jaisalmer architecture case study

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The Rajkumari Ratnavati Girl’s School / Diana Kellogg Architects

• Curated by Hana Abdel
• Architects: Diana Kellogg Architects
• Year Completion year of this architecture project Year:  2021
• Photographs Photographs: Vinay Panjwani
• Client:  CITTA Foundation
• Architect:  Diana Kellogg Architects
• City:  Salkha
• Country:  India
• Did you collaborate on this project?

Text description provided by the architects. The Rajkumari Ratnavati Girl’s School is an architectural marvel designed by Diana Kellogg of Diana Kellogg Architects and commissioned by CITTA, a non-profit organization that supports development in some of the most economically challenged, geographically remote or marginalized communities in the world.

The Rajkumari Ratnavati Girl’s School will serve more than 400 girls, from kindergarten to class 10, from below the poverty line residing in the mystic Thar Desert region of Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, India -- where female literacy barely touches 32%. The school will be the first in a complex of three buildings known as the GYAAN Center, which will also consist of The Medha - a performance and art exhibition space with a library and museum, and The Women’s Cooperative where local artisans will teach mothers and other women weaving and embroidery techniques from the region.

The GYAAN Center will empower and educate women, helping them establish economic independence for themselves, their families, and their communities. Since the GYAAN Center is designed by a woman for women, Kellogg looked at feminine symbols across cultures when starting the design process -- specifically symbols of strength, landing on a structure of three ovals to represent the power of femininity and infinity, as well as replicate the planes of the sand-dunes in the region of Jaisalmer.

The Rajkumari Ratnavati Girl’s School is made entirely out of local hand-carved Jaisalmer sandstone by local craftsmen. It was vital to Kellogg to include the community in a building made for the community. Using local material to create infrastructure helped reduce carbon emissions, and Kellogg chose to build a solar panel canopy on the roof as a cooling system where temperatures peak close to 120 degrees. Both the canopy and jalis keep the heat out and the elliptical shape of the structure also helps bring aspects of sustainability creating a cooling panel of airflow.  

The GYAAN Center will equip young women with the tools to further their education and independence as well as raise awareness surrounding the issues faced by women in India on a global scale.

Project gallery

Project location

Address: salkha, rajasthan 345001, india.

Materials and Tags

• Sustainability

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印度女子学校Rajkumari Ratnavati，嵌入沙丘的圆环 / Diana Kellogg Architects

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Architectural Heritage of Jaisalmer

Discover the architectural heritage of jaisalmer in rajasthan, dastkari haat samiti.

Jaisalmer Stone: The magnificent Jaisalmer Fort (2018-02-02) Dastkari Haat Samiti

The Golden City

Jaisalmer was established in the 12th century by the Rajput king Rawal Jaisal, a fortress town rising from the sands of the Thar Desert of Rajasthan. Local craftsmen used the abundant yellow sandstone to fashion the solid ramparts of the fort, as also to carve out ornate doorways, cupolas and verandas. Successive generations have continued the tradition. 

Jaisalmer Stone: Old carving (2018-02-01) Dastkari Haat Samiti

Like much of the architecture of the region, Jaisalmer is built in an amalgamation of local and Mughal styles. The traditional havelis, large houses with their multiple courtyards and shaded balconies; the ornate chhatris, literally umbrella-shaped structures or cupolas; the delicate carved screens which effectively provided shade and increased surface area for cooling; the orientation and planning of the streets and drainage system –all served both aesthetic and functional purpose. 

Major architectural attractions 

Numerous temples, palaces and monuments are a repository of the fine workmanship of the town’s skilled artisans. Major architectural attractions of Jaisalmer include the Jaisalmer Fort, Patwon ki Haveli, Gadisar Lake, Jain Temples and Bada Bagh.

Jaisalmer Fort

Jaisalmer fort, also known as Sonar Quila, or the golden fortress. Its wave-like walls were designed to conceal the extent of the fort from the eyes of enemies; its location on an elevated ridge provided a vantage point to spot any threatening advances.

Jaisalmer Stone: Old carving (2018-02-02) Dastkari Haat Samiti

Some of the most elaborate stone buildings of the town are the many Jain temples inside the fort, which were built between the 12th and 15th centuries.

Jaisalmer Stone: Old carving (2018-01-31) Dastkari Haat Samiti

Gadisar Lake

Gadisar Lake was constructed in the 14th century to serve the water needs of the area. The ornately carved shrines and cupolas around it are testament to its importance to the local community.

A close up of Tilon Ki Pol, the ornate gateway of Gadisar Lake, shows the intricate stone carving.

Bada Bagh is a garden complex of royal cenotaphs, where several dozen chattris (cupolas) were constructed to memorialise local rulers. It is located 6 km away from Jaisalmer city.

Cenotaph of Maharawal Shalivaham Singh, who ruled Jaisalmer from 1890 to 1914 CE.

Fine geometric and floral carvings executed in local sandstone.

Detail of carved sandstone jaali or fretwork.

Some of the cenotaphs are in the form of a chattri or cupola, its size depending on the stature and rank of the person commemorated.

Detail of carving on the inside of a cupola.

Detail of carved figures inside a cenotaph, Bada Bagh.

Pillar with carved figure of the Hindu deity Shiva with his consort Parvati.

Stone carving of the elephant headed god Ganesha.

Cenotaph dedicated to multiple rulers – carved inscriptions give details of their reigns.

Bada Bagh, literally meaning 'large garden', also houses a set of chattris overlooking a mango grove. Many of these are dedicated to the royal women who ended their lives rather than being captured by the enemy when their husbands were killed in battle.

A typical window in a carved stone façade.

Architecture that lasts

Much of the town’s historical architecture is a ‘living’ heritage. Families continue to live in the homes they have occupied for several generations. A significant part of the town’s population still lives within the walls of the fort.

Wires criss-cross in front of a carved stone haveli. Many such traditional houses with their delicate carvings are still lived in.

Read more about Jaisalmer's stonecraft tradition here: - Life in the Golden City - Jaisalmer Stone: From Natural Rock to Handcrafted Homes and Products

Text : Rashmi Sacher Photography : Subinoy Das Artisans : Kamal Kishore Vaishno and his team of crafts people, Ladoo Ram, workers at Ricco industries Ground Facilitator : Rashmi Sacher Curation : Aradhana Nagpal

The Many Faces of Purulia Masks

Women add a special touch to the jutti, puanchei products, recycling elephant dung to paper in rajasthan, the specialist weavers of assam, jamdani sarees, fashioning goa’s windows, a gallery of gond artists, makers of the famed patiala jutti, mobilizing the ramie grass community in meghalaya.

The Rajkumari Ratnavati Girls’ School, Jaisalmer, by Diana Kellogg Architects

• January 18, 2022

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The state of Rajasthan usually acquires the lowest positions in comparative literacy rates (especially female) which leads to a lag in societal development and even continuation of feudal practices and constraints on women especially in remote areas and villages.

A school is a hope for a bright future and a push for the progress of the community. It is a collective which widens thoughts and is a harbinger of equality and wellbeing. The Rajkumari  Ratnavati  girls’  School is one such instrument of change in a remote Kanori village near Jaisalmer amidst the infinite shifting sand dunes. It is oval in shape like Mother Earth’s womb/ an egg welcoming her daughters and fellow women to nurture and embrace them.

It is designed by Diana Kellogg Architects, a New York based studio. It is one-third of the Gyaan Center with Medha (a performance and art exhibition space with a library and museum) and the Women’s Cooperative (center for skill learning between local artists and women) as the other two parts yet to be built. Though designed for a climatically, and economically challenged situation it is an innovative and region specific contemporary initiative rather than a western idea of a school.

It is a monumental yet minimal architectural marvel in harmony with its surroundings and visually engages one through its colours, textures, and slowly diminishing edges of the curvilinear form. The spaces surrounding the central vast courtyard gives a complete enclosure to user, a sense of protection and warmth horizontally along with a feeling of freedom and openness towards the sky vertically. The yellow sandstone walls act as a canvas for the shadows of dancing and running girls all around the space, with the cinematic view of jali projections changing positions and shades with the sun.

The beauty is enhanced by adapting local references like the yellow sandstone, engaging labour from the community, jali’s referenced from the forts of Jaisalmer which have been designed similar to the knots and weaves found in locally designed baskets, so as to provide partial views, offer privacy and comfort to the working women in harsh climate. Apart from its aesthetic qualities, it is a climate-responsive design providing an ambient and pleasant space for the students to study even if the temperature outside rises to 50 degrees in summer and a spacious courtyard to study in open soaking the sun during winters eliminating the need of any artificial or mechanical climate control devices. Lime plastered walls, higher volumes with vents at higher positions for warm air to easily escape keeping the space cool against the scorching heat in Rajasthan. More arrangements for tapping natural resources like rainwater harvesting systems and a canopy of exposed solar panels have been provided. The cobalt blue panels placed against the yellow sandstone, interest the user, as well as the canopy provides shade.

Such a composition of a nonprofit – CITTA foundation’s initiative, Architect’s mindful and kind effort, the contractor’s skill and beauty of execution of the project attracted and convinced institutions such as NID, fashion designers such as Sabyasachi and Anita Dongre to be a part of the initiative. Such an opening of hope would inspire people to become more generous and kind towards humanity.

Photography credits- Vinay Panjwani

Priya Anandani

• Completed , Diana Kellogg , Educational , Jaisalmer

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An AD100 award-winning, sustainable school in Jaisalmer that aims to empower women

By Komal Sharma

Photography by Bharath Ramamrutham

Over many emails exchanged back and forth for the last eight months, Diana Kellogg, a New York based architect, sent AD of what was emerging in the deserts of Jaisalmer. The first image was of a spectacular ellipse, made in stone, one oval layered over another, with its jalis creating high-contrast shadows. It blended in and yet grew out of the natural landscape—quite like a sand dune. In some shots, it loomed large, like an alien vessel; in others, it felt intimate and very feminine in its approach, in its purpose, and even in its making.

