observation report about indigenous peoples education

Indigenous peoples’ right to education: Overview of measures reported by Member States

The right to education is recognized as having a key role in achieving the Sustainable Development Agenda. Making education a reality for all is an absolute priority. States need to ensure the right to equitable and inclusive quality education. Inclusive education systems give the possibility to share different cultures and minds and learn from others for a better understanding and a brighter future.

Following the result of the Ninth Consultation of Member States on the 1960 Convention and Recommendation against Discrimination in Education, UNESCO is realizing a series of thematic mapping. The first document of this series, focusing on the right to education for indigenous peoples, has just been released.

This document provides an overview of the measures supporting the right to education for indigenous peoples reported by 15 Member States during the Ninth Consultation. These national reports provide many varied examples of what can be done in relation to the right to education for indigenous peoples, from constitutional provisions, to practical and concrete policies, including specific budget, curriculum and teacher training adapted to indigenous peoples’ cultural specificities, bilingual and intercultural education.

Join UNESCO’s #RightToEducation campaign and help spread the word about this key human right that has the power and potential to transform lives around the world.

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Education, language, and indigenous peoples

Quentin wodon, gina cosentino.

Indigenous Peoples tend to have less access to and poorer quality of education than other groups. Their education often does not incorporate curricula and teaching methods that recognize their communities’ histories, cultures, pedagogies, traditional languages and traditional knowledge. Today is the  International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples . It is an opportunity to recognize the contributions and achievements of the world’s 370 million Indigenous people from over 90 countries. This year’s theme is Indigenous languages, which is inextricably linked to their right to quality education.

According to the UN, Indigenous Peoples make up approximately 5 per cent of the world's population, but account for 15 per cent of the poorest. They represent 5,000 different cultures and speak a majority of an estimated 7,000 languages worldwide. Forty percent of these are at risk of disappearing , which jeopardizes the cultures and knowledge systems to which they belong. The UN has also declared 2019 as the International Year of Indigenous Languages to highlight the importance of revitalizing and preserving Indigenous languages and showcasing their rich contribution to cultural and knowledge diversity.

The Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples states that quality education for Indigenous Peoples means “education that is well resourced, culturally sensitive, respectful of heritage and that takes into account history, cultural security and integrity, encompasses human rights, community and individual development.” This has unfortunately rarely been the case. Education policies and systems have often been used as a means to ‘assimilate’ Indigenous Peoples into broader society at the risk of destroying their culture, languages, identity and rights. Policies and curricula were rarely developed with Indigenous Peoples’ participation or consent.  

There is a substantial body of research illustrating the benefits to Indigenous learners of the interdependence between bilingual education, inclusion of Indigenous knowledges, cultural context, and educational attainment. For example, research has shown the importance of integrating Indigenous knowledge and traditional language instruction in the curriculum for pastoralist schools in Kenya. There are also interesting debates in comparative Indigenous education research on how to bring about the perspectives of Indigenous Peoples in education, teaching and research.

Indigenous Peoples often do not have access to schooling in their traditional languages, and the curriculum and teaching methods do not incorporate nor recognize sufficiently their communities’ histories, cultures, ways of learning, and traditional knowledge. While socio-economic outcomes are often worse for Indigenous Peoples than for other groups, the available data typically provide only an incomplete picture about poverty, exclusion, and their priorities and perspectives about education. This is in part because their identity and ways of living encompass both individual and collective rights, and cultural, social and economic aspects. Household surveys often focus on individuals and households, and less on communities. As a result, in education as well as in other areas, policymakers should consult with Indigenous Peoples to ensure effective and inclusive development policies which is central to the World Bank’s Environmental and Social Framework .

What can be done to improve education outcomes for Indigenous Peoples? A recent World Bank publication on Equity and Inclusion in Education in World Bank Projects calls for identifying and dismantling exclusionary practices. It also provides examples of initiatives, including some from World Bank projects, that have taken into account the needs and aspirations of Indigenous Peoples.

·        Educational materials with socio-cultural relevance: In Colombia, the Ministry of Education provided technical, pedagogical, and financial support for the participatory design and implementation of education projects and models of learning for Indigenous Peoples. The communities entered into contracts with the government to design and implement projects and educational models integrating cultural components and traditions specific to each community.

·        Language nests: Originally developed in New Zealand/Aotearoa, language nests operate like a creche or nursery in which older Maori community members provide childcare while speaking their language. Proximity to elders exposes children to their language in early childhood, a crucial period when children are young enough to acquire fluency. Indigenous language nests have succeeded also in Canada, Hawaii, Australia, Finland, and Russia. They have been shown to revive Indigenous languages at risk.

·        Inclusive curriculum: In Nicaragua, UNESCO used an intercultural bilingual education approach that enabled Indigenous Peoples to adapt the curriculum to their own cultural context and reality. The project worked with Mayangna experts, community members, and the Ministry of Education to develop classroom materials in their language and teach their knowledge of the environment while also building social and cultural capital in Mayangna communities. Early results have been positive.

·       Bilingual education: Bilingual teaching and learning have been national policy in Paraguay since 1994. Education in two languages while respecting two cultures has served as a foundation to ensure functional and meaningful learning. Simultaneously learning both avoids a long, complicated process of trying to prioritize one language over the other.

Approaches to revitalize, preserve, and promote Indigenous languages need to be country-and community-specific. They also need to be developed with the participation and consultation of Indigenous Peoples themselves. However, experiences show that these approaches can work and make a major difference not only to improve learning outcomes for Indigenous children, but also improving educational attainment, cultural resilience, social inclusion and well-being of Indigenous Peoples more broadly.

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Policy and practice reviews article, analyzing assessment practices for indigenous students.

• 1 University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE, Canada
• 2 University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

The purpose of this article is to review common assessment practices for Indigenous students. We start by presenting positionalities—our personal and professional background identities. Then we explain common terms associated with Indigeneity and Indigenous and Western worldviews. We describe the meaning of document analysis, the chosen qualitative research design, and we explicate the delimitations and limitations of the paper. The review of the literature revealed four main themes. First, assessment is subjugated by a Western worldview. Next, many linguistic assessment practices disadvantage Indigenous students, and language-specific and culture-laden standardized tests are often discriminatory. Last, there is a pervasive focus on cognitive assessment. We discuss how to improve assessment for Indigenous students. For example, school divisions and educators need quality professional development and knowledge about hands-on assessment, multiple intelligences, and Western versus Indigenous assessment inconsistencies. Within the past 20 years, assessment tactics for Indigenous students has remained, more or less, the same. We end with a short discussion addressing this point.

Introduction

Perso and Hayward (2020) described student assessment as “an ongoing process of gathering evidence to determine what students know, understand and can do” (p. 167). A teacher assesses students in many ways including oral responses, tests, student demonstrations, and group projects, for example. The effectiveness of assessment is important, because assessment has power and gatekeeping functions ( Nagy, 2000 ) Assessment determines grades, class choices, pedagogy, curriculum, sometimes the location of one’s school, graduation, and college/university eligibility. Moreover, assessment practices and results can create prevailing beliefs about one’s ability to learn and succeed, academically, physically, emotionally and socially, in school and life, in general. However, not all forms of assessment are effective. Trumbull and Nelson-Barber (2019) explained that for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous students, many common assessment practices are ineffective and sometimes even detrimental.

Much research shows that when educational curricula and pedagogy are imbued with Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing, Indigenous student learning improves (e.g., Lipka et al., 2005 ; Kanu, 2007 ; Preston & Claypool, 2013 ; Preston, 2017 ; LaPierre, 2019 ). For example, Lipka et al. (2005) found that Inuit students who experienced math lessons imbued with Indigenous hands-on activities performed better on standardized tests, compared to Inuit students who did not experience this specialized pedagogy. However, when searching for research focusing solely on assessment practices for Indigenous learners, there is a deep void. In other words, the question that is under-researched is: what methods and approaches to assessment are most compatible with and supportive of educational success 1 for Indigenous students?

The purpose of this paper is to review the literature pertaining to assessment practices of and for Indigenous students. To begin, we present our positionality and explain common terms associated with Indigeneity and Indigenous and Western worldviews. We describe the meaning of document analysis, the chosen qualitative research design, and we identify the delimitations and limitations of the paper. We discuss the findings and explain how to address challenges associated with assessment for Indigenous students. Compared to the past 2 decades, changes in education are starting to surface, and improvements to assessment practices for Indigenous students is ideally positioned.

Positionality

Everything in life begins with the self. Every thought, experience, learning, and belief starts through the personalized filter of the individual. This point holds true for research, as well. In turn, we, the authors, start our research by relaying some personal and professional background information (aka positionality).

My name is Jane Preston, and I am a second-generation German Canadian born and raised in Saskatchewan, Canada. Both sets of my farming grandparents immigrated to Canada fleeing religious persecution in Central Europe. My parents first language was German, but this language was almost never spoken in my home. After the World Wars, within North America, people of German ancestry were sometimes perceived negatively. I know little about my German ancestors, their wisdom, or life experiences, but I am intimately close to my heritage via the gift of my ancestral DNA.

I was raised on dairy and grain farm. From a very early age, I was tasked with helping the family milk cows, tend a large garden, and plant and harvest of crops. I left home at 18 years old, studied to become a teacher, and taught in a First Nation community. As a graduate student, I was contracted by the Saskatchewan government and the public school division to complete a five different Indigenous research projects. After obtaining my PhD, I moved to Atlantic Canada and met a Mi’kmaq Elder, and a couple of years later, I co-taught an undergraduate Indigenous education course with him. Shortly thereafter, for about a year, I became his student in a Medicine Wheel course he instructed. As a part of his Indigenous teachings, I participated in many sweatlodge, smudging, and pipe ceremonies, and I learned to sing Mi’kmaq songs in Mi’kmac. Through his teachings, I acquired my sacred bundle, which I used during morning rituals to bolster my physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual wellbeing. I am grateful for this Indigenous knowledge and experience, because now I think about, see, and feel the world in a holistic, colorful, interconnected fashion.

My name is Tim Claypool, and I have European, Canadian, and American roots. My father was a first generation Canadian, born to American immigrants who homesteaded in southwest Saskatchewan. My mother was an Irish immigrant who maintained her ties to her County Cork family throughout her 91 years of life. My parental grandparents also stayed connected with their siblings and extended family in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Montana, Washington, and Alaska. Similar to Dr Preston, I also grew up on a farm close to where my father was born and raised. While attending elementary school in the close-knit village of Beechy, Saskatchewan I never saw a First Nations or Métis student or teacher. Even after our family moved to Saskatoon, I never knew an Indigenous student or teacher in my high school, which had an enrollment of about 1,500 students. It was not until I had completed four years of postsecondary education at the University of Saskatchewan (U of S) and accepted my first teaching position in the village of Dorintosh that I was introduced to First Nations and Métis business owners, community members as well as some students in my classes.

However, it was during my 12 years career to tenured Associate Professor at U of S’s College of Education that I began my journey of discovery and understanding of some Indigenous worldviews and ways of knowing. By participating in Indigenous lead professional development opportunities and assisting with the planning an international conference for Indigenous scholars and allies, I became aware of significant gaps in my education and training, which only provided cursory acknowledgement of Indigenous peoples and typically steered clear of potentially contentious facts related to residential school atrocities, intergenerational trauma, and anti-Indigenous forms of racism. Thankfully, I came to know several Indigenous Elders and scholars who had the patience to help me understand basic teachings and traditions. Additionally, I have participated in Elder and Knowledge Keeper lead ceremonies that were integrated into my research, teaching, and service work as a faculty member. I also want to acknowledge the Indigenous undergraduate and graduate students with whom I have had the privilege to work over the years. Sometimes, the teacher needs to become the student when there are so many significant gaps in one’s formal and informal education. My journey of understanding and supporting Canada’s First Peoples continues.

Terms and Concepts

Within this paper, some important terms requiring an explanation include: Indigenous , Aboriginal , First Nation , Metis , and Inuit . Also, throughout the paper, we address issues related to Indigenous and Western worldviews. Due to paper length restriction and the focus of this article (i.e., assessment practices), only an abridged explanation of these worldviews is provided.

Indigenous Terms

Within Canada, for several decades, the word Aboriginal, predominantly, was used when describing the original inhabitants of Canada. However, these days, a preferred term is Indigenous. The use of the word, Indigenous, was politically supported in 2015 when the Canadian Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development was officially renamed Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada ( Lum, 2015 ). Currently, the term, Indigenous, is regularly used within international discourse, discussions, and protocols when referring to the original inhabitants of a country or region ( McMillan & Yellowhorn, 2004 ). Within Canada, Indigenous peoples include three groups: First Nations, Metis, and Inuit. “The term Indigenous refers to all of these groups, either collectively or separately” ( Queen’s University, 2019 , p. 2). First Nation peoples refers to members of legally recognized bands or reserve-based communities in Canada ( Peters & Mika, 2017 ). “Métis refers to the distinct society that emerged through the union of Indigenous and non-Indigenous cultures during the period of European expansion in Western Canada” ( Lakehead University, 2020 , para 3). Inuit refers to the cultural and linguistic (i.e., Inuktitut) identity of Indigenous peoples whose traditional land is located in the Arctic regions of Canada, Alaska, and Greenland ( Lakehead University, 2020 ). With specific global regions, Indigenous peoples are referred to in various ways. For example, Indigenous people of northern Norway, Finland, Sweden, and Russia are called Sami ( Stosowana, 2016 ), and the Indigenous people of New Zealand are called Māori. Within this article, whenever possible and appropriate, we use the term, Indigenous; however, based on the reference source or context, any of these terms may be used.

