environmental research journal impact factor

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Journal Metrics Reports 2022

• Environmental Sciences

Announcement of the latest impact factors from the Journal Citation Reports

Researchers consider a number of factors in deciding where to publish their research, such as journal reputation, readership and community, speed of publication, and citations. See how we share a whole range of information to help the research community decide which journal is the best home for their research as well as what the metrics can tell you about the performance of a journal and its articles.

Explore journal impact metrics

Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Impact Factor 2.1 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 1.7 (2022)

Cite Score 2.5 (2022)

H5 Index 20 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 788 (2022)

Downloads 168,183 (2022)

Pastoralism

Impact Factor 2.5 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 2.9 (2022)

Cite Score 4.1 (2022)

H5 Index 18 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 447 (2022)

Downloads 334,375 (2022)

Geoenvironmental Disasters

Impact Factor 4.8 (2022)

Cite Score 7.4 (2022)

H5 Index 21 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 73 (2022)

Downloads 265,757 (2022)

Water Conservation Science and Engineering

Impact Factor 2.0 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 3.0 (2022)

H5 Index 16 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 7 (2022)

Downloads 35,749 (2022)

Soil Ecology Letters

Impact Factor 4.0 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 4.1 (2022)

Cite Score 5.8 (2022)

H5 Index 12 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 250 (2022)

Downloads 31,648 (2022)

Discover Sustainability

Impact Factor 2.6 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 2.6 (2022)

Cite Score 2.2 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 248 (2022)

Downloads 190,418 (2022)

Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

Impact Factor 6.0 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 7.1 (2022)

Cite Score 9.4 (2022)

Downloads 6,875 (2022)

The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment

5 Year Impact Factor 5.4 (2022)

H5 Index 52 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 2,239 (2022)

Downloads 1,092,720 (2022)

Environmental Chemistry Letters

Impact Factor 15.7 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 14.2 (2022)

Cite Score 23.9 (2022)

H5 Index 74 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 4,256 (2022)

Downloads 1,142,605 (2022)

Sustainability Science

5 Year Impact Factor 7.4 (2022)

Cite Score 11.7 (2022)

H5 Index 57 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 6,046 (2022)

Downloads 1,161,464 (2022)

Impact Factor 6.5 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 6.5 (2022)

Cite Score 12.1 (2022)

Downloads 1,203,755 (2022)

Environmental Sciences Europe

Impact Factor 5.9 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 6.6 (2022)

Cite Score 9.2 (2022)

H5 Index 39 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 15,778 (2022)

Downloads 1,283,734 (2022)

Environment, Development and Sustainability

Impact Factor 4.9 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 4.7 (2022)

Cite Score 7.2 (2022)

H5 Index 54 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 1,555 (2022)

Downloads 1,346,054 (2022)

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment

Impact Factor 3.0 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 3.1 (2022)

Cite Score 5.2 (2022)

H5 Index 53 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 2,057 (2022)

Downloads 1,499,378 (2022)

Aerobiologia

5 Year Impact Factor 2.4 (2022)

Cite Score 4.0 (2022)

H5 Index 22 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 173 (2022)

Downloads 120,664 (2022)

Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology

Impact Factor 0.6 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 0.6 (2022)

H5 Index 11 (2021)

Downloads 14,727 (2022)

Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali

5 Year Impact Factor 1.8 (2022)

Cite Score 3.5 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 324 (2022)

Downloads 141,529 (2022)

Exposure and Health

Impact Factor 6.7 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 7.7 (2022)

Cite Score 15.0 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 749 (2022)

Downloads 162,892 (2022)

Current Forestry Reports

Impact Factor 9.5 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 10.0 (2022)

Cite Score 15.5 (2022)

H5 Index 30 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 513 (2022)

Downloads 166,974 (2022)

Current Climate Change Reports

5 Year Impact Factor 11.4 (2022)

Cite Score 20.8 (2022)

H5 Index 40 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 2,149 (2022)

Downloads 203,338 (2022)

Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy

Impact Factor 2.4 (2022)

Cite Score 3.3 (2022)

H5 Index 27 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 106 (2022)

Downloads 203,799 (2022)

Current Pollution Reports

Impact Factor 7.3 (2022)

Cite Score 11.6 (2022)

H5 Index 31 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 211 (2022)

Downloads 206,367 (2022)

Impact Factor 12.7 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 13.1 (2022)

Cite Score 12.8 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 241 (2022)

Downloads 217,829 (2022)

International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics

Impact Factor 3.4 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 3.5 (2022)

Cite Score 5.5 (2022)

H5 Index 29 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 574 (2022)

Downloads 231,038 (2022)

Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering

H5 Index 28 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 540 (2022)

Downloads 235,447 (2022)

Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

5 Year Impact Factor 3.6 (2022)

Cite Score 6.3 (2022)

H5 Index 32 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 1,512 (2022)

Downloads 303,355 (2022)

Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology

Impact Factor 14.4 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 12.6 (2022)

Cite Score 21.5 (2022)

H5 Index 42 (2021)

Downloads 304,829 (2022)

Carbon Balance and Management

Impact Factor 3.8 (2022)

Cite Score 6.4 (2022)

H5 Index 25 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 1,375 (2022)

Downloads 312,564 (2022)

Ecotoxicology

Impact Factor 2.7 (2022)

Cite Score 4.6 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 1,752 (2022)

Downloads 330,058 (2022)

Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment

Impact Factor 4.2 (2022)

Cite Score 6.5 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 340 (2022)

Downloads 345,565 (2022)

Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health

Impact Factor 5.1 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 4.2 (2022)

Cite Score 8.9 (2022)

H5 Index 41 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 2,211 (2022)

Downloads 362,638 (2022)

Estuaries and Coasts

5 Year Impact Factor 2.8 (2022)

H5 Index 36 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 862 (2022)

Downloads 431,668 (2022)

Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

5 Year Impact Factor 2.5 (2022)

H5 Index 34 (2021)

Downloads 468,711 (2022)

Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy

Impact Factor 4.3 (2022)

Cite Score 7.6 (2022)

Downloads 517,236 (2022)

Environmental Geochemistry and Health

5 Year Impact Factor 4.4 (2022)

Cite Score 8.3 (2022)

H5 Index 51 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 728 (2022)

Downloads 519,637 (2022)

International Journal of Biometeorology

Impact Factor 3.2 (2022)

H5 Index 46 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 2,606 (2022)

Downloads 553,240 (2022)

International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health

Cite Score 5.1 (2022)

H5 Index 35 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 2,799 (2022)

Downloads 554,014 (2022)

Journal of Soils and Sediments

Impact Factor 3.6 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 3.8 (2022)

Cite Score 7.1 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 197 (2022)

Downloads 570,341 (2022)

Ecological Processes

5 Year Impact Factor 4.6 (2022)

Cite Score 6.8 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 409 (2022)

Downloads 579,183 (2022)

Regional Environmental Change

5 Year Impact Factor 4.9 (2022)

Cite Score 8.2 (2022)

H5 Index 58 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 2,830 (2022)

Downloads 720,601 (2022)

International Journal of Environmental Research

Cite Score 4.7 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 19 (2022)

Downloads 77,237 (2022)

Environmental Management

Impact Factor 3.5 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 3.9 (2022)

Cite Score 6.1 (2022)

Social Media Mentions 2,187 (2022)

Downloads 771,386 (2022)

Environmental Science and Pollution Research

Impact Factor 5.8 (2022)

Cite Score 7.9 (2022)

H5 Index 118 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 20,444 (2022)

Downloads 8,984,151 (2022)

International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology

Impact Factor 3.1 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 3.2 (2022)

H5 Index 48 (2021)

Downloads 847,700 (2022)

Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Impact Factor 0.5 (2022)

Cite Score 0.7 (2022)

Downloads 88,593 (2022)

Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering

Impact Factor 6.4 (2022)

5 Year Impact Factor 5.6 (2022)

Cite Score 9.8 (2022)

H5 Index 37 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 776 (2022)

Downloads 88,700 (2022)

Water, Air, & Soil Pollution

Impact Factor 2.9 (2022)

Cite Score 4.2 (2022)

H5 Index 44 (2021)

Social Media Mentions 990 (2022)

Downloads 884,994 (2022)

Environmental Modeling & Assessment

Social Media Mentions 77 (2022)

Downloads 97,848 (2022)

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Environmental Research impact factor, indexing, ranking (2024)

Aim and Scope

The Environmental Research is a research journal that publishes research related to Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology; Environmental Science . This journal is published by the Academic Press Inc.. The ISSN of this journal is 10960953, 00139351 . Based on the Scopus data, the SCImago Journal Rank (SJR) of environmental research is 1.635 .

