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• 25 September 2023

Five discoveries about COVID-19 made since the public health emergency ended

• Ben Johnson 0

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The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infected 1.4 million people worldwide in a 28-day period between July and August of 2023 , causing 2,300 reported deaths. This was despite the declaration by the World Health Organization on 5 May 2023 that COVID-19 was no longer a public health emergency of international concern. The true number of cases and deaths is likely to be much higher, given that many countries have dismantled their testing infrastructure.

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Nature Medicine 29 , 2974-2976 (2023)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41591-023-00084-w

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• 2022 IN REVIEW

The 22 most amazing discoveries of 2022

New clues from the day the dinosaurs died. A mysterious ancient human tooth. Primordial galaxies. See how the past year expanded our knowledge of the cosmos and our own backyard.

Each year, researchers around the world contribute to humanity’s accumulation of knowledge. Paleontologists and archaeologists uncover traces of the past, revealing ecosystems and civilizations lost to time. Astronomers seek to explain the mysteries of other worlds, while biologists and Earth scientists unravel the workings of our own planet and the life it harbors. And medical researchers study the intricacies of the human body and the diseases that threaten it, developing new tools to safeguard our species.

The revelations that come from our ceaseless exploration and experimentation are often unexpected and extraordinary. Here are some of the year’s most remarkable discoveries.

Spectacular fossils reveal a prehistoric rainforest

In January 2022, researchers unveiled a site in southeastern Australia where the rocks contain an astonishing record of life in an ancient rainforest . The fossils at McGraths Flat are between 11 million and 16 million years old, representing some of the only known rainforest ecosystems dating back to the Miocene epoch. Small, soft-bodied creatures are preserved in extraordinary detail, including spiders fossilized down to their leg hairs and fish with bellies full of midges. The researchers could even see the pores in fossilized leaves that once took in carbon dioxide. “Because of the quality of preservation, we can see into these ecosystems like never before,” says Matthew McCurry, a paleontologist at the Australian Museum Research Institute in Sydney and co-lead author of a study about the find .

Perseverance rover explores the Martian landscape

NASA's newest Mars rover continued its hunt for signs of ancient life this year in Jezero crater—a 28-mile-wide impact basin that was likely once filled with water. The rover spotted a few surprising features as it trekked across the crater’s floor, such as thin purple coatings on some rocks that are reminiscent of a kind of rock varnish formed on Earth by microbes. The rover has also been making steady progress on its rock collection , scooping up 14 samples that will be cached on Mars's surface for a future mission to collect. In September, the rover embarked on the much-anticipated exploration of an ancient river delta at the crater's edge. NASA and the European Space Agency are continuing to develop plans for returning the samples, which will require multiple spacecraft, including a pair of helicopters .

Legendary Spanish shipwreck discovered on Oregon coast

Remains from a 17th-century Spanish galleon were identified on Oregon’s northern coast . They likely belong to Santo Cristo de Burgos , a ship that was sailing from the Philippines to Mexico in 1693 when it veered off course and vanished.

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Known as the “Beeswax Wreck” for the blocks of beeswax carried by the vessel that still occasionally wash up on shore, the lost galleon has been a part of local lore for centuries. Remnants of the ship’s hull, however, remained unidentified until researchers analyzed timbers found in a sea cave near Astoria and revealed that they were crafted from a type of hardwood used to build ships in Asia during the 17th century: a perfect match for the missing Santo Cristo de Burgos.

Resurrecting dying organs

In a medical first, scientists at Yale University preserved the function of multiple pig organs including the brain, heart, liver, and kidneys a full hour after the animals had died . The research could one day help extend the viability of human organs intended for life-saving transplants, thousands of which are discarded annually because they aren’t immediately preserved.

Normally organs must be harvested right after the heart stops pumping blood for them to be viable. But a sapphire-blue solution called OrganEx developed by neuroscientist Nenad Sestan and his team allowed them to restore basic organ functions well after the tissues had last received fresh blood. The researchers induced cardiac arrest in pigs and left the dead bodies at room temperature for an hour before infusing their blood with OrganEx, which contains amino acids, vitamins, metabolites, and 13 additional compounds. Using a machine, they circulated the mix for six hours and noticed signs of revival in the dying organs—heart cells began beating, liver cells absorbed glucose from blood, and DNA repair resumed.

Still, Sestan urges caution. “We can say that the heart is beating, but to what extent it’s beating like a healthy heart—that will require more studies.” The next steps will include transplanting OrganEx-treated organs into live pigs to see how well they function.

Tonga volcano erupts with surprising intensity

In January, a submarine volcano in the Kingdom of Tonga, known as Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai, unleashed an eruption unlike any seen in recent decades . The blast sent a pressure wave around the globe multiple times and caused towering tsunami waves to crash on shores near and far. Even before the volcanic dust settled, scientists were racing to gather data about the eruption's oddities with the hope of better understanding the mechanism behind this surprisingly powerful blast and cascade of effects. "Everything so far about this eruption is off-the-scale weird," says volcanologist Janine Krippner , who was with the Smithsonian's Global Volcanism Program when the event occurred.

The eruption excavated some 2.3 cubic miles of rock from the seafloor, making it the largest volcanic blast in a century . The explosion also unleashed avalanches of hot ash and volcanic rubble known as pyroclastic flows that raced along the seafloor for at least 50 miles.

New snail species are the world's smallest

While searching for animals in the soil in two spots in Southeast Asia, scientists discovered a handful of new snail species , two of them smaller than any seen before. They dubbed one Angustopila psammion , a fitting name, as “psammion” derives from the ancient Greek word for “grain of sand.” This species lives within the walls of Vietnamese caves and measures only 0.6 millimeters in diameter . Many hundreds could fit on a single U.S. quarter.

The other snail is ever-so-slightly larger and was unearthed in a Laotian limestone gorge. It has a shell with pointy projections adorned with mud-like beads, which are likely fecal pellets, hence its name, A. coprologos , from the Greek for “dung gatherer.”

UN report reveals climate change’s toll on our health

For decades, scientists have warned of the coming risks of climate change. But some of the dangers we face are already here , including a direct impact on human health , according to a landmark report released by the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. By 2100, three-quarters of all humans on Earth could regularly suffer extreme heat stress, the report found. People also face increased lung damage from air pollution and more vector-borne diseases from blood-feeding bugs, such as mosquitos and ticks, as they spread to new areas. The report’s authors stress the need to quickly and aggressively cut emissions and adapt to a hotter world before climate-related health threats get even worse.

A bobcat eating python eggs shows 'Everglades fighting back'

Burmese pythons have been overrunning the Florida Everglades for decades. These invasive animals are so ecologically destructive in part because they have no native predators—or so scientists thought.

For the first time, biologists have observed a native species, a bobcat, raiding a python nest and eating its eggs . Later, when the bobcat returned to find the snake guarding its nest, the cat took a swipe at the reptile. “When you get interactions like this and see the native wildlife fighting back, it’s like a ray of sunshine for us,” says Ian Bartoszek , an ecologist with the Conservancy of Southwest Florida. “In 10 years of tracking snakes, I can count on one hand the number of observations” of native animals standing up to the reptiles. The confrontation could represent a step toward restoring ecological balance in the python-troubled Everglades.

A new space telescope achieves the deepest view of the universe  

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, the giant infrared instrument now parked a million miles from Earth, spent half of 2022 getting ready to take its first images. In July, those images were finally presented, revealing an unprecedentedly detailed view of the cosmos. One image of distant galaxies magnified by the gravity of other galaxies in the foreground represents “the deepest view of the universe ever,” says Thomas Zurbuchen, an associate administrator at NASA. JWST’s other breathtaking images include a now-iconic view of the Carina Nebula and a striking picture of Neptune’s rings . The telescope is now busily working through a long list of planned observations, exploring everything from the oldest galaxies to the atmospheres of distant exoplanets.

Antarctica’s ice shelves unexpectedly fracture

West Antarctica, the wedge of the continent that sits directly south of Argentina, holds enough ice to raise sea levels by 10 feet. Some of that ice is bound to melt as climate change bakes the South Pole, but climate scientists still don’t know how much will melt—or how fast. But early this year, researchers saw ominous hints that a large collapse could happen soon . A major ice shelf—a protrusion of ice floating on the sea that prevents the ice sheet above from slipping into the ocean and melting—cracked suddenly and unexpectedly. The rupture could kick off a destructive chain reaction causing the ice shelf to “shatter into hundreds of icebergs, just like your car window,” the first step in a major collapse, says researcher Erin Pettit.