The Rajkumari Ratnavati Girls School is the first building in a complex of three, collectively called the Gyaan Centre, which will house a women's cooperative and an exhibition cum performance hall as well as a textile museum that are still to come. A project initiated by the international non-profit organisation CITTA, and operated by its India arm, it is located near the village of Kanoi, Jaisalmer, on 22 bighas (35,600 square metres) of land, generously contributed by Manvendra Singh Shekhawat, owner of the Suryagarh Palace hotel, who joined as a director for CITTA Foundation India, which also includes Raseshwari Rajya Laxmi and Chaitanya Raj Singh of the royal family of Jaisalmer. The school for 400 girls, from kindergarten to class 10, is set to open early next year.

The interior curve of the courtyard at the Rajkumari Ratnavati Girls School in Jaisalmer. The courtyard acts as a water-harvesting facility with a cistern in the middle. The rare fruit trees were preserved within the oval with steps around for the girls to play and sit in the shade

Through the months, the emails from Kellogg came pouring in with little details of her trials; a foreign woman building a girls' school in the middle of a pandemic, across barriers of language, distance, geography and culture. She shared her little wins with us. “I finally found carpenters in Kanoi, a father and son who do amazing woodwork. I want to use the charpai for the benches,” she wrote. A few weeks later, “Sabyasachi will design our uniforms and we will have local weavers and tailors make them as well!” came another update. “It has been a challenge to find solar panels. Finally, Genus Innovation, a Jaipur-based company, came on board and offered to build my dream. We installed them like a canopy on the roof, the metal armature works as kind of an old fashion jungle gym with seesaws, swings, monkey bars,”— Kellogg's little notes alternated between thrill and trepidation.

By Gautami Reddy

By Nivedita Jayaram Pawar

By Ashna Lulla

In her practice of 25 years, the architect has primarily worked in luxury projects. “The school came at a time in my life when I was looking for it the most. I wanted my work to affect a larger audience, to have a sense of nurturing, comfort and healing.” Kellogg met Michael Daube, founder and executive director of CITTA International, through a chance meeting with a friend. “I was impressed by his approach of knowing a community and not just superimposing a one-size-fits-all Western idea of positive change. He, in turn, responded to my non-formulaic, non-ego driven design sensibility,” she recalls.

That intellectual alignment, plus a great deal more, comes together in this project. It's a private school for girls only: “‘Educate a boy and you educate an individual. Educate a girl and you educate a community.' I read it somewhere in India”, says Kellogg. There is an absolute commitment to sustainability and the entire building is done in the local Jaisalmer sandstone, except for the transom windows where the darker Jodhpur stone is used because it is stronger and more supportive: “The opportunity to work in hand-carved stone was incredible. There is so much to learn from the techniques of the local craftsmen. The general contractor on the project, Kareem Construction, was more than a builder—a master craftsman really.” There is an attempt to address reverse migration. “I wanted to involve the community in the making and the practical aspect of maintenance. An added benefit was that they wouldn't have to leave their families and go find work in Mumbai.” It pays tribute to local crafts. “Everywhere you look in Jaisalmer there is exquisite man-made beauty: the textiles, the woodwork, the metalwork.” Climatically, the building considers the local typology of jalis, natural light, ventilation and thermal protection in simple but effective ways. There is also an attempt at conservation of local textiles. The building will house a textile museum showcasing pieces from the surrounding villages; an idea inspired by a visit to the Calico museum and the National Institute of Design in Ahmedabad, “because I believe that handcrafted artefacts give historical perspective”. And then there is an understated symbolism of the feminine. “I saw the oval as a symbol for womanhood across many cultures. Once I began sketching, it also resonated with me as the formulation of infinity.” When the building is seen within its landscape of undulating dunes, the concept of infinity and repetition resonates. “Even in terms of the team, somehow a lot of women are behind this project, including my two architectural assistants, Basia Kuziemski in New York and Arya Nair in Delhi,” adds Kellogg.

During AD's last conversation with Kellogg, just before this issue went to press, over a Zoom call across time zones, she seemed less perturbed by things falling through and more calm about how it had all turned out. She recalled a lecture series she had heard by Bijoy Jain. “He was explaining that India was a country built on chaos, in constant motion and evolution. If an architect can step into this energy instead of fighting it, their work will flourish. I've discovered that it's a kind of spiralling energy, which is quite different from the linear Western way of working.”

Kellogg has clearly had a taste of that wonderful-terrible spiralling energy and is now eagerly waiting for the day when this oculus of a building will ring with the chatter and laughter of little Rajasthani girls.

By Prasad Ramamurthy

By Aishwarya Khurana

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Jaisalmer, the golden city of India, rising far above the sands of the Thar desert of Rajasthan, come into the picture in the 12th century under the hands of the Rajput king Rawal Jaisal. The city swims in color pools of golden yellow hues, with its urban fabric lying in complete synchronization with the soil, terrain, and lifestyle of the people, to shape the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer.

Jaisalmer has a hot and dry climate and, the local architecture responds to it. The rainfall is scanty and, hence, landscape architecture consists only of desert plantations. However, the absence of some of the natural resources does not discourage the people. The unique decorations on the walls, the ceilings, and the pillars personify the rich craftsmanship of Jaisalmer. Jaisalmer focuses more on the Haveli style of architecture, a tradition of the Imperial Rajput rulers to portray its uniqueness. In addition to the Jaisalmer Fort, the Raj Mahal, Chandra Prabhu temple, the Salim Singh ki Haveli and the Nathmal ki Haveli are some structures portraying Haveli architecture. Apart from these, the forts, palaces, and shrines remain ornamented with fine jali work and delicate motifs. Furthermore, the excellent latticework on pillars and walls of forts and palaces attracts worldwide tourists and shapes the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer beautifully.

Architectural heritage of Jaisalmer : Nathmalji ki Haveli

• Built: The 19th century.
• Style: Arabic and Rajput architecture.

Also Read: Instruments of Heaven – Jantar Mantar, Jaipur

Besides numerous architectural monuments, a grand structure of yellow sandstone and two elephants at the entrance blesses the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer. Apart from intricate carvings, the walls, and ceilings of Nathmalji ki Haveli shine with detailed paintings of the by-gone era. Nathmalji ki Haveli beautifully blends the Rajput and Arabic style of architecture while illustrating various landscape schemes and towering over Jaisalmer. The buildings show a central and rear courtyard with a three-storied main building. Apart from this, a two-story rear building features spillover places and subsidiary living. However, there is a difference in the right and left facades of the building. Furthermore, the building portrays craftsmanship in sandstone and limestone, mortar-free joints, and thick walls plastered in mud. Additionally, varying wind pavilions and parapet walls of the Haveli attract tourists to Jaisalmer.

Jaisalmer Fort

• Built: 1156 AD.
• Style: Rajput architecture.

Built by King Rawal Jaisal, the Jaisalmer Fort or the Sonar Quila shines with its golden sandstone walls. It depicts the route that joins India with Central Asia and the Middle East. The second-largest fort of Rajasthan, the Jaisalmer fort, stands 460m long and 230m wide with a 4.6m base. The complex not only includes palaces and temples but bazaars and residences too. Furthermore, double fortification walls and circular bastions protect the fort from attacks. Additionally, it includes pitching walls, toe walls and the mori, pathways between fortifications, and a modern plumbing system. There are houses of wealthy merchants with numerous stories, windows, archways, doors, and balconies, all of which add up to the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer.

The Parshvanath temple

• Built: 1615 AD.
• Style: Dilwara architecture.

The main Jain temple has a tall boundary that hides the architectural marvel. The Torana or the free ornamental arch highlights the focal point of construction. Besides these, yellow sand stones that glitter in the morning sun exempt sciographical studies for architects. Not only is the style of architecture unique, but it shows eight slanting jali walls to personify the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer. These walls not only cool down the temple interiors but boost the cross ventilation. The interiors have detailed carvings, geometric designs, and animal motifs. Furthermore, about a hundred carved snakes join together to form the roof above the deity with human and animal motifs sculpted on marble. The temple architecture lights up a different aura of temples altogether.

Also Read: Sheikh Sarai Housing by Raj Rewal, New Delhi

Architectural heritage of Jaisalmer : Bada Bagh

• Built: The 18th century.
• Style: Islamic and Rajput.

Bada Bagh translates to a big garden. The vast site features a series of chhatris of the Rajput architecture built for Jai Singh 2 by his descendant. Though it stands in a desert, devoid of greenery and water, it was a garden complex near a dam during its construction. Besides chhatris of different sizes, Bada Bagh features sandstone pavilions to dramatize a look against the blue skies. The domes sit on a square or hexagonal base, supported by pillars and with a carved ceiling. These domes vary in size with the memorials for whom they shelter – the ruling kings, queens, and other royal members. Bada Bagh personifies symbolism of the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer.

Tazia tower

• Built: 1886 AD.
• Style: Muslim architecture.

Apart from the Rajputana architecture, the city features ornate Muslim architecture to bless the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer. The five-story Tazia tower lies in the Badal palace and reflects the architecture of the mausoleum of various Muslim imams. It has ancient yet intricate carvings, each of which conveys a story. Muslim workers of Jaisalmer erected the Tazia tower as a symbol of their religion. Thus, each balcony portrays intricate craftsmanship that boasts of an Islamic touch to its architecture.

Patwon ki Haveli

• Built: 1805 AD.
• Style: Rajputana.

Patwon ki Haveli emerges from narrow streets with its windows, balconies, and intricate carvings to add grandeur to the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer. Besides being a cluster of five small Havelis, the complex is the largest one in the city. In addition to its wall paintings, balconies, gateways, arches, mirrors, and mural works highlight. Though the whole complex is in yellow sandstone, the brownstone constructs the main gateway. Amongst the five Havelis, one of them is now an antique furniture museum for architects to study.

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Architectural heritage of Jaisalmer : Mandir Palace

• Built: 1800 AD.

The two-century-old Mandir palace , now a resort, is a mixture of the medieval charm of the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer and modern amenities. Besides stone carvings, balconies and canopies justify the ardent syle of crafts here. Additionally, carved stones, golden stone architecture, and grand pillars attract architects to this place. The Badal Vilas, the main attraction of the complex, offers a panoramic view of the city. Apart from this, the hotel now has air-conditioned rooms, suites, safaris, swimming pools, badminton courts, and house museums against a backdrop of rustic silver furniture.

Salim Singh ki Haveli

• Built: The 17th century.
• Style: Rajputana and Mughal architecture.

