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What is a PhD?

• Types of Doctorates
• A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is the highest globally recognized postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award.
• PhDs are awarded to candidates who undertake original and extensive research in a particular field of study.
• Full time PhD programmes typically last three to four years, whilst part time PhD programmes typically last six to seven years.
• A PhD can lead to an academia teaching role or a career in research. A PhD can also equip you with skills suitable for a wide range of jobs unrelated to your research topic or academia.

Definition of a PhD – A Doctor of Philosophy (commonly abbreviated to PhD , Ph.D or a DPhil ) is a university research degree awarded from across a broad range of academic disciplines; in most countries, it is a terminal degree, i.e. the highest academic degree possible.

PhDs differ from undergraduate and master’s degrees in that PhDs are entirely research-based rather than involving taught modules (although doctoral training centres (DTCs) offer programmes that start with a year of lecture-based teaching to help develop your research skills prior to starting your project).

In most English-speaking countries, those that complete a PhD use the title “Doctor” (typically abbreviated to Dr) in front of their names and are referred to as such within academic and/or research settings. Those that work in fields outside of academia may decide not to use the formal doctor title but use post-nominal letters (e.g. John Smith PhD); it’s unusual though for someone to use both the Doctor title and post-nominal letters in their name.

PhD vs Doctorate

A PhD and a professional doctorate are both research-based terminal degrees.

However, where a PhD focuses on original research mostly around theoretical concepts, a professional doctorate focuses on examining existing knowledge to solve real-life, practical problems.

While there is much crossover between the two, a PhD is generally better suited for an individual to wants to advance the knowledge and understanding in their field, and a professional doctorate degree is better suited to a working professional who wants to better be able to apply knowledge and understanding to their field.

What Are the Entry Requirements for a PhD?

To be accepted on to a PhD programme, students usually need to hold at least a high ( 2:1 and above ) undergraduate degree that is related to the field of research that they want to pursue. A PhD candidate may also be expected to hold a Master’s degree , however, this does not mean you must have one, as it is still possible to enrol into a PhD without a Master’s .

Self-funded courses may sometimes be more relaxed in relation to entry requirements. It may be possible to be accepted onto a self-funded PhD programme with lower grades, though these students typically demonstrate their suitability for the role through professional work experience.

Whilst a distance learning project is possible , most PhD candidates will carry out their research over at least three years based at their university, with regular contact with two academic supervisors (primary and secondary). This is particularly the case for lab-based projects, however, some PhD projects require spending time on-site away from university (e.g. at a specialist research lab or at a collaborating institution abroad).

How Long Does a PhD Take?

Typically, full-time PhDs last 3-4 years and part-time PhDs last 6-7 years. However, at the discretion of the university, the thesis writing-up period can be extended by up to four years.

Although most doctoral programmes start in September or October, they are generally much more flexible than taught-courses and can start at any time of the year.

How Much Does a PhD Cost?

Tuition fees for UK and EU students vary between £3,000 and £6,000 per year, with the average tuition fee of £4,712 per year for 2023/24 programmes.

Tuition fees increase considerably for international students, varying between £16,000 to £25,000 per year, with an average tuition fee of £19,600 per year .

Nonetheless, most students will secure PhD funding in the form of studentships, scholarships and bursaries to help pay for these fees. These funding opportunities can either be partial, which cover tuition fees only, or full, which cover both tuition fees and living expenses.

UK national students can also apply for Doctoral Loans from Student Finance England if they are unable to secure funding.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

What Does a PhD Involve?

To be awarded a PhD, a doctoral student is required to produce a substantial body of work that adds new knowledge to their chosen field.

A PhD programme will typically involve four key stages:

Stage 1: Literature Review

The first year of a PhD involves attending regular meetings with your supervisors and carrying out a search on previously published work in your subject area. This search will be used to produce a literature review which should set the context of the project by explaining the foundation of what is currently known within the field of research, what recent developments have occurred, and where the gaps in knowledge are. In most cases, this will be an extension of your research proposal should you have produced one as part of your application. The literature review should conclude by outlining the overarching aims and objectives of the research project. This stage of setting achievable goals which are original and contribute to the field of research is an essential first step in a successful PhD.

The supervisor is the main point of contact through the duration of a PhD – but remember: they are there to mentor, not to teach, or do it for you . It will be your responsibility to plan, execute and monitor your own work as well as to identify gaps in your own knowledge and address them.

Stage 2: Research

The second year (and prehapse some of your third year) is when you work on your research. Having identified novel research questions from your review of the literature, this is where you collect your data to help answer these questions. How you do this will depend on the nature of your doctoral research: for example, you may design and run experiments in a lab alongside other PhD students or visit excavation sites in remote regions of the world. You should check in regularly with your supervisors to update them and run any ideas or issues past them.

Have the structure and chapters of your thesis in mind as you develop and tackle your research questions. Working with a view of publishing your work will be very valuable later on.

Stage 3: Write up of Thesis

The next key stage of a PhD is writing a doctoral thesis , which typically takes from anywhere between three months to one year. A thesis is a substantial body of work that describes the work and outcomes of the research over the previous two to three years. It should tell a detailed story of the PhD project – focusing on:

• The motivations for the research questions identified from the literature review.
• The methodologies used, results obtained, and a comprehensive analysis and discussion of the findings.
• A detailed discussion of the key findings with an emphasis on the original contributions made to your field of research and how this has been impactful.

There is no universal rule for the length of a PhD thesis, but general guidelines set the word count between 80,000 to 100,000 words.

For your thesis to be successful, it needs to adequately defend your argument and provide a unique or increased insight into your field that was not previously available.

Stage 4: Attending the Viva

A viva voce , most commonly referred to as just a ‘ viva ‘, is an interview-style examination where the PhD student is required to engage in a critical appraisal of their work and defend their thesis against at least two examiners. The examiners will ask questions to check the PhD student has an in-depth understanding of the ideas and theories proposed in their thesis, and whether they have developed the research skills that would be expected of them.

The viva is one of the final steps in achieving a PhD, and typically lasts at least two hours, but this duration can vary depending on the examiners, the university and the PhD project itself.

Once you have done the viva – you’re on the home stretch. You will typically be asked to make some amendments to your thesis based on the examiner’s feedback. You are then ready to submit your final thesis for either:

• PhD – If you pass the requirements you will be awarded a PhD degree (most common outcome),
• MPhil – If you failed to meet requirements for a PhD, you may be downgraded to an MPhil degree (uncommon outcome),
• Fail – No award is given, typically for cases of plagiarism (extremely uncommon outcome).

What Is It Like to Undertake a PhD?

We’re often asked what it is like to undertake a PhD study. Unfortunately, this isn’t a simple answer to this question as every research project is different.

To help give insight into the life of a PhD student, we’ve interviewed PhD students at various stages of their programmes and put together a series of PhD Student Interviews . Check out the link to find out what a PhD is like and what advice they have to offer you.

What Are the Benefits of A PhD?

A PhD is the highest globally recognised postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award. The degree, which is awarded to candidates who demonstrate original and independent research in a particular field of study, is not only invaluable in itself, but sets you up with invaluable skills and traits.

Career Opportunities

First, a PhD prepares you for a career in academia if you wish to continue in this area. This takes form as a career in the Higher Education sector, typically as a lecturer working their way to becoming a professor leading research on the subject you’ve studied and trained in.

Second, a PhD also enables the opportunity for landing a job in a research & development role outside of the academic environment. Examples of this include laboratory work for a private or third sector company, a governmental role and research for commercial and industrial applications.

Transferable Skills

Finally, in possessing a PhD degree, you can show to employers that you have vital skills that make you an asset to any company. Three examples of the transferable skills that you gain through a PhD are effective communication, time management, and report writing.

• Communication – presenting your work in written and oral forms using journal papers and podium presentations, shows your ability to share complex ideas effectively and to those with less background knowledge than you. Communication is key in the professional environment, regardless of the job.
• Time management – The ability to prioritise and organise tasks is a tremendous asset in the professional industry. A PhD holder can use their qualification to demonstrate that they are able to manage their time, arrange and follow a plan, and stick to deadlines.
• Report writing – Condensing three years of work into a thesis demonstrates your ability to filter through massive amounts of information, identify the key points, and get these points across to the reader. The ability to ‘cut out the waffle’ or ‘get to the point’ is a huge asset in the professional industry.

Aside from the above, you also get to refer to yourself as a Doctor and add fancy initials after your name!

What Can I Do After a PhD?

One of the most desirable postdoctoral fields is working within independent Research and Development (R&D) labs and new emerging companies. Both industries, especially R&D labs, have dedicated groups of PhD graduates who lead research activities, design new products and take part in crucial strategic meetings. Not only is this a stimulating line of work, but the average salaries in R&D labs and emerging start-ups are lucrative. In comparison, an undergraduate with five years of experience within their given field will, on average, likely earn less than a new PhD graduate taking on a R&D position.

It’s a common misunderstanding that PhDs only opens the door for an academic career such as university lecturers and training providers. Although obtaining a PhD opens these doors, the opportunities extend far beyond educational roles. In fact, recent data from the UK’s Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) indicates only 23% of PhD graduates take a position in educational roles . This low percentage is primarily because PhD graduates have a wide range of skills that make them suitable for a broad spectrum of roles. This is being seen first hand by the increasing number of PhD graduates who are entering alternative roles such as research, writing, law and investment banking.

How Do I Find a PhD?

We appreciate that finding a PhD programme to undertake can be a relatively daunting process. According to Higher Education Student Statistics , over 22,000 PhDs were awarded in 2016/17 within the United Kingdom alone. Clearly there are a huge number of PhD programmes available. This can sometimes be confusing for prospective doctorates, particularly when different programmes are advertised in different places. Often, it is difficult to know where to look or where to even start. We’ve put together a list of useful sources to find the latest PhD programmes:

• A great place to start is with our comprehensive and up-to-date database of available PhD positions .
• Assuming you are still at university, speak to an existing PhD supervisor within your department.
• Attend as many postgraduate open days as you can. Whilst there, speak to current PhD students and career advisors to get an awareness of what PhDs are on offer.
• Visit the postgraduate section of university websites and the PhD Research Council section of the UKRI website.

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What is a phd.

A PhD is the highest postgraduate qualification level that can be awarded in academic study. This is usually completed over three to four years of full-time study, and involves research into an original contribution in your chosen field. 

PhD is an acronym that stands for Doctor of Philosophy. The name for PhD comes from the Latin term “Philosophiae Doctor”, which roughly translates to “Lover of wisdom”.

Whether you’re finishing up from an undergraduate degree, on a masters course or even just looking to get back into education, you’ll have seen people talking about getting a PhD .

Most people know vaguely what a PhD is – it’s a university course that means you can call yourself ‘Doctor’ without having to do medicine, right? Whilst that is surprisingly close to the truth, we’re here to answer the oft-asked question of ‘what is a PhD?’.

This guide covers everything you need to know about a PhD.

What does a PhD involve?

A PhD will typically take three years to complete. If taken part time, then it will be separated into three different stages:

Year 1: This will involve you speaking with your advisor about your research ideas, finishing your research proposal and beginning to put deadlines in place for your research. You’ll also complete your literature review in this stage. During this, you’ll review the existing research done on the topic that you’re planning to research to help you determine the gaps in the research that you can target

Year 2: During this stage, you’ll begin to conduct your research to gather data. You’ll document this whole process for your thesis and begin to attend conferences where you will have the opportunity to present your current research to other professionals and researchers in the field. You can take this further and take steps to educate the public on the benefits of your research.

Year 3: The final stage of a PhD involves using the data you’ve collected and the documentation of your research to write your thesis. You may still be conducting research at this point, and that’s OK. Once you’ve finished your thesis, you’ll justify your research and decisions in a viva .

How long is a PhD?

A typical PhD will take three to four years to complete when studying full time. Studying part time can take up to six years. The good news is that the thesis can be extended by up to four years. This means that if you haven’t gotten anywhere near finishing your research by the end of the second year, you can apply to extend your thesis and continue your research for up to four more years. Many PhD students will complete their thesis in the 4th year.

How is a PhD different from other degrees?

To start with, describing a PhD as a university course can be a bit misleading. Whilst it is a course offered by a university, it’s incredibly different to most courses. Unlike the undergraduate level, you won’t be covering your subject broadly you’ll be focused on one very particular area. Whilst a masters degree, especially a research one, may be focused, it won’t be nearly as focused as a PhD.

That said – don’t expect this focused level of research to necessarily be groundbreaking! Though part of doing a PhD is the intent to produce original research, it’s also primarily there to train your research skills and to prove yourself as a capable researcher.

A PhD is research focused

One of the main differences between PhDs and other types of postgraduate degree is that PhDs are heavily research based. PhDs involve a lot of independent research time, where you'll study your topic in detail using academic resources – such as the university's online library and online materials. This format is different to taught postgraduate degrees, which involve a lot more taught aspects such as lectures and seminars.

Do you need a masters to study a PhD?

In order to study a PhD, you’ll need to have a masters degree and a bachelors degree with a 2:1 or higher. Though self-funded students and students with professional experience in the field may be admitted with lower grades

Some students may begin with a MPhil (Masters of philosophy) or a Mres ( Master of research) and upgrade to a PhD by the end of their studies.

