focused coping strategies [ 75 ]. Thereby, it is understandable that higher levels of shyness may contribute to the weakening of self-esteem.

In respect to shyness and both dimensions of self-presentation, Hypothesis 2 (H2) also found its confirmation. For example, Arkin [ 45 ] argued that shy people regulate their images of self, avoiding the disapproval of others rather than gaining their approval. Other studies show that shyness is related to the perception of one’s own inadequacy [ 76 ], the negative judgment of the self [ 77 ] and high personal responsibility for any lack of success [ 24 ]. These outcomes confirmed the premises of the self-presentational theory of shyness according to which people aim to control images of the self in a social context to depict themselves in the best way for them or the way most suitable to the situation [ 78 ]. In conformity with theories of social cognition, shy people presented themselves in a biased or incorrect way [ 79 ] to reduce their uncomfortable feelings in the presence of other people [ 42 ]. They are often afraid of committing a mistake or failing in social situations [ 80 ]. Snyder et al. [ 80 ] observed that shy individuals may use strategies of self-handicapping. People who employ such self-presentation tactics do so to excuse for their poor performance and failure. Other authors [ 45 , 81 ] showed that shy people tend to employ a protective self-presentational style since they prefer to avoid social disapproval rather than to achieve others’ approval. Mandal and Wierzchoń [ 82 ] revealed that shy individuals are inclined to adopt self-deprecation more often than their less shy counterparts. Simultaneously, non-shy people use self-promotion more frequently than their shy peers. Therefore, our findings suggested that shy people tend to self-deprecate themselves to avoid the negative feelings related to the potential for defeat.

Regarding the dimensions of self-presentation and self-esteem (Hypothesis 3 (H3)), consistent with other studies, self-promotion correlated positively with self-esteem, and self-deprecation was negatively associated with self-esteem. In fact, it has been found [ 83 ] that people who present themselves as reserved, silent, and withdrawn, are prone to demonstrate lower self-esteem. They are also less concerned with self-promotion. Similarly, McGregor and Jordan [ 84 ] observed that promotion/approach motivation positively correlated with self-esteem. In contrast, prevention/avoidance is associated negatively with self-esteem. According to Speer [ 85 ], self-deprecation manifests negative self-regard and reflects low self-esteem. Portraying the self as less capable, ‘not good enough’ [ 86 ], and ‘worse-than-average’ [ 87 ] indicates a negative sense of self. Research performed in the context of social media corroborates the concept that authentic forms of self-presentation positively associate with increased levels of reported self-esteem, while inauthentic forms of self-presentation correlate with a low self-esteem [ 88 , 89 ]. According to Archibald and Chen [ 90 ], such relationships arise from psychological compatibility and a desire to avoid or reduce cognitive discrepancy. Therefore, more negative self-presentation coincides with a lower self-esteem. Moreover, Gonzales and Hancock [ 91 ] demonstrated that selective self-presentation on social media, often limited to positive details, may increase self-esteem since information posted there is usually carefully chosen and positive. Unfortunately, adhering to the self-depressive style of presentation may seem safer than the risks that come with self-promotion. Crowden [ 92 ] writes that shyness and worry are related. Shy people are more likely to worry and fear social evaluation. Potential failure may seem more inhibiting to a shy person than the benefits of emphasizing strengths. The role of individual mental resilience as a potential resource in changing the strategy of self-presentation seems interesting and it would be worth considering in future studies.

Finally, the mediatory effect of self-promotion and self-deprecation illustrated that the straightforward relationship between shyness and self-esteem may be altered by these two self-presentation tactics. Specifically, it can be tentatively implied that a tendency to evade social interactions can induce a lower or higher self-esteem depending on the character of the self-presentation styles, which can motivate individuals to modify their image. In fact, it is widely recognized that self-presentation styles are important for shy people [ 23 ]. In the case of self-promotion that consists of emphasizing one’s own merits and talents, shy people who use this strategy may present themselves as more competent and knowledgeable. Consequently, such a style may lead to improving their self-esteem. Nevertheless, if they use self-deprecative tactics and belittle themselves or their achievements, such an approach may negatively affect their level of self-esteem.

5. Limitations

The main concern with this study was that it depends on self-report measures. In the future, it would be recommended to use other methodological approaches to ascertain a greater objectivity and confirm the findings. The sample was also predominantly restricted to women and had an uneven age distribution, which did not allow the generalization of the results. Hence, subsequent studies should include a more balanced sample. Finally, the study had a cross-sectional character and, therefore, we could not imply the existence of causal associations among shyness, self-esteem, and both styles of self-presentation. Thus, longitudinal and experimental studies should be conducted in the future to validate the present findings.

Although shyness itself has been of interest to psychologists for many years, the current conditions for establishing and maintaining social relationships have changed. Therefore, it seems worthwhile to update our knowledge and expand the research on this phenomenon with other qualitative and quantitative research.

6. Conclusions and Implications

The outcomes of the current study confirmed all hypotheses and illustrated a new mediating aspect as a direct relationship between shyness and self-esteem in the form of two styles of self-presentation. Our results provided the initial insight that the tendency of shy people to avoid others can have a lower effect on their overall sense of self-esteem when they try to present themselves in a clearly favorable light. By contrast, shyness may have a stronger impact on their self-worth when they present themselves as helpless, unsure, and incompetent.

It remains for practicing psychologists to consider the implications. Presumably, modeling behavior at work with overly shy people should aim at them adopting self-promotional strategies. This strategy, which at first causes cognitive dissonance [ 93 ] because of measures that reduce internal tension, may lead to changes in beliefs. Shy people will strive to change their opinion, in this case, their beliefs about themselves, in such a way as to match their new behavior or words. Moreover, those who learn to emphasize their strengths through self-promotion may not only start to present themselves more favorably in life situations that are important to them (e.g., during a job interview), but may also start to see their value and value themselves more. This could allow a shy person to seize opportunities more boldly and engage in new relationships or challenges; thus, leading to an improved self-esteem and overall well-being. That is why it is important for shy children and adolescents to build trust and conviction about their own competences. It can be conducted through encouraging them to talk about their strengths. In this way, they will notice their qualities and feel better about themselves.

Moreover, some other factors, not included in the study, could have an important mediating role between shyness and self-esteem. Among the various variables, there can be considered those that are linked with shyness as well as self-esteem. Their use could provide new information on the possible mechanisms that underlie this relationship: hope, creativity, or sensitivity, to name just a few examples.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the study participants.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.H.Ś. and M.S.; methodology, A.B., E.G., A.C., A.H.Ś. and M.S.; formal analysis, A.B., E.G., A.C., A.H.Ś. and M.S.; investigation, A.B., E.G., A.C. and A.H.Ś.; resources, A.B., E.G., A.C., A.H.Ś. and M.S.; data curation, A.B., E.G., A.C., A.H.Ś. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B., E.G., A.C., A.H.Ś. and M.S.; writing—review and editing, A.B., E.G., A.C., A.H.Ś. and M.S.; supervision, M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Bioethics Committee (KB 12/2021; 22 June 2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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