art deco research paper

An introduction to Art Deco

Arguably Art Deco – a term coined in the 1960s – isn't one style, but a pastiche of different styles, sources and influences. Art Deco designers borrowed from historic European movements, as well as contemporary Avant Garde art, the Russian ballets, folk art, exotic and ancient cultures, and the urban imagery of the machine age.

One of Art Deco's key sources was its forerunner, Art Nouveau, the fin de siècle style that fell out of fashion in the years before the First World War (1914 – 18). Key elements of Art Nouveau's visual language, such as plant and floral forms, were borrowed and adapted to create an updated vision, as seen in the stylised naturalistic fabric designs of the Atelier Martine.

The more linear, geometric variant of Art Nouveau, such as the work of Josef Hoffmann and Charles Rennie Mackintosh directly fed the Art Deco search for 'modern' forms and decorative motifs. Hofmann's two-handled bowl, a food vessel in gilt brass, with elegant curvilinear handles, inspired many silver designers of the 1920s.

Meanwhile, the arts of Africa and East Asia provided rich sources of forms and materials. Archaeological discoveries in the early 1920s fuelled a romantic fascination with early Africa and Mesoamerica. The excavation of Tutenkhamun's tomb in 1922 triggered a proliferation of Egyptian imagery such as lotus flowers, scarabs, hieroglyphics, pylons and pyramids. Read more about Art Deco's global influences .

One of the most pivotal moments for Art Deco (known then as 'Style Moderne') was the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925.

The exhibition, dedicated to the display of modern decorative arts, brought together thousands of designers from all over Europe and beyond, including Emile Jacques Ruhlmann and Rene Lalique. Both designers were known for their exquisite detail and sense for quality. They became prominent promoters of the early Art Deco movement, putting their own modern spin on traditional craftsmanship.

As the 1920s advanced, many designers turned to the new visual language, colour and iconography of the Avant Garde. Movements such as Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism, De Stijl, Suprematism and Constructivism – frequently bundled together under the label of 'Cubism' – were eagerly absorbed by designers seeking to capture the dynamism of the modern world. British and American critics often used the terms 'Moderne', 'Jazz Moderne' or 'Zigzag Moderne' to characterise such work. Geometric forms worked their way into all aspects of life, including everyday small items such as vanity boxes, cigarette cases, and tableware.

The stock market crash of 1929 saw the optimism of the 1920s gradually decline. By the mid 1930s, Art Deco was being derided as a gaudy, false image of luxury. By the outbreak of the Second World War, this hostility had become intense. Despite its demise, however, Art Deco made a fundamental impact on subsequent design. Its triumph is exemplified in Poul Henningse' PH lamp, manufactured by Louis Poulsen, which has been in continuous production with minor modifications ever since it was first introduced.

Art Deco's widespread application and enduring influence prove that its appeal is based on more than simple visual allure. Its strength comes from its willingness to embrace the duality of tradition and modernity, marrying luxury and function in a versatile way. These qualities and characteristics can be enjoyed, in their many guises, throughout our collections, from fashion to furniture .

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Art Deco New York Journal

It is with great pleasure that ADSNY created the  Art Deco New York  journal, our annual publication celebrating the rich interwar heritage of New York and great Deco regions from around the world.  The journal offers a wide range of articles focusing on the many aspects of the 1920s and 1930s: architecture, decorative arts and design, material culture, fashion, and lifestyle.  Art Deco New York  explores well known areas of interest for scholars and novices alike, as well as remarkable, but less explored topics that enrich our understanding of the era.

Hover on the cover below to see an overview of articles included in that issue and for options to view a digital version of each issue or order your own print copy today.

Volume 6, Issue 1 Winter 2021 This issue highlights the many important innovations of the interwar period that so dramatically shaped the architecture, design, and culture of the 1920s and 30s that we continue to celebrate today. Articles in this issue give insight into a period of dramatic technological change that transformed all aspects of life—how and where people lived, worked, traveled, sought entertainment, pursued happiness, and more. Learn More .

Volume 5, Issue 1 Winter 2020 This issue of the journal celebrates the Year of the Woman with a rich variety of informative, engaging articles that bring to light notable women of the interwar period, who were as influential and groundbreaking as their better-known male counterparts. The issue is fittingly dedicated to Barbara Baer Capitman, the catalyst for the formation of ADSNY, and many other Art Deco societies around the globe. Learn More .

Volume 4, Issue 1 Winter 2019 As we found ourselves at the dawn of the twenty-first century’s Roaring Twenties, the journal team devoted this issue to a timely to look back at the last century’s twenties and thirties through the lens of ADSNY’s founders. This issue includes articles from our vault that are just as relevant today as when they were originally published. Learn More .

Volume 3, Issue 2 Winter 2018 This issue explores Art Deco around the world featuring a look at iconic travel posters from the interwar years, the Deco district in Mumbai, Canadian Art Deco architecture, and Cuba’s tropical take on the style. Articles also include the work of San Francisco’s foremost Deco architect, a stop by Fair Park in Dallas to visit their restored 1936 fairgrounds, a self-guided walking tour through Manhattan's Rockefeller Center, and more! Learn More .

Volume 3, Issue 1 Spring 2018 This issue features an insightful look into the conversions of Art Deco commercial buildings into luxury residences, which was taking place through-out the city when the issue was published. Articles also explore the city’s first fast food chain, the legendary Automats that changed the way New Yorkers dined; legendary Art Deco ocean liners of the era, Jazz Age cocktail culture, a self-guided walking tour through Brooklyn's Bay Ridge, and more! Learn More .

Volume 2, Issue 1 Spring 2017 This issue features a timely article on architect Ralph Walker, whose famed Art Deco telephone buildings were undergoing conversions to luxury residences throughout the city at the time of publication. Articles also highlight the preservation of the famed Waldorf Astoria Hotel, Deco from the silver screen, a glimpse New York’s terra cotta Deco wonders, a self-guided walking tour through the Bronx's Grand Concourse, and more! Learn More .

Volume 1, Issue 2 Winter 2016 This issue takes us back to 1931, a watershed year for the explosive growth of Deco architecture throughout the city. It was a year that marked the completion of iconic skyscrapers, residential buildings and schools that remain a vibrant part of NYC’s built environment. Articles also highlight various types of jewelry from the period, the sculpture of Waylande Gregory, a self-guided walking tour through Manhattan's Washington Heights, and more! Learn More .

Volume 1, Issue 1 Spring 2016 This issue salutes the Empire State Building on its eighty-fifth anniversary. To celebrate this milestone, leading architectural experts shared their insights into the building’s history, landmark designation, and stunning lobby restoration. Articles also highlight cigarette holders in the Jazz Age, the artwork of Thomas Hart Benton, a self-guided walking tour through Brooklyn's Brighton Beach, and more! Learn More .

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Art Deco: A Research Guide: About

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After 1925, designs increasingly reflected the rapid artistic and technological innovations of the period between two world wars, incorporating chic elegance, eclectic historical and national imagery, and Machine Age forms into an effervescent decorative vision. Art Deco originated in a time of intense aesthetic experimentation; art movements such as the Bauhaus, Constructivism, Cubism, De Stijl, Futurism, Orphism, and Surrealism helped define the style's inherent modernism.

Art Deco design exemplified opulent consumption, crass commercialism, and the acceleration of contemporary life summed up in the Futurist credo "Speed is beauty." Art Deco's greatest achievement, however, came in its mature phase, when designers liberated the machine from long-standing artistic contempt.

The Art & Architecture Collection has excellent holdings of primary resource materials on Art Deco, including pattern books, design manuals, and catalogues from the original Paris Exposition of 1925. Many secondary resource materials are also available in the Library collections, from monographs on art, architecture, and design to survey histories of the period.