Where can I study a PhD?

Most universities offer PhD programs across a variety of disciplines. It is possible to study a PhD at almost any university and in almost any subject. Since a PhD is an independent research-based program, there is a lot of flexibility in regard to what you’ll study. 

PhD students often choose their own study topics and carry out independent research into that topic. This makes it possible to study your intended PhD at almost any university. 

Although, it is important to check which specific subject areas the university specialises in. For instance, if a university specialises in linguistics, then it would be a good idea to complete a linguistics PhD at that university as opposed to one that specialises in another subject.

It can be difficult to find the perfect course at the right university. That’s why we’ve put together advice on how to find a PhD .

It’s important to remember that a PhD is different from a typical university course. Rather than going to lectures, you’ll be conducting independent research, and so the application process will be quite different. Learn how to apply for a PhD  with our expert guide.

A PhD means attending ‘optional’ lectures and conferences

PhDs do involve some aspects of taught study, including lectures and conferences, although these are often optional and take place less often than on lower level courses.

Now of course, the university doesn’t just accept you, your project and tell you to have fun. You’ll work with a supervisor, and there will be conferences, lectures, and other such things that you can attend. Unlike lower level courses, however, although you won’t necessarily be examined on these things that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t go! Conferences are a great way to meet people, get your name out and network . For any career, but especially one in academia, networking is well worth it.

A PhD is a high standard qualification

But what does having a PhD show, other than the fact you spent three to four years working on research and can now call yourself Dr [Your surname here]? 

A PhD is a globally recognised, high standard qualification. This means that if you choose to move elsewhere in the world, your PhD will be recognised as a credible postgraduate qualification.

In addition, a PhD can open up a whole world of new job opportunities! This includes academic roles , such as postdoctoral research posts, or even possibly fellowships. 

Regardless of which career path you choose to take, a PhD is regarded as the highest level postgraduate qualification – reflecting your impressive work ethic, knowledge, and workplace skills.

How to get a PhD

Getting a PhD is not easy by any means. But, if it’s something you truly want to do, it’s well worth it. So let’s take a look at just how to get a PhD!

Choose your research area

Before getting started with your PhD, you want to make sure you know what area you’d like to do it in. Don’t just pick something on a whim – this is something you’re going to be studying for the next four years of your life, and something that, once you finished your PhD, you’ll have your name attached to. So, for arts and humanities students, find an area of your subject that fascinates you enough that you’ll want to spend the next few years writing about it. For scientists, find an area you’d be happy to be working on in a team, and wouldn’t mind moving into as a career!

Find a good supervisor

Once you’ve selected your topic, it’s time to start looking for a supervisor . Depending on what you’re currently doing, asking tutors for contacts or recommendations can be well worthwhile, but if you can’t do this, check out what research your potential supervisor has done. 

In addition, try and arrange an in-person meeting – or at least, a phone conversation. Email can make communication difficult and given this is the person you’ll be working under for the foreseeable future, you want to ensure you get on.

Then, assuming you’re accepted and have appropriate funding, you’ll be considered a probationary PhD student . At the end of your first year, you’ll be expected to prove you’re capable of the full course, so you’ll be tested in the form of writing a report. Once you pass this, you’re good to go!

Your next few years will be spent attending conferences, working on the research and your thesis. Your thesis will talk about what you’ve spent your time doing, how you dealt with any difficulties that arose, and generally show what your contribution to your subject is! Once that’s out the way, you get the fun job of having a viva – that is, talking about your thesis to a bunch of academics.

Pass the viva? Then you’ve succeeded.

So that’s how to get a PhD!

UK Research Councils

There are a selection of UK Research Councils, each of whom are part of the  UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) organisation. Collectively, these UK research councils provide an average of £380 million in PhD studentship funding every year – acting as the largest PhD funding body in the UK. 

Here’s an overview of UK research councils:

• Science and Technology Facilities Council
• Arts and Humanities Research Council  
• Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council
• Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
• Economic and Social Research Council
• Medical Research Council
• Natural Environment Research Council  

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A Doctor of Philosophy or Doctorate

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More than 54,000 students earned doctoral degrees in 2016, the latest year for which figures are available, a 30 percent increase since 2000, according to the  National Science Foundation . A Ph.D., also called a doctorate, is a "Doctor of Philosophy" degree, which is a misleading moniker because most Ph.D. holders are not philosophers. The term for this increasingly popular degree derives from the original meaning of the word "philosophy," which comes from the ancient Greek word  philosophia , meaning "love of wisdom."

What Is a Ph.D.?

In that sense, the term "Ph.D." is accurate, because the degree has historically been a license to teach, but it also signifies that the holder is an "authority, in full command of (a given) subject right up to the boundaries of current knowledge, and able to extend them," says  FindAPhD , an online Ph.D. database. Earning a Ph.D. requires a hefty financial and time commitment— $35,000 to $60,000  and two to eight years—as well as research, creating a thesis or dissertation, and possibly some teaching duties.

Deciding to pursue a Ph.D. can represent a major life choice. Doctoral candidates require additional schooling after completing a master's program to earn their Ph.D.: They must complete additional coursework, pass comprehensive exams , and complete an independent dissertation in their field. Once completed, though, a doctoral degree—often called a "terminal degree"—can open doors for the Ph.D.holder, especially in academia but also in business.

Core Courses and Electives

To obtain a Ph.D., you need to take a group of core courses as well as electives, totaling about 60 to 62 "hours," which are roughly the equivalent of units at the bachelor's degree level. For example, Washington State University offers a  Ph.D. in crop science . Core courses, which make up about 18 hours, include such subjects as introduction to population genetics, plant transmission genetics, and plant breeding.

Additionally, the student must make up the remaining required hours through electives. The  Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health  offers a doctoral degree in Biological Sciences in Public Health. After core courses such as laboratory rotations, biological sciences seminars, and core principles of biostatistics and epidemiology, the Ph.D. candidate is required to take electives in related fields such as advanced respiratory physiology, advanced respiratory physiology, and ecological and epidemiological control of parasitic diseases. Degree-granting institutions across the board want to ensure that those who earn Ph.D.s have broad knowledge in their chosen field.

Thesis or Dissertation and Research

A Ph.D. also requires students to complete a large scholarly project known as a  dissertation , a research report—usually 60-plus pages—which signifies that they are able to make significant independent contributions to their chosen field of study. Students take on the project, also known as a  doctoral thesis , after completing the core and elective coursework and passing a  comprehensive examination . Through the dissertation, the student is expected to make a new and creative contribution to a field of study and to demonstrate her expertise.

According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, for example, a strong medical dissertation relies heavily on the creation of a specific hypothesis that can be either disproved or supported by data collected through independent student research. Further, it must also contain several key elements starting with an introduction to the problem statement, conceptual framework, and research question as well as references to literature already published on the topic. Students must show that the  dissertation  is relevant, provides new insight into the chosen field, and is a topic that they can research independently.

Financial Aid and Teaching

There are several ways to pay for a doctoral degree: scholarships, grants, fellowships, and government loans, as well as teaching.  GoGrad , a graduate school information website, provides such examples as the:

• Science, Mathematics, and Research for Transformation (SMART) Scholarship for Service Program, which provides full tuition and an annual stipend of $25,000 to $38,000.
• National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship, a three-year graduate fellowship that is designed to support doctoral students across 15 engineering disciplines
• National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program, a three-year program that provides an annual stipend of $34,000 and a $12,000 cost-of-education allowance for tuition and fees

As it does for bachelor's and master's degrees, the federal government also offers several  loan programs  to help students finance their Ph.D. studies. You generally apply for these loans by filling out the free application for federal student aid ( FAFSA ). Students planning to go into teaching after obtaining their doctoral degrees often also supplement their income by teaching undergraduate classes at the schools where they are studying. The University of California, Riverside, for example, offers a "teaching award"—essentially a stipend applied toward tuition costs—for Ph.D. candidates in English who teach undergraduate, beginning-level, English courses

Jobs and Opportunities for Ph.D. Holders

Education accounts for a large percentage doctoral awards, with elementary education, curriculum and instruction, educational leadership and administration, special education, and counselor education/ school counseling topping the list. Most universities in the United States require a Ph.D. for candidates who seek teaching positions, regardless of the department.

Many Ph.D. candidates seek the degree, however, to boost their current salaries. For example, a health, sports, and fitness educator at a community college would realize a bump in annual pay for obtaining a Ph.D. The same holds for educational administrators. Most such positions require only a master's degree, but obtaining a Ph.D. generally leads to an annual stipend that school districts add to the annual salary. That same health and fitness instructor at a community college could also move on from a teaching position and become a dean at a community college—a position that requires a Ph.D.—boosting his pay to  $120,000 to $160,000  a year or more.

So, the opportunities for a doctoral degree holder are wide and varied, but the cost and commitment required are significant. Most experts say you should know your future career plans before you make the commitment. If you know what you want to get out of the degree, then the years of required study and sleepless nights may well be worth the investment.

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doctor of philosophy

Definition of doctor of philosophy

Word history.

1651, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near doctor of philosophy

doctor of osteopathic medicine

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Cite this Entry

“Doctor of philosophy.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/doctor%20of%20philosophy. Accessed 13 May. 2024.

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Meaning of PhD in English

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• associate's degree
• baccalaureate
• bachelor's degree
• first degree
• summa cum laude

Ph.D. | American Dictionary

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PhD: Full Form, Eligibility, Admission 2024, Fees, Syllabus, Entrance Exam, Scope

PhD or Doctor of Philosophy is the highest academic degree programme, mostly in every field of study. PhD curriculum covers extensive research and expertise, and research papers within a specific subject or even in an interdisciplinary subject. PhD or Doctor of Philosophy is requires at least a postgraduate degree programme, such as M.A , MSc , MTech or the students must have a great research paper with a recommendation. PhD course details vary depending on the discipline, university and guide. The guide in PhD plays a major role in suggestions and recommending the study material as well as helping them with new ideas.

Latest: Top Ph.d Colleges in India

Don't Miss: UGC NET Previous Year Question Papers

What is a Full Form of PhD?

Highlights - ph.d (doctor of philosophy), phd fees structure.

• Why Choose PhD?

PhD Eligibility Criteria

Skill required for phd degree, phd admission process, phd entrance exams, phd syllabus/subjects, phd specializations, what after phd, career opportunities after phd, salary after phd degree, top private phd colleges in india, top government phd colleges in india.

PhD course requires a high level of dedication, intellectual rigour, and perseverance. Graduates with a PhD or Doctor of Philosophy are recognised as experts in their preferred field, and it opens doors to multiple fields, such as academia, research institutions, and government-funded research programmes. Students who have completed PhD degree programmes are called “Doctors” and can use Dr. as a prefix before their name. In this article, we will discuss, PhD course details, such as PhD course duration, PhD course eligibility, PhD subjects, PhD course duration, PhD eligibility criteria, PhD admission process.

PhD full form is Doctor of Philosophy is a doctoral degree programme with a duration of three to six years. PhD degree can be pursued in almost any field such as English, Maths, Physics Linguistics, and Comparative Literature. Students can also pursue Ph.D. in interdisciplinary subjects, and they need to make a good research paper to apply directly to various universities.

PhD course fees differ from one university to another and generally depend on the institute, and specialisation. Before enrolling in any particular university, candidates should check the PhD admission process, PhD eligibility criteria and PhD course fees. Students who get the Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) will not pay the fees whereas they will get the scholarship for pursuing PhD degree. JRF for the Humanities, Social Science and Science subjects is Rs. 25,000 for the initial two years and Rs. 28,000 for the remaining tenure which is SRF (Senior Research Fellowship).

Why Choose PhD ?

A PhD degree offers a wide range of career opportunities for strengthening knowledge and expertise. PhD degree provides knowledge in a chosen field of study. Ph.D allows students to become experts in their niche, by providing various skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills. PhD can open doors for various careers and employment options in multiple fields, such as academia, research, and government agencies, with good salary packages. Choosing a PhD can provide students with a lot of scope and also lifelong learning, intellectual growth, and a unique avenue for personal and professional growth.

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Students who want to pursue a PhD programme should have the required eligibility criteria. The detailed eligibility criteria for pursuing a PhD are given below.

• Students who have a master's degree are eligible for admission into the Ph.D. programmes.
• Students have to qualify for the national level examinations like National Eligibility Test for Lectureship (NET) conducted by NTA .
• Final admission is offered on the basis of the interview and research proposal.
• If candidates want to pursue PhD in the field of Engineering and Technology, he/she has to qualify for GATE, GATE, UGC-NET, and CSIR-UGC-NET with good marks. Also, for admission to Ph.D. Engineering, candidates should complete their degree in M.Tech/M.E in any branch of engineering .

PhD or Doctor of Philosophy degree in India requires students to develop a lot of skills to succeed academically. Skills might vary depending on the chosen specialisation. In the table below, we have mentioned some of the essential skills required for a Ph.D. degree.

Admissions in some universities are offered on the basis of students' merit in the entrance examination although few universities provide admission based on the research proposal and the interview process.

