how to reverse outline an essay

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Reverse Outlining: An Exercise for Taking Notes and Revising Your Work

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Some assignments ask you to read and analyze complex information. In these cases, reverse outlining can help you distill the main ideas into short, clear statements. You may also use reverse outlining to revise your own work. Reverse outlining follows a two-step, repeatable process:

When reading, these notes should work as quick references for future study or in-class discussion.

When revising your own work, these notes should tell you if each paragraph is focused and clear.

When reading, these notes allow you to follow the logic of the essay, making it easier for you to analyze or discuss later.

When revising your own work, these notes should tell you if each paragraph fits in the overall organization of your paper. You may also notice that paragraphs should be shifted after completing this step.

Be brief, particularly when rereading your own work. If you can't complete each step in 5-10 words, the paragraph may need to be altered. You should be able to summarize the topic and the manner of support quickly; if you can't, revise the paragraph until you can.

This exercise can be expanded into an actual outline by rewriting/typing your notes, but writing in the margin might be sufficient.

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Reverse Outlining

Reverse outlining is a useful skill that you can use in two major ways: (1) as a writer, to clarify your own draft and (2) to take notes on text(s) as you are reading.

What is reverse outlining?

Reverse outlining is simply making an outline AFTER an essay has been written. For every paragraph, write the main idea or main argument in a small number of words in the margin next to that paragraph. This process allows you to see the structure or progress of an essay in a quick and clear way.

As a step in your paper-writing process:

Reverse outlining is a great step to take once you’ve completed a first draft and are ready to begin the revision process. While you are creating your reverse outline for your own paper, keep these thoughts in mind:

• Am I able to extract one main idea or one main argument from each paragraph? If you find that there is no main idea, then your paragraph is probably just “fluff” or unnecessary—or might need some connections or clarity. If you are finding more than one main idea, you will need to break the paragraph up into two or more paragraphs.
• Is the progression of the ideas logical? For example: Maybe your first body paragraph talks about how to address the problem of homelessness, but then the second paragraph gives a background of homelessness in your area. It would make more sense to switch the two paragraphs.
• Does every paragraph summary relate back to the thesis? If you have ideas that don’t fall under the jurisdiction of the thesis, then you either need to expand your thesis or the paragraph is off-topic and needs to be cut. Or perhaps your paragraph needs another sentence or two to be effectively and explicitly connected to your thesis.
• Did I answer the prompt fully? Once you can see all of your main points laid out, you can see more fully if you answered every part of the prompt. For example, maybe the prompt asks you to address a counterargument, but after you made your reverse outline, you realize that it isn’t to be found in your paper. You will need to add it!

As a note-taking method when reading:

When tackling a large research project, it’s easy to get your sources confused or forget what you read about as you move through your research. To keep the ideas you are reading about clear in your mind, create a reverse outline in the margins or on a separate sheet of paper as you read. After each paragraph, write about 4-10 words that summarize the author’s main point or idea next to the paragraph. This reverse outline will make it easy to scan over your sources to find information that can be included in your research. Ask yourself these questions as you create your reverse outline:

• What is the purpose of this paragraph? If you think of the specific purpose of each paragraph, it can help you uncover the author’s main argument in it.
• Do I agree or disagree with this argument? Research is all about joining the academic conversation, which means that you are allowed to disagree with what you read. Make a note if you support or are against a particular argument with pluses or minuses beside your summary.
• How will this fit into my own research? As you read and take notes, allow the ideas to shape your own argument and also decide if that argument needs to be covered in your own essay.
• Can I mimic this organization? Once you have your reverse outline of the source, look over it to see its general structure. Is it a structure that would work well for your own paper? Was it confusing and should therefore be avoided?

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So You've Finished a First Draft: Reverse Outlining

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So You've Finished a First Draft: Reverse Outlining

But you aren’t sure how to start revising? Revising is probably the second hardest part of the writing process, only surpassed by actually starting to write. Reverse outlining simplifies the task of revision by letting you see immediately where you can improve your paper. This handout contains a checklist of the most critical elements of an essay as well as tips to strengthen missing or unclear parts.


Note: I call the parts of an essay  points  and  elements  because I find the term paragraph too constricting. All strong essays include claims, evidence, and analysis, but do not necessarily divide them into an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Take another sheet of paper and use this rubric to outline an essay you have finished by writing down the sentence(s) that accomplish each of the bulleted points. You can also use different colored pens or highlighters to mark each of these different parts.

Introductory element:

• Provides a brief but concise background on the text(s) you will be discussing or analyzing
• Presents an observation, position, point of view, etc, that you are going to defend in the essay (thesis)
• An conclusion that you came to, but others might not necessarily agree with

First Point:

• Presents the first point you will analyze/defend (commonly referred to as claims or topic sentences)
• Generally each claim requires two or more separate pieces of evidence to be convincing
• Analysis of why the evidence supports your argument in your claim and how it relates to the thesis

Second Point:

• (Optional recommended transition) How and why this claim relates to your previous points

Repeat for any and all points

Conclusion:.