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Art Deco – A Summary of the Art Deco Era

Art Deco was an art movement that was initially unveiled at an exhibition held in Paris in 1925. While it reached the height of popularity during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, Art Deco was actually a movement that had been in development for more than a decade prior to its announcement. Seen as a very decorative art style, Art Deco artists soon experimented with the genres of design, painting, furniture, architecture, and building within its stylistic realm.

Table of Contents

• 1 What Is Art Deco?
• 2.1 The Society of Decorative Artists (1901 – 2000s)
• 2.2 The Exhibition That Formally Initiated the Start of the Art Deco Movement
• 3 An Appropriate Art Deco Definition
• 4.1 Art Deco Design
• 4.2 Art Deco Furniture
• 4.3 Art Deco Architecture
• 4.4 Art Deco Building
• 5.1 Art Deco in America
• 6 Late Art Deco
• 7.1 René Lalique (1860 – 1945)
• 7.2 Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann (1879 – 1933)
• 7.3 William Van Alen (1883 – 1954)
• 7.4 Sonia Delaunay (1885 – 1979)
• 7.5 Tamara de Lempicka (1898 – 1980)
• 8 The Legacy Left by Art Deco
• 9.1 What Is Art Deco?
• 9.2 What Are the Main Characteristics of the Art Deco Style?
• 9.3 What Are Some of the Most Iconic Art Deco Pieces Made?

What Is Art Deco?

Sometimes referred to as simply “Deco”, Art Deco was an art style that was characterized by vivid colors and daring geometry that led to extremely luxurious and detailed artworks. As a visual arts style that incorporated both elements of architecture and design, Art Deco first appeared in France just before the start of World War One. However, this movement was only announced to the public in 1925 at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, which was loosely based around the concept of the World’s Fair.

Art Decorates, as it was sometimes known, went on to influence the design of furniture, jewelry, fashion, cars, theatres, trains, and even buildings. Everyday objects, such as vacuum cleaners and radios, were not immune to the impact made by Art Deco and incorporated tell-tale characteristics of the iconic style.

As it worked to integrate advanced styles with exceptional artistry and decadent materials, Art Deco went on to represent opulence, elegance, vitality, and trust in the social and technological progress that occurred in its prime.

From the outset, Art Deco proved to be influenced by the bold geometric forms made famous by the Cubism movement, as well as the bright colors used within Fauvism . Bringing with it a great sense of order, the Art Deco style presented proportionate and balanced designs in lush and cheerful shapes. Art Deco design managed to find its way into many early 20th-century design forms, with the movement experimenting with elements of fine art , architecture, fashion, furniture, forms of transport, and even ordinary appliances.

As an art movement , the features that defined Art Deco were easily identifiable. Deco art was typically recognized as a hodgepodge of different styles and seen as an eclectic amalgamation of various influences, materials, and shapes. Due to this, it can be hard to differentiate the Art Deco style from other similar schools of art like Art Nouveau , Art Moderne, the Bauhaus school, or the Arts and Craft movement.

Despite that, the Art Deco period was an incredibly influential one, with its decorative manner going on to inspire a variety of other artistic styles.

A History of the Art Deco Movement

Towards the end of the 19 th century, many French artists , architects, and designers who were instrumental in the development of Art Nouveau noticed that the movement had become very outdated. With the 20 th century close approaching, and the effects of the Industrial Revolution coming into play, creatives were inspired to produce a style of art that would scream “tasteful and modern” from the rooftops. The Art Deco period was determined to restore France’s reputation as the first-class creator of decorative arts once again.

The establishment of the Salon or Société des artistes décorateurs in France, who designed furniture, interiors, and art, helped raise the respect for art objects.

This society helped to slowly expand the definition of art beyond painting and sculpture into other domains that had not been considered before, such as glassware and jewelry. Eventually, those who created Art Deco works that were not considered to be “fine art” before were suddenly viewed as artists instead of mere artisans.

The polished and streamlined style that was Art Deco grew out of a longing and assertive desire to be free of the past and to welcome the future in all of its manufactured and machine-driven brilliance.

The prominence of the Art Deco era rose and fell in between the two World Wars, with the style playing an important role in molding the West’s modern vision. This was particularly noticeable in France and the United States, where the influence of the Art Deco style could be seen in the types of architecture that were used.

While Art Deco emphasized the features of speed, power, and progression, its artworks were contrasted with the lighter and more delicate elements of the previous Art Nouveau movement to create a truly unique style. Art Nouveau, which was a predominant style before the First World War, was heavily inspired by the natural world and incorporated things like winding vines, flower petals, and flowy waves in the artworks created. This celebration of organic shapes differed greatly from the clean and geometric style of Art Deco.

Seen as quite a structured style, Art Deco took on a very Gatsby-esque self-indulgence based on the types of works created. Adopting features from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s iconic novel, The Great Gatsby , the Art Deco style celebrated the flamboyance, frivolity, and decadence that emerged during the 1920s in America. Just as the characters within Fitzgerald’s book were fixated with the glitz and glamour that was synonymous with the lifestyle at the time, Art Deco celebrated everything that was considered to be luxurious and forward-thinking.

As an art style, Art Deco was considered to be one of the most exciting eras of design.

It latched onto the flourishing post-war America with its new inventions that were available to even the average person, which led consumer tastes for luxury to go through the roof. As a result, the Art Deco style was forced to quickly develop to reflect this intoxicating sense of progress. Art Deco also evolved alongside other avant-garde movements and aspects of culture at the time, which resulted in a blend of art, design, fashion, and performance.

During the Great Depression in the 1930s, Deco art became more subdued as popular taste shifted towards less ostentatious forms that included materials like stainless steel, chrome plating, and plastic. However, the style quickly went out of fashion during World War Two.

During the 1960s, a restored fascination in Art Deco design was fostered and as of today, Art Deco continues to be a key motivation in areas of decorative art, fashion, and even jewelry design.

Representing modernism that was turned into fashion, Art Deco exists as one of the first truly international styles. The purpose behind the artworks was to create a stylish and anti-traditional form of refinement that represented wealth and sophistication. Art Deco marked a time of newly discovered optimism after World War One and oriented itself towards the future and contemporary notions of progress.

The Society of Decorative Artists (1901 – 2000s)

Art Deco reached its peak in 1925 when the French government promoted the Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes. The only real requirement to exhibit at this fair was that all artworks needed to be “thoroughly modern”, which demonstrated the focus of the movement. The exhibition proved to be incredibly popular and was widely visited, which helped to firmly establish Art Deco in art history. The show also prompted the official name of the movement, Arts Decorates.

This society was made up of famous figures in the art world, like Art Nouveau designer and printmaker Eugene Grasset, and Art Nouveau architect Hector Grimard. Other budding decorative artists and designers also joined this group and helped with the development of its style. The French government proved to be incredibly supportive of this style of art and helped encourage the growth of this artistic activity.

One of the major goals of this group was to contest the hierarchical organization of the visual arts that demoted decorative artists to an inferior status when compared to the more traditional painting and sculpting forms.

This was because the Art Deco style was treated as the “Cinderella” of the art world – supposedly inadequate in comparison to the other forms of art that existed. Based on this, the purpose of the exposition was to introduce the new type of decorative art that had formed but was postponed for several reasons until 1925.

The Exhibition That Formally Initiated the Start of the Art Deco Movement

The French government, which hosted the Exposition International des Arts Decorates et Industrials Moderns were seen as responsible for introducing the Art Deco style into the art world. More than 15,000 artists, architects, and designers went on to present their works at this exhibition that ran for seven months, with over 16 million people from around the world coming to view the individual exhibits. Therefore, this exhibition was regarded as the catalyst that launched the beginning of the Art Deco movement.