• PhD admission process is available both online and offline.
• If a candidate is applying to a university, he/she should download the application form online from the official website of the university.
• Applicants need to fill out the UGC NET or other entrance examination forms and appear for it.
• They should have a research proposal based on which universities can shortlist the candidates.
• After qualifying the examinations, candidates can appear for the interview round and pursue the PhD degree programme.

UGC NET: University Grants Commission National Eligibility Test or UGC NET is a national-level entrance test conducted by the National Testing Agency (NTA). UGC NET is conducted by NTA, twice a year for admission in doctoral programmes.

CSIR UGC NET : CSIR UGC Test for JRF and Eligibility for Lectureship or CSIR UGC NET is a national-level entrance examination conducted by National Testing Agency (NTA) for admission to Ph.D. degree programmes.

PhD subjects and syllabus can vary from one university to another along with the specialisation. PhD subjects will be different based on the area of the study, as it depends on the research proposal, the guide and the students. Based on the mentioned factors, further study will be done although the first two semesters will be similar for the main subject. In the table below, we have mentioned the PhD English syllabus of Presidency University.

In the table below, we have mentioned the syllabus for PhD Mathematics of Manonmaniam Sundaranar University.

There are various specialisations an individual can opt for PhD course programme. Some of the PhD specialisations are popular among those who are interested in entering higher education. Naming few of them are:

• PhD in Management
• PhD in Physics
• PhD in Computer Science
• PhD in Economics
• PhD in Mathematics
• PhD Microbiology

After completing a PhD degree programme students have a wide range of career options. Many graduates choose academia and become professors or research associates at universities and colleges. Professor teach, write research papers, and journals, and mentor students. Some graduates enter various industries such as technology, healthcare, or finance, contributing to innovation and problem-solving. Government agencies and non-profit organisations also seek PhD holders for policy analysis, consulting, and advocacy roles.

In this section, we have mentioned the careers that can be pursued after completing PhD degree programme.

University Professor/ Lecturer : After pursuing PhD, graduates can become university professors or lecturers. They teach and conduct research in their respective fields and are responsible for mentoring students, curriculum development, and publishing research papers.

Research Scientist : Research scientists are professionals who work in various sectors, including academia, technology, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and government research institutions. They research, write the thesis and publish the findings in the journals.

Consultant/Advisor: Consultants or advisors conduct market research and solve complex problems and provide solutions to clients. They provide expert advice to their clients and join major financial companies such as McKinsey, Boston Consulting Group, and Deloitte.

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PhD salary depends on various factors such as the specialisations and college reputation, work experience, experience in the particular field, location of work, and skill sets. Below, we have mentioned the PhD salary.

In India, there are a number of private colleges that offer PhD degrees. Private universities are significantly more expensive than public universities. Some of the top private PhD colleges and the PhD fees are mentioned in the table below:

Government-run college is less expensive than private college and are well known for their high academic standards throughout India. The following are some of the best government PhD colleges and also PhD fees:

Frequently Asked Question (FAQs)

Candidates should have a master’s degree in any discipline to get an admission to Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy).

Yes, candidates have to appear for the national level examination or the entrance examination conducted by the particular university/college.

Ph.D. holder has the opportunity to become researcher, scientist, professor, journalist, independent consultant, human services worker, editor, critic, lecturer etc. A Ph.D. holder can also apply for a job in the finance sector, public sector etc.

There is a chance for Ph.D. graduates to work in other countries. If you are a Ph.D. graduate, any company will take you as right now Ph.D.is the highest level of academic degree anyone can earn so for the companies, you are the expert in the subject.

The duration of Ph.D. is usually between 2 to 7 years depending on the field you are researching.

The prominent universities which offer a degree in Ph.D. are Amity University, Noida, Tata institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, Institute of Genetic Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, KCG college of Technology, Chennai, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Jamia Millia Islamia University, New Delhi, Chennai Mathematical Institute, Indian Statistical Institute (ISI).

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Questions related to Ph.D

Hello aspirant

Universities offering phD in philosophy are

Jadavpur university

Jawaharlal Nehru university

IIT Gandhinagar

MIT school of Humanities

Aligarh muslim university, Nirf rank 9

Amrita vishwa vidyapeetham Coimbatore , Nirf rank 7

Andhra university , Visakhapatnam

Assa. University , Guwahati

Awadesh pratap singh university, Rewa , Madhya pradesh

BU bhopal , Madhya pradesh.

Binod Bihari Mahto university ,Dhanbad, Jharkhand

Career point university,  Kota

For details you may visit the site given below

https://university.careers360.com/colleges/list-of-phd-in-philosophy-universities-in-india

Sir what is the cutoff to get seat in cse specialisation course in mit manipal 2024

Hello Anvesha

Yes you can do integrated phD in IISC after bsc in life science .

IISC offers integrated phD to bsc students wh8 wosh to carry out research and pgD soon after their bachelor's course.

This mode is ideal and very competetive.

The admission process required to be qualified with a valid score in entrance exam then the selected candidates are called for personal interview

In the first two years of  integrated phD the students study the basic concepts , core and Elective topics in Biological science .

Students are given short term research projects in the first year

Hello Anurag

You may get single Room if you wish to maintain privacy.

See how much they charge depends upon your life style . Now a days all comfortable facilities are available in hostel rooms too , it is not like before when there were only non AC rooms

AC rooms charges are high , also if you do not want to share room with anyone , you will be charged double.

Tye charges ard separate for hostel and mess .

For AC rooms charges are 5000 to 6000 per month .

For food you have various options depending upon your taste and choice ,basically yoh will have to spendrs 150 to 200 per meal.

The public transport is also provided from hostel to university . Depending upon mode of transport, you will be charged around 2000 per month.

There are miscellaneous expenses depending upon jndividuals requirements.

With your background in zoology and your current Master's in nutrition, you have a strong foundation for a PhD in nutrition.

There are two main types of exams you might consider for PhD programs in India.

• UGC NET (National Eligibility Test): This exam is conducted by the UGC (University Grants Commission) for eligibility as a college or university Assistant Professor. While not strictly a requirement for PhD programs, qualifying UGC NET demonstrates your research potential and makes you eligible for fellowships.
• CSIR-UGC NET: Conducted by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), this exam is similar to UGC NET but focuses on science streams. Qualifying can make you eligible for research fellowships from CSIR labs.

https://competition.careers360.com/exams/ugc-net

I hope it helps!

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• General Knowledge /

What is the Full Form of PhD?

• Updated on  
• Feb 14, 2024

The full form of a PhD is a Doctor of Philosophy. It is an advanced academic degree that is awarded to individuals who have made significant contributions to their chosen field of study. The degree is recognised globally and is highly regarded in the academic community. PhD can also be called a DPhil or D. Phil. A person with this degree can add “Dr.” as a prefix to their name and is considered a doctor in that field. 

Also Read – What is the Full Form of B.Ed?

The History of Ph.D

The concept of a Doctor of Philosophy degree dates back to the Middle Ages in Europe. The term “ doctor ” comes from the Latin word “docere,” which means “to teach.” The word “ philosophy ” is derived from the ancient Greek word “philosophia” which means “love of wisdom”. Thus, a person who has the zeal to teach and has a love of wisdom about their field is awarded with PhD. 

Also Read – What is the MA Full Form?

Eligibility for PhD

The eligibility for pursuing PhD is –

• Have a Master’s or MPhil degree or a postgraduate degree from a recognized University or Institutions in a related field in which they intend to do PhD.
• In India, some universities require UGC NET / CSIR qualifications
• The upper limit for Junior Research Fellowship ( NET JRF ) is 31 years while there is no upper limit for taking National Eligibility Test (NET) .

Also Read – What is the MSC Full Form?

Objectives of the PhD Course

Initially, the Ph.D. degree was awarded only in the field of philosophy, but over time, it expanded to encompass other disciplines as well.

• A PhD program allows one to delve deep into a chosen field of study and become an expert in a specific area. 
• Having a Ph.D. demonstrates the expertise and research capabilities, making one an attractive candidate for academic positions, research roles and high-level positions in various industries.
• Pursuing a PhD offers intellectual stimulation and allows one to engage in critical thinking, problem-solving and independent research. 

Also Read – What is the Full Form of MFA?

List of Subjects for a PhD Degree

Interested students can pursue their PhD degree in any of these popular subjects:

• Engineering
• Biochemistry
• Mathematics
• Health care

Popular Full Forms

We hope this blog has helped you understand the PhD full form and everything related to it. If you want to know more, find the general full form list on our blog. In the world of short forms, you can rely on the Leverage edu page to know about more important full forms like this! Connect with us study abroad experts to achieve your international dream today!

Rajshree Lahoty

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PhD Full Form

What is the full form of phd.

The full form of PhD is Doctor of Philosophy . In some countries, Ph. D also termed as DPhil or D.Phil. A doctorate holder can use the word ‘Dr.’ before their name and be considered as a doctor. Ph. D curriculum is the most notable training in a profession and a man graduating with a PhD is considered to be highly qualified in his sector.

It is an internationally recognized PG program which requires years of study, so one has to publish and access his work to receive a PhD. Most doctoral degrees require completion of the coursework, detailed exams and a thesis and need at least three years of guidance for the research.

Eligibility criteria

• Candidates can only pursue a PhD course if they have completed their Master’s degree in a particular field or course or stream where they intend to start a PhD.
• Some universities also clearly state candidates must have done an MPhil to undertake a PhD course they are offering.
• Nonetheless, several colleges require that candidates fulfil the qualifications they offer for PhD programs whether they have cleared UGC NET.
• Candidates who wish to pursue a PhD in Engineering must have a justifiable GATE score.

Objectives of the PhD course

• PhD is one of the standards and most prestigious academic degrees awarded by any institution.
• The primary goal of the doctoral degrees is to educate the next generation of leading researchers and scientists.

List of a subject in which PhD degree is offered

• Engineering
• Biochemistry
• Biotechnology
• Management of Health Care
• Organizational Behavior

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• What is The Full Form of PhD?

PhD Full Form - Doctor of Philosophy

The term Ph.D. stands for Doctor of Philosophy. It is a doctoral degree that can be obtained after finishing three years. However, the candidates can also complete the course within a time span of about 5 to 6 years. The full form of Ph.D. is Doctor of Philosophy. In some countries, It is also called Ph.D., DPhil, or DPhil.

Earlier candidates could finish the course having Ph.D. full form through the distance mode. However, a circular issued by UGC in 2017 has stated that a Ph.D. degree obtained through distance education will no longer be recognized.

Some of the Popular Ph.D. Courses

Though most courses offered by the degree having full form Ph.D. are known to provide excellent employment opportunities, however, the chances of getting a job further increase if you choose an accessible course. Some of the specializations that can help you in finding a good job are Ph.D. in Humanities, Ph.D. in Arts, Ph.D. in English, Ph.D. in Economics, Ph.D. in Zoology, Ph.D. in Chemistry, etc.

Skills Required for Completing the Ph.D. Courses

A candidate aspiring for a course that has the full meaning of a Ph.D. should have some unique skills to gain success in the field. Some of these qualities are inquisitiveness, good researching capabilities, dedication, hard-working nature, and excellent writing ability. While some traits are inborn, others can be obtained through the course. Proper nurturing of the qualities helps the candidates become successful in their lives.

Eligibility Criteria of Candidates Wanting to Pursue the Ph.D. Courses

Candidates wishing to pursue the course having Ph.D. full form and meaning should meet the eligibility criteria to be successful. The following section will give an idea about the eligibility of candidates wanting to complete the course:

The candidate needs to have a master's degree in the same course or field.

Some colleges also want the candidate to have completed an MPhil to pursue a Ph.D.

Apart from these, some colleges might have separate criteria.

The candidates have to fulfill these in order to study in the college.

Dos and Don’ts During the Ph.D. Course

If the candidates want to pursue the course having a Ph.D. full form, then they will have to follow some Dos and Don’ts during their college days. These are-

Avoid contact with unknown people.

Attend the classes regularly.

Listen attentively to the teachers.

Read the instructions properly before using any equipment.

Benefits of a PhD 

Getting a Ph.D. can benefit you in a lot of ways. No matter what field you are in, a Ph.D. candidate is preferred more than a Non-PhD candidate almost every time. That is why you should pursue Ph.D. in your respective field. Below are some benefits of a Ph.D.

Career Boost

One of the significant benefits of getting a Ph.D. is the increase in the number of employment opportunities. Once you have obtained a Ph.D., there will be a high chance for you to get a job. Moreover, a Ph.D. ensures higher pay and status no matter what field or company you are working in. You can also gain more experience in your field with a Ph.D. course and even start teaching in colleges and universities.  

Recognition  

A Ph.D. degree comes with prestige and recognition. Ph.D. is considered one of the prestigious and recognized degrees in every field. Since these degrees are a little tough to obtain, you will be acknowledged in society once you have completed the course. 

Improved Professional Network  

When you are pursuing your Ph.D., you will get to interact and talk with some of the best teachers and experts in the field. This way, you can broaden your professional network and collaborate with your peers and researchers. 

Knowledge  

The most significant benefit of a Ph.D. is the knowledge that you gain throughout the course. A Ph.D. course allows you to explore more about your field of interest and gain all the knowledge about it. You can use your knowledge and understanding in solving problems that concern your field or profession. 