Environmental Research Ranking

The Impact Factor of Environmental Research is 8.431.

The impact factor (IF) is a measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year. It is used to measure the importance or rank of a journal by calculating the times its articles are cited.

The impact factor was devised by Eugene Garfield, the founder of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in Philadelphia. Impact factors began to be calculated yearly starting from 1975 for journals listed in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR). ISI was acquired by Thomson Scientific & Healthcare in 1992, and became known as Thomson ISI. In 2018, Thomson-Reuters spun off and sold ISI to Onex Corporation and Baring Private Equity Asia. They founded a new corporation, Clarivate , which is now the publisher of the JCR.

Important Metrics

Environmental research indexing.

The environmental research is indexed in:

• Web of Science (SCIE)

An indexed journal means that the journal has gone through and passed a review process of certain requirements done by a journal indexer.

The Web of Science Core Collection includes the Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE), Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), Arts & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI), and Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI).

Environmental Research Impact Factor 2024

The latest impact factor of environmental research is 8.431 .

The impact factor (IF) is a measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year. It is used to measure the importance or rank of a journal by calculating the times it's articles are cited.

Note: Every year, The Clarivate releases the Journal Citation Report (JCR). The JCR provides information about academic journals including impact factor. The latest JCR was released in June, 2023. The JCR 2024 will be released in the June 2024.

Environmental Research Quartile

The latest Quartile of environmental research is Q1 .

Each subject category of journals is divided into four quartiles: Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4. Q1 is occupied by the top 25% of journals in the list; Q2 is occupied by journals in the 25 to 50% group; Q3 is occupied by journals in the 50 to 75% group and Q4 is occupied by journals in the 75 to 100% group.

Call for Papers

Visit to the official website of the journal/ conference to check the details about call for papers.

How to publish in Environmental Research?

If your research is related to Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology; Environmental Science, then visit the official website of environmental research and send your manuscript.

Tips for publishing in Environmental Research:

• Selection of research problem.
• Presenting a solution.
• Designing the paper.
• Make your manuscript publication worthy.
• Write an effective results section.
• Mind your references.

Acceptance Rate

Journal publication time.

The publication time may vary depending on factors such as the complexity of the research and the current workload of the editorial team. Journals typically request reviewers to submit their reviews within 3-4 weeks. However, some journals lack mechanisms to enforce this deadline, making it difficult to predict the duration of the peer review process.

The review time also depends upon the quality of the research paper.

Final Summary

• The impact factor of environmental research is 8.431.
• The environmental research is a reputed research journal.
• It is published by Academic Press Inc. .
• The journal is indexed in UGC CARE, Scopus, SCIE, PubMed .
• The (SJR) SCImago Journal Rank is 1.635 .

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Sustainable Environment Research

Call for papers: upcoming collection, nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation, guest edited by: pierre-antoine versini, amy oen, natalia rodriguez and daniela rizzi.

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Archival Content

The archival content of Sustainable Environment Research can be located here . 

Aims and scope

The primary goal of Sustainable Environment Research (SER) is to publish high quality research articles associated with sustainable environmental science and technology and to contribute to improving environmental practice. The scope of SER includes issues of environmental science, technology, management and related fields, especially in response to sustainable water, energy and other natural resources. Potential topics include, but are not limited to:

1. Water and Wastewater

• Biological processes • Physical and chemical processes • Watershed management • Advanced and innovative treatment

2. Soil and Groundwater Pollution

• Contaminant fate and transport processes • Contaminant site investigation technology • Soil and groundwater remediation technology • Risk assessment in contaminant sites

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• Ambient air quality management • Greenhouse gases control • Gaseous and particulate pollution control • Indoor air quality management and control

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5. Energy and Resources

• Sustainable energy • Local, regional and global sustainability • Environmental management system • Life-cycle assessment • Environmental policy instruments • Techno-economic assessment

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Sustainable Environment Research  is affiliated with the  Chinese Institute of Environmental Engineering

Annual Journal Metrics

2022 Citation Impact 4.9 - 2-year Impact Factor 6.4 - 5-year Impact Factor 1.899 - SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Paper) 0.865 - SJR (SCImago Journal Rank)

2023 Speed 23 days submission to first editorial decision for all manuscripts (Median) 147 days submission to accept (Median)

2023 Usage  354,574 downloads 25 Altmetric mentions 

ISSN: 2468-2039

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Environmental Systems Research

Guest Editors: Charles Onyutha, Brian Odhiambo Ayugi, Kenny T.C. Lim Kam Sian, Fatimatou Sall, Kishore Ragi Submission Status: Open   |   Submission Deadline: 31 July 2024

Guest Editors: Qaisar Mahmood, Sunil Kumar and Paromita Chakraborty Submission Status: Open   |   Submission Deadline:   30 June 2024

Environmental Systems Research is associated with  the global Network on Persistent, Emerging and Organic Pollution in the Environment (PEOPLE Network).

Annual Journal Metrics

2023 Speed 3 days submission to first editorial decision for all manuscripts (Median) 58 days submission to accept (Median)

2023 Usage 505,317 downloads 46 Altmetric mentions

• More about our metrics
• ISSN: 2193-2697 (electronic)

Environmental Geochemistry and Health

Official Journal of the Society for Environmental Geochemistry and Health

• Publishes original research, short communications, and reviews across the broad field of environmental geochemistry and its link to health aspects.
• Welcomes papers directly linking health and the environment that may be theoretical, interpretative, or experimental.
• Surveys of soil, water, and plants to show how major/trace elements are distributed geographically (must have enough sample size).
• Upon submission, authors are invited to provide a novelty statement in the cover letter.
• The journal is lead by 2 Editors in Chief and a large editorial board spread across the globe.
• Michael Watts
• Diane Purchase

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Jonathan J Buonocore et al 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 021006

Oil and gas production is one of the largest emitters of methane, a potent greenhouse gas and a significant contributor of air pollution emissions. While research on methane emissions from oil and gas production has grown rapidly, there is comparatively limited information on the distribution of impacts of this sector on air quality and associated health impacts. Understanding the contribution of air quality and health impacts of oil and gas can be useful for designing mitigation strategies. Here we assess air quality and human health impacts associated with ozone, fine particulate matter, and nitrogen dioxide from the oil and gas sector in the US in 2016, and compare this impact with that of the associated methane emissions. We find that air pollution in 2016 from the oil and gas sector in the US resulted in 410 000 asthma exacerbations, 2200 new cases of childhood asthma and 7500 excess deaths, with $77 billion in total health impacts. NO 2 was the highest contributor to health impacts (37%) followed by ozone (35%), and then PM 2.5 (28%). When monetized, these air quality health impacts of oil and gas production exceeded estimated climate impact costs from methane leakage by a factor of 3. These impacts add to the total life cycle impacts of oil and gas, and represent potential additional health benefits of strategies that reduce consumption of oil and gas. Policies to reduce oil and gas production emissions will lead to additional and significant health benefits from co-pollutant reductions that are not currently quantified or monetized.

Kimberly A Terrell et al 2024 Environ. Res.: Health 2 021002

Previous studies indicate that pollution exposure can increase risks of adverse birth outcomes, but Black communities are underrepresented in this research, and the potential moderating role of neighborhood context has not been explored. These issues are especially relevant in Louisiana, which has a high proportion of Black residents, an entrenched history of structural racism, the most pounds of toxic industrial emissions annually, and among the nation's highest rates of low birthweight (LBW), preterm birth (PTB), and infant mortality. We investigated whether air pollution and social polarization by race and income (measured via the index of concentration at the extremes [ICE]) were associated with LBW and PTB among Louisiana census tracts ( n = 1101) using spatial lag models. Data sources included 2011–2020 birth records, U.S. Census Bureau 2017 demographic data, and 2017 respiratory hazard (RH) from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Both RH and ICE were associated with LBW ( z = 4.4, P < 0.0001; z = −27.0, P < 0.0001) and PTB ( z = 2.3, P = 0.019; z = −16.7, P < 0.0001), with no interaction. Severely polluted tracts had 25% higher and 36% higher risks of LBW and PTB, respectively, versus unpolluted tracts. On average, 2166 low birthweight and 3583 preterm births annually were attributable to pollution exposure. Tracts with concentrated social deprivation (i.e. low ICE scores) had 53% higher and 34% higher risks of LBW and PTB, respectively, versus intermediate or mixed tracts. On average, 1171 low birthweight and 1739 preterm births annually were attributable to concentrated deprivation. Our ecological study found that a majority of adverse birth outcomes in Louisiana (i.e. 67% of LBW and PTB combined) are linked to air pollution exposure or disadvantage resulting from social polarization. These findings can inform research, policy, and advocacy to improve health equity in marginalized communities.