An Appropriate Art Deco Definition

When talking about a suitable Art Deco definition, the fact that it was one of the most influential and decorative styles from the beginning of the 20 th century is usually included in the interpretation. Taking its name from the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts, the term “arts decorates” was first used in France in 1858 before the iconic label of “Art Deco” was decided on. Once the movement had a name, it quickly gained acceptance around the world. 

At first, the term “Art Deco” was used in a disdainful way by the modernist architect Le Corbusier.

The name was used in articles where he mocked the style for its embellishment, which was a feature that Le Corbusier considered to be useless in modern architecture. While supporters of the Art Deco style praised it for its stripped-down approach, its name was still met with much scorn. Only in the late 1960s, when a greater interest was starting to be paid towards the style, was the Art Deco definition restored.

The Art Deco definition was used in a positive way for the first time by British critic and art historian, Bevis Hillier. His definitive use of the term “Art Deco” in his first book, Art Deco of the 20s and 30s , properly cemented the name into art history.

Based on this, the Art Deco definition described the movement as one that was made up of bold geometric shapes and strong colors that were used in a variety of art forms, most notably in architecture and objects.

Different Forms of Art Deco Art

The Art Deco period was characterized by harmonious, clean, geometric, sleek, usually uncomplicated, and visually pleasing artworks. The style’s main visual features derived from repetitive use of linear shapes that frequently included triangular, trapezoidal, zigzag, and chevron-patterned forms. Similar to the precursor movement of Art Nouveau, objects like humans, animals, or even flowers were rendered in a highly stylized and streamlined way in order to maintain the general aesthetic of Art Deco.

In order to keep up with the style’s emphasis on modern technology, Art Deco artists joined natural materials with modern and man-made ones like synthetic plastic, glass, reinforced concrete, and stainless steel. However, when a splash of sophistication was needed from Art Deco artworks, designers worked to incorporate more unusual materials into their works to give off a wealthier feel, such as ivory, horn, and even zebra skin.

Based on this style, the Art Deco movement was less connected to the traditional supposedly superior forms of art that were made up of painting and sculpture.

As Art Deco design was influenced by industrialization and the technical advancements in society, artworks displayed approval for the modernity of the machine and the innate design qualities of machine-made objects. This led to Art Deco primarily being experimented within design, furniture, architecture, and buildings.

Art Deco Design

When it first appeared, the Art Deco style wielded its impact all over the graphic art of the time. This was done in such a way that the impact of Italian Futurism was revealed, as the style’s passion for speed and its devotion to the machine could be seen in the works produced.

The use of lines to denote movement, made famous by Futurist artists, was used by Art Deco creatives in the form of parallel lines and narrowing forms to indicate the concept of balance and streamlining.

Art Deco design went on to feature many aspects that implied motion during the mid-1930s, as movement demonstrated an influence from advanced aerodynamic standards that were developed for aviation and ballistics to diminish aerodynamic drag at high velocities. Shapes that helped to signify motion were then used in many different Art Deco designs and even featured in objects that were genuinely not intended to ever move, such as refrigerators and buildings.

In terms of the imagery produced, Art Deco design elements could be seen in the basic forms and huge sections of solid colors that were used. These features were similar to Japanese woodblock prints, which Art Deco artists looked to for inspiration. The influx of Japanese art into Europe following the First World War left a great impact on countries, most notably France.

Artists found that the simplicity of these woodblock prints mirrored the clearly modern and sleek styles that Art Deco was attempting to create.

Art Deco Furniture

Another prominent feature of Art Deco art was the furniture that was produced during the movement’s era. It was not until the late 1920s that the concept of furniture was even explored, with the avant-garde Art Nouveau furniture designs going on to inspire the up-and-coming Art Deco creatives. The types of furniture that were then created under the new Art Deco style proved to be more basic and less arched in design, with modernity existing as the main message.

As the Art Deco movement continued, Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann appeared to be the forerunner in furniture.

While his furniture pieces took inspiration from the Neoclassical style of the 18 th century, he worked to remove as much of the embellishment as possible while still using the luxurious materials preferred by Art Nouveau designers.

These materials included mahogany, ebony, ivory, and even tortoiseshell. As they were completely out of reach for ordinary individuals, his furniture was only available to the most well-off citizens.

As Ruhlmann’s furniture works appeared to fluctuate between the Art Nouveau and Art Deco style , this left a gap in the market for a more definitive Art Deco furniture designer to arrive. This occurred in the form of Jules Leela, who was merely a traditional designer prior to the development of the Art Deco period. Leela, after finding inspiration in the new and exciting Art Deco style, went on to design the furniture featured in the grand dining room of the Elysée Palace in Paris, which was his most iconic project.

Art Deco Architecture

The architecture that emerged from the Art Deco period is possibly one of the most well-known features of the entire art movement. Making its debut in Paris between 1903 and 1904, Art Deco architecture began with the construction of two apartment buildings designed by Auguste Perret and Henri Savage. These two architects worked with reinforced concrete for the very first time in Parisian suburban buildings, with its clean lines, rectangular forms, and lack of decoration on the facade demonstrating a clear departure from the Art Nouveau style.

Art Deco architecture is therefore distinguished by hard-edged and often amply decorated designs emphasized by lustrous metal accents. Many of the buildings designed using the features of Art Deco architecture have an upright emphasis, as they were built in a way that meant to draw the eyes of those walking on the streets upwards.

The buildings created in this style were often rectangular, blockish, and organized geometrically, with the addition of curved ornamental features adding to the sleek effect that was intended.

Some of the most famous American examples of Art Deco architecture include a variety of skyscrapers that were built in New York City, as well as several pastel-colored buildings that were constructed in Miami. In the Interwar period, Art Deco quickly became the most common and popular architectural style available and began to spread to other parts of the world. The influence of Art Deco architecture during the first half of the 20 th century can still be seen when looking at some of the prevailing buildings that still stand in America today.

Art Deco Building

Some of the most recognizable buildings in America today represent the Art Deco style and patterns in its architecture. After World War One, Art Deco buildings that made use of steel and reinforced concrete began to appear all over large cities in America and Europe. In America, these buildings were typically used for offices, movie theatres, railroad stations, and government buildings.

Art Deco building elements also featured in some engineering projects, most notably in the towers of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco.

The most famous Art Deco buildings, which still exist in their original form today, include Rockefeller Centre, the Empire State Building , and the truly iconic Chrysler Building, all located in New York City. Considered to be the most commemorative expressions of the Art Deco style, these buildings became the tallest and most recognizable contemporary buildings in the world at the time. They were essentially designed to demonstrate the reputation of builders through their height, shape, color, and striking radiance of the evening.

Skyscrapers were seen as a completely modern creation within the Art Deco era.

These buildings emphasized neat lines and stability at an often-dizzying level. New York’s skyline was drastically altered by the Chrysler Building in 1930, which stood as the pinnacle of success when it came to Art Deco building. At 77 floors, it was known as the world’s tallest building for 11 months until construction on the Empire State Building began. The Chrysler Building existed as a large commercial for Chrysler cars.

What made the Chrysler Building so symbolic was its style of decoration. Triangles around the curved tiers adorned the peak of the building, with these shapes being placed in a way that copied the sun gleaming towards a peak. Art Deco gargoyles were also featured as ornamentation that closely imitated the hood ornament of a car.

This gravity-defying skyscraper, as it was described at the time, featured all of the essential Art Deco building elements as it invoked the modern man versus nature struggle in its architecture.