Also known as the Jahaz Mahal, the 300-year-old structure resembles a ship’s stern. Unlike the rest of the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer, it has cement and mortar joints that stand firm despite its age. Thirty-eight balconies with pale blue cupolas align themselves on the facade. Besides this, two stone elephants guard the gateway with the interiors of imperial paintings. Additionally, a Moti Mahal to entertain courtiers is present in the Haveli. Furthermore, the mansion has an arched roof with peacock brackets that add a Rajput touch to the otherwise Mughal architecture.

Also Read: Srilanka parliament building

Vyas Chhatri

Binding golden sandstones, the architecture of the Vyas Chhatri is a sight to behold. Intricate carvings and raised dome-shaped pavilions overview a sandstone complex. The cenotaph of Sage Vyas sits at the extreme north, whereas those of the royal family members scatter, depending on the position. Besides carvings all over the facade and even on the domical pavilions, Vyas Chhatri is a suitable place for architectural photographers as it promises to offers royal shots beforehand.

Pokhran Fort

• Built: The 14th century.
• Style: Mughal architecture.

Hidden well between sandy, rocky and salty ranges, the Pokhran fort has a grand door with spikes protruding out that help stop elephant attacks. Although most of the architectural heritage of Jaisalmer features yellow sandstone, Pokhran fort stands in red sandstone. Besides artillery, the complex also has a museum that displays armories, pottery, miniature paintings, and costumes of the royal era. Like any other fort, the Pokhran fort has space for cannons, bastions, gun points, and watchtowers.

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Architecture that nurtures, heals, protects: the Gyaan Center in Jaisalmer

by Meghna Mehta Published on : Jan 23, 2021

The Gyaan Center is a unique example of architecture meeting noble intent to directly impact the lives and well-being of inhabitants – in this case, women and children. The Gyaan Center in Rajasthan is a complex of three buildings: The Rajkumari Ratnavati Girl's School, The Medha (performance and art exhibition space/ library/ museum) and The Women's Cooperative (embroidery, weaving and marketplace). Initiated by Rooshad Shroff with Michael Daube of the CITTA organisation in 2018, the space has been created with a goal to educate young girls and empower women in an otherwise imbalanced demographical ratio in the state. The project involved 12 designers from across the world to design coffee-tables and help in the fund-raising for this school for girls. Designed by New York-based architect Diana Kellogg, the Rajkumari Ratnavati School is now open while the other spaces are under construction.

STIR speaks with Kellogg about the purpose she found through the design of the school, her role and the heart-warming outcome.

Meghna Mehta (MM): Architecture holds a greater purpose over and above serving private clients. How did this manifest as the architect of the Gyaan Center?

Diana Kellogg (DK): When I met Michael in New York , he was telling me about the programs he was working on in India and Nepal , and I was telling him about the projects I had done, and I had reached a point where I wanted architecture to have a more expansive audience. That was the sort of focus I was interested in. Five years ago, Michael was talking about this project, and I came to India for the first time with my daughter. And, we loved it. I was so struck by Jaisalmer, the beauty of the place and how difficult it is to build in the climate. There was something very captivating about Jaisalmer and I also learned more about the situation of women and girls in that area. I was affirmed by the fact that education is better not just for individuals, but for the society as a whole. It changes the whole dynamic in societies.

MM: How did you decide upon the site and the form of the space?

DK: I was highly struck by the desert - we looked at 3 or 4 different sites, until a local hotelier donated the land which was close to the dunes. I came up with the idea of the ‘ellipses’, mainly because I was looking at specific forms that had to do a lot with feminity and strength where the ellipses/ovals reflected across all cultures - in some ways it's a shape of a womb.

I also felt it was very practical because I knew I had to include a courtyard as I did not want to completely do away with the Indian customs, and also an ellipse shortens the distance of the courtyard. The idea of the dune is infinite with the desert and so is the horizon, and hence I was looking at the symbol of infinity and two shapes where the links could go on infinitely.

Upon discussing these ideas with Michael, he talked about how Mother Teresa started small and the generosity grew multi-folds and that the idea of helping people was also expansive and infinite, and that aptly aligned with the vision.

MM: How was the program of the building decided?

DK: The program of the center was already given to us because it had to comply with the government regulations where we required to have a library, separate science rooms and computer rooms. The program has largely changed over the last 9 months because of COVID , and we have had so many villagers wanting to sell their textiles, and hence we set up a textile museum to give back to the community. It works as a living museum, like an artefact communicating the story of the region. We did not make the spaces small, we did not change the design and now we have people interested in donating, too. We have been in touch with the National Institute of Design (NID) in Ahmedabad , and they have been very helpful to us.

The community building is going to have a library and computer rooms with special classes and performance areas. It will be an area where larger group of people can get together to become proponents of Indian crafts, music and dance of the region.

We also visited various factories and workspaces of block printing, weaving, embroidery art, and I found the interactions here very interesting. We had the opportunity to go into some people’s homes too and while working they were having a lovely exchange while sitting on the floor. They were stitching trying to show us the process, and it was such a wonderful exchange that I hope will go on in our buildings. We did not speak the same language but we spent a lovely afternoon and were able to communicate with art.

Art across cultures is such an inanimate object that becomes an ice-breaker.

MM: How does the design aesthetic keep women in mind?

DK: I designed an egg shape courtyard where women can work. Those interested in sharing their work and techniques with people who come to visit can be in this outdoor space. Rest of the women would be separated by a courtyard- so you can see them working and they can close off the shutters if they want privacy. I wanted to create a sense of respect and dignity for these women by letting them have their own privacy and decision-making.

MM: At the Jaisalmer fort, you have the women’s area with the jali openings. Were you trying to bring that into the design consciously?

DK: Yes, imagining a women’s face through the jali was a very fascinating visual. An architectural phenomenon for Indian architecture, I was very interested in reinterpreting the jalis in a modern way, which is why we did a basket weave shape. It is also a metaphor for weaving, also functions to hold up our sunshade and solar panels.

The curves of the building metaphorically resemble the exterior of the Jaisalmer fort. There is a sort of comfort in these shapes that holds you. Children in this elliptical space would feel comfortable and nurtured.

MM: What is the feedback that you have received?

DK: The comments that have come in are heart-warming. The girls find the space to be free and comfortable. I wanted to do something that contained, nurtured, and healed (if required). I think girls are more vulnerable - and so I wanted to make a safe place, and they have now been dancing and skipping around. They also love their uniforms.

MM: What do you have to say about Sabyasachi designing their uniforms?

DK: I think it is great on many levels; these are beautiful, comfortable, and the fact that he combined different techniques that brought together Muslim and Hindu styles, and the fact that it does not look like a British uniform, is commendable.

MM: Any particulars about the interiors that you would like to share?

DK: I came to know that reverse migration is happening in India, and that many men left their homes to work in Mumbai to make furniture. I was certain that they could make furniture for us. We eventually met this father-son duo who made this very simple desk and I wanted to use these and the local weaving benches. I thought these would be more comfortable and seemed more relevant and durable. Aside from this, we made customised fixtures from basket weave and lights from stone.

MM: What about energy consumption of the building?

DK: Right at the beginning of the project, I had decided that we must include solar technology into the project because we were in the middle of the desert and there is an abundance of sunlight. The contractors were reluctant as there was no solar power used before in Jaisalmer. I said, “I do not want your solar panels to hide but be like the jewellery on top of my building. I want it to be something that is an added accent.” I thought the yellow sandstone was very beautiful next to the cobalt blue panels and we worked out a solution together.

MM: What were the differences you felt between working in New York and India?

DK: First of all, for an American architect to be building out of an engraved stone is not common. Many of the concepts from my days at Columbia came back to me.

I was not interested in an architecture that had a timeless or lasting design - rather something that comes naturally from the feeling of the space and the community, generated by the women and girls.

In many ways I feel my entire career came together here, it seems that I have turned unimportant. Also, there is a sense of community in India that is so strong. To me, it is so heart-warming and fantastic, because we have largely lost that in our country. So these interlocking circles were more about unity.

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Jaisalmer - its architecture and urbanity

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Capture the variation of acoustic impedance property in the Jaisalmer Formation due to structural deformation based on post-stack seismic inversion study: a case study from Jaisalmer sub-basin, India

• Original Paper-Exploration Geophysics
• Open access
• Published: 04 January 2022
• Volume 12 , pages 1919–1943, ( 2022 )

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• Saurabh Datta Gupta 1 ,
• Sugata Kumar Sinha 1 &
• Raman Chahal 1  

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The Rajasthan basin situates in the western part of India. The basin architecture comprises three significant sub-basins such as Barmer-Sanchor, Bikaner-Nagaur and Jaisalmer. Barmer-Sanchor and Bikaner-Nagaur sub-basins are intracratonic categories, whereas the Jaisalmer sub-basin comes under intracratonic nature. The current study was conducted in the Jaisalmer sub-basin. The study was conducted in two regions in the Jaisalmer sub-basin through a comparative quantitative interpretation study with the help of two vintages seismic surveys. Ghotaru and Bandha are two adjacent areas in the Jaisalmer sub-basin where Ghotaru has seen few hydrocarbon discoveries; however, no such discoveries are encountered in the Bandha area. The current study was concentrated on the Jaisalmer limestone formation in the Jurassic age. The sub-basin and its related study area have been structurally deformed due to various tectonic activities. Structural deformation was played a crucial role in changing the rock property of limestone facies. A post-stack seismic inversion was carried out to capture the rock property changes in the limestone reservoir based on P-impedance values. Development of high P-impedance was observed in the Ghotaru region compared to the Bandha region from this study. A frequency changes of the limestone lithofacies with structural components was also captured in this study. The high impedance limestone lithofacies is a probable hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir unit in the Jaisalmer Formation of the Ghotaru region.