Wuyue Yu and George D Thurston 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 045002

With the widespread implementation of air pollution mitigation strategies for health and climate policy, there is an emerging interest in accountability studies to validate whether a reduction of air pollution exposure, in fact, produces the human health benefits estimated from past air pollution epidemiology. The closure of a coal coking plant provides an ideal 'natural' experiment opportunity to rigorously evaluate the health benefits of air pollution emissions reductions. In this study, we applied an interrupted time series model to test the hypothesis that the substantial reduction in air pollution induced by the closure of the Shenango, Inc. coke plant in Pittsburgh, PA during January, 2016 was followed by immediate and/or longer-term cumulative local cardiovascular health benefits. We observed a 90% decrease in nearby SO 2 levels, as well as significant reductions in coal-related fine particulate matter constituents (sulfate and arsenic), after the closure. Statistically significant cardiovascular health benefits were documented in the local population, including a 42% immediate drop (95% CI: 33%, 51%) in cardiovascular emergency department (ED) visits from the pre-closure mean. A longer-term downward trend was also observed for overall emergency visits at −0.14 (95% CI: −0.17, −0.11) visits per week rate of decrease after the closure, vs. a rise of 0.17 (95% CI: 0.14, 0.20) visits per week before. Similarly, inpatient cardiovascular hospitalizations per year showed a decrease after closure (−27.97 [95% CI: −46.90, −9.04], as compared with a 5.09 [95% CI: −13.84, 24.02] average increase in cases/year over the prior three years). Our study provides clear evidence that this intervention lowering fossil fuel-associated air pollution benefited public health in both the short and longer term, while also providing validation of the past use of observational air pollution epidemiology effect estimates in policy analyses.

Daniel J Smith et al 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 032001

Climate change, the greatest public health threat of the 21st century, will uniquely affect rural areas that are geographically isolated and experience greater health inequities. This systematic review describes and evaluates interventions to lessen the effects of climate change on human health in the rural United States, including interventions on air pollution, vector ecology, water quality, severe weather, extreme heat, allergens, and water and food supply. Searches were constructed based on the eight domains of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Framework "Impact of Climate Change on Human Health." Searches were conducted in EBSCO Environment Complete, EBSCO GreenFILE, Embase.com, MEDLINE via PubMed, and Web of Science. Duplicate citations were removed, abstracts were screened for initial inclusion, and full texts were screened for final inclusion. Pertinent data were extracted and synthesized across the eight domains. Article quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Of 8471 studies screened, 297 were identified for full text review, and a total 49 studies were included in this review. Across the domains, 34 unique interventions addressed health outcomes due to air pollution ( n = 8), changes in vector ecology ( n = 6), water quality ( n = 5), severe weather ( n = 3), extreme heat ( n = 2) increasing allergens ( n = 1), water and food supply ( n = 1), and across multiple CDC domains ( n = 8). Participatory action research methodology was commonly used and strived to mobilize/empower communities to tackle climate change. Our review identified three randomized controlled trials, with two of these three published in the last five years. While original research on the impact of climate change on health has increased in the past decade, randomized control trials may not be ethical, cost effective, or feasible. There is a need for time-efficient and high-quality scholarship that investigates intervention efficacy and effectiveness for reducing health impacts of climate change upon rural populations.

Gilda Zarate-Gonzalez et al 2024 Environ. Res.: Health 2 025003

The San Joaquin Valley (SJV) of California has been consistently identified as having one of the highest levels of air pollution in the US. Despite federal and state standards, the SJV has been in non-attainment status for daily PM 2.5 concentrations, extreme non-attainment for 8 hr O 3 levels, and attainment for NO 2 . An epidemiological time-stratified case-crossover design was used to estimate the relationship between exposure to NO 2 , O 3 , PM 2.5 and adverse health outcomes in asthma and upper respiratory infections (URIs). This study compared pollutant exposure effects for each case during limited time intervals and adjusted for seasonality. Elevated concentrations of three criteria outdoor air pollutants are associated with increased asthma and URI-related ED visits and hospitalizations in the SJV for all ages. NO 2 exposure increased the odds of having an ED visit by 2.4% in lag 1 (95% CI: 1.017, 1.031). Lags 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, and 14 were statistically significant. O 3 modestly increased the odds of ED visits by 0.3% (95% CI:1.000, 1.006) after immediate exposure in the warm season. In the cold season, PM 2.5 estimates were significant for all lags except for lags 4 and 12. The two-week lag increased the odds by 28% (95% CI:1.218, 1.345) for ED visits, and 16.5% (95% CI:1.009, 1.345) increased the odds of being hospitalized after cumulative exposure to PM 2.5 . Findings suggest that SJV residents experience adverse health effects due to elevated exposure to NO 2 despite attainment of federal and state pollutant standards. This study provides new evidence about the effects of three criteria air pollutants and adverse health outcomes in the SJV region. The air quality regulatory and public health governing bodies should consider revisions to regional pollutant thresholds and local public health strategies to prevent adverse health outcomes during short and prolonged periods of air pollution exposure.

Kathleen Moloney et al 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 021009

U.S. wildfire activity has increased over the past several decades, disrupting the systems and infrastructure that support community health and resilience. As the cumulative burden of wildfire damage is projected to increase, understanding an effective community recovery process is critically important. Through qualitative interviews with leaders of long-term recovery organizations (LTROs), a key component of wildfire recovery, we explored barriers and facilitators to LTROs' ability to support post-wildfire needs among rural communities. Between February-May 2022, we conducted surveys and semi-structured interviews with 18 leaders from six LTROs serving rural communities in Washington, Oregon, and California impacted by wildfires between 2015–2020. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation's Culture of Health Framework informed the semi-structured interview guide and a priori codebook, to examine LTROs' ability to address post-wildfire community needs from a health equity perspective. Additional codes were added through an inductive approach, and emerging themes were identified. Our findings indicate that LTROs face many barriers in addressing community needs post-wildfire, including the policies governing access to and the slow arrival of recovery resources, the intertwined nature of community economic health and built environment restoration, and the challenge of forming a functional LTRO structure. However, participants also identified facilitators of LTROs' work, including the ability of LTROs and their government partners to adapt policies and procedures, and close collaboration with other community organizations. Factors both internal and external to the community and LTROs' organizational characteristics influence their ability to address community needs, essential to health, post-wildfire. This study's findings suggest the need for policy improvements to promote more equitable recovery resource access, that economic recovery should be a core LTRO function, and that recovery planning should be incorporated into community disaster preparedness activities. Future research should focus on LTROs' role in other contexts and in response to other disasters.

Katelyn O'Dell et al 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 015003

Previous research on the health and air quality impacts of wildfire smoke has largely focused on the impact of smoke on outdoor air quality; however, many people spend a majority of their time indoors. The quality of indoor air on smoke-impacted days is largely unknown. In this analysis, we use publicly available data from an existing large network of low-cost indoor and outdoor fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) monitors to quantify the relationship between indoor and outdoor particulate air quality on smoke-impacted days in 2020 across the western United States (US). We also investigate possible regional and socioeconomic trends in this relationship for regions surrounding six major cities in the western US. We find indoor PM 2.5 concentrations are 82% or 4.2 µ g m −3 (median across all western US indoor monitors for the year 2020; interquartile range, IQR: 2.0–7.2 µ g m −3 ) higher on smoke-impacted days compared to smoke-free days. Indoor/outdoor PM 2.5 ratios show variability by region, particularly on smoke-free days. However, we find the ratio of indoor/outdoor PM 2.5 is less than 1 (i.e. indoor concentrations lower than outdoor) at nearly all indoor-outdoor monitor pairs on smoke-impacted days. Although typically lower than outdoor concentrations on smoke-impacted days, we find that on heavily smoke-impacted days (outdoor PM 2.5 > 55 µ g m −3 ), indoor PM 2.5 concentrations can exceed the 35 µ g m −3 24 h outdoor standard set by the US Environmental Protection Agency. Further, total daily-mean indoor PM 2.5 concentrations increase by 2.1 µ g m −3 with every 10 µ g m −3 increase in daily-mean outdoor PM 2.5. (median of statistically significant linear regression slopes across all western US monitor pairs; IQR: 1.0–4.3 µ g m −3 ) on smoke-impacted days. These results show that for indoor environments in the western US included in our analysis, remaining indoors during smoke events is currently an effective, but limited, strategy to reduce PM 2.5 exposure.