Key Accomplishments of Art Deco

As a modern style of creation, Art Deco attempted to blend functional objects with artistic touches. This is one of the aspects that made Art Deco so different from other fine art styles like painting and sculpture, as artworks had no other real purpose or use beyond functioning as something intriguing for viewers to look at.

With the emergence of widespread manufacturing, Art Deco artists were able to improve the appearance of their mass-produced functional objects so that they were accessible to everyone in society.

One of the biggest accomplishments of the Art Deco movement was the fact that almost everything could be seen as art, from something as simple as clocks, glassware, and ashtrays to more complex creations like cars and buildings.

This demonstrated Art Deco’s quest to find beauty in all facets of life, with the movement’s aim reflecting the considerable originality and mass usage of machine-age technology that existed at the time. Art Deco achieved this by focusing on the elegance and appeal of objects that already existed around us, with another accomplishment of the Art Deco era being its truly democratic aim. Artists attempted to make even the plainest and unrefined objects, like machine-made objects, as aesthetically pleasing as possible.

Art Deco in America

In America, the Art Deco movement was met with a completely different approach. Herbert Hoover, who was the Secretary of Commerce then, stated that no American artists and designers were allowed to display their work at the Exposition International in France. This was because Hoover believed that they were yet to come up with an explicitly American style of art that was sufficiently “new enough”.

In response to this, he sent a group to France to assess the artworks at the Exposition and to bring home any ideas that could be applied in a modern American artistic and architectural sense.

Within this traveling cohort, Hoover included important figures from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Institute of Architecture, as well as several individuals from The New York Times . This trip to Europe went on to inspire an almost instantaneous expansion in artistic innovation and creation in the United States.

The American Art Deco style proved to be quite different from the original style that developed in France. Nicknamed “Streamline Moderne”, American Art Deco was a more diminished and sleeker version when compared to the complex and regularly bespoke European Art Deco style.

Emphasizing the technological advancements of the era, American Art Deco quickly grew and expanded to have a far greater following and use in the United States than in Europe.

The presence of a unique Art Deco style helped to return some trust and belief in social progress in America, as the artworks that were created were thought to be an expression of national pride. The American World Fairs in Chicago (1933) and New York City (1939) mainly featured Art Deco designs, as Hollywood adopted the style and made it alluring throughout the country. American Art Deco’s rapid growth created an expression of democracy through its designs, which were made accessible to ordinary citizens.

Late Art Deco

By 1925, two completely different and contending schools coexisted within the Art Deco movement. These schools were made up of the traditionalists and the modernists. The traditionalists, who had originally established the Society of Decorative Artists, included furniture designer Emile-Jacques Ruhlmann, interior designer Jean Dunant, sculptor Antoine Bordello, and designer Paul Poirot.

This school of Art Deco was known for its combination of advanced forms with conventional techniques and pricey materials.

On the other hand, the modernists stood out for their blatant rejection of the past. Artists within this Art Deco group sought to find and create an artistic style that was based on new developments in technologies, simplicity, an absence of decoration, and the use of cheaper materials and mass production.

The modernists established their own organization in 1929, which was called the French Union of Modern Artists. Creatives within this group included Pierre Chateau, Francis Jourdain, Le Corbusier, and Sonia Delaunay.

The modernist Art Deco group criticized the traditional Art Deco style, which they formed was only created to serve the wealthy.

This group argued that well-made buildings, for example, should be accessible and convenient to everyone no matter their financial status, and that form should automatically follow function. Based on this, the elegance and charm of an object or building rested upon whether it was perfectly capable of fulfilling its function and not related to the art audience who would most likely be viewing the works.

Notable Art Deco Artists

Many artists participated in the Art Deco movement, ranging from painters, sculptors, interior designers, furniture makers, and architects. Below, we will be taking a look at several notable creatives who created significant artworks within the Art Deco period and whose influence is still discussed today.

René Lalique (1860 – 1945)

French designer René Lalique has gone down in history as one of the world’s most well-known glass art designers from the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries. His legacy as an Art Deco artist is still strong today, with his glasswork pieces still highly favored by collectors. During his career, Lalique was best known for his beautiful perfume bottles, jewelry, vases, chandeliers, clocks, and car hood ornaments.

Lalique quickly became one of the most acclaimed Art Nouveau jewelry designers and went on to work for prominent French jewelers like Cartier and Boucheron.

In the 1920s, after Lalique had refined his glass art creations, he rejected the style of Art Nouveau and expressed an interest in fluid and organic forms. This led to him embracing the techniques of the emerging Art Deco style, with his artworks becoming sleeker in the process. Lalique experimented with a variety of new materials, yet he preferred to work with glass.

As he practiced within the Art Deco movement, his style of glassmaking dominated the jewelry industry. Lalique’s triumph was also credited to an older method of glass casting, which was rarely used up until this point, and enabled him to effortlessly produce multiples of the same design. In addition to his dainty perfume bottles and pieces of jewelry, some of Lalique’s monumental Art Deco works include the walls of illuminated glass and glass pillars for the ocean liner, Normandie .

However, one of Lalique’s most well-known glass sculptures was “Victoire”, which he created in 1928.

Made to be a glass hood ornament for a car, Victoire represents a female figure in the wind. With her face keenly sticking out and her hair dangling behind her like a single, sharp wing, this sculpture makes reference to the ancient Greek sculpture, Winged Victory , located in the Louvre. With Victoire existing as both fine art and a sculptural object, it seems to encapsulate everything that Art Deco was due to its truly American style.

Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann (1879 – 1933)

One of the most prominent furniture and interior designers within the Art Deco movement was French artist Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann. His furniture designs appeared to be incredibly streamlined, as he made use of very extravagant and outlandish materials that he worked with using his exceptionally delicate craftsmanship. During the movement’s height of popularity, Ruhlmann became a symbol of the opulence and contemporaneity associated with the Art Deco style.

Ruhlmann’s lavish style produced different reactions from a number of different Art Deco designers and architects. Le Corbusier, in particular, responded to the types of artworks produced by Ruhlmann by calling for the creation of uncomplicated and more practical furniture pieces instead. However, Ruhlmann strongly believed that the preservation of art relied entirely on the upper class, with his designs going on to perfectly capture the sensational and magnificent spirit of the time.

Although he was restrictive when it came to ornamentation, Ruhlmann fashioned his furniture pieces out of the most exotic materials at the time. As a firm favorite of the post-war bourgeois classes, Ruhlmann designed furniture that was able to display the newfound wealth and taste of the recently emerging aristocratic society.

Due to this, the greatest achievement of Ruhlmann’s career was said to have been his ability to merge the classical style of the past with the more advanced style of the modern world.

One of Ruhlmann’s notable furniture pieces, produced in 1922, was État Cabinet . Diverging from the typically Art Nouveau style in terms of its symmetry and restricted color palette, Ruhlmann made use of a strong wood that contrasted sharply against the intricate ivory design. Despite this, the elaborate floral features borrowed heavily from the Art Nouveau style, with État Cabinet existing as a more updated and simplified object that seemed stuck between the two styles of Art Nouveau and Art Deco.

William Van Alen (1883 – 1954)

Perhaps the most important artist to come from the Art Deco period was American architect William Van Alen, who designed the iconic Chrysler Building in New York City. Born in Brooklyn, Van Alen went on to study architecture in both the United States and Paris before settling on a specific architectural style. In 1910, after returning from Paris, Van Alen displayed his keen interest in the style of modernism, which was said to have been inspired by the early stages of the still-developing Art Deco movement.

Many of the significant buildings in New York were built during the peak of the Art Deco movement. The famous Chrysler Building, which changed the skyline of the city, was designed by Van Alen in the late 1920s, with the building being completed in 1930.