• Sums up all of your points and thesis
• Leaves readers feeling satisfied

Now that you’ve completed reverse outlining your essay, you might notice some elements are missing or unclear. Here are a list of strategies and questions you can use to help you strengthen the important parts of an essay. The examples are from an essay with the basic prompt: “Is Shakespeare’s Hamlet insane?”

Missing/unclear thesis statement:


Pinpoint exactly what you are trying to argue. Generally this is some debatable conclusion that you came to, one that other readers might not necessarily agree with. For example, this writer came to the conclusion that Hamlet is completely sane, but the lengths he goes to is essentially insanity. Check out the “ Three Story Thesis ” handout for more in-depth help.

Example : Although Hamlet is entirely capable of reasoned thought and exercises great logic in his actions and speech, his passion for revenge against Claudius ultimately leads to tragedy. His ambition, which blinds him to the suffering of those near him, can be interpreted as true madness.

Missing/unclear claims:

Ask yourself why your thesis is valid. The thesis makes a broader observation that you are going to defend, while the claims serve as subpoints where you analyze specific parts of the text.

Example : Hamlet fails to realize the destructive nature of his ambition, compromising his morality and destroying those near to him.

Missing/unclear evidence:

Ask yourself what occurs in the text that made you make your claim. Sometimes it’s also easier to work in reverse. You find a bunch of related evidence and make a claim from them. Check out “ Quote Sandwiching ” for help on incorporating evidence.

Example : Hamlet notices the clown singing while digging a grave and asks “has this fellow no feeling of his business? ‘A sings in grave-making.” Horatio replies that “custom hath made it in him a property of easiness” (5.1.61-62).

Missing/unclear analysis:

Ask yourself why the claim you make and evidence you choose is significant. What was particularly striking or resonant about the passages you chose to analyze? What is the overall significance of the evidence you chose to analyze? Or more generally, why did you choose that evidence to put in your paper?

Example : The irony of this exchange is how easily it could be applied to Hamlet himself. Hamlet’s business is his duty to his father and his own honor, but the actions he takes has made murder and lack of compassion an easy task for him.

Transitions:

Deciding how you order your points comes down to what you think is the logical order. Chronological analysis of a text is usually a good start. Generally, your strongest claim, evidence, and analysis should be the last to conclude your essay on a strong point. Transitioning involves thinking about how your claims relate to each other and the thesis as a whole.

Kevin Wang


Student Learning Center, University of California, Berkeley


©2010 UC Regents

  This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.

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Writing Resources

Reverse outlining.

This handout is available for download in DOCX format and PDF format .

Reverse outlining is exactly what it sounds like: a process whereby you take away the supporting writing and are left with a paper’s main points or main ideas, sometimes represented by the paper’s topic sentences. Your reverse outline provides a bullet-point view of the paper’s structure because you are looking at the main points of the paper, whether written by yourself or by someone else.

Reverse Outlining for Comprehension

Some assignments ask you to read and analyze complex information. In such cases, reverse outlining a text or lecture can help you distill the main ideas into short, clear statements. Look for key terms and concepts that can help define these main ideas – but also make sure that you understand what they each mean in their context, since simply copying down key terms won’t automatically guarantee that you understand them!

Reverse Outlining for Writing and Revision

You can also use reverse outlining to revise your own work and to ensure that your writing is clear, well-structured, and logically coherent. All writers need ways to test their drafts for the logical sequence of points – its structure – and a reverse outline allows you to read a condensed version of what you have written. This can be particularly valuable if you wrote without an outline (never recommended for academic writing!), or if you modified the structure of your draft as you wrote.

As shown in more detail on the next page, reverse outline of your own writing can help you (1) determine if your paper meets its goal, (2) discover places to expand on your evidence or analysis, and (3) see where readers might be tripped up by your organization or structure.

How to Create and Use a Reverse Outline

• Start a new document or use a blank piece of paper. It’s important to keep the original writing separate from the reverse outline you’re about to create.
• List the main idea of each paragraph , working systematically through the entire paper . If a paragraph's topic sentence provides a succinct version of the paragraph's argument, you can simply copy that sentence into the outline as a summary for that paragraph. Otherwise, write a one-sentence summary to express as concisely as possible the main point of the paragraph.
• Number your outline for ease of reference.
• Edit your writing, expanding or condensing passages to achieve greater concision and clarity. Listed below are specific questions that will help as you begin editing.

Asking Questions about Your Writing with a Reverse Outline

• Does every paragraph relate back to your main idea?

Many writers find that new ideas or topics appear near the end of a reverse outline. These topic shifts may signal that you need to revise certain paragraphs in you draft to be sure they relate back to your main idea, or they may inspire you to revise your main idea so that it takes on some of the new points these paragraphs suggest.

By viewing the structure of your paper from the vantage of a reverse outline, you can make productive decisions about whether to keep certain paragraphs or cut them from a draft.

• Where might a reader have trouble following the order of your ideas?