Worldviews: Indigenous and Western

A worldview is the way in which a person conceptualizes and makes meaning of the world (see Preston, 2019 ). It is a framework of one’s core beliefs and embodied knowledge ( Hedlund-de Witt, 2012 ; Braaten & Huta, 2017 ); it is a standard of ethics by which to live. A worldview is a set of assumptions, both conscious and subconscious, about how society functions. It is an interpretative framework by which good/bad and order/disorder are categorized and judged. From infancy through adulthood, a person’s worldview is absorbed and created via language, culture, and social interactions. This worldview is solidified as a child grows and engages in cultural practices, family interactions, educational experiences, rewarding and challenging experiences, social interactions, and expectations of society. One’s worldview informs and defines a person, provides a sense of purpose and direction in life, venerated values, dictates decision-making, and informs standards of conduct. Jacobs (2020) proposed that there are only two worldviews—the Indigenous worldviews 2 and the dominant Western worldview.

“The Indigenous worldview(s) encourages the expression of authentic reverence for women, gender fluidity, egalitarianism, cooperation, honesty, wellness, peace, harmony, restorative justice, democracy, ecological sustainability, and nonhierarchical organizational structures” ( Jacobs, 2020 , p. xxxix). Within such an existence, the ultimate purpose of life is to learn to “(live) in harmony with all relations, both human and non-human” ( Jacobs, 2020 , p. xi). Indigenous worldviews are about interconnected wholeness —every aspect of the world is directly and indirectly connected to every other aspect. Because there is no separation between nature and being human, all forms of creation possess one consciousness ( Bastien, 2003 ). Donald (2016) explained, “The Sun, the land, the wind, the water, the animals, and the trees (just to name a few) are quite literally our relatives. We carry parts of them inside our own bodies” (p. 10). All matter is connected via shared energy, which radiates within and throughout every human being. Indigenous worldviews see knowledge, experience, and life as unified and holistic.

A Western worldview 3 also has a number of defining characteristics (see Preston, 2019 ; Jacobs, 2020 ). Humans are separate from nature. Human are the most important, advanced living creature and situated at the top of the pyramid of living things. A Western worldview sees the inanimate environmental presence of such things as rocks, rivers, mountains, grass, and plants as void of spirit. The modern Western society, which is secular and materialistic, tends to negates spiritual values ( Hassed, 2000 ). Things that are measurable and quantifiable are real. Individuality and competition are important, and often, defining characteristics of life. Authority figures and institutions have power and influence, because domination and control over one another is related to survival. This worldview sanctions external rewards and punishments as motivators. A Western worldview reinforces the idea that the most of the curriculum taught in school is information that can be assessed through pen-and-paper-type assignments and tests. A Western worldview sees knowledge, experience, and life as compartmentalized into sometimes/often unrelated entities ( Hart, 2010 ).

Methodology, Limitations, and Delimitations

This qualitative research focusing on assessment practices for Indigenous students is a document analysis. As defined by Bowen (2009) , a document analysis is “a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents—both printed and electronic (computer-based and Internet-transmitted) material” (p. 27). In simple terms, Glass (1976) described this process as an “analysis of analyses” (p. 3). Similar to a literature review, conducting a document analysis involves compiling, examining, and interpreting published data about a specific topic, and it uncovers patterns and thematic consistencies to elicit meaning and gain practical knowledge ( Corbin & Strauss, 2008 ; Bowen, 2009 ). In contrast, a literature review not only analyzes the research associated with a specific topic, it highlights the gaps in the research area and compares past studies to the researcher’s prescribed study ( Merriam & Tisdell, 2016 ). These two points are not features of document analysis.

The first step for this document analysis was data collection, which involved a literature search using the University of Prince Edward Island’s (Canada) library database system, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate. Through these systems, we accessed international databases such as EBSCO, ERIC, JSTOR, Education Research Complete, and others. We found books, chapters in books, journal articles, dissertations, conference papers, magazines, policy documents, and other Internet-accessible documents related to Indigenous student assessment. The following search terms and their combination were used: “Indigenous student” “Aboriginal student” “First Nation student” “Metis student” “Inuit student” “Native student,” “student assessment,” “student learning,” “culturally responsive assessment,” “student outcomes,” and “student success.” With regard to Indigenous student assessment, we welcomed information from any age, grade, or educational program from early childhood to postsecondary education. Ensuing titles, abstracts, and/or content were scanned and judged to determine if the documents were appropriate for our research topic. From our efforts, we collected and digitally saved, 63 of what appeared to be relevant articles, chapters in books, and other online documents. After this topical literature was obtained, we completed a more thorough scan of each document by rereading abstracts and reading headings, reading full paragraphs, topic sentences, and the findings section, for example. After this in-depth review, we found only 40 of the 63 documents addressed on our research purpose—documenting common assessment practices for Indigenous students.

One of the authors printed the 40 documents. With the hard-copies of the documents in hand, the author read each source in detail underlining key passages, and, in the margins, jotted down paraphrased notes, findings, and/or phrases. After a few documents were analyzed, similar paraphrased words started to repeat (e.g., culture, language, cognition, standardized tests, etc.) These repeated phrases were the genesis of the creation of final themes. Our analysis of documents and semi-established themes was a process similar to thematically analyzing or coding interview transcripts. As Patton (2015) explained, coding involves finding patterns, establishing categories from the patterns, and creating overarching themes based on the categories. After having read all the papers, the author spent time reflecting on all the semi-established themes to create the overarching themes of this paper.

A number of delimitations [techniques for deliberately narrowing the research focus ( O’Leary, 2017 )], were applied to the research. To be included in our analysis, papers had to be published during the 20-year period of 2000–2020; they had to be published in English and provide insights about Indigenous student assessment. With regard to limitations [design characteristics that limit the generalizability of the findings ( O’Leary, 2017 )], we attempted to access documents worldwide; however, due to confinements of our library databases and our firsthand knowledge of Indigenous content, the retrievable literature reflected studies from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Norway. Also, because this paper was written during Covid-19 pandemic, access to physical books was limited to our personal libraries.

Thematic Analysis of the Literature

From the analysis of documents, four overarching themes surfaced. First, Indigenous student assessment remains subjugated primarily by a Western worldview. Second, much of the mainstream culture-infused, linguistic-laden practices of assessment disadvantage Indigenous students. Third standardized tests can be discriminatory when administered and interpreted inappropriately. Last, assessment primarily focuses on cognitive abilities. An explanation of these themes and the associated literature are provided below.

Assessment Subjugated by Western Worldview

Western knowledge and values directly and implicitly dominate schools, including, for example, the curriculum, organization of grades, organization of classrooms, expected styles of speaking, norms for interacting, instructional pedagogy, and assessment practices ( Trumbull & Nelson-Barber, 2019 ). When reviewing the types of assessment techniques used with Indigenous students, Westernized forms of assessment are pervasive ( Nelson-Barber & Trumbull, 2007 ; Fleet & Kitson, 2009 ). Popular types of Westernized assessment include written quizzes, tests, and exams, which primarily promote academic development via rational, linear, and accountable activities. Moreover, such assessment is largely focused on meeting curricular outcomes, and it tends to neglect the physical, emotional, and spiritual domains of students ( Claypool & Preston, 2011 ).

Much of the literature denotes how Western assessment practices are culturally insensitive and potentially discriminatory to Indigenous students. Mainstream assessment practices do not sufficiently account for the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to the learning challenges experienced by many Indigenous students ( Canadian Council on Learning, 2007 ). Stoffer (2017) stated, “Assessing a child in a way that does not seem meaningful or relevant to their life and culture is inauthentic and therefore meaningless, because it does not respect the learning of the whole child” (p. 66). From a holistic Indigenous standpoint, education is about gaining life skills; it is about communicative interactions, social relationships, self-discovery, and self-growth. In turn, assessment and self-assessment need to focus on the diversity of learning; the whole learning experience.

Grounded in Indigenous epistemology, learning is a holistic process, and assessment should include a personalized tactics. For example, within the subject of science, Friesen and Exeife (2009) call on assessment practices that address the sociocultural influence that shape student thinking. Moreover, they explain that teachers need to understand Indigenous culture in order to create culturally valid assessments. Unfortunately, test items often contain information not privy to an Indigenous student who might embody a worldview other than Western. The content and mode of assessment tasks may be outside an Indigenous student’s cultural and linguistic knowledges and ways of knowing ( Klenowski, 2009 ) To address this point, researchers state that cultural congruency or culturally validity of assessment practices, test items, and test formats is a vital component of assessment of and for Indigenous students ( Demmert, 2005 ; Nelson-Barber & Trumbull, 2007 ). Worldwide, mainstream curricula are dominated by favored facts, housed within objectives, goals, and outcomes that every student must learn; this conceptualization is rooted in the Western philosophy of education ( Betts & Bailey, 2005 ).

Mainstream Language Disadvantages

Language is intricately woven into every assessment practice. In fact, Trumbull and Solano-Flores (2011) viewed language as the greatest component of cultural validity in assessment. For many Indigenous students, their assessment scores are not valid, because the words and composure of test questions and items are biased toward the dominant language, for example, either English or French depending on the region or Canadian province being considered. The National Academy of Education (2021) (an American research association) agreed, “Assessments themselves are potentially subject to inequities in design, content and language choices” (p. 11) In sum, in assessment, language matters and has the power to disadvantage learners.

Özerk, and Whitehead (2012) stated that language policies associated with the national assessments in New Zealand and Norway disregard the Indigenous language rights of Māori and Sámi students. When Indigenous students whose first language or primary school community language is not English, assessment techniques are not straight-forward. Moreover, Trumbull and Nelson-Barber (2019) explained that students exposed to more than one language have their knowledge organized differently. They may know some concepts and words in one language and not the other(s) In such cases, assessment should be done in the language and/or mixture of languages of their choice. According to the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training (2010, as cited by Özerk & Whitehead, 2012 ) standardized tests in mathematics do not simply test the subjects of mathematics; they also evaluate how well a student can read the language of the test. With regard to a postsecondary Vocational Educational and Training online course delivered to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island students in Australia, Wilks et al. (2020) explained that instructors need to be creative in the way learning is assessed so Indigenous students are not restricted to written assignments of standard English. Also, adapting and/or translating tests to the mother tongue of minority (Indigenous) student is an aspect of improving assessment ( Solano-Flores & Nelson-Barber, 2001 ; Solano-Flores et al., 2002 ; Kieffer et al., 2009 ; Robinson, 2010 ). However, due to transcription inefficacy of language, it is important to note that not all tests can be simply transcribed.

The above information focuses on Indigenous students who were raised either surrounded or partially surrounded with their cultural language. What about best assessments for Indigenous students for whom English is the primary or only language spoken at home and/or have yet to (re)connect to their Indigenous roots? Although there is no one answer for this question, Wiltse (2011) explained, “Many (Indigenous) students speak a comprehensive dialect of English that is the result of the influence (italics inserted) of the Indigenous language or mother tongue on the English language” (p. 53). In other words, Indigenous students who speak only English and are not (re)connected to their Indigenous histories are still influenced by home environments and cultural DNA. In turn, the minimization of complex language on tests is an important component of culturally friendly assessment techniques ( Nelson-Barber & Trumbull, 2007 ).

One example of how to improve assessment by focusing on Indigenous language is seen via the Office of Hawaiian Education ( Sang & Worchel, 2017 ). To start, this governing body does not mandate educational outcomes or assessments within private Indigenous schools. Instead, the Office of Hawaiian Education trusts educators to integrate community members and their values into their school’s assessment framework. In turn, educators alongside Indigenous community members identify outcomes that the school community views as valuable. Collectively, teachers and community members map out the learning experiences and effective forms of assessments for each outcome ( Johnson, 2013 ). Another example of Indigenous language and assessment is seen through the Curriculum Research and Development Group at University of Hawaii at Mānoa (2020) In this Department, educators are transcribing (where appropriate) and rewriting Grade 3 and 4 standardized assessment tests to include Hawaiian Indigenous language and culture.

Standardized Tests Can Discriminate

The disconnect between Indigenous ways of knowing and Western assessment is blatant in large-scale or standardized testing. Within public education, students are often evaluated on their performance on standardized, decontextualized testing, a practice that mandates Indigenous students to navigate their learning via the school’s Western worldview ( Johnson, 2013 ). Within a Canadian context, for example, common standardized tests include the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the Pan-Canada Assessment Program (PCAP), and various provincial assessment tests. Having stated such, it is important to note that not all Canadian school regions rely on large-scale forms of standardized testing, and individual schools can opt out of PISA test ( Anders et al., 2021 ).

The appropriate use of standardized tests is often a contentious issue. Before relaying the about standardized test, a description of their psychometrics is helpful. First, all forms of assessment, standardized or not, have sources of error. Consequently, test developers include errors in measurement into their formulas for calculating a range of scores (aka confidence intervals) representing where the “true score” lies. The individual’s actual test score is believed to be an estimate that is time and place sensitive. However, classical test theory’s “observed score = true score + error” formula is scrutinized when standardized tests are misused. Perhaps this point is the source of the derision often associated with standardized tests. Having stated such, standardized tests are meant to represent one type of assessment artifact. The onus is on the test user to select a standardized test that meets the following criteria according to the International Test Commission (2019) : “Select a test based upon its suitability for the test purpose while taking into account the test and the background characteristics of the targeted population, including all linguistic groups” (p. 374). If a test developer does not include a proportional number of individuals from a selected cultural and linguistic group in their standardization process for their test, then it should not be used with those groups. Information obtained using (or misusing) that standardized test will likely yield information that is unreliable and invalid about those individuals not represented in the test’s norming samples during the development process.