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Introduction

Jaisalmer sub-basin is a part of the Rajasthan basin where several signatures of the tectonic activities in the form of faults are observed. Several significant faults are observed in the basement of the Precambrian age, which are extended up to the Pariwar Formation of Cretaceous age. Jaisalmer Formation of the Jurassic age was similarly affected by different tectonic activities, where the presence of the small and high aperture faulting system verifies its authenticity. The study focused on the Jaisalmer Formation of the Ghotaru and Bandha (Fig.  1 ) region in the Jaisalmer sub-basin, where this kind of tectonic deformation has also been observed. Post depositional tectonic activities change the rock properties due to different geo-mechanical setups. It shows significant differences in the compressional velocity and density of the rock property between pre and post tectonic activities, representing the changes of AI properties in both instances. Few hydrocarbon discoveries had been made from the Lower Goru Formation in the Lower Cretaceous age. However, any success did not report from the Jaisalmer Formation. The current study was conducted in the Jaisalmer limestone formation to capture the acoustic impedance (AI) property variations from Ghotaru to the Bandha region. The Jaisalmer Formation is a comparatively deeper formation than the established hydrocarbon-bearing formation of the Jurassic age. The distribution of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir lithofacies has been identified based on this comparison study, where changes in the AI property have been identified. The study area is surrounded by multiple high gravity structures, many of which are oil and gas fields (Desai and Saklani 2014 ): Bakhri Tibba, Vikhran Nai, Manhera Tibba, and Ghotaru ( DGH 2007 ).

Representation of structural deformation and hetroginity of sediment deposition in the formations of the Jaisalmer sub-basin (modified after Srivastave and Ranawat 2015 ; Jain and Garg, 2012 )

Seismic inversion is a part of the quantitative interpretation (QI), which is adopted to build the properties of the sedimentary layers in the sub-surface geology. The study produces impedance property of the rock through the integration of seismic, well log and its related geoscientific data. Seismic inversion plays a crucial role in reservoir characterization, such as lithofacies identification and fluid characterization. The uses of the seismic inversion output are significant for the position away from the well. This output is used to estimate the petrophysical properties of the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir, such as porosity, water saturation, and permeability. The successful exploration of oil and gas from the Jaisalmer limestone formation is challenging due to limited, encouraging facies with encouraging petrophysical properties and frequent changes of the reservoir lithofacies. Here, we have been used two vintages of the post-stack seismic data for analysis purposes. Both the vintages are 3D seismic data, and the coverage of the seismic data used for this study in both vintages are 50 Sq.km and 676 Sq.km. Pre-stack seismic data are available in the Bandha region, but data quality is not adequate to carry out pre-stack inversion, whereas, in the Ghotaru region, pre-stack seismic data is not available. Ghotaru field was discovered in the 1980s, where advanced well data also not available. However, based on conventional well log data from six well data (two from Ghotaru and four from the Bandha region), this study was conducted. Several studies show the maturity of the petroleum system in the study area (DGH 2007 ), where the Jaisalmer limestone formation has been considered a potential reservoir with source rock (Pandey and Maurya 2020 ). Limited explorations have been carried out in the Jaisalmer Formation, and hydrocarbon discoveries did not report. Although lithofacies, biofacies, and depositional facies in this formation have been reported (Pandey and Maurya 2020 ). However, the presence of suitable conditions for hydrocarbon exploration lot of challenges is involved. The Jaisalmer Formation in the Bandha region has a low potential hydrocarbon in comparison to the Jaisalmer Ghotaru region (Mishra and Sharma 1986 ). There are limited numbers of studies that have been carried out in the Jaisalmer Formation where integrated approaches of both seismic and well log have been adopted. The significance of the structural heterogeneity towards changes of the reservoir properties such as acoustic and geo-mechanical in the Bandha region has been represented through integrated QI analysis (Chahal and Datta Gupta 2020 ). It is highly significant to analyze the variation of the rock properties in terms of acoustic and fluid in the reservoir lithofacies in both the Bandha and Ghotaru region using the acoustic impedance to know the effect of structural heterogeneity in this area. A model-based P-wave post-stack seismic inversion process has been conducted in this research (Bateman 1985 ). The acoustic impedance obtained from the well log data helps to capture changes in the rock properties in a detailed manner in both areas. The changes aways from the well have been integrated based on the inversion study. Initially, a robust structural model of the Jaisalmer Formation has been prepared, extending up to the top of the Lathi Formation. The model has been prepared based on the structural interpretation of the formation. A robust approach on well to seismic tie with a high cross-correlation coefficient provides significant support to develop a structural model. This process provides multiple wavelets from six well data; the variations of these wavelets are optimized during the adoption of the seismic inversion process. The integrated time-depth relationship between well and seismic data provides a calibrated picture of the seismic signature in the sub-surface geology. Robust calibration of the velocity function in both areas shows a comprehensive comparison of structural changes. P-wave impedance from the post-stack seismic inversion from the Bandha to Ghotaru region in the Jaisalmer Formation provides a notable outcome on rock property changes in this area. Kanoi, Ghotaru and Ramgarh’s faults are involved significantly in developing a matured rock property for hydrocarbon exploration in this study area. The changes of the hydrocarbon-bearing carbonate reservoir facies have been captured along this faulted structure. In a similar regional geological setup, subtle changes of acoustic impedance (AI) property of the limestone reservoir due to structural deformation has been identified in two areas such as Ghotaru and Bandha. Two areas are 50 km apart based on surface distance.

The current study shows higher challenges in the Bandha region compared to the Ghotaru region for hydrocarbon exploration from the Jaisalmer Formation (Pandey et al. 2019 ).

However, advanced study with modern technology can be a significant success in the Jaisalmer Formation for hydrocarbon exploration, which was not reported in this region.

Compared to the Ghotaru region, the acoustic impedance (AI) property has changed drastically for the Bandha region. The potentiality hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir lithofacies in the carbonate facies of the Jaisalmer Formation has been established in this study. The comparison study based on the acoustic impedance (AI) property variation for the Jaisalmer Formation is unique for this study area.

Geology of the study area

The Jaisalmer sub-basin is a part of the Rajasthan basin which extends from the west and northwest part of the Aravalli’s range to the Indo-Pakistan border (Biswas 1987 ) (Report published in Director General of Hydrocarbon (DGH) 2007 ); situates in the north-western slope of the peninsular shield of India. Evidence shows the western shelf in the Rajasthan basin is a segment of the Indus basin, and it was developed during the Precambrian age (Henderson et al. 2010 ; Inam et al. 2007 ). Significant tectonic activities are captured in the structural history of the basin during Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian (Singh 2006 ) (Report published in Director General of Hydrocarbon (DGH) 2007 ) in the form of upliftment and hiatus. We have found a major event on regression during Triassic and Early Jurassic in this basin (Singh et al. 2006 ). A crucial evolutionary process in the sedimentary basin took place in the Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner region during the Cretaceous to Tertiary age. Intracratonic rift basin developed under extensional tectonic activities from the early Jurassic to tertiary time (Pandey et al. 2012 ). As the result of the rift evolution, there was alkaline magnetism at the rift margin (Arora et al. 2012 ). The Rajasthan basin is one of the oldest sedimentary basins in India and has more than 5000 m sediment thickness. The faulted structure and cratonic sequences (pre and intra) have made classifications of the sediments. The Rajasthan basin has been divided into three sub-basinal parts: (1) Jaisalmer sub-basin, (2) Bikaner-Nagaur sub-basin and (3) Barmer-Sanchor sub-basin (Fig.  1 ). The current study has been carried out in the Jaisalmer sub-basin, which is filled with pre-cratonic sediments. Structurally the Jaisalmer sub-basin shows two different depression and shelf such as Shahgarh, Miajlar and Kishangarh (Report published in Director General of Hydrocarbon (DGH), 2007 ); Singh 2006 ). One significant arch has been identified in this sub-basin, known as the Mari-Jaisalmer arch (Dasgupta 1974 ). The sub-basin is dipping towards the northwest direction. This arch is situated in the central part of this sub-basin and separates the Kishangarh and Shahgarh depression in the north and south. Our study area comes under Shahgarh depression and Kishangarh shelf of Jaisalmer sub-basin (Fig.  1 ).

The outcrop of the sub-basin shows the prominent signature of the sediments in the non-marine and shallow marine condition; sediments are siliciclastic to marine carbonate. The older sediments that were deposited during the Mesozoic period are non-marine, and the nature of the deposition is fluvial, deltaic or lacustrine (Dasgupta 1975 ). However, in the latter time presence of marine sediments have been observed in this sub-basin. Changes in the sea level show the high degree of variations in the deposition of the sediments in the chrono-stratigraphy column in this sub-basin. The nature of the deposits are non-marine, marginal marine, then again non-marine, marginal marine and fully marine. It shows that exploration activity in this sub-basin is challenging. The succession of the Jaisalmer sub-basin represents the deposition of shale, siltstone and limestone during the Mesozoic period (Krishna 1987 ). The name of the few major sedimentary units identified from the analysis of lithostratigraphy is Randha, Birmania, Bhuana, Lathi, Jaisalmer, Baisakhi-Bedesir, Pariwar, Goru, Sanu and Khuiala formations. The basement of this sub-basin belongs to the Precambrian age comprised of igneous or metamorphic rock.

Several studies in this sub-basin have been shown the maturity of the petroleum system in this sub-basin which shows the possibilities for hydrocarbon exploration (Pandey et al. 2019 ; Wandrey et al. 2004 ; Pandey and Maurya 2020 ; Srivastava et. al. 1995 ). The Baisakhi-Bedesir, Pariwar, Goru, Sanu, and Khuiala Formations are examples of clastic reservoir, whereas fractured limestones of the Jaisalmer Formation and limestone of the Lower Bandah/Khuiala Formation are considered as carbonate reservoir (Biswas 1987 ) (Report published in Director General of Hydrocarbon (DGH), 2007 ). Different organic material rich shale formations are considered as source rock such as Lower Goru, Pariwar, Sembar/Bedesir–Baisakhi shales, Karampur/Badhaura shales, Bilara Shales, and the Dolomites with algal rich layers (Wandrey et al. 2004 ; Upadhyay 1991 ).

Our current study has been focused on the sediments of the Jurassic age, which extends from Lathi to Baisakhi-Bedesir Formation, where a significant part is the Jaisalmer Formation. The overlying unit of the Lathi Formation is Jaisalmer, and the formations are dominated by limestone lithology. Other than limestone, shale, sandstone, and siltstone are the lithologies which are identified in this formation. The primary focus of the current study is in this Jaisalmer Formation, which has a thickness of 330–360 m (Gupta et al. 1996 ). The analysis was conducted based on the limited number of the dataset and data quality in the Ghotaru and Bandha region. The summary of the available well and seismic dataset has been mentioned in the Table 1 .