Sagar Rathod et al 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 041002

Ammonia has been proposed to replace heavy fuel oil (HFO) in the shipping industry by 2050. When produced with low-carbon electricity, ammonia can reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, ammonia emissions also contribute to local air pollution via the formation of secondary particulate matter. We estimate the potential ammonia emissions from storage and bunkering operations for shipping in Singapore, a port that accounts for 20% of global bunker fuel sales, and their impacts on air quality and health. Fuel storage and bunkering can increase total gaseous ammonia emissions in Singapore by up to a factor of four and contribute to a 25%–50% increase in ambient PM 2.5 concentration compared to a baseline scenario with HFO, leading to an estimated 210–460 premature mortalities in Singapore (30%–70% higher than the baseline). Proper abatement on storage and bunkering can reduce these emissions and even improve ambient PM 2.5 concentrations compared to the baseline. Overall, while an energy transition from HFO to ammonia in the shipping industry could reduce global greenhouse gas and air pollutant burdens, local policies will be important to avoid negative impacts on the communities living near its supply chain.

Michael Joseph Lee et al 2024 Environ. Res.: Health 2 025002

The health risks associated with wildfires are expected to increase due to climate change. Children are susceptible to wildfire smoke, but little is known about indoor smoke exposure at childcare facilities. The objective of this analysis was to estimate the effects of outdoor PM 2.5 and wildfire smoke episodes on indoor PM 2.5 at childcare facilities across British Columbia, Canada. We installed low-cost air-quality sensors inside and outside 45 childcare facilities and focused our analysis on operational hours (Monday–Friday, 08:00–18:00) during the 2022 wildfire season (01 August–31 October). Using random-slope random-intercept linear mixed effects regression, we estimated the overall and facility-specific effects of outdoor PM 2.5 on indoor PM 2.5 , while accounting for covariates. We examined how wildfire smoke affected this relationship by separately analyzing days with and without wildfire smoke. Average indoor PM 2.5 increased by 235% on wildfire days across facilities. There was a positive relationship between outdoor and indoor PM 2.5 that was not strongly influenced by linear adjustment for meteorological and area-based socio-economic factors. A 1.0 μ g m −3 increase in outdoor PM 2.5 was associated with a 0.55 μ g m −3 [95% CI: 0.47, 0.63] increase indoors on non-wildfire smoke days and 0.51 μ g m −3 [95% CI: 0.44, 0.58] on wildfire-smoke days. Facility-specific regression coefficients of the effect of outdoor PM 2.5 on indoor PM 2.5 was variable between facilities on wildfire (0.18–0.79 μ g m −3 ) and non-wildfire days (0.11–1.03 μ g m −3 ). Indoor PM 2.5 responded almost immediately to increased outdoor PM 2.5 concentrations. Across facilities, 89% and 93% of the total PM 2.5 infiltration over 60 min occurred within the first 10 min following an increase in outdoor PM 2.5 on non-wildfire and wildfire days, respectively. We found that indoor PM 2.5 in childcare facilities increased with outdoor PM 2.5 . This effect varied between facilities and between wildfire-smoke and non-wildfire smoke days. These findings highlight the importance of air quality monitoring at childcare facilities for informed decision-making.

Su Golder and Hilary Graham 2024 Environ. Res.: Health 2 021001

Social media are increasingly used by the public to share information and opinions. This study explores social media engagement in health and climate change through an analysis of English-language posts on Twitter, one of the most widely-used platforms. We searched Twitter from 21 March 2023 to 11 May 2023 for posts related to climate change using climate-related textwords and hashtags; we then used health keywords ('health', 'wellbeing', 'illness', 'illnesses', 'disease', 'death') to identify posts related to health. Focusing on posts from general public users, we investigated the proportion of climate change posts referring to health and, for a random sample of these tweets, undertook a content analysis to identify the ways in which climate change and health were represented. The content analysis drew on media research on 'framing', a selective process through which particular aspects of an issue—for example, its causes, impacts and solutions—are highlighted. 668 810 posts related to climate change were posted during the study period. Health-related text words were included in 2.3% (15 434) of these posts. The content analysis pointed to two divergent frames. The first frame represents climate change as real, with real effects on people's health. The second frame portrays climate change as a hoax, with hoax-generated health effects. While the 'reality' frame does not engage with the hoax frame, the latter provides an insistent counter-narrative that questions trust in mainstream science and government policy. Neither frame engages with people's experiences of health and climate change. In conclusion, our study points to low levels of engagement in health in a key forum for public discussions about climate change. It also asks whether the failure of the 'reality' frame to engage either with people's lived experiences or with hoax framings may be contributing to a polarised debate about climate change and health and hindering consensus-building.

Latest articles

Melissa May Maestas et al 2024 Environ. Res.: Health 2 025005

Air toxics are an important category of air pollutants that are known to cause adverse health effects, including increased cancer risk. Regulatory efforts at federal, state, and local levels have aimed to decrease air toxics emissions over the past several decades. This study evaluated trends in air toxics cancer risks in Southern California using data from 1998 to 2018. We estimated air toxics cancer risk for each of four iterations of the South Coast Air Quality Management District's Multiple Air Toxics Exposure Study, which included at least one year of measurements at 10 stations and air toxics modeling for each iteration. Cancer risks were calculated using the measured and modeled air toxics concentrations averaged over a one to two year period and multiplied by the corresponding cancer potency factor and combined exposure factor that accounted for multiple exposure pathways and children's increased sensitivity to the health effects of air pollution. We examined temporal trends in overall air toxics cancer risks and evaluated changes in the air toxics species that contributed most to cancer risk in the region. Both measurement and modeling results show that air toxics cancer risk in Southern California decreased by more than 80% between 1998 and 2018, including a decrease of about 50% from 2012 to 2018. Diesel particulate matter was the main risk driver, followed by benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and formaldehyde. We found that more densely populated communities showed larger decreases than sparsely populated areas. The substantial decrease in air toxics levels over this 20-year period points to the success of air pollution policies aimed at addressing air toxics emissions and can inform future policy efforts to further reduce air toxics health impacts.

Yichen Wang et al 2024 Environ. Res.: Health 2 025004

Exposure to extreme temperatures can trigger a cascade of adverse cardiovascular and respiratory events. However, in Cyprus, a hotspot of climate change in the Eastern Mediterranean region, little is known about the temperature-related cardiorespiratory morbidity risks. We analyzed daily counts of hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases from four general hospitals in three districts in Cyprus from 2000 through 2019. For each district, we fitted time-series quasi-Poisson regression with distributed lag non-linear models to analyze the associations between daily mean temperature (lag 0–21 d) and hospital admissions for cardiorespiratory, cardiovascular, and respiratory diseases. A random-effects meta-analytical model was then applied to pool the district-specific estimates and obtain the national average associations. We analyzed 20 years of cause-specific hospitalization data with a total of 179 988 cardiovascular and respiratory events. The relationships between cardiorespiratory morbidity and temperature were overall U-shaped. During extreme temperature days, 15.85% (95% empirical CI [eCI]: 8.24, 22.40%) excess cardiovascular hospitalizations and 9.59% (95% eCI: −0.66, 18.69%) excess respiratory hospitalizations were attributable to extreme cold days (below the 2.5th percentile). Extreme hot days (above the 97.5th percentile) accounted for 0.17% (95% eCI: 0.03, 0.29%) excess cardiovascular hospitalizations and 0.23% (95% eCI: 0.07, 0.35%) excess respiratory hospitalizations. We found evidence of increased cardiovascular morbidity risk associated with extreme temperatures in Cyprus. Our study highlights the necessity to implement public health interventions and adaptive measures to mitigate the related temperature effects in an understudied region.

Review articles

Mayank Gangwar et al 2024 Environ. Res.: Health 2 012001

Indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools has received attention over the past decades but still lacks specific standards and regulations. This study aimed to review the impact of bioaerosol activity in indoor environments on acute respiratory diseases and explore whether carbon dioxide can be used as an indicator of bioaerosol and respiratory diseases in indoor environments in K-12 school systems. Findings suggest a lack of a consensual approach to evaluate bioaerosols impacting IAQ in indoor infrastructures, particularly in school environments; an elevated CO 2 concentration inside the school classrooms was not uncommon, and the evidence of unsatisfactory and degraded IAQ (surpassing ASHRAE standards) at public schools in rural and urban settings in one of the North Central County, Florida. It was found that CO 2 levels can be associated with bioaerosol activity, and sufficient ventilation within the space substantially reduces the airborne time of respiratory droplets and CO 2 levels. CO 2 monitoring can act as an effective, low-cost alternative to surveying or detecting the prevalence of respiratory diseases, which may hold strength through establishing critical CO 2 thresholds and, thereafter associating it with the infectious doses of pathogen activity.