Johnston and Claypool (2010) explained that standardized tests can be problematic when attempting to effectively and fairly measure learning and academic success of Indigenous students. Notably, the majority of norm-referenced standardized tests predominately rely on Western knowledge paying little attention to cultural and linguistic barriers that have the potential to disadvantage Indigenous students performance while ensuring more positive outcomes for non-Indigenous test takers. Many authors and organizations stipulate Indigenous students experience a disadvantage during standardized testing, because the biased format and the questions honor Westernized knowledge ( Philpott, 2006 ; Canadian Council on Learning, 2007 ; Kanu, 2007 ; Gould, 2008 ; Bouvier, 2010 ; Klenowski et al., 2010 ; Özerk & Whitehead, 2012 ; Lee, 2015 ; Solano-Flores et al., 2015 ; Stoffer, 2017 ; Trumbull & Nelson-Barbar, 2019 ). Stoffer (2017) concluded that there does not exist a standardized assessment tool that can properly assess Inuit student learning. Nelson-Barber and Trumbull (2007) went on to explain that the sources of bias in standardized testing for Indigenous students include test content, language, format, administration, scoring, score interpretation, and usage. In Montana, Dupuis and Abrams (2017) found that American Indigenous students performed better on items based on Indigenous knowledge, compared to mainstream-based questions. Within the area of science, Aikenhead and Mitchell (2011) argued that standardized tests are grounded in Western modern science and disregard Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing. The need to incorporate Indigenous paradigms into assessment is well-documented by other researchers ( Solano-Flores & Nelson-Barber, 2001 ; Solano-Flores et al., 2002 ; Solano-Flores & Trumbull, 2003 ), yet the practice of teaching continues to be organized around the dominant model of standardized curriculum and assessment.

An Ineffective Emphasis: The Cognitive Domain

Effective assessment for Indigenous students utilizes practices that equally focus on physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual growth and development ( Marule, 2012 ; Claypool & Preston, 2014 ). However, popular assessment practices, especially in middle school and high school, often include multiple choice, fill-in-the-blanks, written short answer, written long answer, powerPoint presentations, essays, group work, demonstrations, and oral presentations, all of which emphasize Westernize intellectual knowledge ( Claypool & Preston, 2011 ). Such forms of assessment view knowledge as something that can be “given, taken, accumulated, banked, and assessed by paper and pen [or computer] examinations” ( Aikenhead & Mitchell, 2011 , p. 68) Cognitive assessment is saturated with Western epistemology, where instructors assess set curriculum to age-appropriate student groupings at set times of the day. As well, teachers assess at specific times, which coincide with the production of individualized report cards, completed and sent home at set times (usually three or four times) during a school year. Assessment for Indigenous students is predominantly an intellectual, quantitative, process-oriented, teacher- and state-dominated powered system.

From a scientific-Western view, spirituality cannot be proven; thus, it is illogical, unsophisticated, and has little to no place in educational assessment. However, logic-infused Western assessment tactics are disconnected with much of the physical, emotional, and spiritual realms of life ( Adams et al., 2008 ). Rameka, (2012) research revealed that early education assessment for Māori students needs to be spiritually located. A spiritual plane combines feelings, sensing, and intuition. Since assessment is evaluating what students do, say, and produce ( Smith et al., 2004 ), to effectively evaluate a Māori student, teachers needed to use their spiritual plane to help them evaluate what the student says, does, and produces. Many teachers may be reticent or directly discouraged from using their intuition or spiritual essence as an assessment practice. Rameka (2012) explained that because spirituality is such a significant feature of Maori ways of knowing and being, Maori recognize spiritual assessment, name it as such, and accept it as a valuable assessment practice.

There is a mistaken belief that assessment is objective; in contrast, all assessment is value-laden, culturally contrived, and biased. Every person subjectively experiences the world through their own values, knowledge, and perceptions. Student assessment is no different. Not only should teachers use their emotions and spirit (i.e., intuition) to assess, Indigenous students should be encouraged to use these same domains to self-reflect on their learning. As a part of self-assessment, student need to be taught and encouraged to use and rely on messages emanating from body, heart, and soul ( Claypool & Preston, 2011 ). Within a Hawaiian Indigenous context, emotion and spirit were incorporated into effective assessment when teachers asked Indigenous students to complete daily self-assessment rubrics and end-of-the week goals ( Johnson, 2013 ). A number of additional studies highlighted ways in which not only cognitive, but physical, emotional, and spiritual aspects of assessment happen. In a postsecondary course with Indigenous students in Vancouver (Canada), Verwoord et al. (2011) , created a Medicine Wheel assessment model, which consisted of four assignment each worth 25%. Each assignment was a self-reflection about the academic, physical, emotional, and spiritual aspects of the course. Also, in Alaska, teachers collaborated to create assessment reflective of Inuit student learning, ideologies, and values. For that study, Coles-Ritchie and Charles (2011) found that performance tasks, portfolios, peer assessment, and student self-assessments (all of which aligned with real world tasks) were types of culturally congruent assessment that included all four realms (i.e., academic, physical, emotional, and spiritual) of assessment. Trumbull and Nelson-Barber (2019) identified effective assessment practices for Indigenous students as peer-observation, self-evaluation, and self-reflection, which incorporate emotional and spiritual domains into the assessment practice.

Discussion: Effective Assessment for Indigenous Students

From the information above, there are many explanations, but limited examples of how to improve assessment for Indigenous students. Herein we provide a discussion to further elaborate on what assessment for Indigenous students is and could be. We use both the literature and our imagination to relay and envision possible sound forms of assessment for Indigenous students.

Dynamic Forms of Assessment

Riley and Johansen (2019) noted effective assessment practices for Indigenous students are group-oriented and simulate real-life experiences. Such assessment could be a holistic or project-based assignment, as experienced through outdoor education or culture camps ( Preston, 2017 ). Such projects manipulate assessment to be something that is relevant and functional ( Johnson, 2013 ). Also, educators need to incorporate story-focused narratives ( Iseke, 2013 ), personal journals, and portfolios ( Kanu, 2007 ) into their assessment practices. For example, algebra could be taught through storytelling and the utilization of personal symbols relevant to the student ( Klenowski, 2009 ). Tests could be an oral discussion between students and/or student-teacher. What if summative assessment only took place when the student was ready? Also, the concept of letter/number grading and report cards need reconsideration. For example, an alternative to letter/number grading is a three-level check mark grading system. A check means “acceptable;” a check with a plus sign means “advanced;” a check with a minus sign means “still learning.” Ongoing communication between students, teachers, and community members would result in a more holistic and inclusive forms of assessment. Teachers need to collaborate with parents and community members to develop appropriate assessment that stems from culturally sensitive instructional practices. Here, however, it is important to state that there is no “one” Indigenous culture; thus, culturally sensitive practices need to be defined according to the Indigenous context. In order to promote culturally sensitive pedagogy, teacher-community interaction is essential and relationships need to be established and nurtured. As a way for teachers and community members to socially bond before co-creating sound assessment, what about regular school-community potlucks or establishing a community coffee room right in the school? With regard to additional ways to improve assessment, what about open-classroom parent drop-ins where parents can assess, for themselves, how their child is doing?

Taking a sociocultural perspective to assessment might mean students interacting with parents, community members, and Elders to perform various tasks, and the adults assess the students task at hand. Such sociocultural assessment assumes that learning and assessment are socially negotiated and woven into a supportive student-focused community, which values holistic learning, teaching, and assessment. A community form of assessment is not done to students; rather, it’s done for and with students. Children develop their thinking, communication, learning, and motivational propensities from the culture into which they are socialized ( Vygotsky, 1978 ). In other words, Indigenous students create meaning from experience in culturally determined ways ( Nelson-Barber & Trumbull, 2007 ). Their cultural socialization influence how Indigenous students learn, respond to instruction, communicate, and comprehend and respond to assessment tactics ( Kanu, 2007 ). In turn, when creating assessment, teachers need to use the community’s “funds of knowledge” ( Vélez-Ibáñez , p. 47), which included values, symbols, context, and common practices of the local community.

Moreover, assessment practices for Indigenous students need to be refined so that they reflect multiple forms of intelligences and ways of knowing such as verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal-social, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existential-spiritual ( Gardner, 1983 ; Johnson, 2013 ; Hajhashemi et al., 2018 ). These abilities and ways of knowing go beyond what the Western world has conceptualized as valid intelligence. For example, a final assessment could be a dance performance that encapsulates physical, emotional, spiritual, as well as intellectual knowledge and wellbeing. Johnston and Claypool (2010) suggested that assessment for Indigenous students include student interviews, behavioral observations, peer-generated assessment, talking/discussion circles to share views and ideas, experiential assessment, and parents, Elders, and community members also serving as evaluators.

Worldviews and Professional Development

An important step toward improving assessment practices for Indigenous students is to recognize one’s worldview and pedagogical assumptions ( Carjuzaa & Ruff, 2010 ). When a teacher and student embody different worldviews, assessment expectations are mismatched. Many teachers adhere to Western worldview assessment techniques that are rigid, formal, direct, and task-focused. As mentioned, such assessment standards are based on knowledge that is positivistic, mechanistic, compartmentalized, and, inherently, correct/incorrect. Teachers, principals, and policymakers need to recognize and understand the sociocultural circumstances and worldview of Indigenous students ( Klenowski, et al., 2010 ). By adopting a sociocultural understanding to how Indigenous students learn and know, educators become better evaluators. Educators must learn to be culturally safe in their assessment practices ( Stoffer, 2017 ). Through quality professional development, educational leaders and school divisions need to support teachers in their efforts to develop and implement Indigenous assessment practices and confront assimilationist assessment tactics in their school environment ( Coles-Ritchie & Charles, 2011 ). This professional development cannot be generic; it must welcome participation from Elders, community members, and Indigenous educators who understand the local Indigenous culture. To ensure meaningful professional development in this area, research shows that educational school divisions need to invest in long-term support and resources; sustained effort toward professional development is more effective than one-day workshops ( Wylie et al., 2009 ).

A way to address and realign mismatched worldviews with regard to assessment is reflected by the Ministry of Education, Government of Saskatchewan’s (2018) Inspiring Success: First Nations and Métis PreK-12 Policy Framework . One of the five policy goals of that framework is to ensure, “culturally appropriate and authentic assessment measures that foster improved educational opportunities and outcomes (for First Nation and Metis students)” p. 14. For this framework, representatives of First Nations peoples, Metis peoples, the provincial government, the postsecondary education sectors, and the public school systems united and agreed that culturally appropriate assessment was a pillar for educational improvement for Indigenous students. This policy agreement is a first vital step of successful multi-worldview cooperation.

Assessment Inconsistencies via Culture

A final aspect of describing assessment for Indigenous students is to remind educators of inconsistences between Western and Indigenous cultures. Upon first read, these inconsistencies may appear minor; in contrast, if teachers are able to recognize these inconsistences and their meanings, they will be well on their way to improving their assessment for Indigenous students.

To start, teachers need to be aware the Indigenous knowledge is commonly passed through stories and not through direct questions and reply answers. “Direct questions are often considered rude, because you are putting people on the spot ( Piquemal & Nickels, 2005 , p. 127). A heavy reliance on verbal demonstration of learning is not culturally congruent for many Indigenous students ( Carjuzaa & Ruff, 2010 ; Riley & Johansen, 2019 ). In Piquemal and Nickels (2005) study of kindergarten Indigenous students in Manitoba, Canada, they did not raise their hand to answer a question as often as the non-Indigenous peers. Raising one’s hand can mean a student has the answer, is competing with classmates, and is showing off, all of which is not culturally congruent with cooperation and non-competitiveness. A possible substitute to direct questioning of individual students is for the teacher to ask for choral responses ( Trumbull & Nelson-Barber, 2019 ) and/or ask students to write responses on mini whiteboards, which they then hold up ( Trumbull et al., 2015 ).

Second, Indigenous norms of communication include listening more and speaking less. For many Indigenous cultures silent pauses are used to listen, show respect, or consensus ( Queensland Government, 2015 ). This positive use of silence is often misread in Western worldview as a student being passive or indifferent. Third, in many Indigenous cultures, eye contact is considered rude ( Queensland Government, 2015 ). Thus, assessment should not be based on eye contact. Fourth, for many Indigenous learners, traditional values including the concepts of sharing, non-competitiveness, reluctance to speak out, and noninterface. Educators need to reflect on the importance and meaning of these values and ensure they are honored within assessment practices.

Fifth, utilizing an Indigenous worldview, it is considered disrespectful to attempt a task before one can perform it relatively well. From a Hawaiian Indigenous perspective, attaining mastery in one’s professional craft is a primary goal, because the survival of the group demands it ( Johnson, 2013 ). Indigenous peoples would not be asked to perform their craft publicly until they were adept at it. In turn, it is important to provide opportunities for Indigenous students to practice privately before performing publicly. Furthermore, instead of the teacher, it is the student who is left to determine when they are ready to perform ( Nelson-Barber & Trumbull, 2007 ).

The concept of timed assessment also needs reconsideration. For example, time restrictions on tests penalize some/many Indigenous students whose culture values reflection, rather than quick responses as a measure of intelligence. Also, Riley and Johansen (2019) reminded educators that, when assessing discussions, ample time should be given to Indigenous students who want to fully contemplate an answer before speaking.

