science achievements essay

• The Magazine
• Stay Curious
• The Sciences
• Environment
• Planet Earth

10 Scientific Discoveries That Changed The World

Dna, gravity, and germ theory are a few of the key findings in history that forever shifted the course of human civilization. learn how these scientific discoveries changed the world..

The only constant is change. At least, that’s what the Greek philosopher Heraclitus is credited to have said. And while science and philosophy don’t always go hand in hand, there is some truth to Heraclitus’ notion. Change is inevitable and, in some cases, necessary for our species to evolve . While some change happens automatically, like the tides going in and out, some changes bloomed from scientific discoveries. 

Using fire to cook food and keep warm propelled our ancestors toward the foundations of early settlements and continued the growth of civilization. Using fire to shape metals for weapons and building materials led to more and more discoveries and more and more advancements. While many advances shaped humanity, we’ve focused on ten significant scientific discoveries that changed the world.

The discovery of DNA didn’t so much change the world as it did our understanding of it — more so, our understanding of life. DNA is a term we’ve only started using in the 20th century, though its initial discovery dates back decades into the 19th century.

What Is DNA?

DNA is the molecule that encodes genetic information for all living things. It plays a key role in passing traits from parents to offspring and is the primary component of chromosomes in the cell nuclei of complex organisms.

Who Discovered DNA?

Many people think scientists James Watson and Francis Crick discovered DNA in the 1950s. Nope, not so fast. DNA was actually first discovered in 1869 by Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher . He identified what he referred to as “nuclein” in blood cells. Several other researchers have worked on projects around identifying DNA up until Watson and Crick. 

What Does DNA Stand For?

The term nuclein eventually evolved into what we know as DNA, the shorthand for deoxyribonucleic acid. German biochemist Albrecht Kossel , who would later go on to win the Nobel Prize, is often credited with the name.

Levene’s Polynucleotide Model

Other scientists, such as Phoebus Levene , built on Miescher’s work over the years. Levene didn't know how DNA's nucleotide components were arranged. He proposed the polynucleotide model, correctly suggesting that nucleic acids are chains of nucleotides, each with a base, a sugar, and a phosphate group. 

Watson and Crick's Double-Stranded Helix

Watson and Crick and “their” groundbreaking discovery in the field of genetics accurately identified DNA’s double-stranded helix structure, connected by hydrogen bonds. For their discovery, Watson and Crick won a Nobel Prize in 1962 and worldwide acclaim. 

Though Watson and Crick won a Nobel Prize, years later, we’ve learned that the duo likely took research without permission from chemist Rosalind Franklin . Thanks to her research, the double helix structure was realized, though her Nobel Prize was not. 

In 2014, Watson auctioned off his Nobel Prize medal for over $4 million. The buyer was a Russian billionaire who returned it to Watson a year later. In 2019, Watson was stripped of his honorary titles because of racist comments.

Read More: DNA in Unlikely Places Helps Piece Together Ancient Humans' Family Trees

2. Earth in Motion

While it may be common knowledge that Earth spins on an axis and revolves around the sun, at one point, this idea was extremely outlandish. How could the planet move and we not feel it? Thanks to a few clever scientists, the Earth in Motion theory became more than a wild idea.

What Is Earth in Motion?

Earth in motion refers to the understanding that Earth is not stationary but moves in different ways. Earth rotates on an axis and revolves around a star. 

Earth’s Rotation

Earth rotates on its axis , which is an imaginary line running from the North Pole to the South Pole. This rotation is responsible for the day-night cycle, with one complete rotation taking about 24 hours.

Earth’s Revolution

Earth revolves around the Sun, completing one orbit approximately every 365 days. This revolution, combined with the tilt of the Earth's axis, leads to the changing seasons.

Who Discovered Earth's Motion?

The discovery and acceptance of Earth's motion was a gradual process involving several key figures in the history of science.

Aristarchus Hypothesis of Earth’s Motion

An ancient Greek astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos, was one of the first to suggest that Earth orbits the Sun . This view was not widely accepted in his time as it was believed Earth was the center of the Universe, and stars, planets, and the sun all revolved around our planet.