Higher Salary  

As you gain more knowledge in your field with a Ph.D., your compensation or remuneration will be much higher than non-PhD candidates. Having a Ph.D. degree means you have extensive knowledge in your respective area of interest, which makes you a preferred candidate for most companies.

Gain Marketable Skills  

When you pursue a Ph.D. course, you must have problem-solving skills and critical thinking ability. You can polish these skills throughout the course and improve your chances of getting a job too. Almost every company is looking for employees who can tackle complex problems with ease. So, the employer will prefer you over others if you have a Ph.D. degree in the respective area. 

It is clear from the above that the course having the full meaning of a Ph.D. is one of the best courses for a candidate. However, to be successful, the candidate has to study hard during the exams. However, there is no poverty of opportunities for a candidate pursuing the course. So aspirants hoping for a good career can easily opt for the course

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FAQs on What is The Full Form of PhD?

1. What is the Duration of a Ph.D. Course?

Normally a Ph.D. course extends for about 3 years. The candidates have to submit their thesis or journal within a maximum time period of five to six years. The time is taken to complete the course also depends on the research topic chosen by a candidate.

2. Is a Master's Degree Required for Pursuing a Ph.D. Program?

Candidates aspiring to pursue a Ph.D. program in any Indian university are required to complete their Master’s degree in the respective field of study. But candidates can get admission to a Ph.D. program in the US universities right after completion of their undergraduate courses.

3. How much stipend do Ph.D. students get in India?

In India, Ph.D. students are eligible to receive a stipend of 25000INR per month during the initial two years. For the next three years of the Ph.D. course, students are eligible to receive a stipend of 28000 INR per month.

4. How can I learn Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy?

You can learn Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy from Vedantu’s online learning platform. We provide you with the best platform to learn the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy and who is important. You don’t have to pay any registration fees to Vedantu in order to learn this concept. Apart from the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy, you can learn various other full forms from our educational platform. Here, you will find all the acronyms along with their detailed meanings, including NEET, IIT, MBBS, NCERT, and much more. To start learning with Vedantu, you can either visit our website or download the Vedantu app from the play store or the app store, whichever is more convenient for you.

5. Is it necessary to learn the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy?

Yes, it is necessary to learn the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy. If you are going into the medical field, learning about the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy will be quite important for you. Once you have done your graduation and obtained your master’s degree, you can go for your Ph.D. in the respective field. So, if you are pursuing a Ph.D., you should know the full form along with its meaning. You can learn the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy from Vedantu’s website or mobile application.

6. Why should you learn the Ph.D.? Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy? 

Learning the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy is quite necessary if you are pursuing a Ph.D. program after your graduation or masters. You can learn the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy from Vedantu’s website and understand why it is important for the course. Moreover, by learning the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy, you can understand the meaning and importance of a Ph.D. degree. It will help you gain more knowledge about the Ph.D. course you want to pursue. You should learn the Ph.D. Full-Form - Doctor of Philosophy as it is a term that you come across oftentimes in your life.

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PhD Course - Doctor of Philosophy

• Admission Process
• Popular Colleges
• PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) Course

PhD course, or Doctor of Philosophy course, is a doctorate-level course that can take 3–6 years to complete, but can be completed in 5–6 years. The course can cover a variety of subjects, including law, engineering, migration studies, medicine, anthropology, and physics. To get admission to a PhD course , candidates must hold a master's degree. Further, PhD entrance exams like the CSIR UGC NET, UGC-NET, JNUEE, and others are used in India to grant admission to PhD courses. Among the top PhD colleges that offer admission to the course are IIT Kanpur, Jadavpur University, Chandigarh University, IIT BHU, Jawaharlal Nehru University, IIT Gandhinagar, and others.

PhD syllabuses vary depending on the subject chosen by the candidate for research; however, the every PhD syllabus is designed to encourage students to conduct research. PhD subjects include the Formulation and Investigation of multiple theses, including Western Philosophy, Modern Philosophy, Indian Philosophical Studies, etc. as well as guaranteeing the safe and well-resourced completion of projects and the development of theses from research. 

Candidates could previously pursue PhD courses through distance education; however, a UGC circular issued in 2017 stated that a PhD course pursued through distance education would no longer be recognised. PhD fellowships are usually granted to candidates who have passed entrance exams such as GATE, JEST, UGC NET, and others while pursuing their PhD. Furthermore, academic institutions such as IGNOU and Delhi University (DU) provide fellowships to PhD students who are enrolled full-time. Candidates may pursue a PhD course in any field of interest. PhD candidates must choose one or more topics, conduct extensive research on them, and respond to any questions that arise. 

PhD candidates conduct original research and write original theses on a given topic. In addition to their research, students participate in extracurricular activities, attend seminars, and give presentations. Candidates with a PhD have more career options in fields such as Research, Education, Literature, Civil Service, Politics, Communications, Human Resources, Advertising, and so on.

PhD graduates in the academic sector, can pursue PhD jobs such as Research Assistants, Assistant Professors, and Scientific Writers/Editors.  PhD candidates are employed by a variety of industries, including Academic Institutions/Universities, both privately funded and government institutions. They can also work in government offices as Policy Analysts or Data Scientists. Lastly, candidates can expect to earn a PhD salary ranging between INR 8 - 10 LPA.

Table of Contents

Phd latest updates 2024, phd (doctor of philosophy) course details: highlights, what is the difference between phd and doctorate, why choose a phd degree, phd course entrance exams, phd admission process in india, direct phd admission process without entrance exam, types of phd programs, top phd (doctor of philosophy) courses in different streams, types of phd research scholars, phd fee in india, phd syllabus & subjects, phd course structure, top ranked phd colleges in india, top private phd colleges in india, top government phd colleges in india, phd scholarships offered, sponsored phd programs, career options after phd (doctor of philosophy) degree, what is an online phd (doctor of philosophy) degree, faqs about phd.

Here are the most latest updates about PhD:

• The GATE 2024 Exam will take place on February 3, 4, 10, and 11, 2024. 
• JEE Main Result 2024 for Session 1 will be released on February 12, 2024.
• Furthermore, the JEE Main Session 2 exam will be held between April 1 and April 15, 2024, with the results announced on April 25, 2024. 
• The WBJEE exam date for 2024 has been announced. WBJEE 2024 will be held on April 28, 2024, as a pen-and-paper test. 
• The first phase of the AEEE exam is over. The AEEE phase 1 results will be available by February 10. 
• The second phase of AEEE 2024 is scheduled for May 10–14, 2024. 
• Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham will accept the AEEE application form 2024 for Phase 2 until the end of April 2024. 
• The OJEE application form 2024 has been released, and the deadline for submitting it is March 15, 2024.

The major highlights of the PhD course are listed in the table below. 

A PhD is not the same as a Doctorate. They, on the other hand, confuse people. The difference between PhD and Doctorate is tabulated below.

Pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) offers numerous advantages for students interested in a specific field. 

• It allows them to explore their subject in-depth and expand their knowledge. 
• PhD students have the freedom to dedicate ample time to their research projects without feeling rushed or pressured for immediate results. 
• One of the main motivations for pursuing a PhD is to enhance employment prospects, as it opens up career opportunities that may not be accessible with just a bachelor's or master's degree. These opportunities often require specialized research skills and extensive experience. 
• Furthermore, a PhD is often a prerequisite for those aspiring to work in academia as lecturers or university researchers. 
• If you have a genuine passion for research, a PhD can be a highly rewarding pursuit, providing a sense of enjoyment and fulfillment. However, it's important to have a clear vision of your post-PhD plans. 
• If you seek a new challenge that fosters personal growth, a PhD offers a unique and highly committed educational experience with significant rewards.

PhD programmes are highly competitive, and many students apply. Because a PhD qualification is a highly valued qualification that is not offered by many colleges, students compete fiercely for admission. Colleges use an entrance exam as a screening process to ensure fairness in the decision-making process. The following are some of the most popular PhD entrance exams:

• CSIR-UGC NET
• IISc PhD Entrance Exam
• JNU Entrance Examination
• BHU – Research Entrance Test
• NIPER PhD Entrance Exam    
• AIIMS PhD Entrance Exam  

The eligibility criteria for the aforementioned entrance exams vary because they are entirely dependent on the conduction body. As each college or subject has its own governing body, the format of the entrance exams varies depending on the specialization. Some general guidelines for PhD entrance examinations are listed below:

• There will be logical, reasoning, and knowledge-based questions on the exam. The test will be conducted both online and offline
• The papers will be objective, and if there are any subjective questions, they will be asked to assess argument and reasoning skills
• A university's/conduction body's syllabus, mode of examination, and question pattern may change.

PhD admissions are mostly chosen through entrance exams. There are a few universities, however, where admission is also based on merit. A candidate must be eligible for the course in order to apply for PhD admissions. PhD admission requires a Master's degree or an MPhil with an aggregate of at least 55% from any recognised university in the country or a foreign university. Candidates with an MTech or ME degree are also eligible to apply.  

To be able to apply for PhD admission 2024, candidates must meet the eligibility criteria.

PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) Eligibility Criteria

Candidates are only eligible to pursue a PhD if they have completed a master's degree in a related course/field/stream to which they are interested in getting a PhD. Some colleges seek candidates to have completed an MPhil before enrolling in a PhD course.

Other than that, many colleges state that candidates who have passed the UGC NET are eligible for PhD programmes offered by them. Candidates wishing to pursue a PhD in Engineering must have a valid GATE score.

PhD Eligibility Criteria Category-Wise

Some of the basic eligibility for PhD admission are mentioned below:

• Students must have a done Master’s degree (MSc/MTech/MPhil/MA/MBA) in a relevant subject, in order to study a PhD Course
• The student should have scored at least 55% marks or equivalent grade points in the PG course that he studied in any government-recognized institute. In case the candidate belongs to a reserved category (SC/ST/OBC), he/ she will be offered relaxation in minimum marks of either 5% or 10%, depending on the category
• University/college mandated PhD entrance examination needs to be cleared by the candidate to ensure a seat for pursuing a PhD
• In some university/colleges candidates that have work experience in the field of research are preferred highly and are given more preference

However, the following are a few examples of category-wise eligibility requirements for PhD candidates:

PhD Eligibility for Government/Semi-Government Fellowship Recipients: Full-Time Research Scholars

PhD scholars in this category are eligible for financial assistance through government/semi-government fellowship programmes

PhD Eligibility for Institute research Scholars with Teaching Assistance

PhD scholars in this category are offered Institute Teaching Assistantships as specified by the MHRD

PhD Eligibility for Self-financed Candidates (Indian/ Foreign)

• Indian self-financed: Indian candidates who self-fund their education are given seats in doctoral programmes offered by institutions based on their performance and experience. Such candidates participate in the regular admissions process for PhD courses in order to be offered admission to the institute's PhD programmes, but the institute does not provide them with any financial support
• Foreign self-financed: Only after they receive the required "no objection certificate" from MHRD, the Indian government, and other required approvals from India's Ministry of External Affairs, are foreign self-financed candidates offered admission through the embassy of their home nation.

PhD Eligibility for Candidate Sponsors

These PhD candidates are supported to conduct full-time research at the relevant institution by (recognised) Research and Development organisations.

PhD Eligibility for Candidates for Study Leaves

For a period of less than three years, government organisations, businesses, and educational institutions grant study leaves to applicants who fall into this category so they can conduct research at the designated institution. For admission as a PhD scholar in this category, the candidate's institute or employer must provide a letter of leave.

PhD Eligibility for ICCR Awardees

If they have been given a scholarship by their government, foreign candidates who are supported by their respective governments are given a seat in a PhD programme under the Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR) award holders' category.

PhD Eligibility for Part-time Scholars in Research

The following categories are available for applicants at an institute seeking admission as part-time research scholars:

• Research Assistants
• Institute staff/ Faculty
• Project Staff
• External Sponsored Candidates

Steps to apply for PhD Admission 2024

PhD Admission 2024 is majorly based on entrance exam. The UGC NET, which is administered twice a year, is one of several entrance exams used for PhD admission. Admission to Central universities is available. JRF-GATE, the IISC PhD Entrance Exam, the VMOU PhD, the IPU PhD, and the IGNOU PhD are additional PhD entrance exams. A few universities also have entrance exams specifically designed for PhD courses. Applicants may also sit for entrance examinations like the GATE, NET, and CSIR NET to be considered for PhD admissions in India.

To apply for PhD or research course, applicants must complete the following steps:

Step 1: Go to the official website of the college or university, review all of the information about the PhD course it offers, and select the field of study you want to pursue.

Step 2: Candidates must keep a look out for any admission updates or visit the university's official website to complete their application for admission to the course of their choice.

Step 3: Candidates must then complete and submit their PhD application forms in accordance with the educational institution's timeline. Applicants must also submit all required paperwork and the application fee on time in order to be considered for PhD admission.

Step 4: Some colleges and universities may require a research proposal in addition to the application form. The application is submitted to the educational institution's research unit, which reviews it along with the research proposal.

Step 5: Following the review of the PhD application, the majority of colleges and universities shortlist the names of candidates who must appear for the entrance exam and other admissions processes that are held to select applicants for admission to the PhD course they offer.

Step 6: Candidates are assigned supervisors or guides for their PhD research after being admitted to PhD course based on their performance in the admission rounds.