The thickness of the formation has been increased to 600 m when it comes to the exposed condition in few areas of the sub-basin. Based on sediment depositional sequences, the Jaisalmer Formation has been divided into six members: Jajya, Kuldhar, Bada Bag, Fort, Joyan and Hamira Member. The current study areas such as Ghotaru and Bandha are affected by structural deformations, and the presence of major faults such as Ghotaru, Kanoi and Ramgarh faults are examples of such deformations (Fig.  2 ).

The study area of the Jaisalmer sub-basin comprises both Ghotaru and Bandha region; two vintages of the post-stack seismic survey and six well are used for this study; Bandha region consists of seismic survey vintage #1, whereas for the Ghotaru region, it is seismic survey vintage #2; an earlier discovery field situated near to the study area

Methodology

Seismic inversion eliminates the impression of the wavelet in the seismic data through deconvolution and then modifies the output into impedance. The primary classification of the inversion process is pre-stack and post-stack seismic inversion. Deterministic and stochastic are another classification for the seismic inversion process based on the outcome. Few other inversion processes such as coloured and genetic are also used to delineate the reservoir properties by adopting various algorithms. However, any inversion process largely depends upon the data quality and its feasibility with reservoir rock property. The post-stack seismic inversion method modifies a migrated zero offset full-stack seismic volume into an acoustic impedance volume by using seismic and wells data along with the essential information of structure and stratigraphy for interpretation. The pre-stack seismic data such as angle stack and offset gathers are used for the pre-stack inversion process, which produces P-impedance, S-impedance and density of rock properties primarily. Post-stack inversion methods refer to various sequences used to convert stacked seismic data into measurable rock physics parameters (Mangasi and Haris 2018 ; Weber 1987 ). In this inversion, the result is P-impedance. In the inversion process, all frequency components such as ultra-low, low, bandlimited and high frequency are used where ultra-low- and low-frequency component is incorporated from seismic velocity and well data. High frequencies are added by well data, whereas the band-limited frequency added by seismic data (Berge et al. 2002 ). A considerable correlation was achieved between well to seismic tie. The analysis shows the variation of the acoustic impedance property of the rock. Suitable frequency and time filters were applied on the wavelets towards conditioning during well to seismic tie, which provides a robust analysis. The goal of the study has been achieved based on the analysis of post-stack seismic inversion.

Seismic data analysis

The quality of the post-stack seismic data shows a good representation based on amplitude and frequency distribution. The bandwidth of the seismic data in the Bandha region varies from 10 to 70 Hz, whereas in the Ghotaru region, it varies from 12 to 66 Hz. The amplitude spectrum shows a uniform distribution without any skewness. However, in the data of the Bandha region, few acquisition footprints such as locality and noises in the angle stack data are observed. A preliminary pre-processing step such FK filter in FKX-KY was applied to remove these acquisition footprints. However, the adoption of the filtering process shows a degradation of the seismic dataset in the deeper section for both inline and cross-line direction. This application has shown the removal of the significant portion of the signal in the deeper where Jaisalmer Formation is placed. The situation suggests avoiding the application of the filtering process. In all angle stack (near, mid and far), seismic data of Bandha region the reflection continuity is visible in the Jaisalmer Formation only; however, quality for near angle stack data is insufficient for performing pre-stack inversion process whereas angle stack was not available in Ghotaru region.

Petrophysical analysis

The petrophysical evaluation was carried out for the Jaisalmer Formations encountered, which included the carbonate reservoirs primarily. Volumetric analysis was performed at the well level based on the numerical analysis, which represents the mineral components of the reservoir. Various petrophysical properties such as porosity, water saturation and volume of shale were estimated from the petrophysical analysis. Different input parameters such as clay typing, formation water salinity, and mineral model were considered to estimate the petrophysical components that are sensitive to the mineralogical components. The present petrophysical study has been conducted in the Jaisalmer Formation, which is a limestone dominate formation. The effect of the shaly sand is significant in this formation.

In view of the reservoir component, the Dual Water (Clavier et al. 1984 ) shaly sand analysis model was employed in this study. The model was built up based on the additional conductivity parameter to compensate for the deficiency of the electrical charges in the clay surrounded diffuse layer. Cementation factor (m) and saturation component (n) are the other two significant parameters for the Dual Water model. Both the factors depend upon the porosity of the rock, which is known as tortuosity. The tortuosity varies with grain size and type of clay. The formation water salinity was obtained based on the Pickett plot from the drilled wells. SP log was used for the generation of the picket plot. During the Dual Water saturation model estimation, a = 1, m = 2.0 and n = 2.0 were assumed in the absence of core data. Note that the “m” parameter depends on rock texture which can vary considerably in carbonate over Jaisalmer Formation and that “m” can be much higher than 2.0 in vuggy carbonates. Water saturation increases with an increase in m and vice versa. The numerical estimation of the salinity in the Jaisalmer Formation comes around 100 ppK. Quartz, Calcite, Slate, Ferruginous mineral, Clay are the major mineral components that have been identified, whereas in the fluid component, hydrocarbon and water both are identified from the petrophysical analysis. The range of porosity shows 3% to 10% in the Jaisalmer Formation as the formation is considered tight.

Structural interpretation

Structural interpretation has been played a crucial role in this study. The most challenging task was structural interpretation around the two major faults in the study area due to the poor image quality of the seismic data. The poor image continues along strike direction—NNW to SSE of the Western fault in the study area due to the shear zone and the fault plane, which is the path of gas movement (Fig.  3 a). In the Jaisalmer limestone formation only, a high impedance contrast in the seismic image has been observed. The high impedance contrast has also been observed in the intra-Jaisalmer marker, which separates the interested lithology from others. The unavailability of VSP or check shot data in most wells enhances the uncertainty in the structural interpretation of the study formation. A detailed well correlation between six study wells (Fig.  3 b) has provided a comprehensive image of the structural setup of the Jaisalmer Formation. Well to Seismic tie process was performed in these six wells (Figs.  4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ). The tie was performed between the Jaisalmer Formation. The extraction of the proper wavelets and establishing the time to depth relationship was the primary goal of the well to seismic tie. Check shot data were used as time-depth relation for two wells, whereas for the other wells P-sonic data were used for calibration. Identification of quantitative parameters of the reservoir based on amplitude, phase, frequency variation was another motto of the well to seismic tie. Fault interpretation is a significant part of the structural analysis. The coherency cube of the post-stack seismic data provided significant support to fault analysis in this area. A structural framework was developed through the positional changes of the formation marker to capture the extensive structural variability in the study area, which provided important information for interpreting sub-surface geology. The structural interpretation based on the post-stack seismic data from Ghotaru and Bandha regions shows sub-surface geological complexity. The TWT (two-way travel time) structural contour map in the Bandha and Ghotaru region represents possibilities of rock property changes due to frequent changes in the structural setup (Fig.  10 a, b).

a Distribution of seismic section from NNW to SSE to represents the structural setup of the study area (Bandha region). b Well correlation between the wells from the Ghotaru and Bandha region; W-3, W-4, W-B, W-S, W-C and W-D wells are used for this correlation; Jaisalmer Formation of the Ghotaru region is in the downthrown side of a throw between 800 and 1200 m; P-impedance log has been used for this correlation

Well to seismic tie for computation of time to depth relationship and extraction of suitable wavelets in the well W-S of the Bandha region (seismic survey vintage # 1)

Well to seismic tie for computation of time to depth relationship and extraction of suitable wavelets in the well W-D of the Bandha region (seismic survey vintage # 1)

Well to seismic tie for computation of time to depth relationship and extraction of suitable wavelets in the well W-3 of the Ghotaru region (seismic survey vintage # 2)

Well to seismic tie for computation of time to depth relationship and extraction of suitable wavelets in the well W-4 of the Ghotaru region (seismic survey vintage # 2)

Well to seismic tie for computation of time to depth relationship and extraction of suitable wavelets in the well W-C of the Bandha region (seismic survey vintage # 1)

Well to seismic tie for computation of time to depth relationship and extraction of suitable wavelets in the well W-B of the Bandha region (seismic survey vintage # 1)

Distribution of the seismic section and structural contour map of the Jaisalmer Formation in the two-study areas—Ghotaru ( a ) and Bandha ( b ) regions; geological Ghotaru area is more promising for hydrocarbon exploration

An integrated approach was adopted to prepare a robust velocity model. The velocity model was used for building an ultra-low frequency model away from the well position. Well to seismic tie to structural interpretation, each step played a crucial role in building a robust velocity model (Pradhan et al. 2019 ). Robust estimation of the time-depth relationship and check shot (W-4) were used to calibrate the seismic-based average velocity cube generated from seismic stacking velocity. The subtle changes in limestone formation have also been captured in this integrated velocity model. Uncertainty analysis of the velocity model has been performed based on P10, P50 and P90 assessment where the variations of the compressional velocity have been observed between 4836 m/s to 5618 m/s considering all three cases (Fig.  11 ).

Capture the Uncertainty of the estimated stacking velocity model based on P10, P50 and P10 analysis

Editing of well data and rock physics modelling

Rock physics analysis is a significant part of the QI study where a robust relationship is established between petrophysical (Porosity, V cl , Water saturation) and rock physical (acoustic impedance, bulk modulus, shear modulus) properties. In the QI study, information of well log data is essential for extracting various information such as wavelet extraction and low-frequency information. Seismic data provides bandlimited frequency, which shows the essentiality of well information. The information available based on quantitative well to seismic tie provides significant information to the rock physics modelling and its related seismic inversion process. The complete work was adopted based on the following workflow (Fig.  12 ).

A summary of the workflow for editing and conditioning of the well log data

Well log data provides information for elastic property inversion for seismic reflection where high-quality log data is required. Rock physics analysis provides that important high-resolution information for the inversion process.

Well log data are affected by various bad influences such as borehole rugosity, casing shoes and washout regions. These unwanted influences represent incorrect information through shallow readings. Sometimes well log data are influenced by instrument malfunction, such as cycle skipping in the sonic log, which shows the missing readings. Rock physics modelling depends upon the sonic and density log; hence quality control and editing of density, sonic and acoustic log were adopted in this study to prepare robust rock physics modelling. In few instances, numerical approaches were adopted where well log data was not available based on synthetic well log data. The synthetic log data were prepared based on regression methods and established an empirical relationship between rock physics properties.