Ancient tooth adds to the story of mysterious human relative

All the confirmed remains of Denisovan, a mysterious relative to the Neanderthals, could easily fit in a sandwich bag: a few teeth, a pinky bone, a fragment of skull, and a partial jaw. And until recently, they were all from just two sites, one in Siberia and another in Tibet. But in May, scientists announced the discovery of a likely Denisovan molar from a cave in Laos, thousands of miles from all other Denisovan finds. The find reveals the hominin’s stunningly varied range and ability to survive in a variety of climates. “It kind of makes me think about how similar they are to us,” says study author Laura Shackelford, a paleoanthropologist from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. “We’re incredibly flexible—that’s sort of the hallmark of modern humans.”

Enormous stingray sets record for largest freshwater fish  

Since 2005, National Geographic Explorer Zeb Hogan has been searching the world to find the world’s largest fish. In mid-June, a team he leads in Cambodia got a call from a fisherman named Moul Thun who was fishing in the Mekong River when he accidentally snagged a giant freshwater stingray “much bigger” than any he had previously seen .

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Upon arrival, the researchers found this female ray measured 13 feet from snout to tail and weighed in at a whopping 661 pounds, making it the largest freshwater fish ever recorded, certified by Guinness World Records on June 24.

New details of the dino-killing impact

Sixty-six million years ago, the trajectory of life took a sudden, violent turn when a 6.5-mile-wide asteroid slammed into the waters off Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula. The apocalyptic blow ushered in a mass extinction that felled more than three-fourths of all species, including all the dinosaurs except birds. It left behind a gigantic undersea crater known as Chicxulub.

In February, researchers studying a set of fossil fish that died in the blast concluded the asteroid struck during spring in the Northern Hemisphere . In March, scientists provided another glimpse of the asteroid’s devastation : Within minutes of the impact, rocks that formed in the extreme temperatures rained down more than a thousand miles from the crater’s center. And in August, researchers announced that they had found signs of another possible undersea crater off the coast of West Africa that is about the same age as Chicxulub—perhaps evidence that a fragment of the incoming asteroid broke off and smashed into Earth separately.

Microplastics found in the human body

Plastic fragments have been found at the heights of Mount Everest and in the deepest depths of the ocean —and now, for the first time, within the blood and lungs of the human body . In donated blood, researchers found nanoplastics, less than one micrometer across, which could have been inhaled or eaten. They also found plastic fibers as long as two millimeters in the lungs of surgical patients. It’s still not clear how, or even whether, these plastic bits can harm our health—but “yes, we should be concerned,” says ecotoxicologist Dick Vethaak . “Plastics should not be in your blood.”

Volcanic eruption in Iceland heralds decades of activity

For nearly 800 years, the volcanoes of Iceland's Reykjanes peninsula had slumbered. But they awoke in 2021, spewing lava for six months —and this year they began yet another fiery fit . Volcanism in this region sleeps and wakes in cycles, and the second outpouring of lava in less than a year suggests the island nation may be in for decades of volcanic activity.

Each new eruption is like a window into our planet's inner workings , and scientists have already begun to explore the depths beneath Iceland, one of the few places in the world where part of the mid-ocean ridge stands above the sea. Along this boundary, tectonic plates pull apart, causing bits of hot mantle to well up and erupt at the surface. The island also sits atop a searing hot plume of rock that helps drive eruptions. By studying these phenomena, researchers hope to better understand the forces that shaped the country’s landscape.

New evidence suggests spiders can dream

Daniela Roessler , an ecologist the University of Konstanz, normally does field research in the Amazon rainforest. But during the coronavirus lockdowns of 2020, she turned her attention to the jumping spiders that inhabit a field near her home in Trier, Germany. She noticed that sometimes when the little arachnids snooze, they dangle from a thread of silk with legs curled—and occasionally jerk as if in the throes of a revery.

“The way they twitched just made me think of dogs and cats dreaming,” Roessler says. So she set up a lab to observe them, and the resulting study published this year reveals that jumping spiders experience a sleep-like state with rapid eye movements similar to those observed in dreaming humans.

Africa’s oldest dinosaur fossil discovered

In August, a research team funded by the National Geographic Society unveiled a remarkable fossil: the oldest definitive dinosaur discovered in Africa . The ancient creature, known as Mbiresaurus raathi , lived about 230 million years ago during the Triassic period, and it was found within rocks in Zimbabwe known as the Pebbly Arkose Formation. Though Mbiresaurus   is one of the earliest known ancestors to sauropods, the group that includes the iconic long-necked giants such as Brontosaurus , it was itself no giant. Experts estimate the animal would have been less than two feet tall at the hip, revealing the humble evolutionary beginnings of a group of animals that would later include the largest creatures ever to walk on land.

A synthetic human microbiome built from scratch

Stanford University researchers revealed a complex synthetic microbiome that they constructed from scratch . When transplanted into mice free of microorganisms, the 119 species of bacteria, all of which can be found in the human gut, remained stable and even resisted pathogens.

Scientists’ knowledge about gut microbiota has mainly come from transplanting the full microbial community in human feces to animals or other humans. But there are no tools to manipulate the species in stool samples, which each contain hundreds if not thousands of microbial species that vary widely between individuals.

The new synthetic microbiome is broadly representative of the human gut microbiota, according to the Stanford team. And scientists can modify this microbial community by adding or removing species to understand how they influence human health—a complex process that could result in new ways to treat diseases. Additional iterations of the synthetic microbiome may be coming as other researchers tinker with this colony, adding or eliminating species to study different disorders and to design new therapeutics.

‘Miracle plant’ thought to have been eaten into extinction possibly rediscovered

The plant was literally worth its weight in gold, stored alongside precious metals in the imperial treasury of ancient Rome. Silphion, a flowering plant thought to cure illness and make food taste extraordinary, was so popular in the ancient Mediterranean world that it was likely eaten into extinction nearly 2,000 years ago. Or was it?

Mahmut Miski, a professor of pharmacognosy (the study of medicines derived from natural sources) at Istanbul University believes he’s rediscovered the storied plant in a small stone enclosure in the Turkish countryside . And while its propagation and appearance are consistent with ancient descriptions of the plant, the true test came when the modern plant was used as an ingredient in ancient recipes calling for silphion, resulting in pleasant flavors that may have indeed delighted the Romans. “Finding the original silphion, and experiencing ancient recipes afresh with it, is a kind of Holy Grail,” says ancient cooking expert Sally Grainger.

Three new snake species discovered in graveyards

Biologist Alejandro Arteaga and his colleagues were traveling through the cloud forests of Ecuador in November 2021 looking for toads. They stopped in a small town and were welcomed in by a friendly woman whom they learned had seen odd snakes slithering around a graveyard.

The researchers, intrigued by the sightings, searched the area and discovered three new colorful snake species —two within the soft soil of the hillside graveyard and a third nearby. All three species, described in a scientific paper this year , are ground snakes of the genus Atractus , a group of secretive soil-dwellers that remains little understood. The biologists plan to name the new species as follows: A. discovery , which has especially small eyes and a yellow belly with a black line; A. zgap , which has a yellow belly with no line; and A. michaelsabini,   which is “the chubbiest of the lot,” Arteaga says.

Stunning ancient artwork found at site attacked by ISIS

Archaeologists digging in the ruins of an ancient palatial gate destroyed by ISIS discovered stunning artworks behind a sealed door last opened some 2,600 years ago . A joint Iraqi-American team found seven carved stone panels dating to roughly 700 B.C. Believed to have originally come from the Southwest Palace of the ancient city of Nineveh, near modern Mosul in northern Iraq, the panels likely depict the Assyrian king Sennacherib’s military campaigns. Similar panels from the palace are considered a turning point in the history of art and are a highlight of the British Museum’s collections.

“The land is just full of antiquities,” says Zainab Bahrani of Columbia University. “It's full of ancient sites. And there is no way that you can erase all that history.”

Unraveling the ‘dark matter’ of the protein universe

Big tech companies took major steps this year to reveal the building blocks of life. Facebook’s parent company Meta and DeepMind, a subsidiary of Google’s parent company Alphabet, both released databases of hundreds of millions of protein structures—many of them previously unknown to science. The companies used artificial intelligence to predict the shapes of these proteins, a tool that could help scientists understand their functions and aid the development of new drugs.