J V F Coumans and S Al Jaaidi 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 032002

Exposure to air pollution (AP) is inevitable in daily life and an increasing number of epidemiological studies have reported that exposure to ambient particulate matter (PM) is associated with adverse health outcomes. Intrauterine, childhood, and adolescence are vulnerable periods, during which PM exposure can cause molecular changes, potentially leading to changes in metabolism and development. PM-induced oxidative stress is the underlying mechanism. Biomarkers can be used as illustrative measures of PM exposure to facilitate the assessment of potential health effects and provide a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. The purpose of this scoping review is to report -OMICS biomarkers found in body fluids that are primarily related to oxidative stress and are already used to evaluate ambient AP exposure, as well as to identify knowledge gaps. Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases were independently searched for all studies published between January 2013 and December 2022 that reported on -OMICS signature changes during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence. Of the initial 757 articles, 36 met our inclusion criteria and reported on genomic, epigenomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, lipidomic, and metabolomic biomarkers. The findings of this scoping review indicate that exposure to various ambient pollutants in early life can cause oxidative stress. Integrating biomarkers from top-down -OMICS studies in an epidemiological context may provide a clear picture of the biomarker selection process to establish a causal relationship between PM exposure and disease pathogenesis. This knowledge could lead to the conceptualization and subsequent development of novel preventative strategies.

Kathleen A Clark and Mary Sheehan 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 022002

The emergence and global spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 converged with wildfire seasons of unprecedented extent. These co-occurring crises brought the potential for amplified health impacts. A systematized literature review was conducted to identify the health impacts from co-exposure to wildfires and the COVID-19 pandemic. A search of PubMed and Scopus identified 373 distinct references which were screened according to predetermined criteria. A total of 22 peer-reviewed publications were included in the final analysis. Studies were located in Australia and the western United States, with a single study in the Amazonian region of Brazil. The studies identified focused primarily on the impact of wildfire smoke exposure on COVID-19 infection and mortality, and the impact of exposure to both crises on mental health. The collective evidence shows that wildfire exposure within the context of the pandemic exacerbated COVID-19 infection and mortality as well as various adverse mental health effects. Additional research is needed in more diverse contexts and with individual-level data. Findings highlight the need for public health preparedness to anticipate overlapping, related crises and to advance climate change mitigation to protect public health.

Mardelle McCuskey Shepley et al 2023 Environ. Res.: Health 1 022001

Background. The positive impact of greenspace on human health has been well documented, including several literature reviews and meta-analyses that have examined the broad benefits of nature connections. Researchers have also examined the relationship between nature and crime reduction and identified potential mechanisms underlying this outcome, such as the physiological impact of nature, lowered temperatures due to a reduction in the heat island effect, and places for community interaction. However, a critical shortcoming of this study is the lack of deep community involvement in the research process. Community-based participatory research (CBPR) is critical to ensuring that the findings are meaningful to communities and translatable. This study expands on recent literature reviews on greenspace outcomes by focusing on community-engaged research (CER). By gathering and summarizing studies on this topic, we address two subjects: (a) strategies that can be used to improve community engagement, and (b) environmental factors that impact community outcomes in greenspace settings. Methods. To explore these issues, we used a modified version of Arksey and O'Malley's framework for a structured literature review, employing the Web of Science, EbscoHost, Scopus, ProQuest Global, and Google Scholar databases. Results. We retrieved 772 publications using permutations of keywords related to violent crime, greenspaces, and CBPR. After eliminating duplicates, the reviewers worked in parallel to evaluate 700 titles and abstracts and identified 51 potentially relevant papers, ten of which met the requirements for inclusion in this analysis. Discussion. Based on the studies explored in this literature review, we identified the following strategies for improving CER: building partnerships, facilitating power-sharing, utilizing community-specific indicators of success, embracing perspectives of communities of color, and empowering community researchers. In the sample of studies described here, the factors contributing to the relationship between greenspace and violent crime were maintenance, activity programming, green interventions, and community involvement.

Accepted manuscripts

Liska et al 

A large number of epidemiological studies have identified air pollution as a major risk to human health. Exposures to the pollutants PM2.5, NO2 and O3 cause cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, cancer and premature mortality. Whilst previous studies have reported demographic inequalities in exposure, with the most deprived and susceptible often being disproportionately exposed to the highest pollutant concentrations, the vast majority of these studies have quantified exposure based only on individuals' place of residence. Here we use anonymised personal data from UK Census 2011, and hourly modelled air pollution concentrations at 0.8 km × 1.4 km spatial resolution in the Central Belt of Scotland, to investigate how inclusion of time spent at place of work or study affects demographic inequalities in exposure. We split the population by sex, ethnic group, age and socio-economic status. Exposure gradients are observed across all demographic characteristics. Air pollution exposures of males are more affected by workplace exposures than females. The White ethnic group has the lowest exposures to NO2 and PM2.5, and highest to O3. Exposures to NO2 and PM2.5 tend to peak between the ages of 21 and 30, but those aged 31 to 50 tend to be most impacted by the inclusion of time spent at workplace in the exposure assessment. People in the two least deprived deciles consistently have the lowest residential-only and combined residential-workplace exposure to NO2 and PM2.5, but experience the highest increase in exposure when including workplace. Overall, including workplace exposure results in relatively small change in median exposure but attenuates some of the exposure inequalities associated with ethnicity and socioeconomic status observed in exposure assessments based only on place of residence.&#xD;

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• 2022-present Environmental Research: Health doi: 10.1088/issn.2752-5309 Online ISSN: 2752-5309

• Open access
• Published: 10 January 2022

Impact of environmental factors on human semen quality and male fertility: a narrative review

• Naina Kumar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5970-6935 1 &
• Amit Kant Singh 2  

Environmental Sciences Europe volume  34 , Article number:  6 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Worldwide rising trend in infertility has been observed in the past few years with male infertility arising as a major problem. One main reason for the rise in male infertility cases is declining semen quality. It was found that any factor that affects semen quality can affect male fertility. There are several modifiable factors affecting semen quality including air pollution, use of pesticides and harmful chemicals, exposure to excessive heat, and can lead to decreased male fertility.

The present review focuses on some of these environmental factors that affect semen quality and hence, can cause male infertility. The literature from 2000 till June 2021 was searched from various English peer-reviewed journals and WHO fact sheets using the USA National Library of Medicine (PubMed) database, the regional portal of Virtual Health Library, and Scientific Electronic Library Online. The search terms used were: “Air pollution and male fertility”, “Chemicals and male infertility”, “Heat exposure and infertility”, “heavy metals and male fertility”.

Adverse environmental factors have a significant impact on semen quality, leading to decreased sperm concentration, total sperm count, motility, viability, and increased abnormal sperm morphology, sperm DNA fragmentation, ultimately causing male infertility. However, all these factors are modifiable and reversible, and hence, by mere changing of lifestyle, many of these risk factors can be avoided.

Worldwide infertility affects around 8–12% of couples, with male-factors identified as the primary cause in 50% of cases [ 1 ]. Furthermore, around 7% of all men are affected by male infertility all over the world [ 2 ]. Many factors predispose to male infertility including congenital malformations, hormonal, genetic, behavioral, iatrogenic, environmental, and lifestyle factors [ 3 ]. Environmental pollution has emerged as a major cause for the rising trend of male infertility in today’s era all over the world due to the universal presence of environmental contaminants. Recent studies have revealed that air pollution has a significant impact on human fertility and sperm quality [ 4 , 5 ].

Semen quality is the major predictor of male fertility outcome [ 6 ]. It was observed that environmental pollution unfavorably affects semen quality by impairing the process of spermatogenesis, steroidogenesis, Sertoli cell, and sperm functions, thereby leading to decreased male fertility [ 7 , 8 ]. Furthermore, there are numerous natural and man-made chemicals that are released into the environment daily and have deleterious impacts on human fertility. Despite, the adverse impacts of environmental chemicals such as industrial waste, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, food additives, etc. on spermatogenesis in adult men, there is very scarce data available on the direct impact of these chemicals in humans. The available studies are usually in an occupational setting, where the population is exposed to these substances at very high concentrations and not for the general population [ 9 , 10 ].