Copernicus Creates the First Model of Earth’s Motion

Mathematician and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus is often credited with proposing the first heliocentric model of the universe. In 1543, he published his great work, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres , which explained his theories. 

Among them was that day and night was created by the Earth spinning on its axis. Copernican heliocentrism replaced the conventionally accepted Ptolemaic theory , which asserted that the Earth was stationary. Copernicus’ work was largely unknown during his lifetime but later gained support.

Galileo Galilei’s Telescopic Observations

Galileo Galilei agreed with Copernicus’ theory and proved it through his telescopic observations. In 1610, he observed phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter, which were strong evidence against the Earth-centered model of the universe.

Galileo agreed with Copernicus’ theory and proved it by using a telescope to confirm that the different phases Venus went through resulted from orbiting around the sun.

Johannes Kepler’s Planetary Laws

German mathematician Johannes Kepler formulated a series of laws detailing the orbits of planets around the Sun. These laws, which remain relevant today, provided mathematical equations for accurately predicting planetary movements in line with the Copernican theory.

Why Don’t We Feel Earth Spinning? 

According to researchers at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech), Earth spins smoothly and at a consistent speed. If Earth were to change speeds at any time, we’d feel it. 

Read More: Earth's Rotation Has Slowed Down Over Billions of Years

3. Electricity

Did benjamin franklin discover electricity.

It’s a common misconception that Ben Franklin discovered electricity with his famous kite experiment. But his 1752 experiment, which used a key and kite, instead demonstrated that lightning is a form of electricity . Another myth is that Franklin was struck by lightning. He wasn’t, but the storm did charge the kite. 

Who First Observed Electricity?

Back in 600 B.C.E., it was the ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus who first observed static electricity when fur was rubbed against fossilized tree resin, known as amber. 

Who Invented Electricity?

British scientist and doctor William Gilbert coined the word “electric,” derived from the Greek word for amber. Regarded as the “father of electricity,” Gilbert was also the first person to use the terms magnetic pole, electric force, and electric attraction. In 1600, his six-volume book set, De Magnete , was published. Among other ideas, it included the hypothesis that Earth itself is a magnet.

Read More: Ben Franklin: Founding Father, Citizen Scientist

4. Germ Theory of Disease

What is the germ theory of disease.

Germ theory is a scientific principle in medicine that attributes the cause of many diseases to microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, that invade and multiply within the human body. This theory was a significant shift from previous beliefs about disease causation.

Who Invented the Germ Theory?

Louis Pasteur discovered germ theory when he demonstrated that living microorganisms caused fermentation , which could make milk and wine turn sour. From there, his experiments revealed that these microbes could be destroyed by heating them — a process we now know as pasteurization. 

This advance was a game changer, saving people from getting sick from the bacteria in unpasteurized foods , such as eggs, milk, and cheeses. Before Pasteur, everyday people and scientists alike believed that disease came from inside the body. 

Pasteur’s work proved that germ theory was true and that disease was the result of microorganisms attacking the body. Because of Pasteur, attitudes changed, and became more accepting of germ theory.

How Did Koch’s Postulates Contribute to Germ Theory?

The German physician and microbiologist Robert Koch played a crucial role in establishing a systematic methodology for proving the causal relationship between microbes and diseases .

He formulated Koch's postulates and applied these principles to identify the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis and cholera, among other diseases.

Together, Pasteur and Koch laid the foundation for bacteriology as a science and dramatically shifted the medical community's understanding of infectious diseases. Their work led to improved hygiene, the development of vaccines, and the advancement of public health measures.

Read More: Why Do Some People Get Sick All the Time, While Others Stay in Freakishly Good Health?

Who Discovered Gravity?

Isaac Newton didn’t really get hit on the head with an apple, as far as we know. But seeing an apple fall from a tree did spark an idea that would lead the mathematician and physicist to discover gravity at the age of just 23. 

He pondered about how the force pulls objects straight to the ground, as opposed to following a curved path, like a fired cannonball. Gravity was the answer — a force that pulls objects toward each other. 

How Does Gravity Work?

The greater the mass an object has, the greater the force or gravitational pull. When objects are farther apart, the weaker the force. Newton’s work and his understanding of gravity are used to explain everything from the trajectory of a baseball to the Earth’s orbit around the sun. But Newton’s discoveries didn’t stop there. 