Built in the Turtle Bay neighborhood on the East Side of Manhattan, the Chrysler Building is known for being one of the most striking skyscrapers in the city. This style of architecture proved to be incredibly popular and continued to be used well into the 1960s.

Completed in less than two years, it was said that approximately four floors were built each week, which was a surprisingly rapid fast for the types of machinery that was available at the time.

Financed by Walter P. Chrysler, the building was designed to make reference to Chrysler automobiles. Van Alen’s original design used many modernist stylistic elements, such as curved windows at the corners. Two of the most recognizable aspects of the building include the famous gargoyles, as well as the seven arched crowns at the top of the tower.

Sonia Delaunay (1885 – 1979)

One of the few female artists who practiced in the Art Deco movement was the Russian-born French artist Sonia Delaunay. Co-founder of the Orphism art movement , Delaunay is said to have been included with other notable Art Deco designers who still hold a strong influence over various fashion trends today. Inspired by the Cubist and Fauvist movements, Delaunay worked closely with fellow Surrealist and Dada artists while perfecting her style. This led to her becoming the first designer to bring abstract inspiration into the realm of fashion.

Delaunay was fascinated with the idea of geometric design, which proved to be modern and essentially fashionable between 1920 and 1930. As a textile designer, in addition to being a painter, Delaunay produced some of her most notable fashion pieces during this time. Color was a major aspect that featured in her works, which she defined as “dynamic art”.

Delaunay’s bold color and textile combinations led to her title of “designer of modern fashion” during the 1925 Exposition in Paris.

Her most well-known garment is perhaps her patchwork dresses, which existed as experimentations of “simultanism”. Mixing a variety of colors and materials, Delaunay made use of different bold blocks of color and loud geometric shapes, which made her dresses stand out. Her success in fashion is partly due to her liberation of the silhouette in female clothing after World War One, with her creations and art still influencing modern fashion houses like Christian Dior and Yves Saint Laurent today.

Tamara de Lempicka (1898 – 1980)

Another very important female artist who produced artworks during the Art Deco period is Tamara de Lempicka . Possibly one of the most respected and recognizable artists to emerge from the Art Deco movement, Polish-born Lempicka was best known for her refined and trendy Art Deco depictions of the wealthy class and her incredibly stylized paintings of nudes. Settling in Paris after the Russian revolution, Lempicka became fascinated with the nonconformist Parisian lifestyle that existed in the 1920s.

Lempicka’s portraits brought her critical praise and significant wealth. Her style of painting perfectly depicted a lifestyle of luxury and glamour, with inspiration being taken from other movements like Cubism.

Her unique approach to Art Deco painting allowed her to present works that were both extravagant yet clean and precise in nature. The boldness of Lempicka’s colors and her angular style referenced some of the main features of the Art Deco style, which has led to her works being seen as the best representation of Art Deco painting.

Among her iconic works include Young Lady with Gloves , which was painted in 1930 and exists as one of her best-known works. Depicting a fashionably modest lady in a green dress, further emphasized by her subtly matching white hat and gloves, her vivid red lipstick makes her stand out despite her apparent timidness.

The sharp, almost fractured planes of color that were used to depict the facial features and the dress fabric exist as Lempicka’s signature style, which also demonstrates the interplay of Cubism and Art Deco on her artistic style.

Today, Lempicka’s portraits and paintings are still greeted with the same amount of enthusiasm as they were before. While her artworks were originally intended for an elite audience, they have sparked debate across all classes of society and are favored by many. Lempicka was considered to be one of the most prominent portrait painters of her generation, with the clean lines and sleek elegance of her artworks existing as perfect examples of the Art Deco style.

The Legacy Left by Art Deco

The same characteristics that made the Art Deco movement so popular in the beginning, such as its exquisite craftsmanship, rich materials, and ornamentation, eventually led to its decline. The Great Depression, which began in 1929 in the United States and reached Europe soon after, began to slowly foster a sense of deterioration in the art movement.

This devastating economic blow greatly reduced the number of affluent clients who could afford Art Deco furnishings and objects at the time, which led to the style quickly dwindling.

The emergence of World War Two seemed to signify Art Deco’s falling from grace. During the wartime years, the restraint of society caused the Art Deco style to seem even more decadent than it already appeared to be, which was ill-fitting in a time of history that was so solemn. The limited supply of metal that could be recovered was used in building military weapons and equipment instead of decorating buildings and interior spaces. In a society that was so grave at the time, objects like furniture were no longer seen as important status items.

Additionally, the crash of the stock market in 1929 redirected the Art Deco movement towards the concept of mass production. Several technological advancements allowed for more affordable production of basic consumer items, which drove out the need for and subsequent popularity of the existing Art Deco designers. By the early 1930s, Streamline Moderne developed in response to the Art Deco ideals within America, with this new style focusing on the simplification of designs in objects, furniture, and architecture.

Art Deco experienced a revitalization during the 1960s with the beginning of the consumerist culture. Since then, a steady and continued interest in the Art Deco movement can be seen in the various art styles and designs that have emerged, which all seem to carry hints of the streamlined aesthetic of Deco art. Despite Art Deco developing as a movement that aimed to escape the past, it has now become a sentimental and fond memory of a classical style that has proven to be inseparable from the past.

As an art style that still has implications today, the development of Art Deco design has truly been remarkable. Despite being popular almost a century ago, Art Deco was considered to be one of the first styles of modern architecture to really make an impact on the art world. Today, inspiration is still being taken from this quintessential style, which has allowed this decorative type of art to essentially come back into fashion again. No matter how much time has passed, Deco art’s striking geometric shapes will forever remain iconic.

Frequently Asked Questions

Art Deco, which emerged onto the art scene in the early 1920s, was an art style defined by its fascination with modernity. This idea could be seen through the elements of vibrant colors and bold geometric patterns that were used, as the aim was to create lavish and truly opulent artworks. Art Deco is also most famously known for its contribution to architecture.

What Are the Main Characteristics of the Art Deco Style?

The main characteristic of the Art Deco style was its pure admiration for the concept of modernity, as well as its respect for the advancement of machinery and technology. Elements that were able to emphasize simplicity, repetition, and symmetry were frequently used, which allowed Art Deco artworks to appear with a clean and streamlined aesthetic.

What Are Some of the Most Iconic Art Deco Pieces Made?

Art Deco architecture has proven to be the most significant genre of the style, as it has produced some of the most well-known modern buildings to date. These include Rockefeller Centre, the Empire State Building, and the absolutely breathtaking Chrysler Building, all built in New York City.

Isabella studied at the University of Cape Town in South Africa and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts majoring in English Literature & Language and Psychology. Throughout her undergraduate years, she took Art History as an additional subject and absolutely loved it. Building on from her art history knowledge that began in high school, art has always been a particular area of fascination for her. From learning about artworks previously unknown to her, or sharpening her existing understanding of specific works, the ability to continue learning within this interesting sphere excites her greatly.

Her focal points of interest in art history encompass profiling specific artists and art movements, as it is these areas where she is able to really dig deep into the rich narrative of the art world. Additionally, she particularly enjoys exploring the different artistic styles of the 20 th century, as well as the important impact that female artists have had on the development of art history.

Learn more about Isabella Meyer and the Art in Context Team .

Cite this Article

Isabella, Meyer, “Art Deco – A Summary of the Art Deco Era.” Art in Context. December 17, 2021. URL: https://artincontext.org/art-deco/

Meyer, I. (2021, 17 December). Art Deco – A Summary of the Art Deco Era. Art in Context. https://artincontext.org/art-deco/

Meyer, Isabella. “Art Deco – A Summary of the Art Deco Era.” Art in Context , December 17, 2021. https://artincontext.org/art-deco/ .