The present review briefs the impact of various environmental factors that affect male fertility including air pollution, working environment, increased risk of exposure to chemicals, radiation, and heat. All these factors are modifiable and can hence, provide opportunities for the treatment of male infertility. Figure  1 Summarizes the effects of environmental factors on semen quality. Some of these environmental factors and their impact on semen quality, sperm, and overall male fertility are discussed in detail as under:

Impact of environmental and lifestyle factors on semen quality and male fertility

Environmental factors

• Air pollution

Nowadays alarming rise in air pollution in many cities of the world has affected human health to a large extent and has also led to a rise in the number of diseases including respiratory [ 11 ], cardiovascular [ 12 ], skin-related [ 13 ], cancers [ 14 ] and reproductive diseases [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Furthermore, India is the second most populated country and the third most air polluted country all over the world [ 18 ].

The main sources of air pollution include motor vehicle exhaust, factories, fire, household, agriculture, waste treatment, oil refineries, natural sources, such as volcanic eruptions, wind, etc. The major air pollutants affecting human health are particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and radiations, such as X-ray exposure [ 15 , 19 ]. The particulate matter present in the air in form of tiny liquid or solid droplets can be inhaled and can result in serious health effects [ 20 ] Furthermore, particles < 10 μm in diameter (PM 10 ) are very harmful and after inhalation are known to invade the lungs and can even reach the bloodstream causing numerous deleterious impacts. Finer particles, such as PM 2.5 , are even more dangerous and pose a greater risk to health [ 21 ].

Numerous recent researches have shown the adverse effect of air pollution on reproductive outcomes in both males and females. It seriously affects the semen quality in males. It was observed that air pollution causes increased sperm Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fragmentation, sperm morphological changes, and reduced sperm motility [ 22 ]. A systematic meta-analysis reported that the level of air pollution was significantly associated with decreased semen volume, sperm concentration, progressive and total sperm motility, and normal sperm morphology rate. It also results in increased sperm DNA fragmentation index, further leading to decreased fertility in males [ 23 ]. A recent study evaluated the association between various gaseous pollutants and semen quality and reported that Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) exposure has significant negative impacts on sperm parameters during all exposure windows. They also observed that both SO 2 and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) had significant adverse impacts on sperm concentration and motility which was found to be more aggressive in the initial phase of spermatogenesis. Hence, concluding that gaseous pollutants have a significant adverse impact on semen quality especially during the sperm development period [ 24 ]. Findings of original research reported that in motorway tollgate workers the total sperm motility, forward progression, and sperm kinetics were significantly lesser as compared to other men living in that area. It was found that the nitrogen oxide and lead released from automobile exhaust severely affected the overall semen quality in these men as compared to their controls [ 25 ]. A study reported that tollgate workers who are exposed to large amounts of automobile exhaust had an increased quantity of damaged sperm chromatin and fragmented DNA as compared to their unexposed healthy men, and hence, concluded that car exhaust exposure can lead to a significant genotoxic effect on human spermatozoa [ 26 ].

One major air pollutant is ozone. Ozone can result in decreased percentages of sperm with normal sperm morphology and hence, can explain the rising trend of males reporting to infertility clinics with abnormal sperm morphology [ 27 ]. Recent studies have proposed the role of particulate matter 2.5 (PM 2.5 ) , a fine particulate matter that is the main component of haze and an important indicator of air pollution in causing male infertility [ 28 , 29 ]. It was observed that exposure to PM 2.5  results in an increased number of sperm cells with cytoplasmic drop and morphological abnormalities in sperm heads [ 30 ]. Other similar studies have also found a significant inverse relationship between PM 2.5  and sperm motility, sperm concentration, total sperm count, sperm head morphology, and overall semen quality [ 31 , 32 ].

The exact mechanism by which air pollutants result in male infertility is not clear, but it can be explained to some extent by the facts that air pollution leads to: a). Hormonal disruption: The heavy metals such as lead, zinc, copper, and PAH present in the exhaust of automobiles have estrogenic, antiestrogenic, and antiandrogenic actions, which in turn can result in abnormal gonadal steroidogenesis and gametogenesis, thereby leading to infertility [ 33 , 34 ]. Another recently studied particulate matter PM 2.5 gets accumulated in the reproductive organs through blood-testis, epithelial, or placental barrier and can disrupt hormone levels, leading to infertility [ 28 ]; b). Increased production of reactive oxygen species due to oxidative stress, leading to lipid peroxidation, sperm DNA fragmentation, and infertility [ 33 , 35 ]; c). Sperm DNA alteration due to the formation of DNA adducts especially with PAH results in changes in gene expression and DNA methylation causing male infertility [ 33 , 36 ]. Hence, air pollution is one major factor in today’s era resulting in defective spermatogenesis, increased sperm DNA fragmentation, reduced motility, and abnormal morphological changes, leading to a rise in male infertility.

Exposure to harmful chemicals

Human beings all over the world are exposed to a wide variety of chemicals in their day-to-day life. Many of these chemicals have serious ill effects on the functioning of the human body, especially reproductive organs. Recent studies have shown that male reproductive organs are one of the major sites for insults resulting from exposure to environmental chemicals leading to male infertility [ 37 ]. A recent large cross-sectional study on maternal occupational exposure to potential endocrine-disrupting chemicals during pregnancy, especially to pesticides, phthalates, and heavy metals on the semen quality of their sons in adulthood reported a significant correlation between maternal occupational exposure with low semen volume and total sperm count in their sons. Furthermore, a significant association was found between maternal heavy metal exposure and low sperm concentration. Hence, they concluded that there is need to inform pregnant women about the potential hazards of chemicals during pregnancy that can impair their child's fertility, though further studies are needed to confirm the impact of endocrine disrupting chemicals on fertility [ 38 ]. Some of the chemicals that significantly affects male fertility are summarized as under:

Dioxins are a group of highly persistent lipophilic chemicals produced as a by-product to several industrial and natural processes including smelting, chlorine bleaching of paper and pulp, in production of some pesticides, biomedical and plastic waste incineration [ 39 , 40 , 41 ]. Chemically it is 2,3,7,8- tetrachlorodibenzo para dioxin (TCDD) and is considered a “dirty dozen” that is a cluster of hazardous chemicals also known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) as they resist biological and environmental degradation. They are of concern because of their highly toxic nature and ability to get absorbed by fat tissue and stored in the body for long periods (7–11 years) [ 36 ]. They are known to cause serious reproductive, developmental, and cancer problems [ 42 ]. Dioxins act as endocrine disruptors and mediate their effects by binding to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR)/aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT) receptor complex present over human testicular cells to mediate their toxic effects [ 43 ]. The exact mechanism by which it affects the reproductive functions in humans is not clear. A recent study in male Zebrafish proposed DNA methylation as a possible mechanism of reproductive effects of dioxins [ 44 ]. Since DNA methylation pattern in zebrafish is carried down paternally through the sperm [ 45 ], inheritance of epimutations in the DNA methylome is a promising mechanism of transgenerational male-mediated reproductive defects resulting from TCDD exposure. Furthermore, early disruption of DNA methylation during gonad development can result in reproductive and epigenetic gene changes leading to impaired reproductive functions [ 46 ]. A study on 135 human males exposed to dioxin at three age groups (prepuberty, puberty, and adulthood), and 184 healthy males as control reported that exposure to dioxin in prepubertal males was significantly associated with reduced sperm concentration and motility [ 47 ]. Only available human study on dioxin exposure during the developmental stage reported that male babies fed on breast milk of women exposed to high concentrations of dioxins at the time of conception had significantly decreased sperm concentration, total sperm count, and total sperm motility [ 48 ]. Another retrospective study also reported that the dioxin and furan content was 2.2–2.3 times higher in the ejaculate of infertile males as compared to the fertile ones [ 49 ]. A recent study in male mice reported a significant fall in sperm motility and count, in mice exposed to dioxin. Furthermore, on testicular histopathology, they observed necrotic degeneration and reduced epithelium thickness in mice exposed to dioxin as compared to the controls [ 50 ]. Furthermore, supporting the fact that dioxin exposure seriously affects the sperm functions in males resulting in poor quality semen and hence, male infertility.