The well log data were conditioned and noise-free to maintain the sub-surface geological trend. The scattered cross plot between rock physics parameters helped identify the noisy data points. The noisy data points were mitigated based on geological trend capturing in a specific formation. An improved result has developed between well and seismic data correlation after proper conditioning of well data. A multi-wall cross plot and histogram analysis was performed to identify the lousy section dominated data points in the borehole. In a few parts where the movement of the tools was observed, those data points were eliminated during the conditioning of well log data. In the Jaisalmer Formation, where the logging tool malfunction has influenced log data, those data points have been rectified based on density and velocity relationship. The empirical relationship of Gardner et al. ( 1974 ) and Castagna and Backus ( 1993 ) used significantly for identifying data trend and predicting unavailable well log data.

In a highly heterogeneous reservoir rock, few limitations have been observed for predicting density log data based on Castagna’s empirical relationships (Castagna and Backus 1993 ).An empirical relationship such as power regression trend between P-velocity and Density in the nearby wells within appropriate study interval and similar lithology was adopted in this study. The modified Gardner’s relationship (Eq.  1 ) was used for predicting density, whereas P-sonic was estimated based on Eq.  2 (Faust 1953 ) where density data was not available.

a and b = constant whereas ρ and V P are the density and P-wave velocity

V P  = P-wave velocity (in feet); a = constant; R  = resistivity value (in ohm-feet) and Z  = depth (in feet).

Modelling of the well log data for estimation of the elastic properties

The AI (acoustic impedance) property of the limestone reservoir rock of the Jaisalmer Formation was estimated based on P-wave velocity (derived from P-Sonic log) and density log data (Chatterjee et al. 2013 ) (Chow et al. 2005 ). The density log data were considered directly from well, whereas, in a few instances, it was estimated based on a transformation relationship. The key lithology of the reservoir for hydrocarbon exploration are identified from the AI property (Taner 2001 ) (Cemen et al. 2013 ). It shows a relation between rock property and geophysical data (seismic and well log) derived property. A stable comparison between log derived property, and synthetic model derived property has been performed. The well log-based AI property is known as Zobs.

To determine the acoustic impedance from the well log data, let us assume ( ρ b ) as the bulk density and (Δ t ) as the sonic transit time. The acoustic impedance ( Z ) of a medium is obtained from the elastic theory is given as,

Wavelet extraction

Wavelet is considered as a convolution operator between seismic data and reflectivity of the surface. Generally, extraction of the wavelet can be performed based on three approaches,

The linear phase assumes a zero phase.

Least square where phase assumption is not considered.

Least square with a constant phase where the assumption of phases is considered based on the correlation between log reflectivity and surface seismic.

The extracting algorithms are classified into various categories such as analytical, deterministic, statistical and multi-well. Uses of the suitable filter to determine the wavelet plays a crucial role during correlation between well reflection coefficient and seismic traces. Phase and frequency-related information is considered from the inverse filter. Initially, the time delay of the wavelet is eliminated based on bulk shift, and then the wavelet is placed at zero time for further fine-tuning. The application of the inversion process shows further optimisation of the wavelet during sparse spike inversion of the seismic traces near well position (Anitha et al. 2014 ). In the sparse spike inversion, the least number of acoustic impedance interfaces imitate a seismic trace that models the sub-surface reflectivity.

This study assumes that the sparse reflection coefficient series is associated with the acoustic impedance. It implies that the seismic trace can be modelled with fewer reflection coefficients; only the large impedance contrast (shown by large spikes) is expressive. The original seismic response is generated by the convolution of imitated seismic trace with the wavelet. The aim is to get a high-resolution impedance profile from band-limited seismic data directly connected to rock properties or lithology of the formation. The current analogy for estimating the wavelet from multiple traces with low-frequency information provides better information for inversion with a limited likelihood solution. The current seismic and well log responses support choosing the maximum-likelihood algorithm over a linear programming algorithm to extract the wavelet in this study under a sparse spike inversion process. The integrated response between well log and seismic data in a specific window has shown a fruitful outcome for choosing an algorithm. The wavelet was estimated during well to seismic tie at each well of the study area, such as vintage #1) and vintage#2 in the Jaisalmer Formation (Mitra et al. 1993 ).

Post-stack seismic inversion

Post-stack seismic inversion is used to estimate P-impedance (absolute acoustic impedance) from the seismic reflection data. The seismic trace s ( t ) is the result of the convolution process of the reflectivity series r ( t ) and wavelet w ( t ) and some additional noise n ( t ). Mathematically, the result can be represented (Mangasi and Haris 2018 ; Chahal and Datta Gupta 2020 ).

The acoustic impedance (AI) of the i th layer can be given as follows:

where R i and R i +1 are the reflection coefficient of i th and ( i  + 1)th layer, respectively.

In this study, a model-based post-stack inversion has been carried out. It is an iterative modelling process where the geological model is updated and compared from the seismic data to make it better. The generalised linear inversion can mathematically relate to the post-seismic inversion. At the initial stage for the model-based inversion is the generation of the acoustic impedance logs at the well locations. The algorithm for the inversion process is to modify the P-wave impedance log by minimising the difference between the measured and synthetic seismic data.

Similarly, a good correlation was achieved from the seismic and synthetic model. Figures  4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 and 9 , shows the correlation between the inverted P-wave impedance and the original log impedance in the Jaisalmer Formation in both the study region. In the post-stack inversion process, the key input is the post-stack seismic data, estimated wavelet and low-frequency model. Most of the challenges during the inversion process lies in the wavelet extraction and building the low-frequency model (LFM). The kriging interpolation method was used in few instances to generate missing values in the well log to integrate with post-stack seismic data for generating LFM. LFM is an essential part of the absolute acoustic inversion process. Seismic-based RMS stacking velocity was available in the coarser grid, converted to the interval velocity based on Dix’s empirical relationship. The converted interval velocity downscaled to the seismic grid through consistent horizon interpolation. Elimination of the spurious information and comparison with the same scale seismic velocity, a filter at 1 Hz was applied over well velocity. The process shows a consistent trend between well and seismic velocity where the seismic interval velocity has been transformed to P-impedance (AI) based on the estimated relationship between P-impedance and velocity at the well level. A compaction trend has been observed during conversion with information of 0 to 1 Hz frequency. The transformed AI was used prior to initiating the inversion process of all full-stack data based on the estimated wavelets. The impedance results from LFM provided information below the seismic bandwidth, and it was guided by the structural and stratigraphic framework based on interpolated structural interpretation. (structural/stratigraphical). The result shows consistency between well derived P-impedance and LFM derived P-impedance.

The current study has been carried out based on the model-based inversion process. A summary of the model-based inversion process adopted in this study has been below,

Acoustic impedance at well was estimated by utilising the data of well log.

Horizons and faults in the seismic section were selected to monitor the interpolation and provide structural information for the model between the wells.

The acoustic impedance model was initiated based on the interpolation along the interpreted horizons and between the wells.

The initial impedance was blocked by utilising identified block size.

The statistical wavelet was estimated from the seismic section. The extraction window was within the identified well-based markers such as study zone top and study zone bottom.6. To acquire the artificial seismic trace, the wavelet was convolved with the earth’s reflectivity.

To reduce the differences between the actual and modelled reflectivity section, the least square optimisation technique was executed. The process was adopted by examining the misfit between the generated trace and the actual trace based on the modification of block size and amplitude variation in the traces.

The earlier step was repeated to reduce the misfit coefficient between actual trace and modelled trace (Maurya and Sarkar 2016 ).

A pictorial representation of post-stack seismic inversion and the model-based seismic inversion has been represented in Figs.  13 and 14 , which was adopted during the current study.

A summary of the generalized workflow for conducting a post-stack inversion process

A summary of the generalized workflow for conducting a model-based post-stack inversion process; incorporation of sensitivity, uncertainty and acceptance of the interim outcomes are the essential functions of the model-based post-stack inversion process

Result and discussion

Mostly the interpreted formations are dipping gently towards the NW direction with some fault closures. We have observed few minor faults in the Jaisalmer Formation, which are sub-parallel to the two major faults, whereas few minor faults strike oblique to these major faults. A clear image of tectonic deformation has been observed in the study area, especially in the western part of the Bandha region. The tectonic history of the study shows the presence of wrench tectonics in this study area during the Late Cretaceous or Early Paleocene age. Two major faults are characterized as a strike-slip fault, which is also known as a wrench and has been expanded towards the NNW-SSE direction. Few minor related faults are sub-parallel and oblique to these major faults. Most of the faults in this area are very high angle with the minor throw. A significant character has been observed in this study area under cratonic to peri-cratonic settings of the Jaisalmer sub-basin where faults nature is varying from normal to reverse along the vertical and horizontal direction. The seismic interpretation in two vintages (Bandha and Ghotaru) shows the carbonated dominated sequences in the Jaisalmer Formation, representing a thickening upward cycle gradually in well log data. The formation comprises major parallel and sub-parallel reflectors with high and low impedance contrast. The most challenging phase in this formation is the frequent variation of the reservoir facies in the lateral direction. These lateral facies variation seems to be controlled by fault control on carbonate sedimentation where relatively raised areas towards the eastern part of the study area had better carbonate platform development. This indicates that faults were active during Jaisalmer formation sedimentation. The Jaisalmer carbonate formation is deposited as a cyclic carbonate platform capped by shale. These cycles possibly represent transgressive para-sequences where the tops most cycle is identified by extensive gamma-ray shale, which was marked as top of the formation. This sequence can be interpreted as MFS (maximum flooding surface), where Baisakhi-Bedesir formation was deposited in high stand system tract (HST). The significant structural deformation in the Jaisalmer Formation has been observed due to the involvement of two major fault blocks in this study area. A significant throw from 800 to 1200 m has been identified in this study area between Ghotaru and Bandha region (Fig.  3 ).

A comparative study in the Ghotaru and Bandha region represent different reservoir rock property of the limestone reservoir. The changes in the AI property of the reservoir rocks is due to structural deformation along with the fault plane. The study captures the role of multiple active faults during the deposition of the limestone reservoir formation through interpreting patterns of the appearance in the form of structural and stratigraphy characters. This study shows an essential requirement to identify the potentiality of the hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir (Bastia and Nayak 2006 ) in these two regions.