Newton’s Laws of Motion

In 1687, Newton published his book Principia , which expanded on his laws of universal gravitation and his three laws of motion. His work laid the foundation for modern physics. 

Building on the discovery, advancements in the field of electricity continued. 

In 1800, Italian physicist Alessandro Volta created the first voltaic pile , an early form of an electric battery.

Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity

In 1915, Einstein proposed the theory of general relativity . This theory redefined gravity not as a force but as a curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of mass and energy.

According to Einstein, massive objects cause a distortion in the fabric of space and time, similar to how a heavy ball placed on a trampoline causes it to warp. Other objects move along the curves in spacetime created by this distortion.

Both Newton and Einstein significantly advanced our understanding of gravity. Their theories marked critical milestones in the field of physics and have had far-reaching implications in science and technology.

Read More: 5 Eccentric Facts About Isaac Newton

6. Antibiotics

Much like Germ Theory revolutionized modern medicine, so too did the invention of antibiotics. This discovery would go on to save countless lives.  

When Were Antibiotics Invented?

According to the Microbiology Society , humans have been using some form of antibiotics for millennia. It was only in recent history that humans realized that bacteria caused certain infections and that we could now provide readily available treatment. 

In 1909, German physician Paul Ehrlich noticed that certain chemical dyes did not color certain bacteria cells as it did for others. Because of this, he believed that it would be possible to kill certain bacteria without killing the other cells around it. Ehrlich went on to discover the cure for syphilis, which many in the scientific community refer to as the first antibiotic. However, Ehrlich referred to his discovery as chemotherapy because it used chemicals to treat a disease. Ehrlich is referred to as the “Father of Immunology” for his discoveries. 

Ukrainian-American microbiologist Selman Waksman coined the term “antibiotic” about 30 years later, according to the Microbiology Society.

Who Discovered Penicillin? 

One of the most recognizable antibiotics known today is penicillin. Health professionals prescribe millions of patients with this antibiotic each year. However, one of the most well-known antibiotics was discovered by accident. 

In 1928, after some time away from the lab, Alexander Fleming — a Scottish microbiologist — discovered that a fungus Penicillium notatum had contaminated a culture plate with Staph bacteria. Fleming noticed that the fungus had created bacteria-free areas on the plate. After multiple trials, Fleming was able to successfully prove that P. notatum prevented the growth of Staph. Soon the antibiotic was ready for mass production and helped save many lives during World War Two. 

What Is Penicillin Used For? 

Penicillin is used to treat infections caused by bacteria. The medication works by stopping and preventing the growth of bacteria. 

Read More: Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria: What They Are and How Scientists Are Combating Them

7. The Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang Theory is one of the most widely accepted theories on the beginning of the universe. The theory claims that about 13.7 billion years ago, all matter of the universe was condensed into one small point. After a massive explosion, the contents of the universe burst forth and expanded and continue to expand today. 

Who Came Up With the Big Bang Theory?

This first mention of the Big Bang came from Georges Lemaître, a Belgian cosmologist and Catholic priest. Initially, in 1927, Lemaître published a paper about General Relativity and solutions to the equations around it. Though it mostly went unnoticed. 

Though many scientists didn’t believe that the universe was expanding, a group of cosmologists was beginning to go against the grain. After Edwin Hubble noticed that galaxies further away from our own seemed to be pulling away faster than those closer to us, the idea of the universe expanding seemed to make more sense. Lemaître’s 1927 paper was recognized, and the term Big Bang appeared in Lemaître’s 1931 paper on the subject. 

What Is the Hubble Space Telescope?

Edwin Hubble’s discovery that galaxies are moving away from our own, dubbed Hubble’s Law, is on a long list of his many discoveries. Though this discovery helped add evidence to the Big Bang Theory, this discovery was hindered by the same thing that had been distributing telescopes since their inception: Earth’s atmosphere. According to NASA , Earth’s atmosphere distorts light, limiting how far a telescope can see, even on a clear night. 