Plastic contaminants (Bisphenols): Plastic use has become indispensable in our daily lives, but being non-biodegradable, it has now become a major cause of concern all over the world. Bisphenol A (BPA) a major component of plastic is released into the environment during the process of production, use, or disposal of plastics and from break-down of industrial plastic-related wastes [ 51 ]. In a recent study in the United States, adults and children reported that Bisphenols substitutes such as Bisphenol F, bisphenol S, and bisphenol A are almost universal [ 52 ]. It is nowadays considered hazardous to human health, because of its universal presence, prolonged persistence in the environment, and as an endocrine disruptor. It has been linked to numerous health problems including cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, infertility, and cancers [ 53 , 54 , 55 ]. It was found that BPA has estrogenic, antiandrogenic, and antithyroid activities and hence, can disrupt the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis, resulting in altered reproductive system functions [ 54 ]. Increased exposure to BPA results in sperm DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and degeneration, decreased sperm motility, sperm count, and increased risk of aneuploidies in sperm [ 54 , 56 ]. Numerous studies on rodents have shown that BPA exposure in male rodents results in a significant decrease in sperm motility, count, normal sperm morphology, increased sperm DNA damage, and adversely affects the spermatogenesis process resulting in male infertility [ 53 , 57 , 58 , 59 ]. Another recent study reported that excessive exposure to BPA results in impaired sperm motility by reducing the sperm Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) levels and premature acrosome reaction resulting in poor fertilization and embryonic developmental problems [ 60 ]. Other studies have also found a close association between increased BPA exposure and poor semen quality and parameters including sperm quality and motility [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. The exact mechanism by which BPA affects human sperm quality is still under research but it was found that BPA is an endocrine disruptor that results in inhibition of anti-apoptotic pathways such as Bcl-2 and causes activation of pro-apoptotic signaling pathways including mitogen-activated protein kinase ( MAPK ), Fas/FasL, Caspase 3 and 9, Bax leading to diminished proliferation, increased reactive oxygen species-mediated damage and enhanced apoptosis of male gametes [ 64 ]. It acts as an Androgen receptor (AR) antagonist resulting in reduced AR translocation and increases AR transcriptional corepressors thereby resulting in suppression of Sertoli cell proliferation [ 65 ]. A study in mice reported that BPA inhibits testosterone synthesis in male pups [ 66 ]. This decreased testosterone levels in plasma results in reduced expressions of steroidogenic enzymes, cholesterol carrier protein in Leydig cells, and plasma Luteinizing hormone (LH) levels. BPA also results in decreased Leydig cell numbers in the testis [ 67 ]. All leading to male reproductive dysfunction. Hence, prolonged exposure to BPA in excessive concentrations can affect male fertility.

Pesticides and herbicides

Pesticides especially dibromochloropropane, ethylene dibromide which has been extensively studied is known to cause direct spermatozoa damage, Sertoli or Leydig cell function alteration, disordered endocrine function during hormonal regulation of processes, such as synthesis, release, storage, transport, and clearance of hormones; binding of hormones to their receptors, thyroid function, etc. leading to male infertility [ 68 ]. Organochlorine pesticides which are widely used, including DDT and its metabolites, act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals [ 69 ]. The main metabolite of DDT, p,p ′-Dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene ( p,p ′-DDE), is an anti-androgenic and binds to androgen receptors and hence, inhibits the action of testosterone [ 70 ]. Furthermore, it was observed that p,p ′-DDE may have an additive or multiplicative effect with other endocrine-disrupting environmental pollutants leading to adverse impacts on reproductive functions [ 69 ]. Pesticide exposure can result in defective spermatogenesis leading to reduced sperm concentration, sperm motility, an increased number of morphologically abnormal sperms, causing poor semen quality and reduced male fertility [ 71 ]. A recent study on the in-vitro impact of Herbicide Roundup on human sperm motility and sperm mitochondria reported that the direct exposure of semen samples to the active component of this herbicide even at a very low concentration of 1 mg/L can result in adverse effects on sperm motility and in sperm mitochondrial dysfunction [ 72 ]. At low doses, Roundup herbicide also induces oxidative stress and causes Sertoli cell death [ 73 ]. Another commonly used pesticide is DDT. Its main metabolite is 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl) ethylene and direct exposure to this metabolite was found to be strongly associated with sperm immobility and mitochondrial dysfunction in a concentration-dependent manner [ 74 , 75 ]. Furthermore, it’s been 49 years, since organochlorine chemicals such as DDT and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) have been banned in the USA, but that doesn’t mean that they are gone. They persist in the environment for years after use and are known as ‘legacy pesticide’ and still can produce deleterious impacts on male fertility. Organochlorine chemicals show resistance to breakdown, can bioaccumulate, enter the food chain, and can be transported over long distances [ 76 , 77 ]. The use of DDT has been restricted in many nations across the world as a result of the Stockholm Convention, 2004 as a measure to protect human and environmental health from the side effects of exposure to specific persistent organic pollutants. Although its use in South Africa continued for malaria vector control and a cross-sectional study from this area reported a statistically significant positive correlation between the percentage of sperm with cytoplasmic droplets, teratozoospermia, asthenospermia, and oligospermia with blood plasma concentration of DDT and an inverse correlation with semen volume. Hence, they concluded that nonoccupational exposure to DDT results in impaired seminal parameters in healthy men [ 78 ]. A recent study observed that pesticide exposure also results in erectile dysfunctions in males, by causing apoptosis of Leydig cells, thereby decreasing the overall concentration of circulating testosterone in the body [ 79 ]. Many environmental pollutants including pesticides, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, BPA, phthalates act as endocrine-disrupting compounds. These chemicals are known to induce the MAPK signaling pathway in the testis. Three MAPK signaling pathways are known to be involved in pesticides related testicular injury. The testicular Erk1/2, p38 MAPK result in disruption of the blood testes barrier by blocking gap junction communications leading to germ cell depletion from the seminiferous epithelium [ 80 ]. Hence, prolonged, and excessive exposure to various pesticides and herbicides in our daily life can be a cause of compromised male fertility.

Phthalates, also known as Phthalic acid diesters are a group of man-made chemicals that are used in several consumer and industrial goods [ 81 ]. They are universally present environmental chemicals commonly found in many consumer products such as toys, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic products, building and construction materials, scent retainers, some medications, personal care products, etc. [ 82 ] and are known for their anti-androgenic activity. Phthalate gets easily absorbed in the human body through ingestion, skin, or inhalation of contaminated air. It causes a wide array of male reproductive organ dysfunction known as “phthalate syndrome” comprising of diminished anogenital distance, infertility, low sperm count, undescended testes, hypospadias, and many other reproductive-tract anomalies [ 83 ]. Phthalates, especially mono-(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate (MEHP), an active metabolite of Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) causes activation of both PPAR (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor) α and γ pathways [ 84 ], which in turn stimulates PPAR: RXR (retinoid X receptor) heterodimers that compete for DNA binding sites required for gene transcription, thus stopping the transcription of aromatase enzyme involved in sexual development. Furthermore, MEHP decreases the production of steroidogenic proteins including steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR), and cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage (P450scc), thereby adversely affecting male reproductive health. At high levels, it inhibits the activity of 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (3β-HSD) and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17β-HSD) specific to Leydig cell function in addition to the steroidogenic proteins by causing increased oxidative stress in Leydig cells, and hence, decreases testosterone synthesis [ 85 ]. A recent study conducted on male partners of infertile couples found that males who were exposed to ortho-phthalate drugs had poor semen quality as compared to unexposed ones [ 86 ]. Several other studies have also reported that phthalate exposure in humans has a significant adverse impact on overall semen quality [ 87 , 88 ]. It causes reduced semen volume, total sperm counts, sperm concentration, morphological abnormalities of sperm head including large sperm head sizes, and other variations [ 61 , 87 ]. Furthermore, it was observed that exposure to mono-methyl phthalate (MMP) and mono-cyclohexyl phthalate (MCPP) results in reduced sperm motility [ 87 , 89 ]. Another recent study on the impact of eight phthalate metabolites measured in urine samples of 599 men attending an in-vitro fertilization clinic on the male reproductive functions and semen parameters reported an inverse correlation between serum testosterone and mono-isobutyl phthalate, FSH, and mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, and prolactin and mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate. Furthermore, they reported a positive correlation between sperm concentration and mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate, mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate, and DHEP, but a negative correlation with the percentage of MEHP to molar sum of DHEP metabolites, hence indicating the need for further studies on the role of phthalates in male fertility [ 90 ]. Several mechanisms have been proposed for how phthalates affect male fertility by causing testicular damage, impairing normal testicular tissue structure, decreasing levels of circulating testosterone and other reproductive hormones, increasing sperm abnormalities, and by decreasing Sertoli cell viability [ 61 , 91 , 92 ]. A study reported that fetal exposure of male rats to di ( n -butyl) phthalate results in testicular changes that are very similar to testicular dysgenesis syndrome observed in humans, characterized by focal areas of dysgenetic tubules in normal testes. di ( n -butyl) phthalate exposure leads to abnormal accumulation of significantly small Leydig cells centrally in the fetal testis. The testosterone levels were also reduced. These Leydig cell collections did not exhibit features of focal proliferation as observed normally and have trapped isolated Sertoli cells within them resulting in the formation of dysgenetic tubules. These centrally located dysgenetic tubules have germ cells in early puberty, but have only Sertoli cells by adulthood, indicating that the presence of intratubular Leydig cells adversely affects spermatogenesis [ 93 ]. Hence, exposure to phthalates, a common component of many products used in daily life can affect male fertility.