Researchers supplied the models with sequences of known proteins so the AI systems could learn patterns and generate accurate 3D structures. Meta also used models to fill in the blanks in protein sequences that were missing amino acid units before predicting their structures.

In just two weeks, Meta’s system predicted the structures of more than 600 million proteins from viruses, bacteria, and other microbes. The protein data are publicly accessible via Meta’s ESM Metagenomic Atlas . Meanwhile, DeepMind predicted the structure of about 220 million proteins found in about a million different species, including plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria.

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Scientists near a breakthrough that could revolutionize human reproduction

Researchers are inching closer to mass-producing eggs and sperm in the lab from ordinary human cells. The technique could provide new ways to treat infertility but also open a Pandora's box.

STEVE INSKEEP, HOST:

We are close to a revolution in the way that human beings reproduce. Scientists are near creating human eggs and sperm in the lab with any one person's genes. What does that mean for humanity? Here's NPR health correspondent Rob Stein.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

ROB STEIN, BYLINE: It's a Wednesday morning at the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in downtown Washington, D.C.

ELI ADASHI: Welcome, everybody, to the National Academy of Medicine workshop.

STEIN: Dr. Eli Adashi from Brown University opens the Academy's first gathering to explore the latest scientific developments and complicated social implications of something known as in vitro gametogenesis, or IVG, which involves making human eggs and sperm in the laboratory from any cell in a person's body.

ADASHI: It is on the precipice of materialization, and IVF will probably never be the same.

STEIN: Japanese scientists describe how they've already done this in mice, coaxing cells from the tails of adult mice to become what's known as induced pluripotent stem cells, or IPS cells, and then coaxing those cells to become mouse sperm and eggs. They've even used those sperm and eggs to make embryos and implanted the embryos into the wombs of female mice, which gave birth to apparently healthy mouse pups. Mitinori Saitou joins the workshop via Zoom from Kyoto University.

MITINORI SAITOU: We are in the process of translating these technologies into humans.

STEIN: In fact, Saitou says he's already pretty far down that pathway. He's turned human blood cells into IPS cells and then used them to create very primitive human eggs. Others have created primitive human sperm this way. They're not developed enough to make embryos or babies, but they're working on that.

SAITOU: OK. Thank you very much.

HUGH TAYLOR: Well, good morning. Welcome to Day No. 2. Let's get started.

STEIN: Dr. Hugh Taylor from Yale University summarizes what the group's learned so far.

TAYLOR: I've been really impressed with all the data that we've seen here today and just how quickly this field is evolving. And it makes me confident that it's not a matter of if this will be available for clinical practice, but just a matter of when.

STEIN: With that, Taylor opens a discussion of how IVG could help people. Andrea Braverman studies infertility at Thomas Jefferson University in Philadelphia.

ANDREA BRAVERMAN: This obviously could be life-altering for individuals to build that family that they dream of through IVG.

STEIN: Because infertile women and men could have kids with their own DNA instead of someone else's sperm and eggs. Same goes for women of any age, rendering the biological clock irrelevant. But Braverman says that raises lots of questions.

BRAVERMAN: Yes, it's great to be able to not have to worry as a woman that 40 is the cliff we fall off of. But on the other hand, what are the implications for families, for the children that have parents that are older? I always think of freshman move-in day in your 80s.

STEIN: IVG could also let gay and trans couples have babies that are genetically related to both partners. Katherine Kraschel studies reproductive health issues at Yale.

KATHERINE KRASCHEL: We too could point to our children and say, he has your eyes and my nose in a way that is something that I think many queer people covet.

STEIN: But Kraschel worries that could undermine acceptance of gay people parenting children who aren't genetically related to them through adoption or by using other people's sperm and eggs.

KRASCHEL: To the extent IVG replaces markets in sperm and eggs, concerns about backsliding, I think, are really warranted.

STEIN: But that's not all. Dr. Paula Amato from the Oregon Health & Science University in Portland points out what she calls solo IVG could allow single people to have unibabies, babies with just one person's genes.

PAULA AMATO: In theory, you could reproduce with yourself, and the, you know, resulting child would be 100% related to you. You could do that if you wanted to.

STEIN: At the same time, the DNA for IVG could come from anywhere a single cell could be found. Hank Greely, a bioethicist at Stanford, raises some of the provocative possibilities.

HANK GREELY: Ninety-year-old genetic mothers, 9-year-old genetic mothers, 6-month-old fetuses that become genetic parents, people who have been dead for three years whose cells were saved to become parents.

STEIN: People could even potentially steal the DNA from celebrities from, say, a clipping of their hair to make babies.

GREELY: One law we definitely need is to make sure people can't become genetic parents without their knowledge or consent.

STEIN: Throughout the meeting, researchers and bioethicists warn that the ability to create a limitless supply of IVG embryos combined with new gene-editing techniques could turbocharge the power to eradicate unwanted genes. That could eradicate genetic diseases but also move designer babies even closer to reality. Amrita Pande is a professor of sociology at the University of Cape Town in South Africa.

AMRITA PANDE: The desire to genetically modify the future generation in a hunt for an assumed perfect race, perfect baby, perfect future generation is not science fiction. IVG when used with gene-editing tools like CRISPR should make us all worried.

STEIN: Worried about drives to weed out unwanted traits like blindness and deafness. Now, everyone agrees that IVG is probably years away and may never happen. There are still huge technical hurdles and questions about whether this could ever be done safely. But Dr. Peter Marks, a top official at the Food and Drug Administration, tells the group the agency is already exploring the implications of IVG.

PETER MARKS: It's an important technology that we are very interested in helping move it forward.

STEIN: But, Marks notes, Congress currently prohibits the FDA from even considering any proposals that would involve genetically manipulated human embryos.

MARKS: This creeps out our attorneys, OK? It makes them feel uncomfortable in this space.

STEIN: But if IVG remains off limits in the U.S., Marks and others warn IVG clinics could easily spring up in other countries with looser regulations, creating a new form of medical tourism that raises even more ethical worries.

Rob Stein, NPR News, Washington.

INSKEEP: Wow, that's just the beginning of that topic. And Rob will bring us more on the implications of IVG in future reports.

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Scientific breakthroughs: 2024 emerging trends to watch

CAS Science Team

December 28, 2023

Across disciplines and industries, scientific discoveries happen every day, so how can you stay ahead of emerging trends in a thriving landscape? At CAS, we have a unique view of recent scientific breakthroughs, the historical discoveries they were built upon, and the expertise to navigate the opportunities ahead. In 2023, we identified the top scientific breakthroughs , and 2024 has even more to offer. New trends to watch include the accelerated expansion of green chemistry, decarbonizing energy, the clinical validation of CRISPR, the rise of biomaterials, and the renewed progress in treating the undruggable, from cancer to neurodegenerative diseases. To hear what the experts from Lawrence Livermore National Lab , Oak Ridge National Lab , The Ohio State University , and CAS are saying on these topics, view the recorded  webinar  that revealed the top trends to watch in 2024.

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The ascension of AI in R&D

While the AI field has always been forward-looking, its revolution in chemistry and drug discovery has yet to be fully realized. While there have been some high-profile setbacks, several breakthroughs should be watched closely as the field evolves. Generative AI is impacting drug discovery , machine learning is being used more in environmental research , and large language models like ChatGPT are being tested in healthcare applications and clinical settings.  

Many scientists are keeping an eye on AlphaFold, DeepMind’s protein structure prediction software that revolutionized how proteins are understood. DeepMind and Isomorphic Labs have recently announced how their latest model shows improved accuracy, can generate predictions for almost all molecules in the Protein Data Bank, and expand coverage to ligands, nucleic acids, and posttranslational modifications . Therapeutic antibody discovery driven by AI is also gaining popularity , and platforms such as the RubrYc Therapeutics antibody discovery engine will help advance research in this area.

Though many look at AI development excitedly, concerns over accurate and accessible training data , fairness and bias , lack of regulatory oversight , impact on academia, scholarly research and publishing , hallucinations in large language models , and even concerns over infodemic threats to public health are being discussed. However, continuous improvement is inevitable with AI, so expect to see many new developments and innovations throughout 2024.