A final issue pertaining to culturally safe assessment targets publishing companies. “Companies who advertise their assessment tools as “culturally unbiased” cannot make such statements” ( Stoffer, 2017 , p. 68). Educational publishers need to consult with Indigenous communities to ensure they create culturally valid assessments.

Through our review of the past 2 decades of literature pertaining to assessment practices for Indigenous students, we see little change. Why? To address this question, it is important to recognize that, worldwide, public education has not substantially changed in the past 100–200 years ( Foundation for Economic Education, 2019 ). Throughout this time, education has been organized and delivered through an industrial-like system of production and output. Students are divided in same-age groups, face the same curriculum, learn in same timeframe, are assessed the same way, and graduate at the same time. Perhaps this lockstep approach remains unchanged due, in part, to the significant investment of resources from various levels of government where accountability often translates into easy comparables, summarized in charts, tables, and reports. Unfortunately, individual differences, culture-informed knowledge systems, and personalized measures of success are sacrificed in standardized, system-wide approaches to assessment.

However, at the time of this paper, the world is experiencing myriad, dynamic changes never seen before. By 2030, Artificial Intelligence robots are expected to replace millions of current jobs. 3D printers will compound many new inventions. In the near future, people may enjoy a bed-and-breakfast experience on the moon and witness the establishment of colonies on Mars. Nanotechnology could become an integral part of the human body. In addition to these major social, physical, and economical changes, Covid-19 has forced public education, in part, to break down and re-envision what education is and could be. For example, during school closures, teachers almost instantly assumed new online pedagogies and modes of delivery, regardless of whether they had training ( Li & Lalani, 2020 ). Changes surfaced in the area of assessment, too. During Covid-times, teachers used more formative assessment assignments and fewer to no mid- and end-of-term examinations. Also, in some school divisions, number percentages and letter grading were change to a “pass/fail” evaluation ( Contact North Nord, 2020 ). In many postsecondary settings, remote online final tests were instigated ( Reid & Sam, 2021 ). Currently, education is experiencing a type of metamorphosis, transforming into something yet to be seen. Due to changes in technology and the consequences of Covid-19, now, more than ever, educators, school divisions, and mainstream society are open to thinking about educating and assessing students in new ways. Amid this transformation, we remain hopeful that assessment for Indigenous students will receive a much-needed upgrade.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

1 For us, educational success is a prekindergarten to high school journey where a student recognizes and assumes their academical, physical, emotional, and spiritual abilities. Our views are in line with the First Nations Holistic Lifelong Learning Model depiction of student success, which is a quadrilateral concept promoting the student’s academic, physical, emotional, and spiritual wellness ( Canadian Council on Learning, 2007 ).

2 The plural term, “worldviews”, is intentional. It is an attempt to respect and acknowledge the different perspectives among Indigenous people, communities, and Nations.

3 For us, the term Western worldview is synonymous with Eurocentric or Eurowestern worldview.

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Keywords: indigenous people, aboriginal people, first nation education, student assessment and evaluation, document analysis

Citation: Preston JP and Claypool TR (2021) Analyzing Assessment Practices for Indigenous Students. Front. Educ. 6:679972. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.679972

Received: 12 March 2021; Accepted: 30 June 2021; Published: 16 July 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 Preston and Claypool. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Jane P. Preston, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Assessment Practices with Indigenous Children, Youth, Families, and Communities

Educational Issues of Indigenous Peoples: Past, Present, and Future Snapshots

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Educational issues of Indigenous peoples cannot be said to revolve around a single concept, but indigeneity is a provocative lens for calling attention to European origins of sovereignty. Colonization, a pivotal concept, permeates educational studies and, in recent times, educational leadership. Decolonization and other Indigenous concepts like self-determination, sovereignty, and futurity target the continuing plight of Indigenous peoples in global cultures. Past, present, and future snapshots are provided of grave global educational matters concerning the USA, Canada, and Australia. Within the context of cultural genocide, such issues include colonial policy, compulsory boarding schools, educational disparity, and racism. Conveying the call for “unsettling” colonial ideologies, policies, and settlements with deliberate intent to assert freedom and self-determination, activists forge pathways for educating Indigenous and non-Indigenous students alike. Implications for educational leadership and administration are decolonizing colonial settler mindsets and opposing White hegemony and its normalization at the expense of Indigenous engagement, empowerment, and sovereignty. All education stakeholders are called upon to play a vital role in promoting Indigenous justice on behalf of tribal rights and the well-being of every Indigenous child for a more inclusive, better tomorrow.

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Mullen, C.A. (2021). Educational Issues of Indigenous Peoples: Past, Present, and Future Snapshots. In: The Palgrave Handbook of Educational Leadership and Management Discourse. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39666-4_89-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39666-4_89-1

Received : 23 April 2020

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Published : 05 January 2021

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Indigenous Education in a Global Context

Introduction, philosophy, theories, and research methodology.

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• Alaska Native Education
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Indigenous Education in a Global Context by Jon Reyhner , Navin Kumar Singh LAST REVIEWED: 26 May 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 26 May 2021 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0064

The term “indigenous,” when used with education, is generally recognized to refer to the first inhabitants of an area that was later colonized by another, more powerful, group of people who then forced their language and culture on the original inhabitants. In Australia and Canada, the term “Aboriginal” is still used; in Canada, “First Nations” is also popular; and in the United States, “Native American,” “American Indian,” “Alaska Native,” and “Native Hawaiian” are used to describe the country’s indigenous peoples. However, the term “indigenous” is becoming more popular globally. The colonial approach to education is related to the anthropological concept of ethnocentrism, where each ethnic group tends to think itself superior to other groups, and which propels more powerful, dominant groups to subordinate or demand the cultural assimilation of less powerful groups they conquer and colonize. The subordinate, indigenous group can be expected to adopt the religion, language, and customs of the dominant group, and schools are used to promote this conversion. However, ethnic minorities often resist forced assimilation. Much of the recent history of indigenous education globally has involved the conflict between efforts at decolonization, which was exemplified by the United Nations’ adoption in 2007 of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and continued efforts to assimilate thousands of indigenous ethnic minority groups. The variety of these groups is indicated by the fact that it is estimated by linguists that there are over six thousand languages spoken across the globe today (though assimilationist education is lowering that number), and each language can represent a unique culture. Since European nations colonized much of the world in the last few centuries, they are usually the group imposing, through schools, their language and culture on indigenous peoples in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia, and the islands in the Pacific Ocean. However, China’s recent actions in Tibet also meet this definition, and the actions of Scandinavian countries in regard to the Sámi in their northern regions also qualify. The studies in this bibliography examine the educational issues worldwide that many indigenous people still face today as they attempt to hold on to their indigenous languages and cultures while seeking to reestablish self-government and gain economic success in an increasingly globalized and “flat” world.

Calls for decolonizing indigenous education are given impetus by the below-average academic performance and high dropout rates of indigenous students. In the past, nonindigenous peoples often attributed this poor performance to racial inferiority, but modern genetic testing shows that there are no genetic differences, beyond superficial ones like skin color, that can be used to separate the “races.” A second rationale for poor performance is “cultural deprivation,” which transfers indigenous inferiority from genetics to culture, and which characterizes indigenous cultures as less civilized. This rationale promotes assimilationist education so that schooling replaces the culture of the indigenous child with that of a dominant, often Euro-American, culture. The studies in the Histories section of this article document the failings of assimilationist education. Abidogun 2013 gives an overview of current thinking on indigenous education. The contributing authors to Ah Nee-Benham and Cooper 2000 examine the question of what philosophy should drive thinking about indigenous education, and Tuhiwai Smith 2012 examines how and by whom indigenous education should be researched. Huffman 2010 looks at recent research-based explanations for indigenous academic performance, starting with cultural discontinuity theory, where the culture of the teacher as well as the curriculum and instructional strategies used in schools may be in conflict with a child’s home culture. This explanation supports bilingual, bicultural education. Critical theorists maintain that indigenous children are provided an inferior education so that the dominant group can maintain its position of power and continue to exploit ethnic minorities as sources of cheap labor. A final explanation is found in poverty. This view holds that children of any “race” or ethnic group who live in poverty are denied the health care, nutrition, home literacy environment, and other factors they need for school success. Castagno and Brayboy 2008 provides an extensive review of research supporting the use of curriculum and instructional practices that build on the cultural and linguistic background of indigenous students. Many studies contrast “Western” linear thinking and knowledge with indigenous traditional circular and spiritual knowledge (e.g., Barnhardt and Kawagley 2005 ). Historically indigenous traditional knowledge has been devalued and ignored in schools in colonized lands. Deloria and Wildcat 2001 provides a strong argument for the continued importance of traditional Native values and ways of thinking for modern youth. Willeto 1999 , a study of Navajo youth, demonstrates that students do not have to lose their native language and culture to be more academically successful, as assimilationist ideology maintains. Cajete 2015 argues for recovering indigenous traditional knowledge to create a sustainable future.

Abidogun, Jamaine. 2013. Education. In Native peoples of the world: An encyclopedia of groups, cultures, and contemporary issues . Vol. 3. Edited by Steven Danver, 728–731. Armonk, NY: Sharpe Reference.

Overviews schooling as a method of colonial control, the impact of assimilation, indirect rule in some colonies, the past dismantling of indigenous education in some countries, and recent efforts at decolonization.

Ah Nee-Benham, Maenette Kape ʻahiokalani Padeken, and Joanne Elizabeth Cooper, eds. 2000. Indigenous education models for contemporary practice: In our mother’s voice . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Fourteen indigenous educators share their ideas about education and interdisciplinary learning opportunities that involve the physical environment and building global community—which includes Native history, culture, language, and art—and which “fosters self-respect; cultural respect; and productive school, family, and community relationships” (p. 11).

Barnhardt, Ray, and A. Oscar Kawagley. 2005. Indigenous knowledge systems and Alaska Native ways of knowing. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 36:8–23.

DOI: 10.1525/aeq.2005.36.1.008

Illuminates the processes of learning that occur at the intersection of diverse worldviews and knowledge systems, drawing on experiences of Alaska Native ways of observing and relating to the world.

Cajete, Gregory A. 2015. Indigenous community: Rekindling the teachings of the seventh fire . St. Paul, MN: Living Justice Press.

The ten chapters in this book describe community foundations of indigenous education, coming back from diaspora and loss of community, what is a healthy community, sustaining indigenous community, re-creating community leadership, and a vision of indigenous education. Cajete views Western ideas of development as not sustainable and not good indigenous communities.

Castagno, Angelina E., and Bryan McKinley Jones Brayboy. 2008. Culturally responsive schooling for indigenous youth: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research 78:941–993.

DOI: 10.3102/0034654308323036

A comprehensive review of the literature on culture-based education that finds much support for it but too little implementation. The authors view recent educational reform efforts by the US federal government as hurting rather than helping improve indigenous education.

Deloria, Vine, Jr., and Daniel R. Wildcat. 2001. Power and place: Indian education in America . Golden, CO: Fulcrum Resources.

This collection of essays critiques the “Western worldview,” formal schooling as it is today, and modern American values generally. The authors argue for the strength of traditional indigenous/tribal values and a more holistic view of the world as a source of guidance to living a good life in the modern world.

Huffman, Terry. 2010. Theoretical perspectives on American Indian education: Taking a new look at academic success and the achievement gap . Lanham, MD: AltaMira.

Examines the cultural discontinuity, structural inequality, interactionalist, and transculturation theories that seek to explain the academic performance of indigenous students. The concluding chapter examines emerging decolonization theories, including tribal critical race theory.

Tuhiwai Smith, L. 2012. Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples . 2d ed. New York: Zed Books.

Challenges “Western” approaches to research and calls for a new “decolonizing” agenda for indigenous research that has a more critical understanding of indigenous “others,” who have often been contrasted with nonindigenous people rather than valued on their own terms. Chronicles the transition from “Maori as the researched” to “Maori as the researcher.”

Willeto, Angela A. 1999. Navajo culture and family influences on academic success: Traditionalism is not a significant predictor of achievement among young Navajos . Journal of American Indian Education 38.2: 1–21.

This study of 451 Navajo youth in eleven schools found that students who maintained their traditional language and culture were at least as successful in school as those who were more assimilated into the dominant English-speaking culture.

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Indigenous peoples and education : Background information

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Indigenous peoples have a right to quality education. But so far, we’ve failed them

Education is a human right that indigenous people still don't benefit from Image:  REUTERS/Guillermo Granja

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Every year since 1994, on 9 August we celebrate United Nations International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples – an opportunity to raise awareness and promote action for advancing the rights of 370 million indigenous people from over 90 countries.

While indigenous peoples make up around 5% of the global population, they account for approximately 15% of the world’s extreme poor, and regularly appear at the bottom of human well-being index ratings.

The reasons behind this are of course complicated, but one of the key causes of this persistent disadvantage and marginalization is the lack of quality education that does not align with their rights as indigenous peoples: education that is well-resourced, culturally sensitive, aligned with their learning needs, languages, priorities and aspirations, and delivered through culturally appropriate teaching strategies, and in culturally appropriate settings.

In many cases around the world, education available to indigenous peoples is not only inappropriate, it also threatens their very existence. Education policies and systems have often been used as a means to systemically discriminate against indigenous peoples, assimilate them (and at times “civilize” them) into the broader society, and thus destroy their culture, languages, identity and rights, and displace them of their lands, territories and natural resources.

These education systems, policies and curricula are rarely developed with indigenous peoples’ participation or consent, and as a result have mostly failed indigenous children and stripped them from vital life opportunities and cultural security.