You can use a reverse outline to review a paper’s organization or structure and then make strategic choices for rearranging the paper on a paragraph-by-paragraph basis, or for adding or removing paragraphs to improve organization.

• Do several of your paragraphs repeat one idea?

If your reverse outline shows two paragraphs that make similar points, consider combining them or revising one so that it does not make too similar a point.

• Does one paragraph juggle several topics?

If one item on your reverse outline discusses more topics than other paragraphs, that may be a paragraph your reader will struggle to follow. By dividing its topics into two or more paragraphs, each one discussing a more focused topic or set of topics, you may be able to ensure that your reader follows your meaning.

• Are your paragraphs too long? Too short?

By comparing total paragraphs to total pages, you can learn your average paragraph length and more easily spot paragraphs that are unusually long or short.

Credit: Adapted from The Writing Lab & the OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2021 ( https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/reverse_outlining.html ) and The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 2021 ( https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/process/reverseoutlines/ ).

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Reverse Outline

Related links Reorganizing drafts Paragraph development Audience

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Reverse Outlining

Reverse Outlining is a method that helps a writer edit, reorganize and streamline their writing.   Reverse outlining involves using outlining techniques after you have already written text.   Using a reverse outline, you (the writer) place yourself in the reader’s position and look at the flow of what you have.  Reverse outlining is a tool that can be used at varying stages of the writing process and from everything from a sentence to a dissertation.  You may even be using elements of this technique already!

Reverse Outlining requires you to be in the position of the reader, not just writer.

Why use reverse outlining.

It can help you determine:

• If a given section is actually saying what you thought you were saying
• If your points are clear and presented in the correct order
• Whether the argument supports your thesis
• Whether important ideas are buried within a paragraph
• The direction that you should go with your draft
• The gaps in your argument
• Your paper is actually arguing for a different thesis, or is making a different argument than you originally intended
• You might even prefer your new argument/thesis! …Or not.
• Either way, your reverse-outline can help you rework the paper accordingly

How To Reverse Outline

• Number the paragraphs
• Identify the topic/purpose of each paragraph
• Put these topics into an outline
• Analyze these outline
• Create a revised outline
• Reorganize the text according to the revised outline
• Check for cohesion

This can also be done on a sentence level within each paragraph

Tips and Tricks

Dissertation, thesis, article or subsection.

• In the margins, take brief, pithy notes about what each paragraph/section is doing, in a sentence or two.
• If you can’t get a paragraph’s/section’s claim down to 1-2 short sentences, the paragraph/section might need focusing
• Once you have pithy claims for each section/paragraph, you might notice that the paragraphs want to be rearranged to better make your point
• What is the section actually saying?
• What do you want the section to say?
• Use just the first and last sentence of each paragraph to look at overall flow and cohesion.  Can you trace the argument?

Paragraph Level

• Use the actual individual sentences and set them up in an outline
• Ask: Does each sentence support the topic sentence of the paragraph?
• Put aside any that do not and place them elsewhere in the draft
• Often, when we first write a draft, we write through our thoughts and end up putting the information we would want as a reader at the end of a paragraph rather than the beginning

Sentence Level

• Pull out any sub-clauses
• Ask: Does your sentence make sense without them?
• Revise and place the clauses back in as needed to define the basic sentence.

Additional Tips

• Reverse Outlining is a way to mine your free writing or zero drafting for ideas.
• Use a hard copy to enable you to more easily annotate
• If you use Scrivener as your writing software, Reverse Outlining is particularly easy as you can use the different views to look at your material

Additional Resources:

Reverse Outlining: An Exercise for Taking Notes and Revising Your Work

From the PURDUE OWL

Reverse Outline: What is it and how do I use it? 

From the Fred Meijer Center for Writing & Michigan Authors

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Reverse Outlining: Writing

• Reverse outlining is a technique you can use while rough drafting to stay on track.
• You can also reverse outline to help with editing after completing your first draft.
• Reverse outlining is extra beneficial when working on longer or sustained writing projects.

What is reverse outlining?

A reverse outline is a way to make sense of the structure of your rough draft by summarising paragraphs into phrases. Sometimes we make an outline and then by the time we finish our first draft, we haven’t stayed with our intended structure. Even in later drafts of our work, we can lose the thread of our thoughts. We are too close to the text, in this case, missing the forest for the trees.

One way to get an understanding of how the ideas are progressing and where to make structural changes is to do a reverse outline. This helps you see the development of ideas from a more distant view, clarifying what you have already discussed, what you have yet to discuss, and the shape or flow of ideas in their current state.

This technique works with assignments of any length, but reverse outlines can be particularly illuminating when grappling with longer essays, dissertation chapters, or thesis chapters. A reverse outline is a methodical, reliable way to 'check in' and refocus when you feel lost or overwhelmed during a sustained writing project.

How to do it

Either in print or on the screen, read through each paragraph and summarise the main point in a single word or phrase. You can write the word or phrase in the margin or add it as a comment.