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The paper deals with the cultural invention of “Mexico” and “Spain” through the architectural imaginaries developed by Spanish immigrant communities in both sides of the Atlantic. It engages the social world known in the early XXth century as “indianos”. Migration produced displacement, and “change.” The reconstruction of cultural Hispanic imaginaries – among them architecture- became a fundamental goal in immigrant´s identitary issues. Concerns like loyalties to a certain nation, region, tradition or social groups and specially those related to both imagined worlds – the old homeland that was left and the new homeland adopted without fully integrating into it. New traditions are born but conceived as old, new imaginaries – such as regional, “Spanish” or “Mexican” architecture- are thought as authentic. The invention of a “Spanish architecture from America/Mexico” that is recognized overseas, opened a new cultural mental map through which this immigrant community imagined and thought Latin America. These modern spaces and their urban proyection, have been scarcely analyzed by Mexican historiography. Reduced to historical styles, the counterpoint between these imaginaries and their invention of a different cultural boundary that unites Spain and Mexico are not even considered. Nevertheless, through the architecture of the “indianos” constructed in both countries at the same time , we can start thinking about alternative territorial models in the historical invention of Latin America.

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Art Deco: Style with a Timeless Appeal

Le messager. NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 1562090

Art Deco is one of the most distinctive styles thanks to its far-reaching influence across the arts and culture and across time. Characterized by its sharp-edged looks and stylized geometric patterns it is a decorative style that flourished between 1919 and 1939 throughout Europe and the United States. Initially known as "le style moderne" or "Jazz Moderne" the style originated in France and garnered international attention thanks to a government-sponsored exhibition Exposition internationale des arts décoratifs et industriels modernes which occurred from April to October of 1925 in Paris.

The style was crafted by the French to represent elegance, wealth, and sophistication and served as a continuation of both the Arts and Crafts movement and Art Nouveau by continuing the trend within the decorative arts of reacting against a Machine Age standardization that was sacrificing aesthetic beauty in favor of mass production. It was a movement closely connected with an appreciation for the decorative arts which was only starting to garner validation as an art form.

Rosalinde. NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 826000

The Art Deco aesthetic is closely associated with the opulence and extravagance that defined the 1920s. During its height, it was regarded as futuristic because of its streamlined forms and for that reason, it is important to understand the mood of the period during which it emerged. The Roaring Twenties , also known as the Jazz Age, was a decade that saw economic growth, widespread prosperity, and intellectual liberation. Modern technologies such as radios and automobiles were fairly new phenomenons providing individuals with access to travel, entertainment, and information in new and exciting forms. The Machine Age also introduced the possibility that commodities could be mass-produced which opened the door to notions of excess. In the United States, it also coincided with the Harlem Renaissance, the 19th Amendment (which granted women the right to vote), the liberated modern woman known as the flapper , and the notion of the modern city which resulted in the move towards erecting the modern skyscraper. Prospects were looking good.

350 Fifth Avenue - West 34th Street NYPL Digital Collections, Image ID: 1557871

Unfortunately, the Great Depression brought devastating effects at an international level not only deflating the economy but the lively spirit of the people as well. The once-glamorous Deco style and the notion of excess were no longer apropos and so the style evolved into a less flashy version known as Streamline Moderne . Art Deco fell out of favor in 1939 with the start of World War II and the emergence of modernism.

The 1960s brought about a resurgence of the style in both the scholarly and the popular level. This may be because of the similarities between the two periods for once again an era was emerging with a focus on liberation and the world of tomorrow. It was during this time that the term Art Deco , short for “arts décoratif,” gained popularity as the official term for the style.

The first instance during the 1960s where the term Art Deco showed up in print was with the 1966 exhibition Les Années '25': Art déco. Bauhaus. Stijl. Esprit nouveau curated by Yvonne Brunhammer at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris. She would later go on to curate other exhibitions on the style, such as the exhibition on French glass designer René Lalique , and ultimately publish a book in 1984 entitled The Art Deco Style .

New York Times, January 28, 1923. ProQuest Historical Newspapers

Then there was the newspaper article published in a November 1966 edition of The Times (London) which discussed the recent interest in 1920’s fashion and ornamentation. The article, "Art Deco" by Hilary Gelson, addresses the popularity of the term by individuals who she dubs “connoisseurs.” She mentions the Brunhammer exhibition of the same year to point out the increase in interest and even provides suggestions for “shopping in the 1920s style”.

Pop art was at its height during the 1960s but it did not stop Art Deco from penetrating the world of artists. Roy Lichenstein, for example, was influenced by the style, creating retro-modernist works that encompassed a 1920s feel with a futuristic appeal. Another artist who became interested in the style was, “collector extraordinaire,” as a Washington Post article described him, Andy Warhol, who had amassed a rather impressive collection of Art Deco which ended up selling after his death at a 1988 Sotheby’s auction .

1968 book Art Deco of the '20s and '30s.

It was with the publication of the 1968 book Art Deco of the 20s and 30s by art historian Bevis Hillier that the term “Art Deco” amassed widespread popularity. It is the first major academic book focused on answering the question “What is Art Deco?” He explains the term as stemming from the title of the 1925 French exhibition that showcased the style to the international community and mentions why he prefers this term for describing the style.

“First, it is easily anglicized, simply by removing the accent. Secondly, this name has a similarity to Art Nouveau which rightly suggests a kinship between the two styles. Thirdly, “Art Deco” unlike the other names, does not associate the style only with the 1920s...Finally, Art Deco is already a name in reasonably common use." 

Since the 1960s, Art Deco has had other revivals. For example, during the 1970s it also managed to garner interest thanks to the release of the 1974 film The Great Gatsby which romanticized the era and starred Robert Redford and Mia Farrow. In the 1980s the style also influenced the Italian avant-gardist Memphis Group which caused another resurgence that was later picked up by the television series Miami Vice .

The enduring appeal of Art Deco is quite remarkable. We believe that it is due in part to the fact that it is a style that truly permeates every aspect of the arts giving it an everlasting quality. It is a symbol of the modern city and can be seen in the architecture of big and small cities alike. It is a style focused on the essence of what is visually appealing. It is also a paradox both nostalgic yet vanguard. We never know when it will pop up again.

Are we due for another resurgence? An April 2020 Washington Post article points to the similarities between 1920 and 2020 and claims that the time is here. To this, we say that we are ready...

For anyone interested in the style we would like you to know that the Art & Architecture Collection has excellent holdings of primary resource materials on the style. This includes pattern books, design manuals, and catalogs from the original Paris Exposition of 1925. Many secondary resource materials are also available in the Library collections, from monographs on art, architecture, and design to survey histories of the period.

In conjunction with this blog post, we have also prepared a Libguide titled Art Deco: A Research Guide and our librarians are available to help answer questions via email at [email protected] .

"A century after art deco’s birth, designers say we’re due for a revival" Washington Post . (1974-Current file), Apr 2 2020, p. E1 Gale Academic OneFile. 17 August 2020.

"Art Deco" Times (London, England) . (1785-Current file), Nov 2 1966, p. E1 Times Digital Archive. 17 August 2020.

Brunhammer, Yvonne. (1984). The Art Deco Style . New York: St. Martin's

Brunhammer, Yvonne. (2007). René Lalique: Inventeur du Bijou Moderne . Paris: Gallimard.

Doris, Sara. (2014). "Roy Lichtenstein’s Retromodernism". American Art , 28(2),  88-105.

France. Ministère du commerce. (1925). Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Moderne s . Paris: Imprimerie de Vaugirard.

Guffey, Elizabeth E. (2006). Retro: The Culture of Revival . London: Reaktion.