Skills Required for PhD Graduate

PhD graduates must possess a set of skills essential for success in their careers, extending beyond their research proficiency. These skills are crucial for thriving in the workplace after completing their research. These skills include:

• Proficiency in quantitative analysis
• Strong research abilities
• Sharp analytical skills
• Capacity to handle high-pressure situations
• Effective interpersonal skills

In most colleges and universities, PhD admissions are decided by merit. A written 10+2 exam, a series of in-person interviews, and/or a qualifying exam relevant to the programme will determine which candidates are accepted into the PhD programme. Under such circumstances, candidates are usually selected on the basis of their academic standing and their results on a prior relevant exam.

In India, there are three basic types of PhD programmes. They are full-time PhDs, part-time PhDs, and online PhDs.

Students can check out below some popular PhD courses that they can pursue in different streams:

Popular PhD Course in Humanities

PhD in humanities consists of courses that critically examine human thought and culture. These courses usually deal with the effect of art, music, literature, the arts, and philosophy on the world we live in. Students pursuing a PhD in Humanities course must focus more on abstract questions rather than on technical skills. 

The students pursuing a PhD degree in Arts would learn and research in depth about the development of ideas and concepts, behavioural patterns and the challenges faced, functioning of a society, human interactions and relationships, etc. Students can check online some of the popular PhD courses in Humanities and Arts mentioned below: 

• PhD in Humanities
• PhD Economics
• PhD Geography
• PhD in Social Work
• PhD in English
• PhD in Public and Economic Policy
• PhD in Humanities & Social Sciences
• PhD in Psychology
• PhD in Arts
• PhD in International Relations and Politics
• PhD in Physiology
• PhD in Public Policy

Popular PhD Course in Science

PhD Science is a doctorate level course with a duration of 3 to 5 years during which students from MSc or MTech background can learn more about this field. It involves candidates to research any one of the PhD subjects like Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc. 

At the end of the course, the student will have to submit the research thesis to earn a PhD Science degree. Students can check out some of the popular online PhD courses in Science mentioned below: 

• PhD in Chemistry
• PhD in Clinical Research
• PhD in Science
• PhD in Bioscience
• PhD in Bioinformatics
• PhD Biotechnology
• PhD in Mathematical and Computational Sciences
• PhD in Environmental Science and Engineering
• PhD Zoology
• PhD in Physics
• Phd in Mathematics
• PhD in Zoology  

Popular PhD Courses in Commerce

PhD in Commerce is a doctorate course with a minimum duration of two years with certain universities requiring the candidates to complete the course within five years of time along with the thesis or research paper. There are some universities that provide part-time PhD in commerce. 

The PhD in Commerce subjects provides a greater insight in the field of commerce and accounting, finance, forecasting, management and budgeting. These courses are better suited for someone with a commerce or business background. The course provides better quality education to the students so they can serve the needs of business and industry management. Two such popular PhD courses are mentioned below: 

• PhD in Commerce Management
• PhD in Accounting and Financial Management  

Popular PhD Courses in Engineering

If you want to focus on research-based education in the field of technology then a PhD in engineering and technology is one of the best options. It involves the development of new cutting-edge technologies or research methods that can create an impact on the world. It can also be a program that focuses on the student's own desired focus, such as on learning a very specific area of engineering or technology. 

Ph.D. in Engineering and Technology is a 5-year course. Candidates who wish to pursue a PhD in engineering and technology must have a masters degree or equivalent to this degree from a recognized university. Some popular PhD Course in Engineering are mentioned below:

• PhD in Engineering
• PhD in Genetic Engineering
• PhD in Civil Engineering
• PhD in Engineering and Technology
• PhD Electronics & Communication Engineering
• PhD Computer Science Engineering
• PhD in Electronics and Communication Engineering
• PhD in Information Technology
• PhD in Production Engineering
• PhD in Chemical Engineering
• PhD in Mechanical Engineering  

Popular PhD Course in Business & Management

PhD in Business and Management is a doctorate level course that includes the activities associated with a company, such as managing, leading, monitoring, organizing and strategizing. The duration of PhD in Business Management is usually 3-years. Some popular PhD degree in Business & Management are mentioned below: 

• PhD Business Administration
• PhD in Management
• PhD in Aviation Management
• PhD in Logistics and Supply Chain Management
• PhD in Accounting and Financial Management
• PhD in Marketing/ Brand Management
• PhD in Commerce
• PhD in Commerce and Management  

Popular PhD Degree in Law

PhD in law allows the students to enhance their understanding of the legal studies. The students are taught an overview of the subject, the nuances to proceed with the cases and how to go around while studying a case, and the outlook required while looking into its details. 

PhD in Law is a 3-year full-time doctorate programme in the field of Law. PhD in law provides students with the required training which helps them pave their way in gaining exposure in their field. Some popular PhD Course in Law are mentioned below:

• PhD in Constitutional Law
• PhD in Law and Governance
• PhD in Legal Studies  

Popular PhD Degree in Teaching & Education

• PhD in Education
• PhD in Teaching  

There are 2 types of research scholars in PhD:

Full Time Research Scholars

The details about full time research scholars is given below:

Part Time Research Scholars

Individuals who seek admission under the part time research scholars at an institute are offered admission under the categories mentione below:

• External Sponsored Category
• Institute Staff/ Faculty

In India, the average PhD course fee varies from INR 50 and 6LPA, with candidates typically able to pay the fees annually. However, the PhD course fee is set by the college to which students wish to apply. PhD fees vary depending on factors such as college location, facilities, faculty, and infrastructure. PhD programmes allow students to apply for scholarships from private companies, colleges, and non-governmental organisations. These scholarships benefit students by reducing their financial burdens and encouraging them to pursue their research. 

PhD syllabus will be determined by the subject chosen by the student. It is worth noting that the PhD programme is available in nearly all major disciplines, including Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Bio-Sciences, Clinical Research, Zoology, Applied Sciences, Economics, Social Work, Literature, Arts, Psychology, and Social Sciences.

The student will have approximately 3-5 years to complete their PhD programme. The student will be required to submit an original research thesis on a specific topic at the end of the programme.

Topics for the research paper could include:

• Introduction to the Topic 
• Research Design 
• Research Foundation 
• Quality Standards 
• Structure and Size

For your ease, we have included PhD syllabuses for a few subjects.

PhD Syllabus for Science Specialisation

The following is the PhD Syllabus or Doctor of Philosophy syllabus in Science. The programme lasts between three and five years. The syllabus is divided into semesters, and the PhD subjects covered are listed below. Each year is divided into two semesters.

PhD Syllabus for Management Studies Specialization

PhD Syllabus or Doctor of Philosophy syllabus in management studies course is mentioned below. The given PhD syllabus is semester-wise with the PhD subjects mentioned below. 

PhD Syllabus for Engineering and Technology Specialization

PhD Syllabus in engineering and technology is given below. The PhD course is for 5 years. The given PhD subjects are topic wise:

PhD in Legal Studies Syllabus

The Syllabus of PhD in legal studies is given below. The course is for 3 years. The given PhD subjects are coursewise:

PhD in Philosophy Syllabus

PhD syllabus in Philosophy course is given below. The course is for 3 years to 6 years. The given syllabus is paper-wise. There are 4 papers including elective exams with the PhD subjects mentioned below:

PhD in English Literature Syllabus

PhD Syllabus or Doctor of Philosophy syllabus in English literature course is given below. The duration of this PhD course is for 3 years to 5 years. The PhD subjects covered in this course are mentioned below. 

PhD in Economics Syllabus

PhD Syllabus of Economics course is given below.  There are a total of 4 papers with the elective exam. All of the papers along with various PhD subjects are mentioned below. 

The steps that candidates must take when pursuing a PhD course in order to be awarded a PhD degree are as follows:

• When candidates are accepted into PhD programmes at educational institutions, they must submit a research proposal as well as a research topic.
• Then, candidates are assigned a research supervisor or guide.
• Following this, the Research Programme Coordinator/Guide/Supervisor informs candidates about the Course Work, evaluation methodology, and teaching schedule.
• Most educational institutions require aspirants to submit six-month progress reports for their research projects.
• Furthermore, as a Research Student, you must give at least two seminar presentations during your tenure as a Research Scholar and submit a Certificate in the prescribed format to the Research Unit.
• Before submitting their PhD thesis, PhD students must first publish at least one research paper in a peer-reviewed/refereed journal and then submit a Certificate in the prescribed format to the Research Unit.
• Before aspirants submit their thesis, their supervisor or guide will host a Pre-submission Seminar. This seminar will be open to everyone. As part of this seminar, candidates will submit a report with suggestions for improvement, and the supervisor will ensure that all of these suggestions are incorporated into their final thesis.
• Candidates must then incorporate all of the changes and provide a summary of their thesis to their supervisor or guide at least 45 days before submitting the thesis.
• Finally, candidates must submit their thesis in both hard and soft copy. This thesis will be reviewed by external experts. If an expert suggests any changes to the research paper submitted by the candidate, he or she must resubmit a modified thesis.
• Then, a viva-voce is held, in which candidates can openly defend their thesis and present their points of view to a panel of experts.
• Candidates who complete all of these steps to perfection will only receive a PhD degree.

Here are some of the top PhD colleges, along with their average fees, listed below:

Note: The fees listed above are subject to change.

There are various private colleges as well from where you can pursue your PhD. Some of the best private PhD colleges along with their PhD fees are given in the table below: 

Given below are some of the best PhD colleges in India to pursue your doctorate. The PhD fees for the particular college are also mentioned in the table below: 

PhD students can apply for several types of PhD scholarships, including:

PhD Scholarships in India for Students

In India, there are numerous scholarships available for Indian students pursuing a PhD, offering financial assistance to ease the burden of funding their studies. Here are some notable scholarships:

• Prime Minister Fellowship for Doctoral Research: This fellowship, supervised by the Central Government, provides financial support to meritorious students pursuing PhD courses. Recipients receive a monthly stipend of INR 70K.
• Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund Scholarships: These merit-based scholarships support students pursuing doctoral programs in various fields such as Science, Sociology, and Philosophy, after completing their post-graduation. The scholarship is granted for a duration of 2 years and is available to candidates below the age of 35.
• ICHR Junior Research Fellowships (JRF): Provided by the Indian Council of Historical Research, this scholarship is for students pursuing a PhD in Historical studies. It involves an entrance exam followed by an interview, and recipients typically receive a monthly amount ranging from INR 16.5 K to INR 17.6K for a period of 2 years.
• Maulana Azad National Fellowship: This fellowship, offered by the Ministry of Minority Affairs, supports financially disadvantaged students pursuing research or doctorate courses. Eligible candidates must have a family income below INR 6 LPA and have completed their post-graduation. Scholars receive INR 28K per month for a duration of 5 years.
• NCERT Doctoral Fellowship for PhD: National Council of Educational Research and Training offers this fellowship to meritorious students to cover expenses such as tuition fees, accommodation, books, and other charges. Eligibility criteria include qualifying entrance tests like the NET exam and being below the age of 35. The fellowship is provided for a duration of 3 years, with a monthly amount ranging from INR 23K - 25K.

Students who want to be funded during their doctoral studies must pass the NET exam. Passing the NET Exam ensures a stipend from the Government of India, regardless of the university. After passing the NEET, the student receives INR 31K from the Central Government.

The following are some of the best PhD scholarships in India for students pursuing Doctor of Philosophy degrees:

PhD Philosophy graduates have a wide range of career options and higher-paying jobs as a result of the knowledge and experience they gained during their studies. Graduates of the PhD Philosophy programme can find work in a variety of fields, including research, education, literature, law, civil service, science analytics, and politics. Communications, publishing, and so on.

The most common PhD Philosophy job profiles pursued by graduates are research scientist and philosophy professor. PhD Philosophy graduates have job opportunities in both the private and public sectors. Top recruiters include IIT Patna, Mathworks, Archaeological Survey of India, Nalanda University, Election Commission of India, CNN, BBC, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, and others. These top companies hire such professionals and pay them an average salary of INR 10-20 LPA.

Some of the major job profiles associated with the course, along with the average salary, are as follows:

Note: The salary mentioned above is subject to change.

PhD Top Recruiters

Some of the top recruiters of PhDs in India are listed below.

• Research Institutions: Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), and Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)   
•  IT Industry: Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Infosys, and Wipro  
• Pharmaceutical Companies: Sun Pharmaceutical Industries, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, and Cipla   
• Financial Institutions: Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), and National Stock Exchange (NSE)  
• Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): NGOs working in areas like education, healthcare, environment, and social development may employ PhDs for research, program management, and advocacy positions

In India, the average salary for a PhD graduate is between INR 5 and 10 LPA. This figure, however, may differ depending on a number of parameters, including a job description, years of experience, and the city of employment. A PhD graduate's pay is determined by a number of factors, some of which are within the student's control. Participating in internships and accumulating work experience may increase the probability of being paid more. 

Below is an approximate PhD salary range for various job profiles after completing a PhD degree:

Online PhD degree is an advanced academic degree that can be earned online. It can be offered in full-time or part-time modes. Online PhD programs are flexible and convenient, especially for working professionals. They can help students gain advanced knowledge and specialized expertise to further their career. 