Let’s say you are writing a paper on Shakespeare: your first paragraph might be summarised as 'introduction', the next might be 'author background', then 'text background', then 'Ophelia overview', etc. Once you have completed your one-word or single-phrase summaries, transcribe them in order into a new document, formatting them like an outline:

• Introduction
• Author background
• Text background
• Ophelia overview

This process essentially reverse engineers an outline from where you are at that point in the writing, allowing you to view a 'boiled down' version of exactly what you have written and its current structure and flow.

What if I can't summarise a paragraph?

If you are unable to summarise a paragraph from your draft in one clear statement, then one of two issues is likely the culprit:

• You don’t have a central point to your paragraph. If so, try to include a topic sentence at the top of the paragraph that explicitly links the evidence to the previous point or the main thesis.
• You have more than one central point to the paragraph. If this is the case, think about breaking up the ideas into their own paragraphs in order to clarify your points.

This demonstrates how reverse outlining can be used, firstly, to help with paragraph focus and coherence . Next, you will learn the other ways you can use your reverse outline.

How to use it

Once you have the paragraphs summarised into central points, remember to arrange them in an outline shape so you can view and reflect upon the 'boiled down' version of your rough draft. Here are some of the ways you can use that reverse outline:

For the 'strict plan' writers

If you carefully planned your essay before you began, try comparing your reverse outline (i.e., 'what has actually happened') to your original outline (i.e., 'what I wanted to happen') to see how your work is progressing. Have you missed some beats? Highlight any important omissions you spot.

Remember that your original outline  can  be modified. With that in mind, check your reverse outline for signs of discoveries or new ideas. Does the unexpected content contribute to your thesis? If so, revisit your original plan to accommodate the new material.

Planning next steps

Regardless of your usual invention strategies, you can use the reverse outline to plan your next steps. By assessing how the essay’s arguments and evidence are progressing towards explaining and defending the main point, you can identify what remains to be done and prioritise that work in your next writing session. To do this, you can transform your reverse outline into a 'living' outline:

• Highlight what you have completed satisfactorily in green (i.e., 'good to go').
• Then, add the missing pieces, and highlight them in red (i.e., 'stop, needs work').
• Finally, you can pencil in any points you are unsure about adding, and highlight those in yellow (i.e., 'proceed with caution').

As you continue to work on your rough draft, end each writing session by updating the living outline to reflect your progress.

Fixing flow

Whether you started with a plan or dove right in, a reverse outline will let you check whether the structure that has emerged makes sense and logically follows. Think about the reader's experience, and make notes of where to shuffle, add or delete content. As an example, let's consider this reverse outline of a draft critically comparing the production of two types of fabric:

• Water use to produce cotton textile.
• Water use to produce bamboo textile.
• Pesticides and bamboo textile.
• Labour ethics and bamboo textile.
• Labour ethics and cotton textile.

What potential issues do you spy in the above structure? For starters, the writer discusses pesticides in relation to bamboo textile production, but  not  cotton textile production: the writer can make a note to add that content, as the critical comparison will otherwise seem incomplete.

• Last Updated: Nov 28, 2023 12:21 PM
• URL: https://library.soton.ac.uk/reverse_outlining

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Reverse Outlining

Outlines organize the ideas in a paper. Many people think of outlining as a first step in the writing process, but it can also be a productive tool for revision. Reverse outlines are created after a draft has been written, allowing you to see if your paper is well organized, where you need more or less information or discussion, and whether your paragraphs “flow.” To create a reverse outline, you will need an extra sheet of paper or a blank document on your computer.

Steps to create a reverse outline

• CHECK YOUR THESIS STATEMENT If you had to sum up your whole paper in ONE sentence, what would it be? Write this sentence on a separate page. Ask yourself if this one-sentence summary reflects the claim your thesis statement makes? If the two do not “match,” you can revise your thesis to match your paper more accurately OR you can revise aspects of your paper to match the thesis. Consider which approach will result in a paper that best meets your assignment guidelines.
• CHECK THE RELEVANCE OF YOUR PARAGRAPHS Number each paragraph of your essay. On your separate page, write a ONE-sentence/phrase description of each paragraph next to its corresponding number. Ask yourself if you struggled to describe any paragraphs in just one sentence. If so, the paragraph may include unrelated information. Try dividing it so that each paragraph has one main idea expressed easily in one sentence. Ask yourself if each paragraph’s brief description clearly relates to the paper’s thesis. If not, you need to take out the paragraph or revise it so the connection to the thesis is clear. Ask yourself if each paragraph has a topic sentence accurately reflecting its description. If not, revise or add topic sentences that will help readers identify each paragraph’s main idea. If you struggle writing a topic sentence, start with the phrase, “This paragraph is about…,” and then delete this phrase from the resulting sentence as you revise.
• CHECK THE ORGANIZATION OF YOUR ESSAY Examine the order of your paragraph descriptions; consider them in relation to each other and to your thesis. Ask yourself if the current order of the paragraph descriptions makes sense. Do you have paragraphs dealing with similar information scattered throughout the paper? Reordering paragraphs to keep related information together might be more effective. Ask yourself if there is a better organizational structure for your paper. For example, paragraphs can be arranged according to chronology, problem/corresponding solution, weakest to strongest evidence, or local to global context. Ask yourself if your paragraph descriptions reveal any gaps or imbalances in information. Have you left out key ideas that would support your thesis? Have you disproportionately discussed some ideas but neglected others (i.e, do 75% of your paragraphs deal with 25% of the information you need to convey)? Does each idea follow logically from the one before it? Do you need to add transitional ideas or phrases to help readers follow your reasoning?
• CHECK THE ORGANIZATION OF YOUR PARAGRAPHS Now that you have topic sentences clearly relevant to your thesis and paragraphs ordered appropriately, go through each paragraph sentence-by-sentence. Ask yourself if any sentences just don’t seem to fit. You may need to eliminate or move them or clarify their connection to the topic sentence. See our MEAL Plan handout for more information on paragraph development.