‘Greener’ green chemistry

Green chemistry is a rapidly evolving field that is constantly seeking innovative ways to minimize the environmental impact of chemical processes. Here are several emerging trends that are seeing significant breakthroughs:

• Improving green chemistry predictions/outcomes : One of the biggest challenges in green chemistry is predicting the environmental impact of new chemicals and processes. Researchers are developing new computational tools and models that can help predict these impacts with greater accuracy. This will allow chemists to design safer and more environmentally friendly chemicals.
• Reducing plastics: More than 350 million tons of plastic waste are generated every year. Across the landscape of manufacturers, suppliers, and retailers, reducing the use of single-use plastics and microplastics is critical. New value-driven approaches by innovators like MiTerro that reuse industrial by-products and biomass waste for eco-friendly and cheaper plastic replacements will soon be industry expectations. Lowering costs and plastic footprints will be important throughout the entire supply chain.      
• Alternative battery chemistry: In the battery and energy storage space, finding alternatives to scarce " endangered elements" like lithium and cobalt will be critical. While essential components of many batteries, they are becoming scarce and expensive. New investments in lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries that do not use nickel and cobalt have expanded , with 45% of the EV market share being projected for LFP in 2029. Continued research is projected for more development in alternative materials like sodium, iron, and magnesium, which are more abundant, less expensive, and more sustainable. 
• More sustainable catalysts : Catalysts speed up a chemical reaction or decrease the energy required without getting consumed. Noble metals are excellent catalysts; however, they are expensive and their mining causes environmental damage. Even non-noble metal catalysts can also be toxic due to contamination and challenges with their disposal. Sustainable catalysts are made of earth-abundant elements that are also non-toxic in nature. In recent years, there has been a growing focus on developing sustainable catalysts that are more environmentally friendly and less reliant on precious metals. New developments with catalysts, their roles, and environmental impact will drive meaningful progress in reducing carbon footprints.  
• Recycling lithium-ion batteries: Lithium-ion recycling has seen increased investments with more than 800 patents already published in 2023. The use of solid electrolytes or liquid nonflammable electrolytes may improve the safety and durability of LIBs and reduce their material use. Finally, a method to manufacture electrodes without solvent s could reduce the use of deprecated solvents such as N-methylpyrrolidinone, which require recycling and careful handling to prevent emissions.

Rise of biomaterials

New materials for biomedical applications could revolutionize many healthcare segments in 2024. One example is bioelectronic materials, which form interfaces between electronic devices and the human body, such as the brain-computer interface system being developed by Neuralink. This system, which uses a network of biocompatible electrodes implanted directly in the brain, was given FDA approval to begin human trials in 2023.

• Bioelectronic materials: are often hybrids or composites, incorporating nanoscale materials, highly engineered conductive polymers, and bioresorbable substances. Recently developed devices can be implanted, used temporarily, and then safely reabsorbed by the body without the need for removal. This has been demonstrated by a fully bioresorbable, combined sensor-wireless power receiver made from zinc and the biodegradable polymer, poly(lactic acid).
• Natural biomaterials: that are biocompatible and naturally derived (such as chitosan, cellulose nanomaterials, and silk) are used to make advanced multifunctional biomaterials in 2023. For example, they designed an injectable hydrogel brain implant for treating Parkinson’s disease, which is based on reversible crosslinks formed between chitosan, tannic acid, and gold nanoparticles.
• Bioinks : are used for 3D printing of organs and transplant development which could revolutionize patient care. Currently, models are used for studying organ architecture like 3D-printed heart models for cardiac disorders and 3D-printed lung models to test the efficacy of drugs. Specialized bioinks enhance the quality, efficacy, and versatility of 3D-printed organs, structures, and outcomes. Finally, new approaches like volumetric additive manufacturing (VAM) of pristine silk- based bioinks are unlocking new frontiers of innovation for 3D printing.

To the moon and beyond

The global Artemis program is a NASA-led international space exploration program that aims to land the first woman and the first person of color on the Moon by 2025 as part of the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable human presence on the Moon. Additionally, the NASA mission called Europa Clipper, scheduled for a 2024 launch, will orbit around Jupiter and fly by Europa , one of Jupiter’s moons, to study the presence of water and its habitability. China’s mission, Chang’e 6 , plans to bring samples from the moon back to Earth for further studies. The Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) mission by Japan’s JAXA plans to bring back samples from Phobos, one of the Mars moons. Boeing is also expected to do a test flight of its reusable space capsule Starliner , which can take people to low-earth orbit.

The R&D impact of Artemis extends to more fields than just aerospace engineering, though:

• Robotics: Robots will play a critical role in the Artemis program, performing many tasks, such as collecting samples, building infrastructure, and conducting scientific research. This will drive the development of new robotic technologies, including autonomous systems and dexterous manipulators. 
• Space medicine: The Artemis program will require the development of new technologies to protect astronauts from the hazards of space travel, such as radiation exposure and microgravity. This will include scientific discoveries in medical diagnostics, therapeutics, and countermeasures.
• Earth science: The Artemis program will provide a unique opportunity to study the Moon and its environment. This will lead to new insights into the Earth's history, geology, and climate.
• Materials science: The extreme space environment will require new materials that are lightweight, durable, and radiation resistant. This will have applications in many industries, including aerospace, construction, and energy. 
• Information technology: The Artemis program will generate a massive amount of data, which will need to be processed, analyzed, and shared in real time. This will drive the development of new IT technologies, such as cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. 

The CRISPR pay-off

After years of research, setbacks, and minimal progress, the first formal evidence of CRISPR as a therapeutic platform technology in the clinic was realized. Intellia Therapeutics received FDA clearance to initiate a pivotal phase 3 trial of a new drug for the treatment of hATTR, and using the same Cas9 mRNA, got a new medicine treating a different disease, angioedema. This was achieved by only changing 20 nucleotides of the guide RNA, suggesting that CRISPR can be used as a therapeutic platform technology in the clinic.

The second great moment for CRISPR drug development technology came when Vertex and CRISPR Therapeutics announced the authorization of the first CRISPR/Cas9 gene-edited therapy, CASGEVY™, by the United Kingdom MHRA, for the treatment of sickle cell disease and transfusion-dependent beta-thalassemia. This was the first approval of a CRISPR-based therapy for human use and is a landmark moment in realizing the potential of CRISPR to improve human health.

In addition to its remarkable genome editing capability, the CRISPR-Cas system has proven to be effective in many applications, including early cancer diagnosis . CRISPR-based genome and transcriptome engineering and CRISPR-Cas12a and CRISPR-Cas13a appear to have the necessary characteristics to be robust detection tools for cancer therapy and diagnostics. CRISPR-Cas-based biosensing system gives rise to a new era for precise diagnoses of early-stage cancers.

MIT engineers have also designed a new nanoparticle DNA-encoded nanosensor for urinary biomarkers that could enable early cancer diagnoses with a simple urine test. The sensors, which can detect cancerous proteins, could also distinguish the type of tumor or how it responds to treatment.

Ending cancer

The immuno-oncology field has seen tremendous growth in the last few years. Approved products such as cytokines, vaccines, tumor-directed monoclonal antibodies, and immune checkpoint blockers continue to grow in market size. Novel therapies like TAC01-HER2 are currently undergoing clinical trials. This unique therapy uses autologous T cells, which have been genetically engineered to incorporate T cell Antigen Coupler (TAC) receptors that recognize human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) presence on tumor cells to remove them. This could be a promising therapy for metastatic, HER2-positive solid tumors.

Another promising strategy aims to use the CAR-T cells against solid tumors in conjunction with a vaccine that boosts immune response. Immune boosting helps the body create more host T cells that can target other tumor antigens that CAR-T cells cannot kill.

Another notable trend is the development of improved and effective personalized therapies. For instance, a recently developed personalized RNA neoantigen vaccine, based on uridine mRNA–lipoplex nanoparticles, was found effective against pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Major challenges in immuno-oncology are therapy resistance, lack of predictable biomarkers, and tumor heterogenicity. As a result, devising novel treatment strategies could be a future research focus.

Decarbonizing energy

Multiple well-funded efforts are underway to decarbonize energy production by replacing fossil fuel-based energy sources with sources that generate no (or much less) CO2 in 2024.