In addition, given the importance of lands and natural resources to the livelihoods, culture and well-being of indigenous peoples, their traditional knowledge about their lands is also interconnected to education, where elders pass down knowledge, values and their histories to new generations. In every way then, the right to education is connected to all other human rights of indigenous peoples, including land rights.

And yet, the right to a high-quality and culturally respectful education for indigenous peoples is protected by a number of international human rights instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child , ILO Convention 169 , and the International Covenant on Economic, Cultural and Social Rights , and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples .

Under these conventions and declarations, states are expected and obligated to support and partner with indigenous peoples by integrating their perspectives, cultures and languages into mainstream education systems and institutions, and also by respecting, facilitating and protecting indigenous peoples’ right to share knowledge to future generations by traditional ways of teaching and learning.

But so far we’ve not even come close to achieving this.

A 2009 UN study on the challenges of the right to indigenous education identified a number of serious concerns and barriers to realizing the right to indigenous education. It found that indigenous people felt a lack of control over educational initiatives aimed at their children – they weren’t being consulted when these programmes and services were being designed and implemented. As a result, they found that the programmes put in place were not being delivered by indigenous people themselves, were not available in their languages, and did not respect their history, traditional knowledge or culture.

The report demonstrates that designing education programmes for indigenous children, especially women and girls, must recognize and consider their particular needs and the barriers they face in accessing quality education. The report also shows why indigenous students cannot be forced into mainstream education systems which do not integrate their culture or which use a single model of education for all students regardless of who they are, without having adverse impacts on their human rights.

In 2014, a White House report on the state of education for Native American students reached similar conclusions, asserting that “Native youth – and Native education – are in a state of emergency”. Bilingual education programming, inclusion of elders and other respected teachers in the community, and inclusion of culturally appropriate curriculum were suggested as a way to address this. The same prescription for change could apply to numerous other countries around the world.

Education is recognized as both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realizing other human rights and fundamental freedoms. It is the gateway by which economically and socially marginalized peoples can lift themselves out of poverty and obtain the means to participate fully in their communities.

Education is increasingly recognized as one of the best long-term financial and social investments countries can make. Appropriate education enables indigenous children and adult learners to exercise and enjoy economic, social and cultural rights. It also strengthens their ability to exercise their civil rights so they can influence political policy processes for enhanced protection of their human rights. Education is therefore a vital means for the enjoyment, maintenance and transmission of indigenous cultures, languages, traditions and traditional knowledge, as well as a vehicle for individual empowerment and agency.

Within international law, indigenous peoples are recognized not simply as stakeholders, but rights holders. This means they must participate in decisions that affect them, including the right to development and education on their own terms and in line with their values, priorities and needs.

The imposition of culturally inappropriate development and policies on indigenous peoples without proper consultation has exacerbated poverty, and led to the loss of their lands, livelihoods, cultures, languages and knowledge systems. Culturally appropriate education systems that are controlled and administered by indigenous peoples will therefore strengthen land and governance rights, livelihoods, and improve cultural, community, and individual resilience and well-being.

The right to education is a universal human right , essential to bridge gaps in human well-being, equity and opportunity. Isn’t it about time we made sure everyone can exercise this basic human right?

The opinions expressed in this piece are those of the author alone.

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Mandated Areas

Recommendations on Education

Sixteenth session (2017).

• Recalling article 14 of the Declaration and the recommendation made by the Permanent Forum at its third session, the Forum urges Member States to adopt and fully implement comprehensive national indigenous education policies and bring into practice the education of indigenous languages teachers in accordance with indigenous peoples’ initiatives.
• Recalling paragraph 86 of its report on its eighth session (E/2009/43- E/C.19/2009/14), the Permanent Forum urges public and private education institutions to provide permanent positions for indigenous teachers and to establish scholarships designated exclusively for indigenous students.

Twelfth Session (2013)

• Indigenous peoples who maintain their cultural practices and lifestyles on the basis of their traditional knowledge, vision of the world and spirituality are confronted by educational systems that have little regard for indigenous cultures, indigenous languages and indigenous knowledge. In addition, evidence confirms that the most poor and indigenous peoples receive the poorest quality of education. It is well established that improved education outcomes have a positive impact on the well-being of indigenous peoples and contribute to better socioeconomic conditions. Access to high-quality education will better ensure the knowledge and skills necessary for improved quality of life.
• The Permanent Forum affirms that articles 11 to 15 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples provide a critical framework for ensuring the necessary transformative changes in indigenous education and the exercise of the right to self-determination. Indigenous peoples have the right to be involved in defining and developing educational priorities and initiatives, including laws, regulations and policies, which have a direct impact upon them. Such educational systems should respect, recognize and include indigenous peoples’ world views, cultures, languages and traditional knowledge, while ensuring gender equality and the recognition of traditional knowledge-keepers as pedagogical authorities.
• The Permanent Forum encourages States and United Nations agencies and funds to implement, in cooperation with indigenous peoples, proactive and substantive measures to realize the full and effective implementation of the rights affirmed in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. These measures must include greater accessibility for indigenous learners who live in remote areas or in nomadic communities. The Forum calls upon States to respect and implement article 19 of the Declaration by ensuring the free, prior and informed consent of indigenous peoples before adopting and implementing legislative or administrative measures that affect them.
• Education in the mother tongue and bilingual education, foremost in primary and secondary schools, lead to effective and long-term successful educational outcomes. The Permanent Forum urges States to fund and implement the Programme of Action for the Second International Decade of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, specifically in the following education-related objective. The Forum underlines the need for States to respect and promote indigenous peoples’ definitions of learning and education, founded on the values and priorities of the relevant indigenous peoples. The right to education is independent of State borders and should be expressed by indigenous peoples’ right to freely traverse borders, as supported by articles 9 and 36 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
• The Permanent Forum recommends, on the basis of articles 14 and 15 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, that States support indigenous peoples in establishing their own educational systems and institutions, including universities. Specific measures should be put in place to support indigenous, intercultural and community higher education institutions and programmes in their academic, organizational, financial and accreditation processes. An excellent example of best practices in this regard is the inclusion of compulsory indigenous studies in the curricula of higher education institutions. The Forum urges States to recognize the importance of the Higher Education Sustainability Initiative, launched during the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development of 2012, and to incorporate the knowledge, history and proposals of indigenous peoples into the activities to be undertaken.
• The Permanent Forum recalls the recommendations contained in paragraphs 48 and 56 of the report of the international expert group meeting on indigenous youth (E/C.19/2013/3), emphasizing that linguistic education and linguistic sovereignty are of fundamental importance to indigenous peoples. The Forum recommends that the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), UNICEF and other competent bodies of the United Nations convene, together with the Forum, a meeting of experts on intercultural matters and bilingual education.
• Indigenous persons with disabilities face exceptionally difficult barriers both because they are indigenous and because they are disabled. The Permanent Forum recommends that States develop and provide full access to educational opportunities on an equitable basis and without discrimination for indigenous persons, as recognized in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. In particular, the Forum recommends that sign language education curricula be developed, in consultation with deaf indigenous persons, which reflect their cultures, issues, needs and preferences. Where there is State or international cooperation on education, indigenous persons with disabilities should be included. The Forum recommends that countries that have not yet ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities do so urgently.
• The Permanent Forum recommends that States, in collaboration with indigenous peoples and United Nations agencies, including UNICEF and UNESCO, prepare a comprehensive report on the number of indigenous languages spoken in each State. It is important to identify the current numbers and ages of fluent speakers of each indigenous language, in addition to measures, including constitutional, legislative, regulatory and policy measures, as well as financial support, whether ongoing or project-based, by States, United Nations agencies and indigenous peoples, to ensure that indigenous languages continue to be used, survive and thrive and do not become extinct.

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Chapter 6: A Fair Future for Indigenous Peoples

On this page:, 6.1 investing in a brighter future for indigenous peoples, 6.2 advancing indigenous self-determination, 6.3 advancing economic reconciliation, 6.4 healthy indigenous communities, 6.5 safe indigenous communities.

A fair Canada is one where the government continues making meaningful progress in the journey of reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples. The federal government continues to prioritize its responsibility to help ensure First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities have what they need to grow and succeed on their own terms.

In 2015, the federal government made a commitment to chart a new path of reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples. Based on the recognition of rights, respect, and partnerships, true reconciliation brings with it the opportunity for all people in Canada to know ourselves and our collective histories better.

Reconciliation starts with renewed Nation-to-Nation, Government-to-Government, and Inuit-Crown relationships and strengthening partnerships with rights holders.

• In 2017, the Crown and Inuit partners established the Inuit-Crown Partnership Committee through the Inuit Nunangat Declaration on Inuit-Crown Partnership. The committee serves as the primary mechanism for advancing reconciliation between Inuit and the Crown, where significant Inuit-Crown priorities have advanced, including the Inuit Nunangat Policy and Inuit-specific investments.
• In 2017, the federal government and Métis partners established the Métis Permanent Bilateral Mechanism. This process has resulted in better policy and informed investments into Métis communities.
• In 2017, the federal government and First Nation partners established the Assembly of First Nations Permanent Bilateral Mechanism. This committee strengthened a whole of government focus to investing in First Nations led approaches.
• In 2023, the federal government held its inaugural meeting of the Self-Governing and Modern Treaty Intergovernmental Leaders' Forum to advance the work to uphold the spirit and intent of Treaties.

In addition, Parliament passed the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act. Together, the federal government and Indigenous partners co-developed the resulting inaugural five-year Action Plan to provide a roadmap for the work towards increased self-determination and rights recognition for Indigenous Peoples in Canada.

Through long-term investments, the federal government and Indigenous partners are working to foster strong, healthy, and prosperous Indigenous communities for generations to come.

The past year has seen the achievement of important milestones along the path to reconciliation:

• The Federal Court approved an historic $23.3 billion settlement to compensate those who were harmed by the discriminatory underfunding of the First Nations Child and Family Services program and the government's narrow definition of Jordan's Principle.
• The Urban, Rural, and Northern Indigenous Housing Strategy, supported by $4 billion over seven years, is currently being co-developed with Indigenous partners.
• The new $2 billion Indigenous Health Equity Fund will address the unique challenges Indigenous people face when accessing health care services.
• An infusion of $1.6 billion will help ensure First Nations children receive the support they need under Jordan's Principle.
• Several more coordination agreements were finalized under An Act Respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families —a key step towards reducing the number of Indigenous children in care and keeping them connected to their families, communities, and cultures.
• The Inuit-led Qanuippitaa? National Inuit Health Survey continued to roll out to communities to collect up-to-date information to better understand health strengths and challenges at the regional and national levels and contribute to changes that will improve the health and well-being of Inuit.

Budget 2024 continues this work by proposing investments that will advance the health and well-being of Indigenous children, youth, families, and communities. This budget also proposes investments in Indigenous self-determination and economic reconciliation.

It's only fair that Indigenous communities build prosperity—on their own terms. And for that, they need new tools that are reflective of their unique needs and enable them to exercise their right to self-determination. The government is offering more flexible options for Indigenous Peoples to exercise tax jurisdiction; providing support for entrepreneurship, tourism, and clean energy; and facilitating access to affordable capital.

Health outcomes for Indigenous people remain below those of the general population. This is just one of the many harmful legacies of colonialism which must be addressed at every level. To improve health outcomes and ensure the most vulnerable Indigenous people have the support they need, the government is strengthening on-reserve income assistance and disability income support programs, and investing in primary health care, mental health, and food security.

To make progress towards safe, secure communities, the government is addressing the overrepresentation of Indigenous Peoples in the justice system and enhancing funding for community policing, and emergency management and preparedness.

Budget 2024, and ongoing initiatives, will contribute to meaningful improvements in the lives of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis families and communities, and advance the work of building a better Canada for generations today and tomorrow.

Key Investments in First Nations Priorities Since 2015

• $29 billion for child welfare services, including funding to implement  An Act respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families , to maintain and enhance the First Nations Child and Family Services Program, and to support ongoing negotiations towards additional program reforms;
• Nearly $8.1 billion to meet the health, social, and education needs of First Nations children through Jordan's Principle;
• $7.2 billion to support primary care and public health on reserve, distinctions-based mental health care, and non-insured health benefits. This also includes $1.2 billion in infrastructure funding, which has already supported 248 health-related projects in First Nations communities;
• Over $6.1 billion for elementary and secondary education to help First Nations children living on reserve receive high-quality schooling. This also includes $1.8 billion in infrastructure funding, which has already supported 310 school facility projects;
• Over $6.3 billion to address critical infrastructure gaps related to water and wastewater, and accelerate progress to end long-term and short-term drinking water advisories in First Nations communities on reserve;
• Over $4 billion to support First Nations housing on reserve;
• Almost $2.5 billion to support community infrastructure on reserve;
• $1.4 billion to advance housing, water and wastewater, and community infrastructure priorities in Self-Governing and Modern Treaty First Nations;
• Nearly $2.5 billion to build an early learning and child care system that meets the needs of First Nations families;
• $991 million for First Nations and Inuit policing and police facilities to provide access to local and culturally sensitive police services that make communities safer; and,
• $417 million targeted for First Nations post-secondary education.

Key Investments in Inuit Priorities Since 2015

• $25 million to implement the Inuit Nunangat Policy, which was co-developed with Inuit and will guide the federal government in design, development, and delivery of new and renewed federal programming, policies, and initiatives;
• Over $1.3 billion to support housing in Inuit communities;
• $43.7 million to eliminate tuberculosis in Inuit Nunangat by 2030;
• $5.6 billion for non-insured health benefits and distinctions-based mental health care;
• More than $230 million for Inuit communities to build an early learning and child care system that meets the needs of Inuit families;
• $220 million to meet the health, social, and education needs of Inuit children through the Inuit Child First Initiative;
• More than $76 million to support Inuit food security;
• $70 million to support the National Inuit Suicide Prevention Strategy;
• More than $125 million for the Inuit Post-Secondary Education Strategy.