Example of a Reverse Outline

The paper (excerpt).

The Importance of Reason for Steelman and Green Muscle

• Our world may often seem to be on the brink of disaster, but at least in the world of comic books, many superheroes exist to protect us. They have different super-powers such as spinning webs, flight, x-ray vision, or super strength. Two of the most famous heroes are also geniuses. Green Muscle is a brilliant physicist, and Steelman is a highly intelligent engineer. These two superheroes may make a great team, but if they were to fight each other who would win? It would be a close match. One is capable of using intellect while fighting crime; the other is controlled by emotions. Steelman is a more effective superhero than Green Muscle because he uses his head instead of his emotions when fighting battles.
• Tawny Stork, the wealthy, intelligent engineer behind the steel suit, built his superhero status using his knowledge of technology. Brace Bunner, the physicist who became Green Muscle, loses his head when he turns into the monstrous superhero. Stork’s Steelman suit has amazing powers including the abilities to fly and shoot lasers. Steelman upgrades his powers based on his experiences fighting evildoers, such as when he added mirrors to deflect a villainous light ray. His use of reason enhances his superpowers to make him a formidable opponent.
• All of Brace Bunner’s intelligence ceases to exist when he becomes Green Muscle. When Green Muscle fights villains, the damage he does is accidental. He focuses hisrage on whatever is antagonizing him at the time; it does not matter who or what it is.
• While both Stork and Bunner are highly intelligent, one chose the life of a superhero, and the other is a superhero by accident. This difference is important when understanding the behavior the two exhibit both as humans and superheroes. While Bunner never exhibits the rage of Green Muscle, he clearly resents his unintentional superpowers and how they take over his life. This bitterness makes him a far less effective superhero than the committed Stork.
• Bruce Bunner had been a mild-mannered physicist untilan extraordinary accident in his lab exposed him to powerful chemicals that altered his brain chemistry and nervous system. After months of confusion and unexplained torn clothing and injuries, Bunner realizes that when angered he becomes the destructive superhero known as Green Muscle. He also realizes his emotions – not his intelligence – control these powers. Steelman never loses the knowledge he gained in life. He is able to reason and outsmart his opponents every time.

THE REVERSE OUTLINE

Paper Summary: This paper is about why Steelman is a better superhero than Green Muscle.

Thesis: Steelman is a more effective superhero than Green Muscle because he uses his head instead of his emotions when fighting battles.

[The thesis guides the entire paper; all paragraphs must support this sentence.]

Paragraph Descriptions: 

• Introduces the two superheroes, their differences, and the questions the thesis addresses.
• Background on how Stark becomes Steelman using his intelligence. Also mentions how Bruce Bunner loses his head when becoming Green Muscle. [This idea doesn’t fit the rest of the paragraph but is related to information in paragraph 3.]
• Brace Bunner cannot use the reason he normally has to control his powers as Green Muscle.  
• The difference in how Stork and Bunner became superheroes makes Stork more effective.
• Background on how Bunner becomes Green Muscle who is controlled by emotions. [Stork’s background comes in paragraph 2. Shouldn’t they be next to each other?] [Stork’s background paragraph includes specific superpowers; background on Bunner should do the same for balance.]
• Stork relies on the reason and ingenuity that helped him create Steelman to fight his opponents. [This seems connected to paragraph 3 – how the heroes’ intelligence did or didn’t change. Shouldn’t the paragraphs be next to each other?]

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Writing Center Reverse Outlining

Section navigation, reverse outline, what is it.

A reverse outline is just what it sounds like: outlining in reverse.  In the early stages of the writing process (before you have a draft), it is a good idea to outline your ideas and produce a draft from that outline.  Reverse outlining is producing an outline from the draft you have already written.

Why is it helpful?

The tricky thing about academic writing is taking the ideas in your head and putting them on paper in such a way that your readers can clearly understand them.  One of the toughest parts of this task is revising; it is very difficult to objectively evaluate your own writing (that’s why coming to the AWC is such a good idea).  Reverse outlining helps you to achieve a greater level of objectivity by pulling out the main ideas of your paper, i.e. what you actually said in your draft.  If done correctly, it produces a condensed version of your argument that you can evaluate without getting bogged down by style.