Heavy metals

Another widespread environmental pollutant that can affect male fertility are non-essential heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury, barium, etc. These heavy metals can adversely affect the semen and sperm quality in men. It was observed that the presence of Cadmium and Barium in blood, and Lead, Cadmium, Barium, and Uranium in seminal plasma were closely linked with increased risk for reduced sperm viability and normal sperm morphology [ 94 ]. Heavy metals affect male fertility by inducing reactive oxygen species generation, which in turn cause lipid peroxidation, sperm DNA damage, leading to infertility [ 95 ]. Lead and cadmium are known reproductive toxicants and are suspected endocrine disruptor compounds, which can alter hormonal levels in men and cause impaired semen quality and male infertility [ 96 ]. A study reported that exposure to high concentrations of copper sulphate (CuSO 4 —250 µg/ml) and Cadmium chloride (CdCl 2 —500 µg/ml) was associated with significantly reduced sperm motility parameters [ 97 ]. This was supported by the findings of another study which reported the association of heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, mercury, zinc with oligospermia and male infertility [ 98 ]. Many other studies have also proposed the role of heavy metals in male infertility [ 99 , 100 ].

Heat exposure

Another major factor that may contribute to male infertility is exposure to excessive heat at the workplace or due to climate change. Temperature plays a crucial role in maintaining normal spermatogenesis in testes. The scrotal temperature is 2–4 °C lower than the core body temperature [ 101 , 102 ] and any factor that causes a rise in scrotal temperature will affect the spermatogenesis process resulting in male infertility [ 103 ]. Furthermore, it was observed that 1–1.5 °C elevation in scrotal temperature can result in impaired sperm production (oligozoospermia, azoospermia, teratozoospermia), and sperm morphological abnormalities [ 104 ]. Environmental stresses, such as a temperature rise, resulting in the activation of heat shock protein (HSP). Of these the most important is HSP70s, one of the major classes of proteins induced by elevated temperatures. They are responsible for the folding, assembly, and disassembly of other proteins [ 105 ] and are known to play a crucial role in spermatogenesis [ 106 ]. Hence, any factor that perturbs their normal expression and regulation results in an adverse impact on male fertility [ 107 ]. A study on 37 infertile men (cases) and 13 fertile men (controls) reported that HSP 70 levels were significantly increased in the infertile group as compared to fertile males, thereby concluding that HSP 70 expression increases in spermatozoa of infertile men as a protective mechanism against apoptosis [ 108 ]. Constant exposure to high temperatures as seen in cases of occupational exposure to radiant heat in people working in furnaces, bakeries, welding or ceramic factories, those working for long hours in kitchens, laundries, dry cleaning shops, or drivers can result in loss of thermoregulatory function of scrotum affecting one or more component of semen quality in males [ 103 , 109 ]. This fact was further supported by a study that revealed that tight undergarments in men also lead to a rise in scrotal temperature resulting in decreased sperm concentration, total sperm count, motility, and hence, male infertility [ 110 ]. It was observed that higher scrotal temperatures result in a rise in testicular metabolism without the surge in blood supply, leading to local tissue hypoxia and oxidative stress [ 111 ]. Human spermatozoa are very susceptible to oxidative stress-induced lipid peroxidation because of high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in their plasma membrane [ 112 ]. This in turn causes increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which causes increased sperm DNA fragmentation and male infertility [ 113 , 114 ]. It was demonstrated recently that excessive heat exposure causes decreased sperm motility by downregulating mitochondrial activity and reducing ATP levels [ 115 ]. Furthermore, a transient rise in scrotal temperature results in a reversible drop in proteins essential for the spermatogenesis process, gamete interaction, and sperm motility [ 116 ]. A recent study on male rats reported that exertional heatstroke can cause erectile dysfunctions, disruption of testicular temperature, poorly differentiated seminiferous tubules, diminished sperm quality, loss of interstitial Leydig cells, Sertoli cells, leading to azoospermia and infertility [ 117 ]. Another similar study conducted on bovine sperm also reported that heat stress in bulls induces seminal plasma oxidative stress thereby affecting the sperm mitochondrial function, motility, plasma membrane integrity, and DNA fragmentation, ultimately leading to infertility [ 118 ]. Another study observed the impact of wet heat exposure in the forms of hot tubs, Jacuzzi or hot baths in infertile male partners and concluded that the toxic effects of wet heat exposure are reversible, and withdrawal of hyperthermia resulted in increased sperm motility and quality in these patients, further supporting the fact that excessive heat exposure affects sperm parameters and can cause infertility in males [ 119 ]. A large longitudinal study including 10,802 Chinese men in Wuhan was conducted to quantitatively evaluate the exposure–response relationship between ambient temperature exposure and semen quality and observed that exposure to extremes of temperature, both high and low was found to be associated with decreased semen quality including reduced sperm concentration, total sperm count, total motility, progressive motility [ 120 ]. Another similar study reported that seasonal and monthly temperature variation has a significant impact on the human semen parameters. It was observed in their study that sperm concentration and total amount per ejaculate was significantly lower in summer and higher in winter, whereas the sperm progressive and total motility was found to be higher in spring and summer and lower in autumn and winter [ 121 ]. A large data analysis study in Northern Italy to evaluate the impact of environmental temperature and air pollution on semen parameters also reported that total sperm number was significantly lower in summer/autumn and was found to be inversely related with the duration of daylight [ 122 ]. Hence, though the data related to the impact of season or climate change on human semen quality is very little, pieces of evidence have been found to link extreme changes of temperature with poor semen quality. Other studies have also reported the impact of seasonal and environmental temperature variation on sperm quality [ 123 , 124 , 125 ]. Furthermore, many animal studies have also shown that a rise in testicular temperature results in reduced testicular size, decreased sperm production, increased abnormal sperm forms, and reduced motility leading to male infertility [ 115 , 126 , 127 ]. Hence, exposure to high temperatures both due to occupation or environmental factors has a deleterious impact on overall semen quality and can cause male infertility.

Table 1 depicts the impact of various environmental factors on male fertility in human and animal studies.

Hence, the environment plays a crucial role in male fertility. Adverse environmental factors can result in poor semen quality with decreased sperm concentration, sperm motility, viability, normal morphological forms, and increased sperm DNA fragmentation index, mitochondrial dysfunction, all leading to male infertility. However, all these factors can be prevented or modified, allowing us to decrease the risk associated with them. Decreasing air, chemical pollution, heat exposure and bringing positive changes in our daily lifestyle can prevent these adverse impacts on semen quality to a large extent, thereby reducing the overall incidence of male infertility.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Androgen receptor

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator

Adenosine triphosphate

Bisphenol A

Cadmium chloride

Copper sulphate

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

p,p ′-Dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene

Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Follicle stimulating hormone

Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases

Heat shock proteins

Luteinizing hormone

Mitogen-activated protein kinase

Mono-cyclohexyl phthalate

Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

Mono-methyl phthalate

Mono  n -butylphthalate

Nitrogen dioxide

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polychlorinated biphenyls

Particulate matter

Persistent organic pollutants

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

Cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage

Reactive oxygen species

Retinoid X receptor

Sulfur dioxide

Steroidogenic acute regulatory

Tetrachlorodibenzo para dioxin

World Health Organization

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Acknowledgements

I Thank Amrita Kumar, Dr. Namit Kant Singh, Adhvan Singh and Nutty Singh for their constant support and guidance.

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Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad Metropolitan Region, Bibinagar, 508126, Telangana, India

Naina Kumar

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Kumar, N., Singh, A.K. Impact of environmental factors on human semen quality and male fertility: a narrative review. Environ Sci Eur 34 , 6 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00585-w

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Received : 24 June 2021

Accepted : 28 December 2021

Published : 10 January 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00585-w

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