One of these efforts is to incorporate large-scale energy storage devices into the existing power grid. These are an important part of enabling the use of renewable sources since they provide additional supply and demand for electricity to complement renewable sources. Several types of grid-scale storage that vary in the amount of energy they can store and how quickly they can discharge it into the grid are under development. Some are physical (flywheels, pumped hydro, and compressed air) and some are chemical (traditional batteries, flow batteries , supercapacitors, and hydrogen ), Solutions in the latter category will continue to be the subject of active chemistry and materials development research in 2024. The U.S. government is encouraging development in this area through tax credits as part of the Inflation Reduction Act and a $7 billion program to establish regional hydrogen hubs.

Meanwhile, nuclear power will continue to be an active R&D area in 2024. In nuclear fission, multiple companies are developing small modular reactors (SMRs) for use in electricity production and chemical manufacturing, including hydrogen. The development of nuclear fusion reactors involves fundamental research in physics and materials science. One major challenge is finding a material that can be used for the wall of the reactor facing the fusion plasma; so far, candidate materials have included high-entropy alloys and even molten metals .

Neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases are a major public health concern, being a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. While there is currently no cure for any neurodegenerative disease, new scientific discoveries and understandings of these pathways may be the key to helping patient outcomes.

• Alzheimer’s disease: Two immunotherapeutics have received FDA approval to reduce both cognitive and functional decline in individuals living with early Alzheimer's disease. Aducannumab (Aduhelm®) received accelerated approval in 2021 and is the first new treatment approved for Alzheimer’s since 2003 and the first therapy targeting the disease pathophysiology, reducing beta-amyloid plaques in the brains of early Alzheimer’s disease patients. Lecanemab (Leqembi®) received traditional approval in 2023 and is the first drug targeting Alzheimer’s disease pathophysiology to show clinical benefits, reducing the rate of disease progression and slowing cognitive and functional decline in adults with early stages of the disease.
• Parkinson’s disease: New treatment modalities outside of pharmaceuticals and deep brain stimulation are being researched and approved by the FDA for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease symptoms. The non-invasive medical device, Exablate Neuro (approved by the FDA in 2021), uses focused ultrasound on one side of the brain to provide relief from severe symptoms such as tremors, limb rigidity, and dyskinesia. 2023 brought major news for Parkinson’s disease research with the validation of the biomarker alpha-synuclein. Researchers have developed a tool called the α-synuclein seeding amplification assay which detects the biomarker in the spinal fluid of people diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease and individuals who have not shown clinical symptoms.
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): Two pharmaceuticals have seen FDA approval in the past two years to slow disease progression in individuals with ALS. Relyvrio ® was approved in 2022 and acts by preventing or slowing more neuron cell death in patients with ALS. Tofersen (Qalsody®), an antisense oligonucleotide, was approved in 2023 under the accelerated approval pathway. Tofersen targets RNA produced from mutated superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) genes to eliminate toxic SOD1 protein production. Recently published genetic research on how mutations contribute to ALS is ongoing with researchers recently discovering how NEK1 gene mutations lead to ALS. This discovery suggests a possible rational therapeutic approach to stabilizing microtubules in ALS patients.

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Science News

Here are some astounding scientific firsts of 2023.

In this simulation of the cosmic web, shock waves along filaments emit radio light (pink) as they ripple through magnetic fields (cyan). Scientists have now spotted the radio glow, confirming the shock waves exist.

F. Vazza, D. Wittor and J. West

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By Cassie Martin

December 18, 2023 at 8:00 am

Science experienced many first-of-a-kind feats this year. These are the groundbreaking achievements that grabbed our attention.

Cosmic web shake-up

Glowing threads of gas, galaxies and dark matter provided the first tangible evidence that shock waves permeate the cosmic web , the large-scale structure of the universe ( SN: 3/25/23, p. 14 ). Simulations had predicted that colliding threads generate shock waves, which catapult charged particles into the web’s magnetic fields and create a faint glow. That aura appeared in data from radio telescopes, confirming the shock waves exist. The glow also provides the first (if indirect) peek at the cosmic web’s magnetic fields.

After more than 50 years of searching, mathematicians finally found an einstein tile ( ein Stein is German for “one stone”). The shape, dubbed “the hat,” fits with its mirror image to create an infinite pattern that never repeats ( SN: 4/22/23, p. 7 ). Soon after, researchers discovered a “vampire” einstein , a shape that doesn’t require its mirror image to create an infinite nonrepeating pattern ( SN: 7/1/23, p. 9 ). Einstein tiles and their unique balance between order and disorder could spur new discoveries in materials science.

Fleeting debut

The first appearance of oxygen-28 , a superheavy form of the element that physicists created in a particle accelerator, was much briefer than researchers had expected (S N: 10/7/23 & 10/21/23, p. 4 ). The isotope decayed almost immediately after forming, despite its atomic nucleus having full outer shells of protons and neutrons — a property that is typically linked with extra stability. Oxygen-28’s instability hints that something may be wrong with our understanding of the strong nuclear force, which binds protons and neutrons.

RNA retrieval

Scientists isolated and decoded RNA from an extinct creature for the first time. The fragile molecules, which help ensure that cells follow their DNA instruction manuals, were extracted from a preserved Tasmanian tiger held in a museum ( SN: 11/4/23, p. 10 ). Researchers hope that the feat will aid efforts to bring back the wolflike marsupial, which is named after its homeland and died out in 1936.

Surviving a deep freeze

Adult corals can be safely flash-frozen and revived , researchers demonstrated, raising hopes that cryopreservation could be useful in coral conservation ( SN: 9/23/23, p. 11 ). The key to preventing ice crystals from forming and damaging tissues is to bathe corals in a rigid metal container filled with a dehydrating solution before plunging them in liquid nitrogen. Whatever water remains in the tissues solidifies so quickly that it cannot crystallize and expand.

Neutrino cartography

A new map of the Milky Way is the first made without using light. Instead, cosmic cartographers used data from a detector in Antarctica and AI to chart nearly massless particles called neutrinos onto the galaxy’s plane. The resulting image (third image below; optical and gamma-ray versions shown for comparison) offered a rough idea of where the first known high-energy neutrinos to originate in the Milky Way were born ( SN: 8/12/23, p. 13 ). With some refinement, the approach could pinpoint their birthplace and those of other amped-up ghostly particles.

Every letter counts

This year marked the completion of the pangenome , an effort to catalog every single letter, or building block, in humankind’s genetic instruction manual ( SN: 6/3/23, p. 6 ). The undertaking involved compiling and comparing nearly all the DNA of 47 people to get the most comprehensive snapshot yet of human genetic diversity. A few months later, researchers added the final piece: the Y chromosome ( SN: 10/7/23 & 10/21/23, p. 7 ). The pangenome could shed light on the molecular foundations of fertility, heart disease, Alzheimer’s disease and more.

Star eats planet

Astronomers have long suspected that stars swallow up planets , but no one had ever caught a star in the act until this year ( SN: 6/3/23, p. 8 ). About 10,000 light-years from Earth, the sunlike star engulfed an orbiting planet that was about 10 times as massive as Jupiter. Over several days, the star grew noticeably brighter and burped a bunch of gas, suggesting it engulfed a companion star. But the relatively small amount of energy released tipped off researchers that the star had actually eaten a planet.

More Stories from Science News on Math

How two outsiders tackled the mystery of arithmetic progressions

A predicted quasicrystal is based on the ‘einstein’ tile known as the hat.

Here’s how much fruit you can take from a display before it collapses

‘Is Math Real?’ asks simple questions to explore math’s deepest truths

An enduring Möbius strip mystery has finally been solved

Non-Western art and design can reveal alternate ways of thinking about math

Seen Bigfoot or the Loch Ness Monster? Data suggest the odds are low

A catalog of all human cells reveals a mathematical pattern

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The Ten Most Significant Science Stories of 2021

Thrilling discoveries, hurdles in the fight against Covid and advancements in space exploration defined the past year

Associate Editor, Science

Covid-19 dominated science coverage again in 2021, and deservedly so. The disease garnered two entries on this list of our picks for the most important science stories of the year. But other key discoveries and achievements marked the year in science too, and they deserve more attention. NASA and private companies notched firsts in space. Scientists discovered more about the existence of early humans. And researchers documented how climate change has impacted everything from coral reefs to birds. Covid-19 will continue to garner even more attention next year as scientists work to deal with new variants and develop medical advances to battle the virus. But before you let stories about those topics dominate your reading in 2022, it’s worth it to take a look back at the biggest discoveries and accomplishments of this past year. To that end, here are our picks for the most important science stories of 2021.