How do I do it?

A reverse outline should go paragraph by paragraph.  Read one paragraph at a time and write the main idea of each paragraph in the margins of your paper (remember that for your first paragraph, the main point should be your thesis statement!!!) Then list these points, paragraph by paragraph, on another piece of paper. Keep in mind that your draft is not perfect, so there may be some paragraphs that contain no main idea (paragraphs without a purpose) and some that contain multiple main ideas (monster paragraphs).  Don’t panic if you run into these problems- that is the point of revision!  See #4 in the next section , “How do I revise using my reverse outline?” for pointers on dealing with problem paragraphs. 

Here is an example of a reverse outline:     ¶ 1 (thesis) :  Leonardo is the best ninja turtle.

    ¶ 2 :  He uses swords, which are cooler than the other turtles’ weapons.

    ¶ 3 :  He always takes charge when the turtles get into trouble.

    ¶ 4 :  April clearly likes him the best.

You now have a simple representation of the crux of your argument.  Now it’s time to evaluate that argument and its presentation.

How do I revise using my reverse outline?

• COMPARE YOUR MAIN IDEAS TO YOUR THESIS.  Once you have made the reverse outline, your first task is to compare your outline to your thesis and determine whether your thesis has changed for the better as you wrote (which means you should revise your thesis to accommodate what you have written) or whether you have strayed in a non-productive way from your thesis (which means revising the body of your paper).  This may involve a back-and-forth between thesis revision and body revision.  Ultimately, every main idea in your body paragraphs must be relevant to and, furthermore, support your thesis statement.
• CONSIDER REVISING THE ORDER.  Ask yourself whether your ideas follow logically from one another as you have presented them. Is there a better order in which to present your ideas to the reader?  For example, you may decide that your argument would be more convincing if you discussed Leonardo’s leadership skills before his weapon choice.
• CHECK FOR SIGNPOSTS.  You may understand the point of your paragraph and why it belongs where it is, but do you make this clear to your reader? Are you giving clear signals about where you’re heading? Does your voice work as a thread, running through your paper, guiding and making connections for the reader?  This will likely involve looking at your transition sentences between paragraphs, or rewriting them!
• WATCH FOR PARAGRAPHS WITHOUT A PURPOSE AND MONSTER PARAGRAPHS .  As mentioned above, paragraphs without a purpose are those whose main idea you have trouble identifying.  If you’re not certain what the point of one of your paragraphs is, but you sense that it does belong, that it is important, write to yourself about what its point is. Start with lines such as: 

The point I want to make here is . . . This paragraph connects to my larger point in that . . . 

If you find these sentences difficult to complete, it may be that the paragraph does not belong in your paper.  Do not be afraid to cut out paragraphs that dilute or unnecessarily complicate your argument.

Monster paragraphs are paragraphs in which you try to squeeze more than one main idea, resulting in each of the ideas in that paragraph not getting the attention it deserves.  Monster paragraphs should be split into two or more separate paragraphs, depending on the severity of the “monster.”  

Reverse Outlining

A Reverse Outline can help you see your draft from a new perspective by focusing only on the main points and moves of each paragraph.

• Open the most recent draft of your writing.
• Open another blank Word document.
• Your thesis, or the sentence(s) that sum up your argument.
• The first and last sentences of each body paragraph.
• The sentence in your conclusion that you believe really hammers your point home.
• You should now have a skeletal version of your paper—read through it and see if your logic seems to transition well.

First, take a look at your thesis and the relationship between your thesis and body paragraph sentences. Ask yourself:

• Is your thesis making an argument about your topic, or is it merely an observation or fact about the topic?
• Does your thesis statement correspond with your concluding statement(s), or are they making different arguments?
• Do your body paragraph sentences refer back to, or act as smaller arguments that help to support your thesis statement?
• If not, how can you tie your arguments back to your thesis?
• Or, how might you alter your thesis to "fit" the arguments you are making in your body paragraphs and conclusion?
• What evidence can you use to better support your thesis and/or your smaller body paragraph arguments?

Second, take a look at your body paragraph sentences and how they relate to one another. Ask yourself:

• Do your body paragraph sentences connect to and flow with one another?
• Is each body paragraph sentence introducing a new concept or idea?
• Do the first and last sentence of your body paragraph accurately represent what you want to argue in that paragraph?
• How do your paragraphs speak to each other?
• Are they disconnected, or do they build toward the statement you're making in your conclusion?
• If not, how can you rearrange or further connect each body paragraph to one another through the first and last sentences that you have included here?
• How can you re-work your body paragraph sentences to more accurately express the arguments you wish to make?

As you revise, consider your answers to the questions above. How can your answers help you when revising your draft? If the sentences that you have highlighted in your skeletal outline do not work toward your overall thesis, then revise the portions of the essay that do not seem to follow.