The fundamental part of this study has been initiated from well to seismic ties. The statistical wavelets were extracted within the identified zone of interest of the Jaisalmer Formation, which was marked earlier as study zone top and bottom. The depth intervals of these identified zones are different for Ghotaru and Bandha. All wavelets were in zero phase position of the seismic traces. We have observed a maximum 74.6% (W-S) cross-correlation coefficient in well to seismic tie, whereas the minimum was 42.6% (W-4). The cross-correlation coefficient varies from 60 to 65%, which is considerable for this study; however, in the Ghotaru region, the cross-correlation values show a lower order (40% to 55%) due to the well data quality. Figures  4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 and 9 and Table 2 demonstrates the natures of the extracted wavelets from the six wells. Most of the wells in the Ghotaru region are was drilled 40 years earlier, where the limited quality of log data is available, whereas, in the Bandha region, most of the wells drilled recent days advanced and good quality well data has been observed. However, few wells in the Bandha region drilled in earlier days, but the log data quality has been maintained in these wells. In drilled wells of the Ghotaru region, the availability of the data is also limited. In the W-4 well, the reason behind the low cross-correlation coefficient is that all logs are estimated based on the transformation relationship (Gardner et al. 1974 ) (Faust 1953 ) (Yalamanchi and Datta Gupta 2021 ).

In the inversion process, the best fit between original and inverted P-impedance log has been observed in the well W-S, W-3, W-C and W-B where modelled data has also followed convincingly with original traces. All subtle changes have been captured through the inverted P-impedance log in the W-S well, and it follows the trend of the original AI log. In W-D, we have observed a moderate deviation in the top and bottom part of the study zone within the actual and inverted log. In the Ghotaru region, well W-3 produces a comprehensive correlation between inverted and actual log where lithological trend and fluctuations due to the presence of different minerals in the Jaisalmer Formation have been captured. In the other well (W-4) in the Ghotaru region, we have seen a moderate correlation between inverted and actual log where a moderate fluctuation has been observed in the top part and lower part of the study formation. Lower order correlation has been achieved due to the uses of the transformation-based process to generate the required log data. However, it follows the actual geological trend and produces a considerable result. W-C and W-B both produce a distinguish result through the inversion process, and low to high all impedance contrast has been captured as per the geological heterogeneity. A detailed description has been represented in the Fig.  15 a–f. A smooth and heterogenous trend has been observed in all inverted log of the well data. W-S, W-B, W-C and W-D wells are placed in the Bandha region where seismic vintage#1 survey was conducted. We have identified the impedance values of these wells are varying from 2518.86 m/s*gm/cc to 20,294.4 m/s*gm/cc, whereas in the well W-S, the P-impedance value varies between 2525.07 m/s*gm/cc and 15,288 m/s*gm/cc in the study formation. In the Ghotaru region, where vintage#2 seismic survey was conducted. W-3 and W-4 wells are placed in this region where P-impedance varies between 7358.45 m/s*gm/cc and 17,894.3 m/s*gm/cc. A consistent impedance variation has been observed in the Ghotaru region. The impedance contrast represents better quality data in the vintage#2 seismic survey.

A comparison study of the inversion process in well locations was conducted-based original log, inverted log and initial model to capture the geological trend based on inversion outcome; a W-S; b W-D; c W-3; d W-4; e W-C; and f W-B

Error estimation is an essential part of the seismic inversion process. At the well level, error estimation of the Bandha region (seismic survey vintage # 1) 13.22% error has been identified as seismic prediction error, whereas the correlation has been achieved up to 99.21% (Fig.  16 a). For the well W-S and W-C, we are observing a deviation from the synthetic correlation, whereas for W-D, the deviation is less counted, and for W-B well, the estimated P-impedance is draped over synthetic correlation. In the Ghotaru region (seismic survey vintage#2), 10.92% seismic prediction error was estimated, whereas correlation is 99.40% (Fig.  16 b).

Correlation and seismic prediction error analysis of the Post-stack inversion process synthetic correlation, synthetic error and P-impedance; a analysis in the Bandha area (seismic survey vintage 1) with four wells; b analysis in the Ghotaru area (seismic survey vintage 2) with two wells

In the Ghotaru region, W-3 well has a deviation between estimated P-impedance and synthetic correlation, whereas, for W-4, an overlapping between P-impedance and synthetic has been observed. A volumetric difference in the post-stack seismic inversion process of two seismic vintages (Bandha and Ghotaru) has been demonstrated in Fig.  17 , where the significance of the residual volume is minor. Fluctuations of the P-impedance in the Bandha region have been observed, whereas, in the Ghotaru region, it is more stable and homogeneous.

Comparison analysis of the Post-stack inverted volume and residual volume in the Bandha (vintage # 1) and the Ghotaru region (vintage #2); analysis shows higher correlation and minimum residual outcome

A consistent correlation (> 80%) has been overserved between P-impedance (original) derived in the well and inverted P-impedance (observed) at the well location. Figure  18 a, b represent both vintages in the study area (Bandha and Ghotaru). In vintage # 1 the inverted P-impedance mostly varies from 8000 m/s * gm/cc to 16,000 m/s * gm/cc; a similar inverted P-impedance has been encountered in the vintages # 2 zone where P-impedance mostly varies from 9000 m/s * gm/cc to 17,000 m/s * gm/cc. A distinct separation has been observed in the vintage # 1 (Bandha) area, where two prominent zones are identified from inverted P-impedance analysis. In one zone, P-impedance varies from 8000 m/s * gm/cc to 12,000 m/s * gm/cc, whereas in the second zone inverted P-impedance varies from 13,000 m/s * gm/cc to 16,000 m/s * gm/cc. We did not identify any multiple zones in vintage # 2 (Ghotaru area) in this analysis; most of the data points lies between 12,500 m/s * gm/cc and 17,000 m/s * gm/cc. The analysis shows a considerable correlation between two vintages in the high impedance limestone lithofacies of the Jaisalmer Formation.

A comparison study has been carried out between actual P-impedance and inverted P-impedance (observed) based on cross plot analysis in the study wells; the study has been conducted in both seismic vintages (Bandha and Ghotaru) and produces considerable correlation

Figure  19 shows the distribution of P-impedance in the Jaisalmer limestone reservoir in the Bandha region. An arbitrary section has been developed to represent the sub-surface geological strata of the Jaisalmer Formation. The section represents the presence of multiple high angle faults in the study formation. These minor faults are sub-parallel and oblique to the significant wrench faults in the study area. The wells W-S, W-D and W-C, have been drilled in the high impedance limestone lithofacies where W-B has been drilled comparatively low impedance limestone. The P-impedance section shows the abrupt changes in the pattern of the limestone lithofacies. In W-S well, limestone facies are highly discrete and missed the limestone reservoir target during drilling, whereas in W-D well, the reservoir lithofacies is thin, and the well was drilled edge of the facies. A discrete and little extension of limestone lithofacies have been observed for the well W-C. The most prolific limestone reservoir lithofacies has been identified in the W-B well. The surrounding of the W-B well is highly tectonically active. Figure  20 shows the outcome of the post-stack inversion in the Ghotaru region, where a consistent distribution of the p-impedance has been observed. Prominent structural deformation is missing in the arbitrary section of the p-impedance in the Ghotaru area, and a comparatively high P-impedance of the limestone is observed here. The p-impedance section shows a distinct change of the lithofacies in the Jaisalmer Formation of the Ghotaru region.

Final outcome of the inverted P-impedance seismic volume in the Bandha area (seismic survey vintage # 1); a highly faulted and structural deformed inverted section is observed through four wells (W-S, W-B, W-C and W-D) in for of arbitrary section

Final outcome of the inverted P-impedance seismic volume in the Ghotaru area (seismic survey vintage # 2); comparatively flat and high homogeneity has been observed in the inverted section which is observed through two wells (W-3, and W-4) in for of arbitrary section

The outcome of the post-stack inversion in the form of P-impedance has been constructed based on LFM, bandpass and high-frequency content. The overall seismic-based P-impedance shows comparatively low frequency than well-based P-impedance. However, analysis of the low-frequency trend is essential to capture subtle changes of the reservoir lithofacies based on AI property. The depth of the target formation in this study varies from 1200 to 1577 m in MD in the Bandha region (seismic survey vintage # 1) and for Ghotaru region (seismic survey vintage # 2) it varies from 2200 to 2900 m in MD. All wells such as W-C, W-B, W-S, and W-D in the Bandha region show a considerable downward P-impedance trend in the seismic scale. Well-based computed P-impedance has been compared to the outcome of the seismic-based post-stack inversion based on extraction of the log at the well location (Fig.  21 a). In the final P-impedance volume, the AI value varies from 5000 m/s * gm/cc to 18,0000 m/s * gm/cc, and a concentration of a single cluster has been observed in this analysis. A significant correlation has been observed between well-based result and seismic-based result. A cross plot between these two parameters have been developed. The plot shows a linear relationship between the P-wave impedance seismic and P –wave impedance log. The linear relation is given by an equation, which is given as follows (Fig.  20 b);

where y  = AI (P-wave acoustic impedance from seismic) and x is the AI (P-wave acoustic impedance from four log). The coefficient of correlation is 0.832316.

A comparison between well-based P-impedance log and P-impedance extracted at the well location after Post-stack inversion; a analysis carried for Bandha region (seismic survey vintage #1); b analysis carried for Ghotaru region (seismic survey vintage #2); a high and low P-impedance separation has been observed in the Ghotaru region, whereas in the Bandha region it is single clustered

In the Ghotaru region (seismic survey vintage # 2), the target depth of the limestone formation varies from 2200 to 2900 m in MD, the comparison between seismic-based P-impedance and well-based P-impedance has been mentioned where AI values vary from 9000 m/s * gm/cc to 17,0000 m/s * gm/cc. A comprehensive correlation between these two parameters has been observed where all subtle changes have been captured. Two prominent clusters with distinct a separation of P-impedance have been identified in this analysis of the Ghotaru region such as from 9000 m/s * gm/cc to 12,0000 m/s * gm/cc and 13,000 m/s * gm/cc to 16,0000 m/s * gm/cc. The comparatively high impedance limestone is most prolific for hydrocarbon exploration. A convincing correlation (> 90%) has been achieved based on the comparative analysis from the cross plot of well-based and seismic-based P-impedance. The relation between these two parameters have identified as

where y  = AI (P wave acoustic impedance from seismic) and x is the AI (P wave acoustic impedance from two log). The coefficient of correlation is 0.901068.