The Covid Vaccine Rollout Encounters Hurdles

Last year the biggest science story of the year was that scientists developed two mRNA Covid vaccines in record time. This year the biggest Covid story is that the rollout of those vaccines by Pfizer and Moderna, and one other by Johnson and Johnson, haven’t made their way into a large proportion of the United States population and a significant portion of the world. As of this writing on December 21 , roughly 73 percent of the U.S. population has received one dose, and roughly 61 percent of the U.S. population has been fully vaccinated. An incomplete rollout allowed for a deadly summer surge, driven by the highly contagious Delta variant . Experts pointed out that vaccination rates lagged due to widespread disinformation and misinformation campaigns . It didn’t help that some popular public figures —like Packers’ quarterback Aaron Rodgers , musician Nick Minaj , podcast host Joe Rogan and rapper Ice Cube —chose not to get vaccinated. Luckily, by November, U.S. health officials had approved the Pfizer vaccine for children as young as five, providing another barrier against the deadly disease’s spread, and Covid rates declined. But while the wall against the disease in the U.S. is growing, it is not finished. As cases surge as the Omicron variant spreads around the country, building that wall and reinforcing it with booster shots is critically important. In much of the rest of the world, the wall is severely lacking where populations haven’t been given decent access to the vaccine. Only 8 percent of individuals in low-income countries have received at least one dose of the vaccine, and a WHO Africa report from this fall said that on that continent, less than 10 percent of countries would hit the goal of vaccinating at least 40 percent of their citizens by the end of the year. Globally, less than 60 percent of the population has been vaccinated. The holes in vaccination coverage will allow the virus to continue to kill a large number of individuals, and allow an environment where possibly other dangerous variants can emerge.

Perseverance Notches Firsts on Mars

NASA took a huge step forward in exploring the Red Planet after the rover Perseverance landed safely on Mars in February. Scientists outfitted the vehicle with an ultralight helicopter that successfully flew in the thin Martian atmosphere , a toaster-sized device called MOXIE that successfully converted carbon dioxide to oxygen , and sampling elements that successfully collected rocks from the planet’s floor. All of the achievements will lend themselves to a better understanding of Mars, and how to investigate it in the future. The flight success will give scientists clues on how to build larger helicopters, the oxygen creation will help scientists come up with grander plans for conversion devices, and the rocks will make their way back to Earth for analysis when they are picked up on a future mission. In addition to the rover’s triumphs, other countries notched major firsts too. The United Arab Emirates Hope space probe successfully entered orbit around the planet and is studying the Martian atmosphere and weather. China’s Zhurong rover landed on Mars in May and is exploring the planet’s geology and looking for signs of water. With these ongoing missions, scientists around the world are learning more and more about what the planet is like and how we might better explore it, maybe one day in person.

Is “Dragon Man” a New Species of Human?

The backstory of the skull that scientists used to suggest there was a new species of later Pleistocene human—to join Homo sapiens and Neanderthals—garnered a lot of ink. After the fossil was discovered at a construction site in China nearly 90 years ago, a family hid it until a farmer gave it to a university museum in 2018. Since then, scientists in China pored over the skull—analyzing its features, conducting uranium series dating, and using X-ray fluorescence to compare it to other fossils—before declaring it a new species of archaic human. They dubbed the discovery Homo longi , or “Dragon Man.” The skull had a large cranium capable of holding a big brain, a thick brow and almost square eye sockets—details scientists used to differentiate it from other Homo species. Some scientists questioned whether the find warranted designation as a new species. “It’s exciting because it is a really interesting cranium, and it does have some things to say about human evolution and what’s going on in Asia. But it’s also disappointing that it’s 90 years out from discovery, and it is just an isolated cranium, and you’re not quite sure exactly how old it is or where it fits,” Michael Petraglia of the Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Initiative told Smithsonian magazine back in June. Other scientists supported the new species designation, and so the debate continues, and likely will until more fossils are discovered that help to fill in the holes of human history.

Climate Change Wreaks Havoc on Coral Reefs

Increasing natural disasters—forest fires, droughts and heat waves—may be the most noticeable events spurred by climate change; a warming Earth has helped drive a five-fold uptick in such weather-related events over the last 50 years according the a 2021 report by the World Meteorological Organization . But one of the biggest impacts wrought by climate change over the past decade has occurred underwater. Warming temps cause coral reefs to discard the symbiotic algae that help them survive, and they bleach and die. This year a major report from the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network announced that the oceans lost about 14 percent of their reefs in the decade after 2009, mostly because of climate change. In November, new research showed that less than 2 percent of the coral reefs on the Great Barrier Reef—the world’s largest such feature—escaped bleaching since 1998. That news came just two months after a different study stated that half of coral reefs have been lost since the 1950s , in part due to climate change. The reef declines impact fisheries, local economies based on tourism and coastal developments—which lose the offshore buffer zone from storms the living structures provide. Scientists say if temperatures continue to rise, coral reefs are in serious danger. But not all hope is lost—if humans reduce carbon emissions rapidly now, more reefs will have a better chance of surviving .

The Space Tourism Race Heats Up

This year the famous billionaires behind the space tourism race completed successful missions that boosted more than just their egos. They put a host of civilians in space. Early in July, billionaire Richard Branson and his employees flew just above the boundary of space—a suborbital flight—in Virgin Galactic’s first fully crewed trip. (But Virgin Galactic did delay commercial missions until at least late next year.) Just over a week after Branson’s mission, the world’s richest person, Jeff Bezos, completed Blue Origin’s first crewed suborbital flight with the youngest and oldest travelers to reach space. In October, his company Blue Origin repeated the feat when it took Star Trek actor William Shatner up. A month before that, a crew of four became the first all-civilian crew to circle the Earth from space in Elon Musk’s SpaceX Dragon capsule Resilience. More ambitious firsts for civilians are in the works. In 2022, SpaceX plans to send a retired astronaut and three paying passengers to the International Space Station. And beyond that, Bezos announced Blue Origin hopes to deploy a private space station fit for ten—called “Orbital Reef”—sometime between 2025 and 2030.

WHO Approves First Vaccine Against Malaria

In October, the World Health Organization approved the first vaccine against malaria. The approval was not only a first for that disease, but also for any parasitic disease. The moment was 30 years in the making, as Mosquirix—the brand name of the drug— cost more than $750 million since 1987 to develop and test. Malaria kills nearly a half million individuals a year, including 260,000 children under the age of five. Most of these victims live in sub-Saharan Africa. The new vaccine fights the deadliest of five malaria pathogens and the most prevalent in Africa, and is administered to children under five in a series of four injections. The vaccine is not a silver bullet; it prevents only about 30 percent of severe malaria cases. But one modeling study showed that still could prevent 5.4 million cases and 23,000 deaths in children under five each year. Experts say the vaccine is a valuable tool that should be used in conjunction with existing methods—such as drug combination treatments and insecticide-treated bed nets—to combat the deadly disease.

Discoveries Move Key Dates Back for Humans in the Americas

Two very different papers in two of the world’s most prestigious scientific journals documented key moments of human habitation in the Americas. In September, a study in Science dated footprints found at White Sands National Park to between 21,000 and 23,000 years ago. Researchers estimated the age of the dried tracks known as “ghost prints” using radiocarbon dating of dried ditchgrass seeds found above and below the impressions. Previously, many archaeologists placed the start of human life in the Americas at around 13,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age, based on tools found in New Mexico. The new paper, whose results have been debated , suggests humans actually lived on the continent at the height of the Ice Age. A month after that surprising find, a study in Nature published evidence showing that Vikings lived on North America earlier than previously thought. Researchers examined cut wood left by the explorers at a site in Newfoundland and found evidence in the samples of a cosmic ray event that happened in 993 C.E. The scientists then counted the rings out from that mark and discovered the wood had been cut in 1021 C.E. The find means that the Norse explorers completed the first known crossing of the Atlantic from Europe to the Americas.