The following example is for a paper exploring the concept of how humans learn to trust technology; the research involves analyzing several television commercials for Apple computers and products.

Note: This example was modified from a Reverse Outlining handout at The Writing Center @ The University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Working Thesis

Humans learn to trust technology by appealing to our individuality.

Paragraph Number 1 (Introduction)

• Paragraph says: Thesis: Ever since Apple's 1984 Super Bowl commercial, customers have seen Apple as creating technology that appeals to our individuality.
• Paragraph does: Introduction (describes commercial) and Thesis
• Revisions needed: Think about thesis—I've shown that Apple promoted their tech with appeals to individuality, but haven't shown that people see Apple this way. Either find evidence for that or change thesis to talk about Apple's marketing only. Also, my evidence seems to be showing how Apple has made tech friendly, personal, and human-like. May need to make thesis more specific or change my two points in second paragraph a bit.

Paragraph Number 2

• Paragraph says: Apple devices (1) appeal to our sense of individuality and (2) appeal to our need to connect to people and world
• Paragraph does: Further explanation of thesis and main points of argument
• Revision needed: Didn't talk about second point in the essay! Need to add! Which will help because paper is currently too short

Paragraph Number 3

• Marketing promoted ways consumers had control over their technology, choosing how they wanted to configure and use it.
• A way to build consumer trust in technology—created a friendly relationship with technology
• Paragraph does: Example/evidence to back up thesis

Paragraph Number 4

• Another way to build our trust with tech
• Friendly, knowledgeable sales people
• Clean, well-lit stores
• Paragraph does: Example/evidence
• Revisions needed: Need to explain why this builds trust. [make connection to my point]

Paragraph Number 5

• Using humor to win trust, to break down "tech is scary" barriers

Paragraph Number 6

• Reinforce that very easy for consumer to maintain their individuality with their iphone and other tech—how? What is the connection to trust?
• Revisions needed: Really vague—need to describe which commercials and make connection to how these build trust in tech

Paragraph Number 7

• Voice-activation and speech technology create an individual, intimate experience with our technology
• Personification of technology helps us relate to it

Paragraph Number 8 (Conclusion)

• Paragraph does: What is my conclusion? How can I wrap this up?
• Revisions needed: My organization is chronological...is this the best organizational strategy? Would organizing by my two points be more effective?

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Reverse Outline

• Paper Skeleton
• Creating a Research Space
• Personal Statements
• Literature Reviews

A reverse outline is exactly like an outline you would do for your paper during drafting, except it’s performed with a complete draft. While outlining before a first draft can help you organize ideas, sometimes things change as you write them. The purpose of a reverse outline is to help you understand the structure of the paper  you've already written . Seeing the parts of the paper organized into a bulleted list can help you consider how to effectively arrange a paper, locate areas with repetition, and identify potential gaps. It is a helpful tool to use during revision in order to address a number of concerns. 

How to Perform a Reverse Outline

Part 1: reading.

Doing a reverse outline is simple--it just involves slowing down the pace of your reading and trying to identify the points that you want to get across to your readers, and taking notes. To start, here is a sample essay:

Wallace (DFW) begins his speech with a disarming, self-deprecating joke that reads as if it were not included in his prepared notes: “If anybody feels like perspiring, I'd advise you go ahead because I'm sure going to.” The effect of this joke is not only a stylistical, seemingly off-the-cuff entrance to the speech but also a way to relate to his audience: for them to see that he is both human and nervous (public speaking being universally terrifying). Wallace is acutely aware that his audience knows who he is and why he was invited to speak at graduation but is wary of misrepresenting himself as someone better than or different from them. This self-awareness sometimes presents itself as ethical and stylistic, but at other times fuses the heart of his argument with its inseparable emotion. DFW proceeds after delivering the obligatory greetings to tell his audience about two young fish that were asked by an older fish “How's the water?” The two fish continue swimming a bit before asking “What the hell is water?” This question, as the speech's eventual title suggests, is a framing one. Its position at the forefront of the speech is no accident. It ensures that audience members attempt to (albeit briefly, since Wallace provides the answer) decipher the parable and in turn engage with the subject matter. Like the joke, the story's purpose proves to be multiple. This rhetorical question does more than begin a metaphor that comes full circle with the speech's closing – it also proves to be central to Wallace's reasoning, the logos of his entire argument. Moreover, as his claims begins to manifest and his argument takes shape, Wallace is increasingly cautious of misrepresenting himself (see his opening lines), worrying that his audience might be predisposed see him as the “wise, older fish explaining what water is to [the] younger fish.” And so Wallace takes the first of many meta-moments to address his story and its purpose with hypophora, concluding: “merely that the most obvious, important realities are often the ones that are hardest to see and talk about” and that he is not the wise, older fish. While clarifying the foundation of his argument, Wallace simultaneously shows immense respect for the intelligence of his audience. He later states that his speech has “a whole lot of rhetorical niceties stripped away” but in acknowledging that he is using (but trying not to overuse) rhetoric and explaining how it works he is being more rhetorically effective. Such moments of awareness including not only himself, but his text, his argument, his occasion – the entire rhetorical triangle and all of its additions – is common of Wallace's writing and speaking. Here, Wallace builds trust with his audience members through an ethical appeal, proving that he is not trying to disguise his intentions with stylistically evocative choices like the employment of what he calls “one of the better, less bullshitty conventions” of the commencement speech genre. Moreover, characterizing the story  as “less bullshitty” is a wonderful use of plain style, relating himself to the audience. (He swears! He’s just like me!) It is important to Wallace that his audience trust him to be an honest speaker, one they have things in common with – it catalyzes his claims.