Hillier, Bevis. (1968). Art Deco of the 20s and 30s . London, Studio Vista.

Margulies, Phillip. (2004). The Roaring Twenties . San Diego, Calif: Greenhaven Press.

Radice, Barbara. (1984). Memphis: Research, Experiences, Results, Failures, and Successes of New Design . New York: Rizzoli.

Sanders, Steven. (2010). Miami Vice . Detroit: Wayne State University Press.

Sotheby's. (1988). The Andy Warhol Collection: Sold for the Benefit of the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts . New York: Sotheby's.

 "The Collected Legacy of Andy Warhol" Washington Post . (1974-Current file), Mar 13 1988, p. E1 ProQuest Historical Newspapers. 17 August 2020.

Union centrale des arts décoratifs. (1966). Les Années '25': Art déco. Bauhaus. Stijl. Esprit nouveau . Paris, France: Union centrale des arts décoratifs.

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Art Dekho – a history of Mumbai’s iconic Art Deco architecture

After miami, india has the most art deco buildings in the world. the movements originated in france and subsequently spread to the us and later, the rest of the world. here's a look at how art deco evolved in mumbai, and how local citizens are conserving the city's long legacy..

Few may know that Mumbai, a city perhaps best encapsulated by its massively congested urban sprawl and towering skyscrapers, is actually home to the second largest collection of Art Deco buildings in the world.

Salman Rushdie, in an essay for the book Bombay Meri Jaan, says that the style was such an integral feature of his conceptualisation of the city that he thought it originated across the seven islands. “I actually grew up believing Art Deco to be the ‘Bombay style,’ a local invention, its name derived, in all probability, from the imperative of the verb to see,” he writes, “Art dekho, Lo and behold art.”

Rushdie isn’t speaking in hyperbole. Estimates suggest that Mumbai can claim over 880 Art Deco buildings including residences, hotels and cinemas spanning from the wealthy enclaves of Malabar Hill to the chaotic bazaars of Mohammed Ali Road. They belong to the affluent, the middle class, and the millions of others who call this city their home.

Popular amongst architects and princes, the Art Deco movement signified modernity and opulence, serving both as a reminder of Bombay’s storied past and as a gold beacon of hope for its ambitious future.

History of the Art Deco Movement

Art Deco is best described as an amalgamation of different artistic styles, borrowing bold geometric forms from Cubism, bright colours from Fauvism and incorporating motifs from early Aztec and Egyptian art. It was the first modern style to adopt new technologies, embracing innovation and luxury while maintaining its own uncluttered and functional aesthetic. The movement was born from the industrial revolution, at a time where jazz, ocean liners, machines and aeroplanes hypnotised the world with their beauty, efficiency and the winds of change they brought along. Art Deco managed to perfectly capture that zeitgeist, positioning itself as the artistic celebration of progress and modernity.

While the description, Art Deco, can be applied to various forms of design including jewellery, furniture, art and glassware, its most significant contribution was to the field of architecture.

Making its debut in France in 1904, Art Deco architecture originated in the suburbs of Paris when two French architects used reinforced concrete to design apartment buildings distinguished by their clean lines and rectangular forms. Their designs took off, and slowly, so did Art Deco architecture.

France imported Art Deco to the world in 1925, when the French Government hosted a landmark exhibition known as the Exposition Internationale Des Arts Decoratifs Et Industriels Modernes. That gathering of 15,000 artists was visited by over 16 million people cementing the popularity of Art Deco. In terms of what the requirements for entry were, the answer, which could also describe the movement itself, is that the artwork be “thoroughly modern.”

Although Herbert Hoover, the American Secretary of Commerce at the time, refused to let his countrymen take part in the exhibition, he did send a travelling delegation to assess its artworks and bring back ideas for how the style could be adapted into something uniquely American. This trip inspired an immediate expansion in artistic innovation in the United States.

Unlike its European counterpart, the American Art Deco style was more sleek and less ornate. Nicknamed ‘Streamline Moderne’, Art Deco in America was inspired by a Gatsby-esque sense of flamboyance, glamour, and progressiveness. It soon grew into a far larger movement amongst the young generation of Americans living in the roaring 20s than it ever managed to do in Europe. Spectacular and giganteum monuments like the Rockefeller Centre, the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building in New York City, and the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco served as metaphors for America’s own self-image, centred around grandiose notions of strength and power.

After the Great Depression in 1929, the same features of the movement that had made it so popular initially, eventually led to its decline. After the onset of the Second World War, Art Deco became synonymous with a sense of decadence that was unbecoming in a nation ravaged by war and economic strife.

However, while Art Deco was losing steam in the US, it was around this time that it reached its pinnacle in Bombay.

Early influencers of Art Deco in Bombay

After the Suez Canal opened in 1869, Bombay gained immense importance as a port city connecting East to West. Combined with technological changes and an economic boom, by the early 20th century, Bombay was truly a sustained metropolis, luring in thousands of Indians with its promise of grandeur and opportunity.

According to Atul Kumar, the founder of Art Deco Mumbai, “with trade came prosperity, and with prosperity came an aspiration wherein people wanted what was new, modern and trendy.”

These people wanted to replicate the ideals of the West and to fulfil those dreams, there emerged a new class of architects who were willing to embrace the industrial modernity that Art Deco offered. Unlike the Victorian Gothic buildings of the past, the Art Deco buildings of Bombay were designed primarily by Indian architects returning from Europe and the US on the luxury liners of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company.

Inspired by what they had seen during their studies abroad and their revolutionary mode of transportation back home, these architects went on to build apartments for merchants, industrialists and Indian princes, influenced by the clean, bold designs that were the cornerstone of Art Deco, while also paying homage to Bombay’s own cultural landscape.

Princes, in particular, gravitated towards this unique style. As Bombay expanded in the 1930s, they too rushed to seize their own slice of the emerging city. The Maharajas of princely states such as Baroda, Hyderabad , Kutch, and Gwalior built palatial homes in Bombay, with approximately 40 palaces being constructed in the city during this time.

One such structure — Dhanraj Mahal — was commissioned by the Maharaja of Hyderabad, Raja Dhanrajgir Bahadur, on the former site of the Watson Hotel. In 1932, Bahadur, known as the Rockefeller of the South, spared no expense in the construction of his 1.6 acre palace, installing over eight elevators and reserving a private apartment spanning 3,700 square metres for himself on the top floor. At the time, his residence was the only private dwelling in the city that got a clear view of the Gateway of India.

American film companies were also responsible for the spread of the movement in Bombay. According to Kumar, cinema chains such as Metro sought to distinguish themselves from their competitors through their architectural style. As they moved into India, they brought that style with them. Regal, the oldest cinema in the city, was opened in 1933, and only five years later, was joined by Eros, a multipurpose venue advertised as ‘The Rendezvous of the East’.

In 1949, Liberty Cinema, the ‘Showpiece of the Nation,’ was inaugurated at Marine Lines. Named in honour of India’s independence, Liberty was the first theatre to show primarily Hindi language films.

For a newly liberated class of Indians, these cinemas halls represented an opportunity to finally feel as though they were no longer second class citizens in their own cities. Lavish parties, brunches, screenings and celebrations were to be held there, attended by the elites of Bombay society.

From Bombay, Art Deco spread to other Indian cities as well. According to Geetanjali Sayal, an architect from Delhi , while the focal point of the movement was Bombay, soon after, architects from the city carried the style with them to Delhi, Ahmedabad , Jodhpur and several other states. Both Jaisalmer and Dholpur Houses in Delhi were constructed by architects from Bombay.