Key Investments in Métis Priorities Since 2015

• More than $860 million for Métis communities to build an early learning and child care system that meets the needs of Métis families;
• $690 million to support housing in Métis communities;
• More than $400 million towards Métis communities' skills and employment training, economic development, and to support the startup and expansion of Métis small- and medium-sized businesses;
• $867 million to support distinctions-based mental health care and the monitoring and treatment of chronic diseases; and,
• More than $360 million for the Métis Nation Post‑Secondary Education Strategy.

Delivering on Indigenous Priorities

For too long, previous governments have failed to invest in the future of Indigenous Peoples. Since 2015, the government has been reversing this trend.

The government has worked with First Nations, Inuit, and Métis partners to make meaningful, distinctions-based investments that respond to Indigenous-identified priorities.

Spending on Indigenous priorities has increased significantly since 2015 (181 per cent) with spending for 2023-24 estimated to be over $30.5 billion, rising further to a forecast of approximately $32 billion in 2024-25.

Notably, Budget 2024 includes $2.3 billion over five years to renew existing programming.

In addition to these investments, since 2015, the federal government has worked collaboratively with Indigenous Peoples to honour treaty rights, resolve historical wrongs, implement rights, and reinvigorate the modern treaty process. Work to advance reconciliation and support Indigenous self-determination has increased the federal government's total recorded liabilities from $11 billion in 2015-16 to $76 billion in 2022-23, as noted in the 2023 Fall Economic Statement . Of this amount, the vast majority relate to Indigenous claims, providing compensation for past harms of colonialism. This reflects the progress the federal government has made to advance reconciliation by addressing the lasting impacts of colonialism while supporting healing for every generation, from Survivors to their descendants and those that will come after.

Investments to date have improved the lives of Indigenous people and created new opportunities in communities across the country. By partnering with Indigenous people and service providers, these investments have delivered better access to health care, education, child and family services, housing, and infrastructure. For example:

• In 2015, there were 11 mental wellness teams serving 86 communities across Canada (not counting British Columbia, where mental wellness services are managed and provided by the First Nations Health Authority). By 2023, federal investments increased this figure to 75 teams serving over 385 First Nations and Inuit communities.
• Sturgeon Lake First Nation had its first midwife-assisted birth in the community in more than 50 years with support from program funding provided in Budget 2017. In October 2023, supported by investments in Budget 2021, the community broke ground on a standalone birthing centre—the first of its kind to be built on reserve. 
• As of March 2023, 10 First Nations and Inuit laws on child and family services have come into force, advancing self-determination as communities exercise their jurisdiction.
• A landmark Regional Education Agreement was signed in July 2022 with the First Nations Education Council in Quebec, enabled by Budget 2022 investments of $310.6 million over five years to improve student outcomes. This agreement supports 22 First Nations communities in Quebec, funding over 6,000 students based on their communities' vision for education.
• Since 2016, the federal government has invested over $2 billion to build or improve 310 school facilities, of which 180 are completed and 130 are ongoing, benefitting 319 First Nations communities.
• Since 2016, the federal government has invested over $710 million in 286 health-related infrastructure projects, of which 260 are completed and 70 are ongoing, benefitting 214 First Nations communities.
• On December 15, 2022, the Framework Agreement on First Nation Land Management Act came into force, replacing the repealed First Nations Land Management Act. This new legislation, co-developed with the Lands Advisory Board, supports First Nations who wish to reclaim jurisdiction over their reserve lands. With more than 100 First Nations already managing their lands through a land code, in 2022-23, nine First Nations became signatories to the Framework Agreement, and three reasserted jurisdiction over their lands, environment, and natural resources outside of the Indian Act.
• Since 2016, Inuit have constructed close to 500 new homes, repaired a significant number of existing units, and have undertaken critical land development, supported by the federal government's distinctions-based housing investments.
• The 2019 signing of the Métis Nation Early Learning and Child Care Accord was an important milestone in supporting the self-determination of Indigenous communities across Canada and ensuring culturally appropriate and high-quality programs and services for Métis children and families.

In total, these investments represent approximately $200 billion in support for Indigenous Peoples.

Infrastructure investments, in particular, have been prioritized by Indigenous partners and the federal government. Between 2015 and 2023, $22.3 billion in targeted funding has been allocated toward more than 10,252 infrastructure projects that are building more homes in Indigenous communities.

To address on-reserve housing needs, Indigenous Services Canada is working with the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation to support projects in First Nations communities, including new builds, retrofits, and renovations. These include:

• 4,982 housing-related infrastructure projects (2,550 completed), benefitting 611 First Nations communities;
• Building 5,875 new homes across 1,308 projects;
• Renovating and upgrading 12,793 homes across 1,502 projects; and,
• Acquiring 3,324 lots for Indigenous people to develop across 393 projects.

Healing and Addressing Past Harms

Since 2015, the federal government has overhauled the Crown's approach to litigation by prioritizing negotiation whenever a settlement is possible—and taking a principled approach to litigation when it is not.

The federal government seeks to work together with parties to address past wrongs to the extent possible through financial compensation, meaningful apologies, and corrective action, which can help bring closure and promote healing—all reflective of what we've heard from engaging directly with Indigenous partners. In recent years, the federal government and Indigenous partners have resolved several longstanding grievances through settlements that correct the harms caused by Canada's historic wrongdoings. Although no settlement will absolve the trauma, pain, and lost opportunities inflicted by historic wrongdoings, these agreements support Indigenous people and communities to pursue new opportunities to heal and rebuild from the harmful legacies of colonialism.

• In December 2023, a settlement was approved that will compensate Indigenous people who were placed in Federal Indian Boarding Homes ( Percival ) while attending school far from their home communities, including those who suffered physical, sexual, or other abuse.
• In October 2023, an historic $23.3 billion settlement was approved to compensate First Nations children on reserves and in Yukon who were removed from their homes through involvement in the child and family services system, and those impacted by the federal government's narrow definition of Jordan's principle, as well as their caregivers.
• In June 2023, Canada, Ontario, and the 21 First Nations who are signatories to the Robinson-Huron Treaty reached a $10 billion settlement with $5 billion contributions from both Canada and Ontario to compensate for unpaid past treaty annuities promised through a treaty that dates to 1850. The communities received the full settlement payment on March 25, 2024, and they are now working to finalize their collective disbursement agreements.
• In March 2023, a settlement was approved to address harms suffered by First Nations communities as a result of Indian Residential Schools ( Gottfriedson Band Class ). Canada provided $2.8 billion to establish the Four Pillars Society to support healing, wellness, education, heritage, language, and commemoration activities.
• In June 2022, a $1.3 billion land claim settlement was reached with the Siksika Nation to resolve wrongs from over a century ago, including when the Government of Canada broke its Blackfoot Treaty promise and wrongfully took almost half of Siksika Nation's reserve land to sell to settlers.
• In December 2021, an $8 billion Safe Drinking Water Settlement Agreement was approved, including funding to directly compensate Indigenous people and affected First Nations, and to ensure reliable access to safe drinking water on reserves.
• In September 2021, a settlement was approved to compensate Indian Residential Schools Day Scholars ( Gottfriedson ) who attended Indian Residential Schools but returned to their homes at night. While Day Scholars could seek compensation for sexual and serious physical abuse through the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement Independent Assessment Process, they were unable to receive a Common Experience Payment.
• In August 2019, the Federal Indian Day Schools ( McLean ) Settlement was approved to compensate Indigenous people for the harms they suffered as a result of attending a federally operated day school. A total of $7 billion has been allocated to date.
• In December 2018, the Sixties Scoop Settlement was approved to compensate First Nations and Inuit people who were adopted by non-Indigenous families, became Crown wards or who were placed in permanent care settings during the Sixties Scoop.
• The Specific Claims process resolves past wrongs against First Nations, such as the mismanagement of lands and assets or the unfulfilled promises of historic treaties, through negotiation and outside of the court system. From January 2016 to January 31, 2024, 283 claims were resolved for close to $10 billion. Since the process was created in 1973, a total of $13.9 billion has been provided to resolve 688 specific claims.

These settlements total to over $57 billion combined.

Lifting Drinking Water Advisories in First Nations Communities

Everyone in Canada should have access to safe and clean drinking water.

In November 2015, the federal government committed to ending all 105 long-term drinking water advisories affecting First Nations communities on reserve. Since then, 144 long-term drinking water advisories have been lifted across the country. And a further 271 short-term drinking water advisories have been addressed before becoming long-term advisories. This has resulted in 94 per cent of First Nations communities now having clean water.

This has been possible because of the tireless work of First Nations communities water operators, and the more than $6.3 billion invested by the federal government to build 130 new water and wastewater treatment plants and to repair or upgrade 876 other systems. These investments have also provided resources to hire and train local technicians to support the effective management and maintenance of water systems.

First Nations have long called for effective safe drinking water legislation and a national regulatory regime that meets their needs and ensures clean, safe, and reliable drinking water for generations to come. This is why the government tabled Bill C-61, the First Nations Clean Water Act, which was developed with First Nations to affirm their inherent rights to self-government in relation to water, source water, drinking water, wastewater, and related infrastructure on, in, and under First Nation lands.

The proposed bill further aims to recognize the importance of their stewardship over lands and waters, and to lay the foundation for a First Nations-led water institution to support communities as they look to exercise jurisdiction to ensure they have clean drinking water for generations to come.

The federal government must work with First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities to ensure their members have access to opportunities to grow and reach their full potential. Indigenous Peoples are the fastest growing population in Canada, consistently, year-over-year. And, that very much includes young people, who make up a larger proportion of the Indigenous population than in the non-Indigenous population. Investing in their future success could not be more important when it comes to investing in long-term outcomes for Indigenous communities.

The federal government is taking action in Budget 2024 to unlock opportunities for young people and equip them with the skills they need to succeed. By investing in education and in Indigenous youth, the federal government is investing in a brighter future for Indigenous communities and for Canada.

Key Ongoing Actions

• $1.6 billion over two years, starting in 2023-24, to ensure First Nations children continue to receive the support they need through Jordan's Principle.
• $1.3 billion over five years, starting in 2023-24, to support Canada's continued efforts to work with Indigenous communities to implement An Act respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families .

Empowering Indigenous Youth

Call to Action 66 of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission calls upon the federal government to establish multi-year funding for community-based youth organizations to deliver programs on reconciliation, and establish a national network to share information and best practices.

Since 2019, the government has been working with Indigenous Youth Roots, a national youth-led organization that collaborates with communities to provide grants and programming related to leadership, skills, and reconciliation for Indigenous youth.

• Budget 2024 proposes to provide an additional $12.5 million over two years, starting in 2024‑25, to Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to support the Indigenous Youth Roots organization to identify and partner with Indigenous-led organizations. This will ensure the continued delivery of programming to empower Indigenous youth, as recommended in Truth and Reconciliation Commission Call to Action 66.

First Nation K-12 Education

A good education is one of the best ways to make sure that every child has a fair chance at the best life possible. High-quality, culturally appropriate education is especially important if we want to ensure a brighter and more prosperous future for First Nations children, youth, and communities. With First Nations people among the youngest and fastest-growing populations in Canada, investing in their success means investing in Canada's success.

Budget 2024 proposes new investments in First Nations' kindergarten to grade 12 education programming and infrastructure, including:

• $649.4 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to improve elementary and secondary education on reserve, and ensure funding formulas meet the needs of growing communities; and,
• $545.1 million over three years, starting in 2024-25, for K-12 infrastructure to build and renovate safe and healthy learning environments for First Nations students.

First Nation Post-Secondary Education

Unlocking pathways to post-secondary education is critical to ensuring that Indigenous students have opportunities to succeed and contribute at their full potential. In 2021, 45 per cent of First Nations people aged 25-64 had attained a post-secondary credential, in comparison to 68 per cent of non-Indigenous Canadians. Supporting the next generation of First Nations university, college, and post-secondary students will help build a brighter future for Indigenous communities and a Canada where everyone has a fair chance at success.

Budget 2024 proposes to increase support for First Nations post-secondary students:

• $242.7 million over three years, starting in 2024-25, to increase access to post-secondary education for First Nations students through the Post-Secondary Student Support Program.

The federal government will continue to support Inuit and Métis post-secondary education through their Post-Secondary Education Strategies funded in Budget 2019 which invested $487.5 million over ten years, and $61.8 million ongoing.

Dechinta Centre for Research and Learning

Over the last five years, the number of people with a bachelor's degree or higher has increased for First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. However, Indigenous people who live in the North face unique barriers accessing post-secondary education that is both closer to home and culturally appropriate.

This is why the government is investing in the Dechinta Centre in the Northwest Territories to support access to culturally appropriate post-secondary education that is accessible to Indigenous students in the North.

• Budget 2024 proposes to provide $5.2 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to support the Dechinta Centre for Research and Learning.

With this funding, First Nations can support post-secondary students in their community, making post-secondary education more accessible.

The Best Start for Every Indigenous Child

Through An Act respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families, more Indigenous communities are reclaiming jurisdiction over child and family services, ensuring that Indigenous children and youth grow up in their communities, tied to their cultural identities, and achieve better outcomes. The federal government is committed to implementing the Act to support Indigenous communities on this path forward. 