Because of this, researchers, specifically Lyman Spitzer , suggested putting a telescope in space, just beyond Earth’s atmosphere and into its orbit. After a few attempts in the 1960s and 70s, NASA, along with contributions from the European Space Agency (ESA), launched a space telescope on April 24, 1990 . The Hubble Space Telescope, named for the pioneering cosmologist, became the strongest telescope known to humankind until the 2021 launch of the James Webb Space Telescope . 

What Is The Cosmic Microwave Background?

The Big Bang emitted large amounts of primeval light , according to the ESA. Over time, this light “cooled” and was no longer visible. However, researchers are able to detect what is known as Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), which is, according to the ESA, the cooled remnant of the first light to travel through the universe. Some researchers even refer to CMB as an echo of the Big Bang. 

Read More: Did the Big Bang Happen More Than Once?

8. Vaccines

“An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,” Benjamin Franklin once said. A statement that, at the time, applied to making towns safer against fires. However, the same statement can  be true for health and wellness. The advent of vaccines has helped prevent several serious diseases and keep people safe. Thanks to vaccines, people rarely get diseases like polio, and smallpox has been eradicated . 

What Is a Vaccine?

According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), a vaccine is a method of protection that introduces a small amount of disease to the human body so that the body can form an immune response should that disease try to enter the body again. 

Basically, through a vaccine, the human body is exposed to a small out of a disease so that the immune system can build a defense against it. 

When Was the First Vaccine Created?

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Dr. Edward Jenner created the first vaccine in 1796 by using infected material from a cowpox sore — a disease similar to smallpox. He inoculated an 8-year-old boy named James Phipps with the matter and found that the boy, though he didn’t feel well at first, recovered from the illness. 

A few months later, Jenner tested Phipps with material from a smallpox sore and found that Phipps did not get ill at all. From there, the smallpox vaccine prevented countless deaths in the centuries to come. 

When Was the Polio Vaccine Invented?

From 1796 to 1945, doctors and scientists worked hard to create vaccines for other serious illnesses like the Spanish Flu, yellow fever, and influenza. One of these doctors was Jonas Salk. After Salk helped develop an influenza vaccine in 1945, he began working on the Polio vaccine. Between 1952 and 1955, Salk finished the vaccine, and clinical trials began. Salk’s vacation method required a needle and syringe, though, by 1960, Albert Sabin had created a different delivery method for the polio vaccine. Sabin’s version could be administered by drops or on a sugar cube.

Read More: The History of the Polio Vaccine

9. Evolution

What is evolution .

Evolution is a theory that suggests that organisms change and adapt to their environment on a genetic level from one generation to the next. This can take millions of years through methods such as natural selection. An animal’s color or beak may alter over time depending on the changes in their environment, helping them hide from predators or better capture prey. 

Who Is the Father of Evolution? 

After studying animals in the Galapagos , particularly the finches, a naturalist named Charles Darwin determined that the birds — who all resided on different Galapagos islands — were the same or similar species but had distinct characteristics. Darwin noted that the finches from each island had different beaks. These beaks helped the finches forage for their main food source on their specific island. Some had larger beaks for cracking open nuts and seeds, while others had smaller and more narrow beaks for finding insects. 

These observations earned Charles Darwin the title of the Father of Evolution. Though the theory of evolution has changed since Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, he helped lay the framework for modern scientists. 

Is Evolution a Theory or Fact? 

The long-held belief for thousands of years was that the world and all of its organisms were created by one power. But, as science has advanced, there is clear evidence to argue against that. 

The answer to this question is complicated because evolution is both fact and theory. According to the National Center for Science Education , scientific understanding needs both theories and facts. There is proof that organisms have changed or evolved over time, and scientists now have the means to study and identify how those changes happen. 

Read More : 7 Things You May Not Know About Charles Darwin

What Does CRISPR Stand For? 

According to the National Human Genome Research Institute, CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. Researchers use this technology to modify the DNA of a living organism. 

Who Discovered CRISPR? 

There are several people involved and decades of research into the discovery of CRISPR . These researchers include Yoshizumi Ishino, Francisco Mojica, and the duo who recently won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for CRISPR, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier. 

What Is CRISPR?