Part 2: Taking Notes

As you read the essay, identify the main purpose or point in each paragraph, then identify any supporting points in the paragraph. As you read, write these down in a list in the order they come up in the paper. See the below example:

Paragraph one: Give background and analysis of the beginning of DFW’s speech -Address Wallace’s initial decorum -Address ethos and who Wallace is as an individual and speaker -Introduce the parable Paragraph two: The fish parable and its purpose -Arrangement of the story/its effect -Purposes of the parable -Wallace’s wariness of misrepresentation. Paragraph three: Awareness and ethos -Wallace showing respect for his audience -The purpose of that ethical appeal -The language of the appeal -Importance of trustworthiness

Using a Reverse Outline to Help You Revise

Once you complete writing a reverse outline of an essay, take a look at your list and reflect on the structure of the essay. Consider asking yourself some of the following questions:

• Does the overall order of paragraphs make sense? Do readers get the information they need early in the essay that will help them better understand what comes later?
• Can parts of the essay be reorganized or moved around to be more persuasive?
• Do any parts seem redundant or repetitive?
• Do paragraphs have enough supporting details?
• Are there any gaps in the essay? Are there things you wanted to talk about but don't have in your list yet?

[Activity written by Luke Useted, May 2015]

Reverse Outlining Gives Perspective!

9/20/2023 By | Kate Navickas

Cornell Writes! Tips from our community of writers is a digital newsletter sponsored by the  Knight Institute for Writing in the Disciplines  and the Cornell University Graduate School .

Each week, a member of our writing community – a Graduate Writing Service ,  English Language Support Office , or Cornell Writing Centers tutor; a writing specialist from the Knight Institute; a writing instructor from our First-Year Writing Seminars or Writing in the Majors programs; maybe YOU – shares a writing strategy from their own writer’s toolkit.  #writelikeabear

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Meet Kate Navickas

Hello Cornell Writers! My name is Kate Navickas. I teach writing and direct the Cornell Writing Centers. And, I am always writing something–example analysis paragraphs to use with students in class, writing center social media posts or promotional website articles, and even the occasional journal article or conference paper. 

Here is this week’s Writing Tip!

Reverse outlining   is a strategy for both reading and writing. Essentially, you create an outline of a text that already exists, whether that text is a draft you or someone else has written.

In reverse outlining, you ask what is the writer doing and saying in each paragraph. If the text is longer, you may just want to ask what is the writer doing and saying in each section.

When you apply this to your own draft, reverse outlining will allow you to see how your essay is organized and any potential gaps in thinking, logic, or connection back to your larger focus.

When you use reverse outlining to help you better understand a text that you are reading, it can help you gain a broader perspective of how a whole text works and deepen your reading comprehension.

Reverse Outlining for Self-Assessment or Peer Review

STEP 1  | SUMMARY STATEMENT

Write out the argument of the whole essay/article/paper in 1-2 sentences. In 2-4 additional sentences, identify the purpose of the work and the intended audience. 

STEP 2  | REVERSE OUTLINE

For each paragraph, in the margins of the essay/article/paper, write 1 sentence that captures the point of the paragraph. Here are a few templates: 

• In this paragraph, the writer presents/summaries/analyzes/synthesizes/ X (argument, claim, idea) in order to Y. 
• In this paragraph, the writer reviews X aspect (findings, methods, overview) of Y scholar’s(s’) work in order to show M. 
• In this paragraph, the writer compiles X (data, theories, concepts) in order to agree with/extend/refute Y.

STEP 3  | Compare the REVERSE OUTLINE and the SUMMARY STATEMENT

Consider the following questions:

• How well does the writer articulate and support the argument?
• Is the essay/article/paper focused enough to be useful for the argument? 
• Does the writer clearly name and explain the purpose of the writing project? 
• Does the writer identify sources, disciplinary areas, and disciplines that they are working with clearly enough so that another reader can understand the writing goals and argument?

Reverse Outlining for Reading

STEP 3  | Compare the REVERSE OUTLINE with the SUMMARY STATEMENT

• How well does your SUMMARY STATEMENT capture the argument of the essay/article/paper?
• How might you revise and expand the SUMMARY STATEMENT to more effectively document the work of the essay/article/paper?
• What have learning about yourself as a reader? How might you read differently next time?

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