Online PhD programs typically require at least two years of study, and many set a completion deadline of 7-9 years. Students typically need to complete coursework, pass qualifying examinations, and write and defend an original dissertation. Online PhD programs can be more affordable than traditional PhD programs. Students can complete an online PhD in as little as three years, while traditional PhD programs can take up to eight years to complete. 

Some online doctoral programs offer a choice of two learning tracks. Students can take their time with the standard track, or speed through the program content with the accelerated option.

Furthermore, an online PhD is less expensive than a traditional PhD.

Popular Courses

Can you be rejected from a phd programme.

PhD applications are frequently rejected for a variety of reasons. This is not the desired outcome after all of your efforts. However, rejection is a normal part of the PhD application process.

Can I pursue a PhD after completing my 12th grade?

To be eligible for a PhD programme, applicants must have a master's degree. Candidates may pursue a PhD programme in any discipline. In a PhD programme, students must choose a topic or subject, conduct extensive research on it, and respond to any questions that arise.  

How can I get a PhD?

7 Steps to earn a PhD are listed below:

• Get a Bachelor's Degree
• Get a Master of Education degree
• Find whether a PhD or EdD is right for you
• Take the entrance exam and apply to Doctoral Programmes
• Finish the Doctorate Degree Programme Coursework
• Conclude and defend a dissertation

Is a PhD considered a doctor or not?

A doctoral degree (PhD) is obtained after obtaining a master's degree. A PhD confers the right to use the title doctor.  

What is the duration of a PhD programme?

A PhD programme typically takes four to seven years, but this can vary depending on a number of factors. In certain disciplines, such as psychology, engineering, education, and mathematics, a PhD, or doctorate degree, is the highest level of degree you can obtain.  

What career options are available after earning a PhD?

A PhD holder can work as a researcher, scientist, professor, journalist, independent consultant, human services worker, editor, critic, lecturer, and so on. A PhD holder can also apply for jobs in the finance, government, and other sectors.

Which are the best universities for pursuing a PhD?

Amity University in Noida and Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Mumbai are two prominent universities that offer PhD degrees. Some of the other universities are:

• Indian Institute of Science
• Bangalore Institute of Genetic Engineering, Badu (Kolkata)
• Chennai's KCG College of Technology
• Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
• Kolkata Institute of Technical and Professional Studies
• New Delhi's Jamia Millia Islamia University
• Indian Statistical Institute 
• Chennai Mathematical Institute

What does a PhD entail?

PhD graduates may be able to work in other countries. If you have a PhD, any company will hire you because the PhD is currently the highest level of academic degree anyone can earn, and the companies see you as an expert in the subject.  

Is it possible to get a PhD without a master's degree?

Yes, a PhD can be obtained without first earning a master's degree. A number of universities provide direct entry into PhD programmes for students with an undergraduate or bachelor's degree. In some cases, specific schools or programmes may prefer master's degree holders.

How many hours per day do you commit to your PhD?

As a general rule, a full-time PhD will require 35 hours of work per week - the equivalent of a full-time, 9-5 job.

Is a PhD more challenging than a doctorate?

It is not simpler to earn a PhD than a doctorate. Both require effort and are different. It would be best to do some research on the subject you want to study. A doctorate degree examines an existing body of knowledge and theories developed by this knowledge, whereas a PhD requires years of original research.  

Do PhD students receive funding?

The fact that you get paid for pursuing a PhD is one of its biggest benefits. A PhD stipend is a monthly payment made to students to help with living expenses, research costs, and housing costs. The cost that is covered by a PhD stipend varies depending on the organisation and degree.  

What are the advantages of a PhD?

Having a PhD is a huge advantage. Don't let others baffle you. PhDs earn more money than non-PhDs and are in high demand. Trained professionals who understand how to create information rather than simply repackage it are desperately needed. Entrepreneurship and innovation are at record highs.  

What is the most difficult aspect of a PhD?

Every PhD student will agree that the most difficult aspect of the degree is staying motivated. You begin a PhD because you are interested in a particular subject.  

What is the minimum eligibility for Ph.D course?

The minimum eligibility for admission to a Ph. D course will be a Master's/ M. Phil Degree from any accredited Indian or Foreign University in the relevant field.

What if you fail your PhD?

If you are not awarded a PhD, you may be awarded an MPhil instead. For this to happen, your work must be deemed worthy of an MPhil, as a Master's degree is still considered an advanced postgraduate research degree.

Is it worthwhile to pursue a PhD in anything?

A PhD can be detrimental to your finances, leave you in debt, and leave you with no clear path to success in certain fields. PhDs, on the other hand, earn more and have lower unemployment rates. A PhD also provides you with a world-class mind, a global network, and a skill set that can take you pretty much anywhere.  

What does a PhD degree stand for?

A PhD degree stands for Doctor of Philosophy, which is regarded as the highest academic course level.

What are the requirements for PhD admission?

The requirements to get into a PhD program are a bachelor’s degree with at least a second-class grade and a master’s degree with high academic grades.

Which university is known as the best university in India?

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay University is known for best university and No.1 University in India.

Is there any age limit to do a PhD course?

There is no specific age limit for PhD courses. It can be pursued at any age but the candidate should satisfy the eligibility criteria.

How many years does it take to complete PhD?

 A doctorate or PhD degree generally lasts for 3 years. Candidates pursuing the program are given a maximum time of 5 to 6 years to complete their research. However, the duration of the PhD courses varies institute wise as well.

What jobs can a PhD get you?

PhD can get you jobs in universities, labs, government sectors, research institutes, and many more.

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PhD Full Form – What is a PhD?

The full form of Ph.D is Doctor of Philosophy and is an advanced degree that is awarded to individuals who have demonstrated a high level of expertise in a specific field of study. The full form of PhD is “Doctor of Philosophy,” which refers to the origins of the degree as a program of study in philosophy. However, today, PhD programs are offered in a wide range of fields, including sciences, humanities, social sciences, and professional disciplines such as business and law.

To obtain a PhD, individuals must complete a significant amount of coursework, pass comprehensive exams, and complete original research in the form of a dissertation or thesis. This research is typically conducted under the supervision of a faculty member and must make a substantial and original contribution to the field of study.

The meaning of the degree is that the individual is expected to have a thorough understanding of their field of study and to be able to conduct independent research. Individuals who hold a PhD degree are considered experts in their field and are able to contribute to the advancement of knowledge through research and teaching.

History of the PhD Degree

• The origins of the PhD degree can be traced back to the medieval universities of Europe, where the Doctor of Philosophy (Philosophiae Doctor, or PhD) was established as a higher degree in the field of philosophy.
• The first PhDs were awarded in the early 19th century in Germany, and the degree quickly spread to other European countries and the United States.
• Initially, the PhD was primarily awarded in the field of philosophy, but over time it expanded to include other disciplines, such as the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities.
• The development of research-based PhD programs in the 20th century established the degree as a requirement for a career in academia and research.
• The growth of PhD programs in the second half of the 20th century led to an increase in the number of PhD graduates and a diversification of career opportunities for PhD holders.
• Today, PhD programs are offered in a wide range of fields, and the degree is considered a terminal degree in many academic and professional disciplines.

Requirements for a Ph.D in India

• Hold a Master’s degree or equivalent in a related field from a recognized university.
• Clear a national-level entrance test such as UGC-NET or CSIR-NET or a university-level entrance test.
• Complete coursework, which typically includes core courses, electives, and seminars.
• Pass comprehensive exams, which test the candidate’s knowledge in the subject area and readiness for independent research.
• Conduct original research, typically under the supervision of a faculty member, which results in a dissertation or thesis.
• Defend the dissertation or thesis in front of a committee of faculty members.
• Meet any other program-specific requirements as set by the university or academic institution.

Different Fields and Types of PhD

Phds are offered in a wide range of fields, including:.

• Sciences such as biology, physics, chemistry, and computer science
• Humanities such as history, literature, and philosophy
• Social Sciences such as economics, sociology, psychology, and political science
• Professional fields such as business, law, education, and engineering 

Additionally, there are different types of Ph.D. programs, including:

• Traditional Ph.D.: This is the most common type of Ph.D. program. It typically involves completing coursework, passing comprehensive exams, and conducting original research that results in a dissertation or thesis.
• Professional Doctorate: This type of Ph.D. is more applied in nature and is often offered in professional fields such as business, law, and education. It typically involves coursework, a professional project, and a dissertation.
• Online Ph.D.: This type of Ph.D. is conducted entirely online and is becoming increasingly popular. It typically involves coursework, a dissertation, or a thesis and may involve some on-campus visits. 
• Interdisciplinary Ph.D.: This type of Ph.D. allows students to study across multiple disciplines and provides a broader perspective on a specific research area.

The Process of Earning a PhD

The process of earning a PhD can vary depending on the field and program, but generally, it involves the following steps:

• Application and Admissions: Applying to a PhD program typically involves submitting transcripts, letters of recommendation, a statement of purpose, and test scores such as GRE or TOEFL. After the application is reviewed, the applicant may be invited for an interview before being accepted into the program.
• Coursework: After being accepted into a program, students typically begin by completing coursework, which typically includes core courses, electives, and seminars. The coursework is designed to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the field and to prepare them for independent research.
• Comprehensive Exams: After completing coursework, students typically take comprehensive exams, which test their knowledge in the subject area and readiness for independent research.
• Research Proposal: After passing comprehensive exams, students typically develop and present a research proposal, which outlines the topic, research questions, and methods for their dissertation or thesis.
• Research and Data Collection: After the proposal is approved, students begin conducting original research, typically under the supervision of a faculty member. This may involve collecting data, analyzing data, and writing up results.
• Writing and Defending the Dissertation/Thesis: After completing research, students write and defend their dissertation or thesis in front of a committee of faculty members. The dissertation or thesis is a detailed document that presents the research findings and conclusions.
• Graduation: After successfully defending the dissertation or thesis, students graduate with a PhD degree.

Career Opportunities with a PhD

• Academia: Many PhD graduates choose to pursue a career in academia, either as a professor at a college or university or as a researcher at a research institution. These positions typically involve teaching, conducting research, and publishing scholarly work.
• Research: PhD graduates can also find employment as researchers in government, private industry, or non-profit organizations. These positions may involve conducting basic or applied research in a specific field and may include laboratory work, data analysis, and report writing.
• Industry: Some PhD graduates choose to work in industry, typically in roles such as research and development, consulting, or management. These positions may involve applying research findings to solve real-world problems or working on product development.
• Entrepreneurship: A PhD degree can also open opportunities to start your own business or venture.
• Public service: PhD graduates can also pursue careers in public services, such as working in government agencies, non-profit organizations, or international organizations. These positions may involve policy analysis, program evaluation, or research.
• Science Communication: Many PhD graduates are also interested in science communication and may work in journalism, science policy, science education, or science outreach.

It’s important to note that the above career opportunities are general and may vary depending on the field and program. Additionally, some PhD graduates may choose to pursue multiple career paths over the course of their professional lives.

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What does PhD mean?

Doctor of Philosophy ( DPhil , Latin: Ph ilosophiae D octor, Ph.D or PhD) is a doctoral degree. A doctorate degree holder can use a Dr. title in front of his/her name.

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What is the full form of phd.

The full form of PhD is Philosophiae Doctor

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Philosophiae Doctor

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Translation, similar terms.

• BE : Bachelor of Engineering
• MS : Master of Science
• LLB : Legum Baccalaureus [Bachelor of Laws]

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Campus protests where arrests and detainments have taken place since April 18

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Duke: Dozens of students walked out  of Duke University’s commencement ceremony as Jerry Seinfeld, who has been vocal about his support for Israel, received an honorary degree.

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Full-colour 3D holographic augmented-reality displays with metasurface waveguides

• Manu Gopakumar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9017-4968 1   na1 ,
• Gun-Yeal Lee   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6274-8776 1   na1 ,
• Suyeon Choi 1 ,
• Brian Chao 1 ,
• Yifan Peng 2 ,
• Jonghyun Kim 3 &
• Gordon Wetzstein   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9243-6885 1  

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• Nanophotonics and plasmonics

Emerging spatial computing systems seamlessly superimpose digital information on the physical environment observed by a user, enabling transformative experiences across various domains, such as entertainment, education, communication and training 1 , 2 , 3 . However, the widespread adoption of augmented-reality (AR) displays has been limited due to the bulky projection optics of their light engines and their inability to accurately portray three-dimensional (3D) depth cues for virtual content, among other factors 4 , 5 . Here we introduce a holographic AR system that overcomes these challenges using a unique combination of inverse-designed full-colour metasurface gratings, a compact dispersion-compensating waveguide geometry and artificial-intelligence-driven holography algorithms. These elements are co-designed to eliminate the need for bulky collimation optics between the spatial light modulator and the waveguide and to present vibrant, full-colour, 3D AR content in a compact device form factor. To deliver unprecedented visual quality with our prototype, we develop an innovative image formation model that combines a physically accurate waveguide model with learned components that are automatically calibrated using camera feedback. Our unique co-design of a nanophotonic metasurface waveguide and artificial-intelligence-driven holographic algorithms represents a significant advancement in creating visually compelling 3D AR experiences in a compact wearable device.