CRISPR is a technology that can edit genes or even turn a gene “on” or “off.” Researchers have described CRISPR as a molecular scissors that clips apart DNA, then replaces, deletes, or modifies genes. According to a 2018 study, scientists can use this technology to help replace certain genes that may cause diseases such as cancer or heritable diseases like Duchenne muscular dystrophy — a degenerative disorder that can cause premature death.   

How Does CRISPR Work?

In short, scientists use CRISPR technology to find specific pieces of DNA inside of a cell. Scientists then alter that piece of DNA or replace it with a different DNA sequence. CRISPR technology also ensures that the changed gene passes on to the next offspring through gene drive. 

Read More: CRISPR Gene-Editing Technology Enters the Body — and Space

This article was originally published on Oct. 22, 2021 and has since been updated with new information from the Discover staff.

• earth science

Already a subscriber?

Register or Log In

Keep reading for as low as $1.99!

Sign up for our weekly science updates.

Save up to 40% off the cover price when you subscribe to Discover magazine.

25,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. Take the first step today

Here’s your new year gift, one app for all your, study abroad needs, start your journey, track your progress, grow with the community and so much more.

Verification Code

An OTP has been sent to your registered mobile no. Please verify

Thanks for your comment !

Our team will review it before it's shown to our readers.

Essay on Scientific Discoveries

• Updated on  
• Feb 7, 2024

Writing and speaking skills are the most important skills in the world. It shows how well a student will convey his or her ideas, experiences and thoughts. Essays are one of the most popular forms of writing to ascertain an applicant’s general knowledge, experiences, writing style and language skills. It is used in many entrance exams like SAT, IELTS, TOEFL and in college applications as well. From a very early age, school curriculums have been encouraging students to write essays and give speeches. Sometimes the topics provided to students can be complicated. So, today we have come up to help the students with an essay on Scientific Discoveries.

Check out our 200+ Essay Topics for School Students in English

Five Qualities of A Good Essay

Before we provide you with an essay on scientific discoveries. Let’s learn about essay writing. Writing an essay is a difficult thing. The writing should be rich in content plus should not bore its readers. Here are the five qualities a perfect essay should have:-

• Focus: All of your writing should come under one single topic. No matter how vast your essay is, it should always revolve around the topic of the essay. Avoid unnecessary details.
• Development: Every paragraph of your essay should centre the topic of your essay. Try to use examples, details and descriptions.
• Free composition: Always follow a basic structure. Before finalising your essay, jot down the points you would like to mention and then make a series. Do not surprise the reader with complicated words, try to keep it as simple as possible. 
• Correctness: Make sure your essay is free from any grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, mismatched sentences, etc. Always use standard English and complete sentences.
• Introduction and Conclusion: The introduction and the conclusion of the writing are the most important parts of the essay. The first impression is always the last, and so is the introduction of your writing. After reading the first two or three lines, if the reader gets bored, he may not read your whole essay. So make sure your essay contains a crispy beginning. Alternatively, make the conclusion so strong and effective that the reader never forgets your essay. Don’t feel afraid to use quotes, catchy lines, slogans and all. They are the cherry on the cake for your essay.

Also Read: Importance of Technology in Education

Also Read: Essay on Athletics in 100, 200 and 300 Words

Sample Essay on Scientific Discoveries

Here is an example of an essay on scientific discoveries to help them out in their school assignments.