The variation of the AI properties with the depth of the two regions (Ghotaru and Bandha) have been captured through cross plot analysis.

The Jaisalmer Formation in the Ghotaru region is on the downthrown side compared to the Bandha region at the range of 800 m to 1200 m. In the first part of the analysis (Fig.  22 a), P-impedance and inverted P-impedance has been compared to variation of depth in the limestone formation. A subtle contrast in the P-impedance of the limestone lithofacies has been in the Ghotaru region. The second part of the analysis (Fig.  22 b) has been conducted between seismic-based P-impedance and well-based P-impedance with the variation of depth where a similar picture of high impedance limestone in the Ghotaru region has been captured. This high impedance limestone is not present in the Bandha region.

Comparative analysis of the P-impedance log based on well data and Post-stack inverted data in depth scale; a distinct change of impedance values has been observed in both cases; a analysis has been carried out in the Bandha region; b analysis has been carried out in the Ghotaru region

A separation between comparatively low impedance limestone and high impedance limestone has been observed distinctly in the Ghotaru region; however, this separation is not available in the Bandha region along with the discrete nature of the lithofacies. Jaisalmer limestone is a tight reservoir, and the lateral position of hydrocarbon-bearing limestone reservoir lithofacies changes frequently. The nature of the limestone shows the possibility for the presence of hydrocarbon in the high impedance lithofacies. The unsuccessful results in the W-S, W-C, W-D are examples of this challenging architecture of the reservoir in spite of drilling in comparatively high impedance limestone. The W-B was drilled in the comparatively low impedance in the region lithofacies; however, success was not observed. Variation of the P-impedance in both areas (Ghotaru and Bandha) has been captured through uncertainty analysis based on P10, P50 and P90 analysis. After analysis of all cases, the minimum and maximum values of P-impedance vary between 9674 m/s * gm/cc and 15,585 m/s * gm/cc (Fig.  23 ).

Capture the Uncertainty of the estimated P-impedance volume from the post-stack inversion process based on P10, P50 and P10 analysis

In this kind of reservoir, separation of the reservoir and non-reservoir facies is a big challenge. Tectonic activity plays a crucial role in building this kind of depositional setup where high and low impedance sediments overlap. In the Bandha region, this kind of challenges has been observed. All impedances of the limestone are clubbed together, and the separation of hydrocarbon-bearing lithofacies in study formation is challenging.

The motivation of this study was to identify the differences of limestone sediment nature based on P-impedance property due to tectonic activity where sediments were deposited in the same Jurassic age in a broader sense. Bandha region highly affected by strike-slip faults, and significant lithofacies changes based on fault plane movement has been identified in the Jaisalmer limestone formation through capturing the variation of limestone impedances.

The primary objective of the current study was to capture the variation of the nature of the limestone in the Jaisalmer Formation based on P-impedance changes. The comparative analysis was carried out because of success in hydrocarbon discovery from the upper geological formation such as Cretaceous and Tertiary age sediments in the Ghotaru region. We have also observed an encouraging fluorescence test in the top of the Jaisalmer Formation of the study area in the Ghotaru region. These encouraging results are very limited in the Bandha region. This difference of the results between the Ghotaru and Bandha region can be captured through proper analysis of the sediment property based on P-impedance. In this study, the focus was on the Jaisalmer Formation only. The outcome shows the different nature of the limestone facies due to overburden thickness and structural deformation, which leads to the development of high impedance limestone in the Ghotaru region (seismic survey vintage # 2). In contrast, similar limestone is not available in the Bandha region (seismic survey vintage # 1). The limestone unit in the Ghotaru region is highly deep-seated in comparison to the Bandha region. Low impedance limestone is discrete in nature, and everywhere potentiality is not similar. The current study shows the higher chances for the presence of hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir in the deeper section in the Jaisalmer Formation with comparatively high P-impedance limestone.

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Acknowledgements

Gracefully acknowledgement to the Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation Limited regarding the encouragement of research activity and various technical data support, analysis, and various application support for research activity. We gratefully acknowledge the National Data Repository (NDR), DGH (Director General of Hydrocarbon) India regarding the encouragement of research activity and various technical data support, analysis, and application support for research activity. Our sincere gratitude to HLS ASIA and Schlumberger India to acquire the well log data in the study area and provide other technical support in the study area. The authors are profoundly thankful to the researchers of the Geophysical Data Quantitative Interpretation Lab. (GQIL), Department of Applied Geophysics, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad especially Sagnik Biswas for providing support to carry this research work. Our sincere thanks to all those associated team members and service providers who are directly or indirectly involved in the study area's technical work.

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Department of Applied Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, PIN-826004, Jharkhand, India

Saurabh Datta Gupta, Sugata Kumar Sinha & Raman Chahal

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SDG 60% contribution to the manuscript has been given by Saurabh, such as conceptualization, analysis of the result, drafting of the manuscript, figure and table preparation. SKS 30% contribution to the manuscript has been given by Sugata, such as conceptualization, project study, gap analysis, analysis of the result, uncertainty study, drafting of the manuscript, figure and table preparation. RC 10% contribution to the manuscript has been given by Raman, such as conceptualization, drafting of the manuscript, figure and table preparation.

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Datta Gupta, S., Sinha, S.K. & Chahal, R. Capture the variation of acoustic impedance property in the Jaisalmer Formation due to structural deformation based on post-stack seismic inversion study: a case study from Jaisalmer sub-basin, India. J Petrol Explor Prod Technol 12 , 1919–1943 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-021-01442-5

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Received : 27 July 2021

Accepted : 22 December 2021

Published : 04 January 2022

Issue Date : July 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-021-01442-5

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Sustainable Heritage Story: Patwon ki Haveli-Architecture of Rajasthan in 19th Century

An architectural wonder of the bygone era, Patwon Ki Haveli is one of the main attractions that one can look for in the city of Jaisalmer. The Patwon Ki Haveli is a cluster of five small Havelis, the exteriors of which are dipped in an enchanting shade of gold.

The history of this magnificent structure dates back to the 18th century. Once the residence of rich traders of Jaisalmer Patwas, the Haveli was constructed in the span of fifty years by Guman Chand Patwa and his five sons. A true specimen of Rajputana sculpture, the Patwon Ki Haveli is famous for its exclusive mirror work and fine wall paintings.

Amongst the five Havelis which form the entire complex, one has been converted into a museum that displays a vast collection of antique furniture and decorative goods. Besides this, the third Haveli or mansion in the premises also houses rich items that include traditional art and craftwork of the local craftsmen.

The Patwon Ji ki Haveli is an interesting piece of Architecture and is the most important among the Havelis in Jaisalmer. This is precise because of two things, first that it was the first haveli erected in Jaisalmer and second, that it is not a single haveli but a cluster of 5 small Havelis. The first among these Havelis was commissioned and constructed in the year 1805 by Guman Chand Patwa and is the biggest and the most ostentatious.

Architecture has always demonstrated a pivotal part of India’s tourism. A special position is to hold in terms of architecture which proves Rajasthan a top-notch place of tourism. Often known by the name “The city of Gold” Jaisalmer is a place of palaces forts and Havelis. Many tourist places attract tourists worldwide to witness the range of architectural brilliance.

After Jaisalmer fort, Patwon ki Haveli is the most visited place in Jaisalmer. Patwa Haveli is a treat to the eyes of an interesting piece of architecture. The minute detailing of architecture awestruck every tourist.

Patwon ki haveli has two main reasons to term as an interesting piece of Jaisalmer. Firstly, it was the first haveli which withstood in Jaisalmer and Secondly, it is not one single haveli but an agglomeration of 5 Havelis.

It is believed that Patwa was a rich man and was a renowned trader of his time. He could afford and thus ordered the construction of separate stories for each of his 5 sons. These were completed in the span of 50 years. All five houses were constructed in the first 60 years of the 19th century.

The Havelis are also known as the ‘mansion of brocade merchants’. This name has been given probably because the family dealt in threads of gold and silver used in embroidering dresses. However, there are theories, which claim that these traders made a considerable amount of money in Opium smuggling and Money-lending. This is the largest Haveli in Jaisalmer and stands in a narrow lane.

History of Patwon-ki-Haveli

This haveli is presently occupied by the government, which uses it for various purposes. The office of the Archeological Survey of India and State art and craft department is situated in the haveli itself.

The year 1805 marked the establishment of the haveli by Guman Chand Patwa. Guman Chand Patwa was a renowned trader at his time and perhaps the reason he constructed five different stories for his sons. It took 50 long years to construct a huge mansion.

As the family dealt with thread word of gold and silver the Haveli is also known by the name mansion of brocade merchant.

Nevertheless, even after these encroachments and abuse, you can find a good amount of paintings and mirror-works on the wall. The other important aspects are its gateways and arches. You will notice individual depictions and themes on each and every arch. Although the whole building is made of yellow sandstone, the main gateway of the Patwon Ji ki Haveli is in brown colour.

The use of yellow sandstone has made it a glamorous haveli. Furthermore, the brown gateways and walls with the minute mirror work have beautified even more. Paintings on the walls and arches with unique style gives a distinctive feature. Moreover, the jali works or cravings illuminate the palace even more. The mansion has 60 balconies where it reflects the traditional art of Jaisalmer very well.

At present, the haveli is occupied by the government of India. The government of India used the Haveli for various purposes. The Haveli consists of the Archeological Survey of India and the State art and craft office. A part of the Haveli displays paintings, artefacts, crafts, etc. displaying the lavish lifestyle enjoyed.

As for going inside the Haveli, you actually have two choices out of the five – but confusingly they both seem to have the same name. The huge mansion suddenly emerges out of nowhere dwarfing all other houses around it. The sight of its breathtaking architecture and impressive carvings on the outer walls will leave you choking with appreciation. Huge corridors, lined with beautifully designed pillars all along will slow your pace as you tour the haveli.

Tags: Five small Havelis, Traditional Art, Architectural Brilliance. Yellow Sandstone.

Due to climate change, the budget of the house may degenerate like this

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