• Budget 2024 proposes to provide $1.8 billion over 11 years, starting in 2023-24 to support communities in exercising jurisdiction under An Act respecting First Natio ns, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families , including the first Inuit agreement to support community-led, prevention-based solutions to reduce the number of children in care.
• Budget 2024 proposes to provide $167.5 million over two years, starting in 2023-24, to ensure Inuit children can access the health, social, and educational services they need, when they need them. The government continues to work with Inuit partners to advance the long-term vision of the Inuit Child First Initiative so that Inuit children will continue to receive timely, high-quality services.

The federal government is committed to removing systemic barriers that prevent Indigenous children and youth from accessing the services and supports they need to thrive. The government is working to reach final agreements for the long-term reform of the First Nations Child and Family Services Program and Jordan's Principle.

Supporting Indigenous Cultures

A better, fairer Canada is one where we are honest with our history. Where we can work to know ourselves and our stories, and enable creators to share them and be understood.

The federal government is committed to addressing the legacies of colonialism and racism, and an important part of that work is making sure to support Indigenous-led efforts to reclaim, revitalize, and strengthen Indigenous cultures and languages. Restoring and promoting language and culture is an important part of healing, reconciliation, and fostering a strong sense of identity and community.

To ensure the vibrancy of Indigenous cultures and languages for generations to come, Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $225 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, with $45 million per year ongoing to Canadian Heritage for Indigenous languages and cultures programs, in support of Indigenous Languages Act, which is set for its first five-year review in October 2025; and,
• $65 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, with $13 million per year ongoing to Canadian Heritage to permanently support the Indigenous Screen Office and ensure Indigenous Peoples can tell their own stories and see themselves reflected on screen.

Budget 2024 also proposes to provide additional resources for the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission to support Aboriginal People's Television Network. See Chapter 5 for additional details.

Supporting Urban Indigenous Peoples

Indigenous Peoples, no matter where they reside, should have access to culture and services. Indigenous people in urban areas face unique challenges to accessing the services and cultural supports they need.

This funding supports organizations to deliver effective, culturally appropriate programs and services, including housing support, to urban Indigenous Peoples in safe and accessible spaces, and improve coordination with provincial and territorial services. Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $60 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to support Friendship Centres, across the country, which provide much-needed supports and services to members of their communities across a range of areas including health, housing, education, recreation, language, justice, employment, economic development, culture, and community wellness.

One of the principles of reconciliation is fairness in all the federal government's dealings with Indigenous partners. That starts with renewing Nation-to-Nation, Government-to-Government, and Inuit-Crown relationships so that they are based on respect and the recognition of rights—a priority since 2015. And that includes the right to self-determination and upholding our commitments to rights holders.

The federal government's ongoing work is supporting pathways to self-determination and greater well-being for Indigenous communities.

As part of this effort, the federal government has focused on building relationships with Indigenous partners by addressing past harms, increasing dialogue, supporting community capacity, and advancing a fairer fiscal relationship with Indigenous Peoples. Budget 2024 builds on this important work.

• Supporting communities to research, locate, and document burial sites at former residential schools, as well as to memorialize deaths of children and return their remains home.
• Ensuring the respectful and culturally appropriate treatment of unmarked graves and burial sites, including through the framework being developed by the Independent Special Interlocutor.
• Ensuring communities have access to information to support their efforts to identify, locate, and commemorate their missing children through the National Advisory Committee on Residential Schools Missing Children and Unmarked Burials.
• Educating Canadians on the harmful legacy of residential schools and preserving records that are key to honouring the truths of residential school Survivors through the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation.
• Creating innovative Recognition of Indigenous Rights and Self-Determination discussion tables where the Crown engages Indigenous partners to advance agreements and other constructive arrangements to recognize and implement Indigenous rights.
• Establishing permanent bilateral mechanisms with First Nations, Inuit, and Métis Nation leaders and the Intergovernmental Leaders' Forum with Modern Treaty and Self-Governing Indigenous Government leaders to identify joint priorities, co-develop policy, and monitor progress.

Section 35 Negotiations

Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 recognizes and affirms the existing Aboriginal and treaty rights of First Nation, Métis, and Inuit communities and requires the federal government to work with partners to recognize and protect those rights. The federal government has been working with Indigenous communities to explore new ways to advance the recognition of Indigenous rights and to support unique visions for self-determination as defined by First Nations, Inuit, and Métis governments.

There are over 170 active discussion tables across the country where the federal government is working with Indigenous partners to conclude modern treaties, self-government agreements, and other constructive arrangements that support Indigenous Peoples to exercise their rights in areas such as education, child and family services, land and resource management, health, justice, and language and culture. Since 2017, Canada has signed 33 new rights-based reconciliation agreements with Indigenous partners, including:

• The Anishinabek Nation Governance Agreement (October 1, 2022), the first of its kind in Ontario, which recognizes Anishinabek control over the governance and law-making powers of signatory First Nations.
• A Self-Government Treaty Recognizing the Whitecap Dakota Nation / Wapaha Ska Dakota Oyate (May 2, 2023), which recognizes that Whitecap Dakota Nation has jurisdiction and law-making powers, facilitates the creation of economic opportunities, and improves community well-being for its members.
• The Nang K̲'uula • Nang K̲'úulaas Recognition Agreement (July 18, 2023), which recognizes the Haida Nation as the holder of Haida title and rights, and the Council of Haida Nation as the governing body of the Haida Nation.

While these agreements take significant steps towards affirming and implementing Indigenous rights, there is still important work to do.

• To advance rights-based discussions, Budget 2024 proposes to provide $96.4 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada. This funding would ensure that Indigenous communities can fully participate in the negotiation process.

Renewing First Nations Core Governance and New Fiscal Relationship Funding

First Nations governments and tribal councils require adequate resources and administrative capacity to deliver critical programs and services to their members. To continue to support First Nations governance and self-determination, Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $275 million over two years, starting in 2024-25 to Indigenous Services Canada to maintain Indigenous Governance and Capacity programs and support governance capacity development.
• $12.6 million, over two years, starting in 2024-25, to Indigenous Services Canada to continue implementing and advancing the New Fiscal Relationship with First Nations communities.

Fair Tax Jurisdiction for Indigenous Communities

A fair fiscal relationship means supporting an Indigenous tax jurisdiction that advances self-determination and builds strong fiscal relationships while generating important revenues for community priorities. This is an important part of reconciliation.

The federal government proposes to expand opt-in tax jurisdiction frameworks, enabling Indigenous governments to better exercise their tax jurisdiction with more flexibility.

• Following extensive collaboration with Indigenous organizations and interested Indigenous communities, Budget 2024 announces the government's intention to bring forward legislation for an opt-in Fuel, Alcohol, Cannabis, Tobacco, and Vaping (FACT) sales tax framework. The FACT framework would include appropriate sharing arrangements, to meet the interests of both Indigenous governments and the federal government. The federal government will work with Indigenous partners over the coming months to finalize and implement the FACT framework.

The federal government will negotiate additional First Nations Goods and Services Tax agreements with interested Indigenous governments, and personal income tax arrangements with interested self-governing Indigenous governments, along with facilitating similar arrangements between interested Indigenous governments and provincial and territorial governments. The federal government is exploring the potential role of tax arrangements and other tools to enable Indigenous communities to meaningfully benefit from resource development.

Addressing the Legacy of Residential Schools

Residential school denialism has severe impacts on Survivors and descendants of Survivors. Such denialism seeks to erase the ongoing trauma and harm that Indigenous Peoples continue to face because of the legacy of residential schools. It further burdens Survivors and their descendants, whose mental health, well-being, and economic opportunities are still hampered today by this shameful legacy.

The federal government is committed to addressing the legacy of residential schools. At the heart of this work is supporting Survivors, their families, and their communities, along with educating all people about these truths, to ensure that these wrongs are recognized and never happen again.

To work to correct the damaging legacy of residential schools, the government has compensated Survivors and made historic investments in child welfare, education, language and culture, health, justice, former residential school sites, and missing children and burial sites. The government remains committed to implementing the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Calls to Action to address the painful legacy of residential schools.

• Budget 2024 proposes to provide $91 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to increase the support provided to communities to document, locate, and memorialize burial sites at former residential schools.
• Budget 2024 also proposes to provide $5 million over three years, starting in 2025-26, to Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to establish a program to combat Residential School denialism.

The government anticipates the Special Interlocutor's final report and recommendations in spring 2024. This report will support further action towards addressing the harmful legacy of residential schools through a framework relating to federal laws, regulations, policies, and practices surrounding unmarked graves and burials at former residential schools and associated sites. This will include addressing residential school denialism.

An economy that is fair for everyone is one where everyone is able to fully participate. That hasn't always been the case, especially for Indigenous Peoples. The history of discrimination faced in communities has meant that, for too long, Indigenous Peoples were left behind and could not fully participate in the Canadian economy. With Budget 2024, the government is taking action to ensure Indigenous communities are able to share in Canada's prosperity and benefit from the new opportunities ahead.

Economic reconciliation—whether through supporting Indigenous entrepreneurs, creating good jobs in Indigenous communities, or helping ensure Indigenous communities have access to the capital they need for equity in major projects—is how we make sure we all benefit from Canada's prosperity.

• $150 million over five years, starting in 2022-23, to advance shovel-ready economic opportunities in Indigenous communities.
• $65 million over five years, starting in 2023‑24, to co-develop a new First Nations-led land registry and support First Nations in building capacity to exercise jurisdiction over their lands, resources, and environment.
• $21 million over five years, starting in 2023-24, to increase participation in environmental and regulatory assessments of major projects.

Indigenous Loan Guarantee Program

Indigenous communities need to be able to share in the benefits of natural resource and energy projects in their territories and on their own terms. Due to the Indian Act and the legacy of colonialism, Indigenous communities have fewer options for securing capital or leveraging existing assets as collateral, leading to increased borrowing rates that create a barrier to equity investment in natural resource and energy projects.

The number of major natural resource and energy projects with potential for Indigenous equity participation is anticipated to grow significantly, with the First Nations Major Projects Coalition's research expecting this potential to reach $525 billion in capital investment over the next ten years. If Canada is to make sure that Indigenous communities are able to fully benefit from the opportunities ahead, they need fair access to affordable capital that meets their unique needs.

Building on the government's 2023 Fall Economic Statement commitment to help facilitate Indigenous equity ownership in major projects, Budget 2024 proposes to launch the Indigenous Loan Guarantee Program with the following parameters:

• Applicant eligibility would recognize Indigenous governments, and their wholly owned and controlled entities.
• The program would be sector-agnostic for natural resource and energy projects to prioritize economic reconciliation and self-determination.
• The program would support projects across the country, and a range of project types, to ensure that Indigenous communities across the country benefit from the program.
• Natural Resources Canada would be responsible for intake and capacity building, and the Canada Development Investment Corporation (CDEV), a Crown corporation in the Department of Finance Canada portfolio, would create a new subsidiary to provide due diligence on the applications and administer the portfolio of loan guarantees.
• Budget 2024 also proposes to provide $16.5 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to Natural Resources Canada, including $3.5 million over two years to support capacity funding for Indigenous communities and applicants and delivery of the Indigenous Loan Guarantee Program by CDEV. This investment will provide capacity building supports to assist eligible Indigenous communities in making applications for loans through the program.

The Indigenous Loan Guarantee Program will provide access to affordable capital to Indigenous governments and communities. Loans would be provided by financial institutions or other lenders and guaranteed by the Government of Canada. This means that the borrower would benefit from the government's AAA credit ratings, delivering a lower interest rate than is available to most borrowers.

An Indigenous community in Saskatchewan is looking to purchase a 10 per cent stake in an electricity transmission project before approving the project to pass through its territory.

The group applies to the Indigenous Loan Guarantee Program. If approved, the loan guarantee would lower their cost of borrowing. This makes equity participation sustainable through repayment and allows more revenue from projects to be reinvested in the community.

Boosting Indigenous Economic Opportunity

Economic reconciliation is critical to Indigenous self-determination. Building on previous investments, including support for the development of an Economic Reconciliation Framework and a National Benefits-Sharing Framework, Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $350 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, to renew Canada's commitment to Indigenous Financial Institutions, including $30 million over five years for the Métis Capital Corporations which have, for decades, provided critical support to Métis entrepreneurs and businesses;
• $2.5 million in 2024-25, to continue supporting the Indigenous tourism industry through the Indigenous Tourism Association of Canada; and
• $36 million, over three years, starting in 2024-25, to renew support for the Strategic Partnerships Initiatives' Clean Energy program to promote Indigenous participation in clean growth opportunities.

Together, these investments will support Indigenous entrepreneurs and Indigenous communities by helping to reduce systemic barriers, ensure supports are in place for Indigenous people to fully participate in the economy, and contribute to Indigenous prosperity, and success across generations.

Indigenous Labour Market Information

The Indigenous Labour Market Information Survey and Skills Inventory Initiative was first funded in 2015 to support timely, detailed, and community-specific labour market data. This initiative supports participating First Nations to collect information which helps them to identify workforce gaps and needs, and to better match their members with the right training and jobs.

• Budget 2024 proposes to provide $4.4 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to continue the Indigenous Labour Market Information Survey and Skills Inventory Initiative to support labour market participation and ensure prosperous communities.

Everyone in Canada deserves to have the support they need to live a healthy and prosperous life. Due to the legacies of colonialism, access to opportunities and supports can be further from reach in First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities. The federal government is committed to supporting Indigenous communities in building healthy communities.

Since 2015, the federal government has made significant investments to build more homes, deliver better health care, and ensure Indigenous communities have clean drinking water. Every Indigenous person deserves access to what they need to build a healthy and vibrant life.