Everything around us is a great discovery. Be it a necessity, comfort, or luxury, they all came from different scientific discoveries that took place over some time. Starting from a small pin to a big ship, everything is just a mere invention to make the lives of humans easier. Scientistic discoveries take place in every arena of thought so before we talk about these inventions. Let’s examine what is science. What is science? Science is a system for acquiring knowledge. We use observations, and experimentation to come to a conclusion and explain any natural phenomenon. In simple language, science is the systematic field of study or knowledge gained from experimentations, observations and some accepted facts. And so scientific discoveries have done miracles in human lives.  Scientific discoveries and inventions have made our lives easier and more comfortable than we could have ever imagined. Scientific equipment accomplishes lengthy tasks in just minutes. Be it in the health sector, education, transportation, and more. All the inventions are just the gifts of science. Nowadays we are in a situation where without science, we cannot imagine our survival. In the absence of Science, no country, and no single person would have made progress. Scientific discoveries and inventions are machines that accomplish any task of humans either fully or partially. According to the business dictionary, the word ‘invention’ is “a new scientific or technical idea and the means of its embodiment or accomplishment. To be patentable, an invention must be novel, have utility, and be non-obvious. To be called an invention, an idea only needs to be proven as workable. But to be called an innovation, it must also be replicable at an economical cost and must satisfy a specific need. That’s why only a few inventions lead to innovations because not all of them are economically feasible.” Wikipedia further says, “An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. It may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field.” These definitions made us clear about how important scientific discovery is for us. Due to science, we can get all kinds of things we desire for. Electricity is a miracle that gives us light even in the dark. It further helps us to run industries conserve the environment and control pollution .  A cricket match is going on in America and we can watch it. Why? Inventions! Nowadays medical science is doing its best all over the world. Let us not forget computers, which is the greatest invention of mankind.  However, it is rightly said that every coin has two sides. Scientific discoveries and inventions have given us a lot and at the same time created a lot of disadvantages too. Nowadays people have become so dependent on technology that even walking has become difficult. Inventions made people so lazy, especially the young generation. All they could think about now is sitting at their home, with their computers and tablets on.

Gone are the days when people used to go out, play and have actual fun in life. Also, scientific inventions have made people jobless. Employers are substituting their employees with heavy machines. And this is the sad reality everywhere. Along with a luxurious life, technology has made our lives more complicated. People nowadays catch the disease early due to no exercise and sitting in front of their computer the whole day.  The biggest and most disastrous inventions are weapons, guns and bombs. What’s worse than taking the life of people? It has ruined unity, peace and harmony all over the world.  Scientific discoveries and inventions have contributed so much that my essay would never be enough to explain it. Ultimately, I would like to say that do not take up the monstrous side. Try the blessing of discoveries and make your life better in every aspect.

Also Read: Essay on Information Technology in 400 Words

Check out our Popular Essay Topics for Students

So this was all regarding an essay on scientific discoveries. For more information on such interesting topics, visit our essay writing page and follow Leverage Edu.

Team Leverage Edu

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Contact no. *

Good work thanks

Thank you, Deepesh!

Good work🙏 sir thanks for sharing

Thank u it was very helpful

Thank you this helped me a lot

Leaving already?

8 Universities with higher ROI than IITs and IIMs

Grab this one-time opportunity to download this ebook

Connect With Us

25,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. take the first step today..

Resend OTP in

Need help with?

Study abroad.

UK, Canada, US & More

IELTS, GRE, GMAT & More

Scholarship, Loans & Forex

Country Preference

New Zealand

Which English test are you planning to take?

Which academic test are you planning to take.

Not Sure yet

When are you planning to take the exam?

Already booked my exam slot

Within 2 Months

Want to learn about the test

Which Degree do you wish to pursue?

When do you want to start studying abroad.

September 2024

January 2025

What is your budget to study abroad?

How would you describe this article ?

Please rate this article

We would like to hear more.

22 Famous Scientists Who Changed How We View the World (and the Universe)

From medicine to physics and astronomy, these scholars have saved lives and improved our understanding across all aspects of the natural world.

Whether it’s a medicine that has saved countless lives or an equation that helped propel the evolution of energy and technology, these breakthroughs arose from the scientific method of observation and experimentation.

Here are 22 of the most famous scientists from the 15 th century to today and how their crucial contributions in many fields of study still impact us.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer and mathematician 1473-1543

For centuries, people incorrectly believed the Earth was the center of the universe. Copernicus theorized otherwise, with the belief that the size and speed of a planet’s orbit depended on its distance from the centralized sun.

Rather than a breakthrough, however, Copernicus’ hypotheses were met with controversy as they deviated from the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. The church even outright banned his research collection, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres , in 1616 long after the German scientist’s death.

Galileo Galilei

Physicist and astronomer 1564-1642

Galileo changed how we literally see the world by taking early telescopes and improving their design. The Italian scientist made lenses capable of magnifying objects twenty-fold .

When Galileo used his tools to look toward the heavens, he discovered Jupiter’s four largest moons, now named in his honor , and stars far off in the Milky Way not visible to the human eye. His findings built the foundation for modern astronomy.