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Metasurface wavefront control for high-performance user-natural augmented reality waveguide glasses

Augmented reality and virtual reality displays: emerging technologies and future perspectives

Light sheets for continuous-depth holography and three-dimensional volumetric displays

Emerging augmented-reality (AR) systems offer new experiences to users and have far-reaching implications for applications that span entertainment, education, communication, training, behavioural therapy and basic vision research 1 , 2 , 3 . To unlock their full potential in consumer applications, however, AR display systems must be compact—ideally no larger than conventional eyeglasses—to enable comfort and style for all-day use. Among the plethora of optical designs proposed for such near-eye displays 6 , 7 , waveguide image combiners are the most promising solution for AR glasses because of their compact form factors. Current waveguide designs, however, require projection optics with a thickness proportional to the focal length of the projection lens (Fig. 1a ), introducing optical bulk, and they are limited to displaying two-dimensional (2D) images at a fixed distance to the user. These limitations result in reduced perceptual realism and visual discomfort due to the vergence–accommodation conflict 4 , 5 and, even with small projector optics, it is challenging to achieve a device form factor that matches the style of common eyeglasses.

a , Conventional AR glasses use amplitude SLMs, such as organic light-emitting diodes or micro light-emitting diodes, which require a projector-based light engine that is typically at least as thick as the focal length f of the projection lens. b , The design of our holographic AR glasses uses a phase-only SLM that can be mounted very close to the in-coupling grating, thereby minimizing the device form factor. Additionally, unlike conventional AR glasses, our holographic design can provide full 3D depth cues for virtual content, as illustrated by the bunny (adapted from the Stanford Computer Graphics Laboratory). c , Compact 3D-printed prototype illustrating the components of our holographic AR glasses in a wearable form factor.

Holographic principles 8 could enable the ‘ultimate display’ 9 using their ability to produce perceptually realistic 3D content using ultrathin optical films 10 , 11 . This ability motivated previous attempts to adapt digital holography to AR display configurations 12 , 13 ; though promising, these methods failed to achieve the compact form factors and high 3D image quality required to unlock future spatial computing applications.

Here we develop a new AR display system that pairs a lensless holographic light engine with a metasurface waveguide optimized for full-colour optical-see-through (OST) AR display applications in a compact form factor (Fig. 1b ). Compared with other waveguides, our optical system is unique in enabling the relay of full-colour 3D holographic images with high uniformity and see-through efficiency. This remarkable capability is enabled by the use of inverse-designed metasurface 14 , 15 , 16 grating couplers. Metasurfaces 17 , 18 have been demonstrated to offer higher diffraction efficiency 19 , spectral selectivity 20 , Q -factor 21 and transmittance 22 than conventional refractive and diffractive optical elements in applications, including AR 23 , virtual reality 24 and wearable devices 20 . Unlike these approaches, ours not only optimizes the devices and demonstrates novel applications of metasurfaces, but also co-designs the entire optical system, including the geometry of a high-index glass waveguide and the metasurface grating couplers, to enable compatability with holographic AR display systems. Waveguide holography has been described in recent work for non-see-through virtual reality settings 25 , but it has seen limited adoption because of its poor image quality. To address this challenge, we develop a mathematical model that describes the propagation of coherent waves in a waveguide using a combination of physically accurate modelling techniques and artificial intelligence. The learnable parts of this model are automatically calibrated using camera feedback with our prototype. This approach significantly advances recent artificial-intelligence-driven holography algorithms 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 by making them suitable for compact waveguides in see-through AR configurations. With our system, we obtained high-quality, full-colour multiplane 3D holographic images using a single OST AR waveguide. Compared with related optical designs 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , our system provides unprecedented full-colour image quality in a compact form factor, enabling a path towards true 3D holographic AR glasses.

Inverse-designed metasurface waveguide

For OST AR displays, it is critical to provide the user with an unobstructed view of the physical environment while overlaying digital information on their vision of the world. Waveguide image combiners are thin transparent optical systems that have become the industry norm for these applications 7 , enabling the aforementioned capabilities. Our metasurface waveguide system design optimizes compactness, dispersion correction, transmission efficiency and angular uniformity to meet the high demands of 3D-capable AR applications.

Precise manipulation of coherent wavefronts in a waveguide system is crucial for holographic displays, but is very challenging due to the interfering nature of coherent light. We address this challenge using a high-index glass material with a homogeneous design of all-glass metasurfaces (Fig. 2 ). For a compact waveguide system to minimize boundary reflection and interference, a single-layer coupler is necessary. This coupler must guide broadband visible light through the waveguide at a high diffraction angle, ensuring total internal reflection (TIR). The critical angle, represented as \({\theta }_{{\rm{c}}}(\lambda )={\sin }^{-1}\left(\frac{1}{n(\lambda )}\right)\) , dictates that shorter wavelengths λ require a higher refractive index n to achieve TIR. Our numerical analysis indicates that a refractive index of 1.8 or higher is necessary to transmit all red, green and blue wavelengths through a single coupler, with a higher index expanding the field of view. This underscores the importance of employing a high-index material in our system design. In addition, the high-index glass ( n  > 1.8), with a complex refractive index denoted as \(\widetilde{n}=n+ik\) , assures minimal absorption loss ( k  ≈ 0) and provides sufficient light–matter interaction, while typical glass ( n  < 1.5) is insufficient to locally manipulate electromagnetic waves due to weak light–matter interaction. As a result, the high-index glass metasurface attains a balance between high see-through efficiency and diffraction efficiency, surpassing the capabilities of typical glass metasurfaces.

a , Visualization of the waveguide geometry for full-colour operation. b , Electric field maps at red (638 nm), green (521 nm) and blue (445 nm) wavelengths for light passing through the metasurface out-coupler towards the user’s eye. The black arrows illustrate the wave vectors of the incident and diffracted light. c , Visualization of the inverse-designed metasurfaces optimized for waveguide couplers. The period ( Λ ) and height ( H ) of the metasurfaces are 384 nm and 220 nm, respectively. d , Scanning electron microscope images of the fabricated metasurfaces. e , The simulated and experimentally measured transmittance spectra of unpolarized light for the inverse-designed metasurfaces in the visible range, corresponding to see-through efficiency for real-world scenes. f , The simulated (dashed lines) transfer functions along the x axis for the conventional single-lined gratings and the simulated (solid lines) and experimentally measured (circles) transfer functions for our inverse-designed metasurfaces. The colour of the plots corresponds to the red, green and blue wavelengths. The designed metasurfaces are much more efficient than conventional gratings in green and blue, but, due to the very large diffraction angle of red, further improvement of the efficiency of the red channel is more difficult. g , Uniformities of the transfer functions for the conventional gratings without optimization and the inverse-designed metasurfaces with optimization. Scale bars, 400 nm ( b ), 2 μm ( d , left), 200 nm ( d , right). E , electromagnetic field.

Although the high-index glass enables propagation of broadband light with TIR, dispersion correction is further required for full-colour operation. Dispersion-engineered metasurfaces could be an option 34 , 35 , as a device-level solution, but they often have insufficient degrees-of-freedom to meet the system performance required for AR applications (namely, high uniformity and see-through efficiency). To this end, we correct the chromatic dispersion at the system level through geometric design of the metasurface waveguide system and k-vector matching of the input and output couplers. The in- and out-couplers are designed to have the same momentum but with an opposite direction, so they can couple the incident light in and out without observable dispersion. 7 Additionally, to spatially match the couplers, we design a dispersion-compensating waveguide geometry by precisely engineering the waveguide thickness and the dimensions and distances of the symmetric metasurface couplers. The lateral displacement of a replicated pupil inside the waveguide can be expressed as \(l(\lambda )=2{d}_{{\rm{w}}{\rm{g}}}\tan \left({\sin }^{-1}(\frac{\lambda }{n(\lambda )\varLambda })\right)\) , where d wg , λ and Λ are the waveguide thickness, the wavelength of light in free space and the grating period, respectively. Our idea is to design the waveguide geometry to have a suitable least common multiple of the \(l\left(\lambda \right)\) function for red, green and blue wavelengths, which can be described by  ∃   d wg ,  Λ : LCM(  l ( λ R ),  l ( λ G ), l ( λ B ) ) <  L wg , where L wg is the maximum length between in- and out-couplers for a compact near-eye display and LCM is the least common multiple function. Specifically, we set d wg and Λ to 5 mm and 384 nm, respectively; with these parameters, the red, green and blue wavefronts from the in-coupler propagate through the waveguide through one, three and five internal reflections, respectively, before meeting at the out-coupler, as illustrated in Fig. 2a .

To optimize the geometry of the metasurface gratings for maximum diffraction efficiency and uniformity of angular response, we employ a rigorous-coupled-wave-analysis solver 36 . Our metasurface couplers operate in transverse electric polarization mode to provide a more uniform optical response. The optimization process uses the gradient descent method, starting from a randomly initialized geometry in the 2D spatial domain and utilizing the Adam solver 37 to refine the profiles of the metasurface gratings. The loss function in the optimization loop maximizes the sum of the first diffraction order efficiencies for red, green and blue wavelengths (638 nm, 521 nm and 445 nm), while minimizing the standard deviations of efficiencies for different incident angles, ranging from −5° to 5°, for these three wavelengths. We simplify the design process to one dimension by assuming x axis symmetry and account for fabrication tolerances of these large-area metasurfaces by adding Gaussian blur. The resulting design converged to a double-lined metasurface grating, as shown in Fig. 2c . This geometry yields metasurface couplers that steer the incident wave to high diffraction angles for red, green and blue wavelengths, as confirmed by the electric field profiles and overlaid Poynting vectors (Fig. 2b ). Importantly, the optimized asymmetric nanostructure not only enhances the diffraction efficiency in one direction but also improves uniformity over the angle of incidence.

Figure 2e shows the high see-through efficiency our inverse-designed metasurface couplers achieve, reaching approximately 78.4% in the visible spectrum. Figure 2f contains the transfer functions of our inverse-designed metasurfaces and typical gratings for red, green and blue wavelengths (full 2D transfer functions are shown in the Supplementary Information ). As opposed to conventional gratings, our metasurfaces exhibit uniform transmittance regardless of the angle of incidence, thanks to the optimized electromagnetic resonances in the nanostructures. Figure 2g quantifies the uniformity of the transfer function that is defined as the ratio of the minimum and maximum amplitudes within the viewing angle range. The inverse-designed metasurface has high uniformities of 61.7%, 91.2% and 98.3% for red, green and blue, respectively, whereas conventional gratings achieve much lower uniformities of 58.9%, 47.7% and 88.8%. These findings confirm that our inverse-designed all-glass metasurface couplers provide excellent angular uniformity and high see-through efficiency for full-colour operation.

A key challenge for the fabrication of holographic waveguides is a high sensitivity to surface irregularities or particle contamination, which directly affects the observed image quality. For this reason, we fabricate our metasurface system directly on lead-containing high-index glass (SF6 glass, SCHOTT), without any other composing materials, using electron beam (e-beam) lithography. To avoid residue particle contamination or surface damage of the lift-off process or surface irregularities introduced by physical etching, we avoid commonly used lithography processes for metasurface fabrication, including positive e-beam resist with metal lift-off or negative e-beam resist to make an etching mask. Instead, our method is based on reverse patterning with a positive e-beam resist (polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)) using multiple dry etching methods, thus avoiding lift-off hard masks and ensuring the glass surface remains protected throughout the fabrication process ( Methods ). Note that this method can also be applied to photolithography or nanoimprint lithography for mass production 38 , 39 .

Waveguide propagation model

To simulate the propagation of coherent light through our metasurface waveguide, we first derive a physically motivated model. We then show how this model can be parameterized by neural network components that can be automatically learned from camera feedback. As shown by our experiments, the unique combination of physical and artificial-intelligence components is crucial for accurately modelling the physical optics of such a waveguide and synthesizing high-quality holograms with it.

The wavefront u IC coupled into the waveguide can be computed as the product of the phase-only spatial light modulator (SLM) pattern, e i ϕ , the incident illumination and the in-coupler aperture a IC . Since we use a converging wavefront for illumination with focal length f illum , the in-coupled wavefront is expressed as

where and x and y are the transverse coordinates.

Next, this wavefront is propagated through the waveguide to compute the out-coupled field, u OC . A physically motivated model of the waveguide is adequately described by its frequency-dependent transfer function, H WG and the aperture a OC of the out-coupler:

where \({\mathcal{F}}\) is the Fourier transform and f x and f y are the frequency coordinates. The transfer function H WG incorporates the reflection coefficients within the waveguide, coupling efficiencies, the propagation of the first diffracted order and the translation between the in- and out-coupler. The contributions of each of these components are used to derive the full expression for H WG in our Supplementary Information . Note that we can set H WG to the identity operator, ignoring the transfer function, as a naive, non-physical baseline.

Finally, the 3D images observed by a user looking through the holographic AR glasses can be simulated by propagating the out-coupled field with a model of free-space propagation, f free , to different target distances, d target , in front of the viewer:

With these equations, f WG maps phase patterns shown on the SLM to the image that a user would see while focusing at a particular depth, d target , through the waveguide, and f free maps the wavefront in front of the user’s eye to the image that a user would see while focusing at a particular depth, d target .