Humans Are Affecting the Evolution of Animals

New research published this year shows that humans have both directly and indirectly affected how animals evolve. In probably the starkest example of humans impacting animal evolution, a Science study found a sharp increase in tuskless African elephants after years of poaching. During the Mozambican Civil War from 1977 to 1992, poachers killed so many of the giant mammals with tusks that those females without the long ivory teeth were more likely to pass on their genes. Before the war, 20 percent were tuskless. Now, roughly half of the female elephants are tuskless. Males who have the genetic make-up for tusklessness die , likely before they are born. And killing animals isn’t the only way humans are impacting evolution. A large study in Trends in Ecology and Evolution found that animals are changing shape to deal with rising temps. For example, over various time periods bats grew bigger wings and rabbits sprouted longer ears—both likely to dissipate more heat into the surrounding air. More evidence along those lines was published later in the year in Science Advances . A 40-year-study of birds in a remote, intact patch of Amazon rainforest showed 77 species weighed less on average, and many had longer wings, than they used to. Scientists said the changes likely occurred due to rising temperatures and changes in rainfall.

Antiviral Pills That Fight Covid Show Promising Results

Almost a year after scientists released tests showing the success of mRNA vaccines in fighting Covid, Merck released promising interim test results from a Phase III trial of an antiviral pill. On October 1, the pharmaceutical giant presented data that suggested molnupiravir could cut hospitalizations in half. Ten days later, the company submitted results to the FDA in hopes of gaining emergency use. In mid-November, the U.K. jumped ahead of the U.S. and granted approval for the treatment. By late November, advisers to the FDA recommended emergency authorization of the pill, though it was shown by this time to reduce death or disease by 30—not 50—percent. The drug should be taken —four pills a day for five days—starting within five days of the appearance of symptoms. It works by disrupting SARS-CoV-2’s ability to replicate effectively inside a human cell.

Molnupiravir isn’t the only viral drug with positive results. In November, Pfizer announced its antiviral pill, Paxlovid, was effective against severe Covid. By December, the pharmaceutical giant shared final results that it reduced the risk of hospitalization and death by 88 percent in a key group. News about both pills was welcome , as they are expected to work against all versions of the virus, including Omicron. Though the drugs aren’t as big of a breakthrough as the vaccines, a doctor writing for the New Yorker called them “the most important pharmacologic advance of the pandemic.” Many wealthy countries have already agreed to contracts for molnupiravir, and the Gates Foundation pledged $120 million to help get the pill to poor countries. If approved and distributed fast enough, the oral antivirals can be prescribed in places, like Africa, where vaccines have been lacking. The pills represent another crucial tool, in addition to masks and vaccines, in the fight against Covid.

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Advanced Microscopy Technique Offers a New Look Inside Cells

Imagine tuning into a football game, but all of the players are invisible except for the two quarterbacks. Without being able to see the orchestrated movements of the full teams, this would be a very confusing game to watch.

Researchers face a similar dilemma when imaging cells under a microscope. Within a single cell lives an intricate ecosystem of millions of molecules interacting with one another. Viewing organelles, proteins, and other tiny subcellular components requires super-resolution microscopy. However, this process currently enables researchers to visualize only a handful of different targets at a time.

A new microscopy technique developed by Yale scientists provides an unprecedented way to view the inner workings of individual cells. The new technique, named FLASH-PAINT, allows researchers to view a potentially unlimited number of different molecules. At the heart of the process is a novel application of imaging probes, or reagents, which are compounds that are applied to biological specimens to enhance scientists’ ability to detect tiny details. The team published their findings in Cell on March 28 .

“If you are just able to look at one or two proteins, you’re missing the big picture,” says Joerg Bewersdorf, PhD , Harvey and Kate Cushing Professor of Cell Biology and principal investigator of the work. “We can now image as many proteins and other features as we want, in a very elegant and fast manner.”

New imaging probe transiently binds to an unlimited number of molecules

A current method for visualizing inner cellular processes involves the use of an antibody in combination with imaging probes consisting of a single strand of DNA and a fluorescent dye. The antibody guides the probe to its target, where the DNA strand binds to a complementary “docking” DNA strand on the antibody.

One limitation of this technique is that each target requires its own imaging probe. For example, if a team wanted to look at 10 different targets, it would need to apply 10 probes. “But if our vision was to image every protein in a cell, there are roughly 20,000 different proteins,” says Florian Schüder, PhD , associate research scientist in cell biology and the paper’s first author. Imaging those cells, he says, has not been feasible with existing technologies.

To overcome this obstacle, the Yale team introduced an adapter that goes between the imaging probe and target. This adapter is highly flexible in its design and can connect any kind of probe with any type of target. Key to the new technique’s success is that the adapter binds to the target only very briefly. “It’s really crucial that it can switch easily from one target to the next,” says Bewersdorf.

Speedy and cost-efficient microscopy paves the way for new discoveries

The new probe’s transient binding and ability to connect with numerous targets makes FLASH-PAINT 100 times faster and does so at a fraction of the cost of current super-resolution microscopy techniques. “This will speed up the scientific discovery process,” says Bewersdorf. “Instead of doing a hundred experiments looking at individual interactions of one or two proteins, we can now do a single experiment where we can see all possible interactions.”

The team hopes that FLASH-PAINT will allow researchers to visualize previously inaccessible complex subcellular processes, which in turn may help clinicians learn how to better treat a range of diseases, including cancers. “There are many players involved in battling disease, and you can only have a full understanding if you actually look at all of them,” says Bewersdorf.

In further research, the Yale team is exploring FLASH-PAINT’s application in tissue imaging and its potential as a diagnostic tool.

The researchers note that their work would not have been possible without contributions from the laboratories of Derek Toomre, PhD , professor of cell biology, and James E. Rothman, PhD , Sterling Professor of Cell Biology.

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Cave discoveries on Mars could unveil secrets of alien life

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Our scientists have identified dozens of potential cave entrances on the surface of Mars using cutting-edge artificial intelligence (AI) techniques.

This remarkable result, detailed in the journal Icarus, has implications for both the search for extraterrestrial life and future human exploration missions.

Revolutionising planetary exploration

Martian caves are regarded as prime targets in the quest to uncover evidence of past or present life on the planet.

These subterranean environments could act as time capsules, preserving biosignatures and other traces of life that may have once existed on the now-inhospitable surface.

In addition to their astrobiological significance, Martian caves also represent potential safe havens for future human explorers.

These natural formations could provide much-needed shelter from the harsh Martian environment, including intense radiation, extreme temperature fluctuations, and destructive dust storms.

AI-powered discovery

The team used machine learning techniques to scour images of the Martian surface to identify potential cave entrances.

By developing a convolutional neural network called ‘CaveFinder’, the researchers were able to scour vast datasets of Martian surface imagery, identifying 61 new potential cave entrances.

As humanity pushes deeper into the final frontier, innovations incorporating similar methodologies will be vital in uncovering the secrets of alien worlds.

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• This study was carried out by Professor James Baldini and Thomas Watson.
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How scientists are accelerating chemistry discoveries with automation

New statistical-modeling workflow may help advance drug discovery and synthetic chemistry.

A new automated workflow developed by scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) has the potential to allow researchers to analyze the products of their reaction experiments in real time, a key capability needed for future automated chemical processes.

The developed workflow -- which applies statistical analysis to process data from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy -- could help speed the discovery of new pharmaceutical drugs, and accelerate the development of new chemical reactions.

The Berkeley Lab scientists who developed the groundbreaking technique say that the workflow can quickly identify the molecular structure of products formed by chemical reactions that have never been studied before. They recently reported their findings in the Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling .

In addition to drug discovery and chemical reaction development, the workflow could also help researchers who are developing new catalysts. Catalysts are substances that facilitate a chemical reaction in the production of useful new products like renewable fuels or biodegradable plastics.

"What excites people the most about this technique is its potential for real-time reaction analysis, which is an integral part of automated chemistry," said first author Maxwell C. Venetos, a former researcher in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division and former graduate student researcher in materials sciences at UC Berkeley. He completed his doctoral studies last year. "Our workflow really allows you to start pursuing the unknown. You are no longer constrained by things that you already know the answer to."

The new workflow can also identify isomers, which are molecules with the same chemical formula but different atomic arrangements. This could greatly accelerate synthetic chemistry processes in pharmaceutical research, for example. "This workflow is the first of its kind where users can generate their own library, and tune it to the quality of that library, without relying on an external database," Venetos said.