Learn More About Galileo Galilei

Robert Hooke

Astronomer, physicist, and biologist 1635-1703

Englishman Hooke coined the term “cell,” now known as the basic structural unit of all organisms, in his 1665 book Micrographia after observing the cell walls in slices of cork tissue. But his studies weren’t limited to biology. He is famous for Hooke’s Law, which states that the force required to compress or extend a spring is proportional to the distance of compression or extension. He also helped redesign London buildings destroyed by the city’s “Great Fire” in 1666.

Learn More About Robert Hooke

Sir Isaac Newton

Physicist and mathematician 1643-1727

You probably know about Newton’s three laws of motion, including that objects will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon. But did you also know his theory of gravity allowed the Englishman to calculate the mass of each planet and Earth’s ocean tides? Although Albert Einstein would later improve on some of his theories, Newton remains one of the most important minds in history.

Fun fact: Newton’s mother tried to pull him out of school at age 12 to become a farmer. Seems like a good thing that plan fell through.

Learn More About Isaac Newton

Charles Darwin

Biologist 1809-1882

Growing up in Great Britain, Darwin was raised in a Christian family and held creationist beliefs. That’s not what you’d expect from the man whose landmark 1859 book On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection provided a detailed description of the theory of evolution. In his writings, he outlined his natural selection concept, in which species that evolve and adapt to their environment thrive while the others perish.

Learn More About Charles Darwin

Ada Lovelace

Mathematician and computer scientist 1815-1852

A computer scientist in the 1800s? Yes—Lovelace’s notes and instructions on mentor Charles Babbage ’s “analytical engine” are considered a breakthrough on the path to modern computers. For example, the London-born Lovelace first theorized a process now called looping, in which computer programs repeat a series of instructions until a desired outcome is reached.

Although her contributions weren’t recognized until the 20 th century, her legacy was forever cemented in 1980 when the U.S. Department of Defense named the new computer language Ada in her honor.

Learn More About Ada Lovelace

Gregor Mendel

Geneticist 1822-1884

Mendel, from Austria, became an Augustinian monk and an educator, instead of taking over his family’s farm as his father wished. His growing skills did pay off, as Mendel used pea plants to study the transmission of hereditary traits. His findings that traits were either dominant or recessive and passed on independently of one another became the foundation for modern genetic studies.

Learn More About Gregor Mendel

Louis Pasteur

Chemist and microbiologist 1822-1895

Pasteur used his observations of microorganisms to suggest hygienic methods we take for granted today, like sterilizing linens, dressings, and surgical instruments. The process of treating food items with heat to kill pathogens—known as pasteurization—also bears his name.

However, the French scientist is arguably most renowned for his efforts in creating vaccines for diseases such as cholera, smallpox, anthrax, and rabies. He worked on the rabies vaccine despite suffering from a severe brain stroke in 1868.

Learn More About Louis Pasteur

Sigmund Freud

Psychologist 1856-1939

Although his research initially focused on neurobiology, Freud—who was born in what is now the Czech Republic but grew up in Austria—became known for his psychoanalytic theory that past traumatic experiences caused neuroses in patients. He also proposed the ideas of the id, ego, and superego as the three foundations of human personality and that dreams were a method of coping with conflicts rooted in the subconscious.

Learn More About Sigmund Freud

Nikola Tesla

Physicist and mathematician 1856-1943

Chances are you’re reading this in a lit room. If so, you have the Croatia-born Tesla to thank. He designed the alternative current, or AC, electric system, which remains the primary method of electricity used throughout the world (rival Thomas Edison created a direct current system).

Additionally, his patented Tesla coil used in radio transmission antennas helped build the foundation for wireless technology. The scientist also helped pioneer remote and radar technology.

Learn More About Nikola Tesla

George Washington Carver

Botanist and agricultural scientist Circa 1864-1943

Washington Carver is best known for his work with the peanut plant. Born into slavery , the Missouri native developed more than 300 uses for it —including shaving cream, shampoo, plastics, and of course, recipes for foods like bread and candies. But he also looked out for farmers by teaching them livestock care and cultivation techniques. Washington Carver built fruitful friendships with major figures like automaker Henry Ford , whom he worked with to create a soybean-based alternative to rubber and an experimental lightweight car body.