Although a physical model, such as f WG , should accurately describe the wave propagation in a waveguide, in practice it is challenging to model all aspects of such a physical optical system at the required accuracy. Nanoscopic differences, on the order of the wavelength of light, between the simulated model and the optical aberrations, fabrication errors, source beam, or electro-optical effect of the SLM strongly degrade the observed holographic image quality. To account for these small differences between the simulated model and physical optics, we add learnable components in the form of convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to our model. Although related approaches have recently been proposed for bulky benchtop holographic virtual reality displays 26 , 40 , 41 , 42 , ours characterizes the propagation of full-colour coherent wavefronts through an OST waveguide using this emerging paradigm. Specifically, we propose to learn parameters a IC and a OC as complex-valued fields, the spatially varying diffraction efficiencies and the CNNs at the in-coupler and target planes to account for a mismatch between simulated model and physical optics. These learned components, which are illustrated with our full waveguide model in Fig. 3 , result in the following learnable physical waveguide model:

In Methods , we detail our training procedure and CNN architecture.

We combine physical aspects of the waveguide (highlighted in green) with artificial-intelligence components that are learned from camera feedback (highlighted in orange). In our model, the input phase pattern (left) applies a per-pixel phase delay, from 0 to 2π, to the converging illumination before the wavefront is modulated by the learned in-coupler efficiency. This wavefront is then sent through a CNN at the in-coupler plane and propagated through the waveguide, using its physically motivated transfer function, before an additional learned out-coupler efficiency is used to determine the out-coupled wavefront (centre). The latter is propagated to the target scene at various distances from the user where a CNN is applied, converting the complex-valued field into observed intensities (right). When trained on a captured dataset, the learned parameters of the CNNs, the coupler efficiencies and the waveguide propagation enable this model to accurately predict the output of our holographic AR glasses. The model is fully differentiable, enabling simple gradient descent CGH algorithms to compute the phase pattern for a target scene at runtime. The bunny scene is from Big Buck Bunny , © 2008 Blender Foundation/ www.bigbuckbunny.org , under a Creative Commons licence CC BY 3.0 .

Experimental results

Our prototype AR display combines the fabricated metasurface waveguide with a HOLOEYE LETO-3 phase-only SLM. This SLM has a resolution of 1080 × 1920 pixels with a pitch of 6.4 μm. A FISBA READYBeam fibre-coupled module with optically aligned red, green and blue laser diodes with wavelengths of 638, 521 and 445 nm is used as the light source. Since our illumination comes through the back of our waveguide, we slightly tilt our SLM and illumination, so that our digital content is not obscured by any unwanted light that is coupled into the waveguide before reaching the SLM. We capture calibration data for our artificial-intelligence-based wave propagation model and also capture results of using a FLIR Grasshopper3 12.3 MP colour USB3 sensor through a Canon EF 35 mm lens with an Arduino controlling the focus of the lens. Following recent work 42 , our experimental setup operates in a partially coherent setting where a few coherent modes are multiplexed in time to achieve optimal 3D holographic image quality with realistic depth-of-field effects. All holograms are computed using a gradient descent computer-generated holography (CGH) algorithm 26 that incorporates our camera-calibrated wave propagation model.

We show experimentally captured results from our prototype in Fig. 4 . In Fig. 4a , we qualitatively and quantitatively assess the 2D image quality and compare a naive free-space propagation model, a physically motivated wave propagation model using the rigorous-coupled-wave-analysis-simulated transfer functions and the proposed artificial-intelligence-based variant combining the physical model with camera-calibrated learnable parameters. In all examples, the artificial-intelligence-based wave propagation model outperforms the baselines by a large margin of 3–5 dB peak signal-to-noise ratio. The full-colour 3D results shown in Fig. 4b validate the high image quality our system achieves for both in- and out-of-focus regions of the presented digital content. The accurate depiction of 3D defocus behaviour can mitigate the vergence–accommodation conflict and associated discomfort for users of our display system. To our knowledge, no existing waveguide-based AR display has demonstrated full-colour 3D results with a comparable quality 25 , 43 . Finally, we also show experimental full-colour 3D results in Fig. 4c where we optically combine a physical scene with digitally overlaid content and capture the scene using different focus settings of the camera. Again, our approach outperforms baseline models by a large margin.

a , Comparison of 2D holograms synthesized using several different wave propagation models, including free-space propagation, a physically motivated model and our proposed model combining physics and learnable parameters that are calibrated using camera feedback.  b , Comparison of two 3D holograms. Zoomed-in crops show the scene with the camera focused at different depths. Blue boxes highlight content that the camera is focused on while white boxes emphasize camera defocus. c , Comparison of a 3D hologram captured in an optical-see-through AR mode. The bird, fish and butterfly are digitally superimposed objects, and the elephant and letters are part of the physical environment. In all examples, the proposed wave propagation model represents the physical optics much more accurately, resulting in significant image quality improvements over alternative models. In a , the squirrel scene is from Big Buck Bunny , © 2008 Blender Foundation/ www.bigbuckbunny.org , under a Creative Commons licence CC BY 3.0. In  b , couch and market target scenes are, respectively, from the High Spatio-Angular Light Field dataset 49 and the Durian Open Movie project (© copyright Blender Foundation/ durian.blender.org ) under a Creative Commons licence CC BY 3.0 .

The co-design of a metasurface waveguide and artificial-intelligence-based holography algorithms facilitates a compact full-colour 3D holographic OST AR display system. To our knowledge, no system with comparable characteristics has previously been described and our experimental image quality far exceeds that demonstrated by related waveguide designs for non-see-through applications 25 .

The field of view of our waveguide design is currently limited to 11.7°. While this is comparable to many commercial AR systems, it would be desirable to enlarge it. This could be achieved using higher refractive index materials for the waveguide or by engineering an additional metasurface eyepiece into the out-coupler. Related ideas have recently been explored for other optical AR system designs 23 , which could be adapted to ours. Our waveguide is compact, but it would be interesting to further reduce its thickness d wg . In our Supplementary Information , we derive the relationship between waveguide thickness, SLM size L slm and nasal field of view θ − as

This equation shows that the thickness of the waveguide is directly proportional to the SLM size, among other factors. Therefore, the most promising path to reducing the thickness of the waveguide is to use a smaller SLM. There is a clear path to achieving this with emerging SLMs that provide very small pixel pitches, down to 1 μm (ref. 44 ), compared with the 6.4 μm of our SLM. Although not commercially available yet, these SLMs would enable ultrathin waveguides using our approach.

Similar to all holographic displays, the étendue of our display is limited by the space–bandwidth product of the SLM. Étendue expansion techniques 7 , 43 , 45 , 46 , 47 could be adapted to our settings, although no such technique has been demonstrated to support full-colour 3D waveguide holography. Another potential direction for future work would be to combine our design with an illumination waveguide as shown in prior work for a compact illumination path 25 . Finally, we have not attempted to optimize the efficiency of our CGH algorithm at runtime. While hologram generation currently takes several minutes per phase pattern, recent methods have shown that real-time inversion of wave propagation models for hologram synthesis can be achieved using machine-learning approaches 26 , 27 , 29 , 48 .

The proposed co-design of nanophotonic hardware and artificial-intelligence-driven algorithms enables optical-see-through AR display modes in smaller form factors and with higher 3D image quality than any existing approach of which we are aware, enabling a path towards true 3D holographic AR glasses.

Fabrication details

The fabrication procedure begins by coating the substrate with a 30-nm-thick Chromium (Cr) film through e-beam evaporation (Kurt J. Lesker Company). We then proceed to an e-beam lithography process (Raith Voyager) using a 50 kV e-beam to accurately create the metasurface patterns with a dimension of 6.5 mm by 6.5 mm for the in-coupler and 6.5 mm by 7.1 mm for the out-coupler, after spin-coating a positive-tone e-beam resist layer (950 PMMA a4, 1000 rpm for 60 s), post-backing the PMMA layer (180 °C for 5 min) and spin-coating a charge dissipation layer (e-spacer, Showa Denko). Then the patterns are transferred onto the high-index glass substrate using multiple dry etching steps. These steps involve an inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etcher (ICP-RIE, PlasmaTherm Metal Etcher) for Cr etching with the PMMA mask and a reactive ion etcher (RIE, Oxford Dielectric Etcher) for glass etching with the Cr mask, with a specific gas mixture of Cl 2 , O 2 , CHF 3 , CF 4 and Ar, and further aided by helium backside cooling. The remaining Cr mask is eliminated by an additional ICP-RIE process. Figure 2d presents the scanning electron microscope images of the precisely fabricated all-glass metasurface couplers.

Metasurface sample images are taken by a scanning electron microscope (FEI Nova NanoSEM 450). The representative samples are coated with a thin 3 nm film of gold/palladium to reduce charing in the images. Images are acquired with an accelerating voltage of 10 kV.

CNN network architecture

Our CNNs, CNN IC and CNN target , use a modified UNet architecture 50 to efficiently learn the residual aberrations in a physical optical system. The input wavefront is augmented by concatenating its real and imaginary values with their corresponding amplitude and phase components. After the input layer, both CNNs use 32 feature channels and perform five downsampling operations using strided convolutions, as well as five upsampling operations using transposed convolutions. The networks use instance normalization 51 , leaky rectified linear unit activation (slope −0.2) for the down blocks, rectified linear unit nonlinearities for the up blocks and skip connections. CNN IC has two-channel outputs representing the real and imaginary values, while CNN target directly outputs a single-channel amplitude. a IC and a OC are the binary aperture functions of the grating couplers for the physically motivated wave propagation model. When using the artificial-intelligence-augmented model, these quantities are complex-valued fields that are learned per colour channel.

Training the waveguide model

We train our neural-network-parameterized wave propagation model using a dataset comprising a large number of pairs of SLM phase patterns and corresponding intensity images captured by a camera focusing at different depths at the output of our prototype holographic display. The SLM phase patterns in our dataset are generated using our physical waveguide model to produce images from the DIV2K dataset, at different virtual distances through the waveguide. The model is trained over four intensity planes, corresponding to 0 D ( ∞  m), 0.33 D (3 m), 0.67 D (1.5 m), 1.0 D (1 m) in the physical space. We perform our model training on a 48 GB NVIDIA RTX A6000 with a batch size of 1 and a learning rate of 3 × 10 −4 . We note that the diversity of phase patterns is important for the model training. A dataset generated using the gradient descent CGH algorithm 26 typically consists of holographic images that primarily cover a narrow angular spectrum. Thus, we generate phase patterns with a set of random parameters, including learning rates, initial phase distribution and propagation distances. We generate 10,000 patterns for each channel and capture the corresponding intensities. The dataset is divided into training, validation and test sets with a ratio of 8:1:1. The initially trained model can be used to synthesize an additional phase dataset that is used to refine the model. Such a refinement stage improves the experimental quality. We perform this refinement procedure twice for the best quality. After this training procedure, we use our learned waveguide propagation model to synthesize holograms for new 2D and 3D scenes enabling our holographic AR glasses to operate without any additional camera feedback.

Data availability

A full-colour captured dataset specific to our holographic AR glasses prototype is available upon request.

Code availability

Computer code supporting the findings of this study is available online at https://github.com/computational-imaging/holographic-AR-glasses.git .

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Acknowledgements

M.G. is supported by a Stanford Graduate Fellowship in Science and Engineering. G.-Y.L. is supported by a Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (2022R1A6A3A03073823). S.C. is supported by a Kwanjeong Scholarship and a Meta Research PhD Fellowship. B.C. is supported by a Stanford Graduate Fellowship in Science and Engineering and a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. G.W. is supported by the ARO (PECASE Award W911NF-19-1-0120), Samsung and the Sony Research Award Program. Part of this work was performed at the Stanford Nano Shared Facilities (SNSF) and Stanford Nanofabrication Facility (SNF), supported by the National Science Foundation and the National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure under award ECCS-2026822. We also thank Y. Park for her ongoing support.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Manu Gopakumar, Gun-Yeal Lee

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

Manu Gopakumar, Gun-Yeal Lee, Suyeon Choi, Brian Chao & Gordon Wetzstein

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

NVIDIA, Santa Clara, CA, USA

Jonghyun Kim

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Contributions

M.G. developed the experimental setup and captured the measurements. G.-Y.L. designed and fabricated the metasurface waveguide and performed the theoretical analysis, numerical simulations and experimental measurements on metasurfaces. M.G. and S.C. developed and implemented the algorithmic procedures with input from G.-Y.L., B.C., Y.P. and J.K. G.W. conceived the method and supervised all aspects of the project. All authors took part in designing the experiments and writing the paper and the Supplementary Information .

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gordon Wetzstein .

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Supplementary information

Supplementary information.

This file contains Supplementary Notes 1–5, Figs. 1–18, Table 1 and References.

Supplementary Video 1

Laser-synchronized 2D video results, 3D video results, 2D AR video results and 3D AR video results.

Supplementary Video 2

Metasurface optimization animation.

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Gopakumar, M., Lee, GY., Choi, S. et al. Full-colour 3D holographic augmented-reality displays with metasurface waveguides. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07386-0

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Received : 02 July 2023

Accepted : 04 April 2024

Published : 08 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07386-0

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