Advancing new applications

In the pharmaceutical industry, drug developers currently use machine-learning algorithms to virtually screen hundreds of chemical compounds to identify potential new drug candidates that are more likely to be effective against specific cancers and other diseases. These screening methods comb through online libraries or databases of known compounds (or reaction products) and match them with likely drug "targets" in cell walls.

But if a drug researcher is experimenting with molecules so new that their chemical structures don't yet exist in a database, they must typically spend days in the lab to sort out the mixture's molecular makeup: First, by running the reaction products through a purification machine, and then using one of the most useful characterization tools in a synthetic chemist's arsenal, an NMR spectrometer, to identify and measure the molecules in the mixture one at a time.

"But with our new workflow, you could feasibly do all of that work within a couple of hours," Venetos said. The time-savings come from the workflow's ability to rapidly and accurately analyze the NMR spectra of unpurified reaction mixtures that contain multiple compounds, a task that is impossible through conventional NMR spectral analysis methods.

"I'm very excited about this work as it applies novel data-driven methods to the age-old problem of accelerating synthesis and characterization," said senior author Kristin Persson, a faculty senior scientist in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division and UC Berkeley professor of materials science and engineering who also leads the Materials Project.

Experimental results

In addition to being much faster than benchtop purification methods, the new workflow has the potential to be just as accurate. NMR simulation experiments performed using the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC) at Berkeley Lab with support from the Materials Project showed that the new workflow can correctly identify compound molecules in reaction mixtures that produce isomers, and also predict the relative concentrations of those compounds.

To ensure high statistical accuracy, the research team used a sophisticated algorithm known as Hamiltonian Monte Carlo Markov Chain (HMCMC) to analyze the NMR spectra. They also performed advanced theoretical calculations based on a method called density-functional theory.

Venetos designed the automated workflow as open source so that users can run it on an ordinary desktop computer. That convenience will come in handy for anyone from industry or academia.

The technique sprouted from conversations between the Persson group and experimental collaborators Masha Elkin and Connor Delaney, former postdoctoral researchers in the John Hartwig group at UC Berkeley. Elkin is now a professor of chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Delaney a professor of chemistry at the University of Texas at Dallas.

"In chemistry reaction development, we are constantly spending time to figure out what a reaction made and in what ratio," said John Hartwig, a senior faculty scientist in Berkeley Lab's Chemical Sciences Division and UC Berkeley professor of chemistry. "Certain NMR spectrometry methods are precise, but if one is deciphering the contents of a crude reaction mixture containing a bunch of unknown potential products, those methods are far too slow to have as part of a high-throughput experimental or automated workflow. And that's where this new capability to predict the NMR spectrum could help," he said.

Now that they've demonstrated the automated workflow's potential, Persson and team hope to incorporate it into an automated laboratory that analyzes the NMR data of thousands or even millions of new chemical reactions at a time.

Other authors on the paper include Masha Elkin, Connor Delaney, and John Hartwig at UC Berkeley.

NERSC is a DOE Office of Science user facility at Berkeley Lab.

The work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science, the U.S. National Science Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health.

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Materials provided by DOE/Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Original written by Theresa Duque. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Maxwell C. Venetos, Masha Elkin, Connor Delaney, John F. Hartwig, Kristin A. Persson. Deconvolution and Analysis of the 1H NMR Spectra of Crude Reaction Mixtures . Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling , 2024; DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c01864

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Survivorship portal brings cancer researchers one click away from discovery

by St. Jude Children's Research Hospital

Scientists from St. Jude Children's Research Hospital today announced the St. Jude survivorship portal —the first data portal for sharing, analyzing and visualizing pediatric cancer survivorship data.

Details on the portal and its ability to facilitate breakthroughs in pediatric cancer survivorship research are published in Cancer Discovery .

The survivorship portal is a big-data platform that incorporates clinical and genomic information, creating an unprecedented research system. The portal integrates three dimensions of data: whole genomic sequencing, treatment exposure and outcomes. It houses 1,600 phenotypic variables and 400 million genetic variants from over 7,700 childhood cancer survivors. The portal is free to use and open access as a part of the St. Jude Cloud ecosystem.

"With the portal, with just one click, you can make new discoveries," said co-corresponding author Jinghui Zhang, Ph.D., St. Jude Department of Computational Biology. "In the past, people would spend weeks downloading, analyzing, organizing and summarizing data into figures—now you can do all that in just minutes."

Variable summary statistics are computed dynamically and visualized through interactive and customizable charts. Users can assemble custom cohorts by specifying clinical and genetic variables for comparative analysis . The portal provides a range of additional features, including genome exploration, statistical testing and cumulative incidence and regression analysis, with open access and free computing.

"Continued enhancement on the portal architecture is key to enable on-the-fly analysis, which integrates data on treatment exposures, whole genome sequencing, and long-term outcomes," said co-corresponding author Xin Zhou, Ph.D., St. Jude Department of Computational Biology.

St. Jude survivorship cohorts provide rich data

Approximately 85% of childhood cancer patients are successfully treated and alive five years post-diagnosis, with most going on to live much longer. This growing population of survivors is at risk of developing a wide range of adverse health effects that can be linked back to their cancer or its treatment. Such outcomes include premature mortality, organ dysfunction, secondary cancers and psychosocial challenges, among others. By studying this unique population of childhood cancer survivors, investigators can gain insight into how to best tailor therapy up-front and provide screening and support later in life to avoid adverse outcomes.

St. Jude is well positioned to contribute to survivorship research because it is home to two significant survivorship cohorts: the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study (CCSS) and the St. Jude Lifetime Cohort (St. Jude LIFE). CCSS is a collaborative effort representing 31 institutions spanning North America and compiling data on a range of childhood cancers. St. Jude LIFE is a long-term follow-up study where St. Jude patients are brought back to the hospital every five years for an assessment. Together, these cohorts provide a rich data source for investigators to mine for new insights.

"There are half a billion clinical data points in the portal, hundreds of terabytes of genetic data supported by dynamic and interactive visualization analysis," said Zhou.

"We aren't just sharing data," added Yutaka Yasui, Ph.D., St. Jude Department of Epidemiology and Cancer Control. "We are facilitating the analysis and visualization of data and making it free to anyone—that's a tremendous resource for the cancer survivorship community."

Portal leads to new findings

In the Cancer Discovery report, the researchers share examples of findings they made using the portal. For example, platinum chemotherapy has been used for decades to treat many types of cancer; however, these agents are known to cause auditory (hearing) toxicity. The researchers compared the use and associated outcomes for two types of platinum chemotherapy: cisplatin and carboplatin. Their findings showed cisplatin was associated with greater auditory toxicity than carboplatin.

"By enabling the study of the mechanisms underlying toxicity, the portal can really inform investigators how to prioritize drugs for treatment," Zhang said. "Investigators can come to the portal with different interests, genetics, drug usage and exposure or survivorship—these perspectives can all be explored in the portal."

Additionally, the researchers illustrated the portal's utility by discovering a novel association between mental health , age and limb amputation : Receiving an amputation at an older age (teenage compared to earlier childhood) is associated with increased resilience against poor mental health.

The researchers also demonstrated the portal's ability to explore data related to individuals of specific genetic ancestry. Previous studies reported a higher risk of cardiomyopathy (heart disease) among childhood cancer survivors of African ancestry. Using the portal to explore the genetic basis underlying increased risk, the researchers discovered a novel set of DNA variants in MAGI3, which was strongly associated with cardiomyopathy risk in survivors of African ancestry.

These finding exemplify the breadth and depth of discoveries that can be made through the St. Jude survivorship portal.

"An early-career or scientist without a computing background can come to the portal with a question in mind and, with just a few minutes and a few clicks, become a kind of bioinformatics scientist or epidemiologist," Zhang said.

The study's first authors are Gavriel Matt, Edgar Sioson, Kyla Shelton and Jian Wang of St. Jude. Additional authors are Congyu Lu, Airen Zaldivar Peraza, Karishma Gangwani, Robin Paul, Colleen Reilly, Aleksandar Acic, Qi Liu, Stephanie Sandor, Clay McLeod, Jaimin Patel, Fan Wang, Cindy Im, Zhaoming Wang, Yadav Sapkota, Carmen Wilson, Nickhill Bhakta, Kirsten Ness, Gregory Armstrong, Melissa Hudson and Leslie Robison, all of St. Jude.

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