However, while Art Deco evolved largely due to the patronage of the Anglicised rich, its popularity in Bombay stemmed from many different factors.

Practical considerations

Art Deco evolved in Bombay in tandem with a number of other developments, namely, the Back Bay Reclamation Project and the widespread adoption of cement. Prior to 1940, the area extending from Oval Maidan in the East to Marine Drive in the West was part of the Arabian Sea. After the reclamation of nearly 440 acres of land, local councils demanded that development on those lands be controlled by special laws mandating building size and structural design.

Initially envisioned as a way to ease population density, Gyan Prakash, a professor at Stanford University, wrote that “once reclamation was done, the attention turned to design and architecture – in this case, Art Deco style apartments along Marine Drive that embodied the cool, affluent, cosmopolitanism of modern Bombay.”

The opportunities for growth were aided by the availability of a new material in the form of Reinforced Cement Concrete. Produced in prodigious amounts across the city, cement allowed developers to reduce both construction times and costs, making homes far more attainable to the masses.

Apart from its economic benefits, cement changed the game in other ways too. Kumar points to the cantilevers or chajjas that are found in many Art Deco buildings. He says that while the cantilevers, known as the eyebrows of buildings, earlier needed to be supported by a foundation, with cement, they didn’t need any support. In turn, with the cement revolution, the balcony was born.

Additionally, emerging technology, including indoor plumbing, electricity, gas supply and drainage could be incorporated into these new homes, making them far more appealing to tenants than the options from the past.

Moreover, the Art Deco buildings were extremely climate resilient, designed to adapt to Bombay’s landscape. As Kumar explains, all apartment buildings on Marine Drive were built on the East-West axis. As a result, the balconies face the West, allowing the sea breeze to pass through the apartment, providing a natural cooling effect. Additionally, for a generation still reeling from the aftereffects of the plague of 1869, the cross ventilation provided by these designs were a welcome protection from a similar epidemic.

Post-colonial hangover

While Bombay residents, unlike those of other major cities at the time, were particularly close to the British, they still wanted to distinguish their cityscape from the likes of London, New York, and Miami. As a result, Art Deco buildings in Bombay incorporated traditional Indian motifs, borrowing elements from Hindu and Muslim architecture.

Buildings on the East of the Oval, designed in the Victorian Gothic style, were seen as a homage to India’s colonial masters. They were distinct from Indian influences, a fact perhaps best represented in their names, such as Queen’s Court and the Prince of Wales Museum.

In contrast, the Art Deco buildings (usually ending in Mahal) were distinctly Indian. Many incorporate nautical motifs that allude to Bombay’s heritage as a port city, with ship deck style balconies and grills resembling the crashing of waves.

In Bombay’s Fort neighbourhood, two commercial buildings stand out in particular. The first, the New India Assurance building, constructed in 1936, features huge structural motifs idealising workers, farmers, and artisans.

Another, the Lakshmi Insurance building is designed similarly. Founded by stalwarts of the independence movement like Motilal Nehru, Subash Chandra Bose and Lala Lajpatrai, the building features elements of Lakshmi’s ideology such as the elephant and the lotus.

Bombay’s Art Deco buildings weren’t as grand as those in New York, resembling more the laid-back vibe of Miami’s Tropical Deco. As UNESCO stated when designating part of the city as a World Heritage site, the value of Mumbai’s Deco lies not in a single structure, but in the beauty of an ensemble. These structures, much like the city itself, incorporated elements from around the world, while maintaining a distinctly Indian charm.

Conservation

Eighty-two-year-old Moti Prakash has been living in Zaver Mahal, an Art Deco masterpiece, her entire life. She said that when she was young, she and her friends loved sitting on Marine Drive, flanked on one side by the ocean, and on the other, by rows of Art Deco buildings. Now, she laments, many of those buildings are unrecognisable from the time of her youth.

She says that landlords, looking to maximise profits and interior space, slowly began to add floors to the buildings and close off balconies, with little regard for the original architecture. “People only care about the interiors,” she decries, “they don’t care about the exterior façade that contributes to the dignity of the building and of the city.”

Prakash’s concerns are not unfounded. While the Rent Control Act of 1947 prevents landlords from evicting tenants in order to potentially sell to large developers, for the residents themselves, moving is often their only option. As families multiply over generations, these old buildings can no longer accommodate the rapidly expanding households. As a result, the younger generations are forced to either live in cramped quarters, pay exorbitant rents for other properties, or sell to developers in exchange for bigger flats in new buildings.

One solution to prevent this is by designating the buildings as heritage sites. While the Art Deco buildings on Marine Drive and Oval Maidan were recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2018, many structures in Shivaji Park and other areas remain unclassified by the Indian government.

According to Kumar, this is because people have many misconceptions about the word heritage, believing that if their building is designated as a heritage site — locally or internationally — they would have to seek permission for every little change. However, without the protection afforded by such a label, there is nothing stopping the government or developers from razing them down in the name of expansion, as has been happening sadly in the recent past.

Amidst the changes in these architectural marvels, there is a glimmer of hope. Art Deco Mumbai is one of several organisations working to conserve, restore and protect Mumbai’s architectural fabric. They consult owners to help them restore buildings in their original style, run workshops and walking tours, and document Art Deco buildings across the city.

Their efforts are bolstered by the intrinsic pride, Kumar believes, residents of Mumbai have for their city. He says that one story in particular fuels his belief that Mumbaikars are appreciative of their city’s complex history and distinct skyline.

He recounts a recent incident in which the Maharashtra Government replaced the lights on Marine Drive with LED bulbs that emit a bright, harsh white light. Without anyone even filing a complaint, he says, the High Court called the Municipal Council and said, ‘we don’t care about this LED business, we want that golden light back on the Queen’s Necklace.’ That, he says, is the difference. “In Mumbai, people have a sense of ownership over their city. People actually care.”

One such example was recounted by Rakesh Tripathi, a biochemical engineer, who now resides in Chicago. Tripathi, whose grandmother lived at Rakhi Mahal in Churchgate, has grown up with a unique appreciation for the need to preserve Mumbai’s heritage. “From a young age, I used to visit my grandmother’s house,” Tripathi says, “and she would tell me stories about how she’d work with her neighbours to prevent landlords from making changes to historic buildings that would compromise their external facade.”

He recalls one conversation in particular. When Tripathi was staying with his grandmother at the age of 24, he wanted to change the window in his outward facing bathroom in order to award himself a greater degree of privacy. “She wouldn’t let me,” he complains, adding that “she would rather have me expose myself to the street than let me change the look of the building.”

According to Kumar, the Art Deco movement in Bombay, which saw its heydays in the early 1900s, began to die out after Independence. In the 1950s, Bombay adopted a more nationalistic approach and with that, did away with the Deco style, replacing it with drab, functional buildings, then steel and glass, and now, gated communities. While we still aren’t seeing that many new Art Deco buildings in the city, we are, however, starting to see the style slowly come back.

Rehan Parikh, founder of Bombay Design Lab, has witnessed this resurgence. He says that while his clients don’t necessarily want their entire flats to be Art Deco, they do want to incorporate certain elements of it. “Art Deco furniture is especially popular,” he says, “and while people might not know the definition of the term, they appreciate objects and designs that blend together style and function.”

Optimistically, with these new trends, and with the conservation efforts led by passionate citizens like Kumar and Sayal, Mumbai’s architectural legacy will be preserved. Hopefully, the next generation of Mumbaikars, will have the opportunity to escape the frenzy of their daily lives by immersing themselves, if only for a minute, in appreciation of the tranquil and awe-inspiring relics of the past. Perhaps then, they too will experience the thrill of discovery, calling on their friends to ‘Dekho! Dekho! Art Deco.’

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