Budget 2024 is investing in better health care and critical infrastructure, co-developed and co-led with Indigenous communities, to ensure better health outcomes for all Indigenous Peoples.

• $4 billion over seven years, starting in 2024-25, to implement an Urban, Rural, and Northern Indigenous Housing Strategy, currently under co-development with Indigenous partners.
• $2 billion over ten years, starting in 2024-25, for a distinctions-based Indigenous Health Equity Fund. This fund, currently being co-developed with Indigenous partners, will address the unique challenges Indigenous Peoples face when accessing health care services, and support immediate and long-term Indigenous health priorities.
• $811 million over five years, beginning in 2023-24, to support medical travel and to maintain medically necessary services through the Non-Insured Health Benefits Program, including mental health services, dental and vision care, and medications.
• $8.2 billion over ten years, starting in 2023-24, to renew the First Nations Health Authority Funding Agreement in British Columbia.
• $1.6 billion over two years, starting in 2024-25, to ensure access to safe drinking water and treated wastewater in First Nations communities.

Indigenous Housing and Community Infrastructure

Everyone needs access to housing they can afford. Indigenous Peoples have faced high housing costs and lack of access for far too long. That is why the government has made huge investments and is taking historic action to increase supply across this country, including for Indigenous communities. In order for communities to grow and thrive, they also need infrastructure. The federal government is stepping up to be a partner in this.

• As outlined in Chapter 1, Budget 2024 proposes investments of $918 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, to Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to accelerate work in narrowing First Nations, Inuit and Métis housing and infrastructure gaps.

On-Reserve Income Assistance

The On-Reserve Income Assistance program helps cover daily living costs and provides access to employment supports for on-reserve residents and eligible First Nations people in Yukon. This program is intended to mirror provincial income assistance programs, which are not extended to people on reserve.

Since 2015, the federal government has worked closely with First Nations partners to improve this program and ensure it is responsive to their needs.

Budget 2024 proposes investments in income assistance and implements new supports for eligible persons with disabilities:   

• $596.2 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, and $119.2 million per year ongoing to provide income support on reserve and expand programming to meet demand; 
• $117.6 million over three years starting in 2024-25 for case management and pre-employment supports to increase access to good job opportunities; and,
• $213.5 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, and $49.8 million per year ongoing to implement income supports for eligible persons with disabilities aligned with those provided in all provinces and Yukon. This unprecedented new support will help ensure Indigenous persons with disabilities have a fair chance at success.

Budget 2024 invests in income support programs across the country for First Nations persons with disabilities for the first time in Canadian history to make disability supports on reserve, and for eligible First Nations persons with disabilities in Yukon, comparable to supports off reserve.

First Nations and Inuit Health

The federal government is working with Indigenous partners to improve access to health care services. Co-developed essential health care reforms aim to ensure Indigenous people feel safe and heard while accessing health care services in Canada, no matter where they live.

To ensure First Nations and Inuit across the country have fair and equal access to the health care they deserve, Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $562.5 million in 2024-25 to support medically necessary services through the Non-Insured Health Benefits Program, which supports a range of benefits for First Nations and Inuit people, including mental health services, medical travel, medications, and more;
• $390.4 million over four years, starting in 2024-25, to build or renovate health facilities, including to support the Virtual Health Hub led by the Saskatchewan Indian Institute of Technologies. This funding will also improve the safety of primary care workers in remote and isolated on-reserve First Nations communities;
• $104.9 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, for health transformation initiatives to support First Nations self-determination in the design and delivery of health services in their communities; and,
• $57.5 million over three years, starting in 2024-25, which builds on previous federal investments to construct a mercury care home in Grassy Narrows First Nation.

Supporting Indigenous Mental Health

Mental health is health. Due to the legacy of colonialism, Indigenous Peoples face their own unique challenges when it comes to mental health and well-being, which may lead to post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use, and depression.

A high proportion of Indigenous youth are diagnosed with mood and anxiety disorders, as well as chronic health conditions. First Nations youth living on reserve reported low mental health nearly twice as often as non-Indigenous youth. Indigenous youth struggle to access health care due to long transportation times and costs from missing school or work.

Supporting Indigenous people's access to mental health doesn't just mean increasing access to care, it also means ensuring services respect, value, and use cultural knowledge, approaches, languages, and ways of knowing. These investments aim to end the legacies of intergenerational trauma and build up healthier, stronger, and more resilient future generations.

• Budget 2024 proposes to provide $630.2 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, to support Indigenous people's access to mental health services, including through distinctions-based mental wellness strategies.

Addressing Anti-Indigenous Racism in Health Care

Anti-Indigenous racism has tragic consequences for Indigenous Peoples seeking health care. In 2020, tragic circumstances contributed to the death of Joyce Echaquan at the Centre hospitalier régional De Lanaudière in Quebec, near the Atikamekw community of Manawan. In memory of her death, Joyce's Principle was created, which aims to guarantee to all Indigenous people the right of equitable access, without any discrimination, to all social and health services. It also includes the right to enjoy the best possible physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health.

Recognizing and respecting Indigenous Peoples' traditional and living knowledge in all aspects of health is essential to fulfilling Joyce's Principle. This measure aims to help foster health systems free from racism and discrimination where Indigenous Peoples are respected and safe by supporting patient advocates, health system navigators, midwives, and birth support workers, as well as initiatives to increase Indigenous representation in the health profession.

• Budget 2024 proposes to provide $167.6 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, to combat anti-Indigenous racism in health care to help ensure Indigenous Peoples are treated with the respect and safety they deserve.

Northern Food Security

Many Northerners and Indigenous people living in isolated communities lack affordable, year-round access to nutritious food. Nutrition North Canada makes nutritious foods more accessible and affordable in communities without supply centres. At a time of global food price inflation, it is more important than ever that this support be there.

To deliver more of this important support to advance food security and affordability in the North, Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $23.2 million in 2024-25, to Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada for Nutrition North Canada's subsidy program to lower the cost of nutritious food and other essential household items; and,
• $101.1 million over three years starting in 2024-25, to support the Harvesters Support Grant and Community Food Program Fund and promote Indigenous communities in implementing culturally appropriate, local solutions to address food insecurity.

Nutrition North Canada is funded by the federal government and provides access to nutritious foods for 125 northern communities. Its work supports the  Inuit Nunangat Food Security Strategy , which prioritizes local food production and community food programs.

These investments have already helped communities in Inuit Nunangat, as well as other Indigenous communities, purchase equipment for harvesting, hunting, and food storage, which means they are able to share meals prepared with traditional foods and have greater food security.

Strengthening Access to Culturally Important Foods

Indigenous Peoples suffer higher rates of food insecurity than the rest of Canada. Traditional foods obtained through harvesting are an important part of Indigenous communities' diet and culture, making access to such foods critically important.

As part of the government's work to eradicate food insecurity, Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $14.9 million over three years, starting in 2024-25, to renew and expand the Northern Isolated Community Initiatives Fund to all regions of Inuit Nunangat to support local and Indigenous food production systems, including innovative northern food businesses, which contribute to food security in the North.
• $25.1 million over two years, starting in 2024-25, on a cash basis, to expand the Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program to assist Indigenous communities to safely access shellfish harvest for food, as well as social and ceremonial purposes.
• $2.8 million over three years, starting in 2024-25, to implement the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act (UNDA) Action Plan Measures to bolster the policy and engagement capacity among Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and Inuit Treaty Organizations to co-develop legislative and policy options to facilitate the production, sale, and trade of traditional and country food.

The legacy of colonialism has meant that Indigenous communities have long been without Indigenous-led policing and justice. To correct past wrongs, it is essential that better Indigenous-led policing, justice, and emergency services are developed, guided by input from communities on what they need.

Indigenous Peoples have been underrepresented in policing, which has meant policing is not culturally appropriate. Law enforcement must be tailored to the unique needs of Indigenous communities to ensure it works for them. The federal government is committed to doing this work with Indigenous communities to ensure a brighter, safer future. Budget 2024 takes action to strengthen Indigenous oversight and development of policing.

With Indigenous communities often located in remote areas, where there is a higher risk of natural disasters, it is essential to invest in their emergency management response and recovery resources. The legacy of colonialism has meant that Indigenous emergency response resources have been underfunded, and are ill-equipped to fight wildfires and other disasters, which are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change.

Budget 2024 is investing in better community safety, with a commitment to partnership and Indigenous control, so that services truly meet the unique needs of communities.

• $260 million in 2023-24 for emergency management response and recovery activities on reserve.
• $861 million over five years, starting in 2021-22, and $145 million per year ongoing, to enhance funding for policing and community safety in Indigenous communities.
• $74.8 million over three years, beginning in 2021-22, to improve access to justice for Indigenous people and support the development of an Indigenous justice strategy to address systemic discrimination and the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the justice system.

First Nations Emergency Management and Preparedness

Canada's 2023 wildfire season was the most destructive on record, resulting in the evacuation of more than 95 Indigenous communities. That number is more than the four previous years combined. To support wildfire responses and recovery activities in First Nations communities, the 2023 Fall Economic Statement provided $260 million. But the growing frequency and intensity of these events demands further proactive investment in mitigation and adaptation efforts to save lives, and minimize damage and disruption in Indigenous communities.

Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $9 million in 2023-24 to Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to support Indigenous governments directly affected by the 2023 wildfires in the Northwest Territories;
• $145.2 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, for Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to work with First Nations to develop greater climate resiliency and deploy structural mitigation strategies that protect communities, homes, and essential infrastructure from climate disasters, including $10.4 million for Modern Treaty and Self-Governing First Nations; and,
• $20.9 million over three years, starting in 2024-25, for Indigenous Services Canada to support the First Nations Fire Protection Strategy, 2023 to 2028 by distributing fire alarms and fire extinguishers to homes and community facilities on-reserve, as well as fire-related education programs.

Red Dress Alert

In Budget 2021, the government committed $2.2 billion over five years to the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls.

In Budget 2023, the government made investments to launch a Red Dress Alert. A Red Dress Alert would notify the public when an Indigenous woman, girl, or two-spirit person goes missing. It is part of the federal government's work to advance the National Action Plan to address Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. But this work is not done.

Since Budget 2023, the government has engaged with Indigenous partners, provinces, and territories to co-develop the Red Dress Alert. The government  heard the need for specific, regionally-tailored approaches to meet the diverse needs of Indigenous communities across the country.

• To help keep Indigenous women, girls, and two-spirit people safe, Budget 2024 proposes to provide $1.3 million over three years, starting in 2024‑25, to co-develop with Indigenous partners, on a priority first phase, a regional Red Dress Alert system.

Support for Indigenous Justice Programming

The federal government is committed to addressing the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the justice system and discrimination within the justice system. Advancing reconciliation requires supporting Indigenous-led, culturally appropriate, and community-based justice services, and ensuring policies are informed by the lived experiences of First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.

Last year, the government tabled the inaugural five-year United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act Action Plan , through which the government committed to 181 Action Plan Measures, including finalizing an Indigenous Justice Strategy, in consultation and cooperation with Indigenous Partners, provinces, and territories. The Indigenous Justice Strategy will be an important step towards addressing systemic representation and overrepresentation of Indigenous Peoples in the Canadian justice system.

• $56.4 million over five years and $11.3 million per year ongoing for the Indigenous Justice Program and the Indigenous Courtwork Program;
• $5.5 million over three years to continue work on the revitalization of Indigenous laws and legal systems; and,
• $25.1 million over three years to renew funding for capacity building and engagement throughout the development and initial implementation of the Indigenous Justice Strategy.

First Nations and Inuit-led Policing

First Nations and Inuit people face unique challenges—whether it's the remoteness of communities or the need for policing that is culturally appropriate.

Currently, the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program provides support for communities to administer their own police force, or receive enhanced policing services from the RCMP or another standing police force. These agreements are cost-shared between the federal and provincial or territorial governments.

Through Budget 2021, the government has committed $861 million over five years, and $145 million per year ongoing, for policing and community safety in Indigenous communities. Of this, $43.7 million was committed to co-develop a legislative framework for First Nations policing that recognizes First Nations policing as an essential service. To further address policing needs identified by Indigenous communities, Budget 2024 proposes to provide:

• $267.5 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, and $92.5 million per year ongoing to Public Safety Canada for the First Nations and Inuit Policing Program and to support the work of Public Safety Canada's Indigenous Secretariat; and
• $200 million over five years, starting in 2024-25, to repair, renovate and replace policing facilities in First Nations and Inuit communities.

The federal government is continuing to co-develop legislation with First Nations partners to recognize First Nations policing as an essential service.

Searching the Prairie Green Landfill

In 2022, three First Nations women went missing in Winnipeg, and the remains of two are still undiscovered to this day. Families of the missing women are rightfully calling for a search of the Prairie Green Landfill, where the remains of one of the three missing women were found in 2022.

For too long, previous governments have failed to listen, and to act, when Indigenous voices spoke up. We cannot make the same mistakes today. Indigenous families deserve closure.

On March 22, 2024, the federal government announced $20 million in 2024-25 to support, in partnership with the Government of Manitoba, Indigenous partners, and impacted families, efforts to search the Prairie Green Landfill for the remains of missing and murdered Indigenous women. This builds on the $1.2 million already provided by Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada to support feasibility and planning assessments.

The ongoing work to search the Prairie Green Landfill is a painful reminder that Canada is still in the midst of a national crisis of missing and murdered Indigenous women, girls, and 2SLGBTQQIA+ people. The government is committed to implementing the Federal Pathway to Address Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls and 2SLGBTQQIA+ People and to supporting healing and justice for victims, as well as their families, friends, and communities.

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