Learn More About George Washington Carver

Marie Curie

Physicist and chemist 1867-1934

Curie, originally from modern-day Poland, was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize —in physics—and also became the first person to win two Nobel prizes .

The scientist, with the help of husband Pierre Curie , discovered radioactivity and the elements polonium and radium. She also championed the use of portable X-ray machines on the battlefields of World War I. Curie died from aplastic anemia, likely caused by her exposure to radiation.

Learn More About Marie Curie

Albert Einstein

Physicist 1879-1955

In addition to his frizzy hair and reported distaste for wearing socks, Einstein became famous for his theory of relativity , suggesting that space and time are intertwined . And, of course, the famous equation E=MC², which showed that even the tiniest particles can produce large amounts of energy.

The German scientist was also a champion for civil rights , once calling racism a “disease.” He joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in the 1940s.

Learn More About Albert Einstein

Physicist 1885-1962

Bohr studied and played soccer at Denmark’s University of Copenhagen before embarking to England to work with J.J. Thomson , who discovered the electron. Bohr proposed an entirely different model of the atom, in which electrons can jump between energy levels. This helped pave the way for quantum mechanics.

Bohr was also a key contributor to the Manhattan Project, in which the United States developed an atomic bomb during World War II. Bohr worked with project director J. Robert Oppenheimer , the subject of the 2023 biopic Oppenheimer .

Learn More About Niels Bohr

Rachel Carson

Biologist 1907-1964

Carson penned the famous book Silent Spring in 1962. The American scientist’s research on the adverse effects of DDT and other pesticides in nature is credited with beginning the modern environmental movement . Soon after the book’s release, the Environmental Protection Agency was established in 1970, and the use of DDT was banned by 1972. Carson, who died of breast cancer, posthumously received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1980.

Learn More About Rachel Carson

Alan Turing

Computer scientist and mathematician 1912-1954

A skilled cryptanalyst, Turing helped decipher coded messages from the German military during World War II. The British mathematician is also considered the father of computer science and artificial intelligence, with his Turing Test purported to measure a machine’s ability to exhibit behaviors comparable to human beings.

Turing’s life and efforts during the war were the basis for the 2014 movie The Imitation Game , starring Benedict Cumberbatch .

Learn More About Alan Turing

Gertrude B. Elion

Biochemist and pharmacologist 1918-1999

Elion, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1988, developed 45 patents in medicine throughout her remarkable career. Hired by Burroughs-Wellcome (now GlaxoSmithKline) in 1944, the American soon went on to develop a drug, 6-MP, to combat leukemia. In 1977, she and her team created the antiviral drug acyclovir that debunked the idea that any drug capable of killing a virus would be too toxic for humans. It’s used to treat herpes, chickenpox, and shingles.

Learn More About Gertrude B. Elion

Katherine Johnson

Mathematician 1918-2020

Each of NASA’s early milestones—from sending an astronaut, Alan Shepard , to space for the first time in 1961, to Neil Armstrong and the Apollo 11 crew landing on the moon eight years later—were all possible because of Johnson. The West Virginia native helped perform the mathematical calculations necessary to determine their correct flight paths .

In a show of gratitude, NASA named a building at its Langley Research Center in Virginia after Johnson in 2017. Her inspiring true story was told in the 2016 movie Hidden Figures , with Taraji P. Henson playing her on the big screen.

Learn More About Katherine Johnson

Rosalind Franklin

Chemist and biophysicist 1920-1958

Franklin began working at King’s College London in 1951 and used X-ray diffraction techniques to find that human DNA had two forms: a dry “A” form and wet “B” form. However, Franklin’s discovery was overlooked after a colleague leaked her findings to scientists Francis Crick and James Watson . That pair went on to create the double helix model for DNA structure. Franklin died from ovarian cancer at age 37.

Learn More About Rosalind Franklin

Jane Goodall

Primatologist 1934-present

Goodall’s extensive study of chimpanzees has helped us understand how similar humans are to our evolutionary relatives. After arriving in Tanzania in 1960, the British scientist discovered chimps create and use tools, develop complex language and social systems, and aren’t exclusively vegetarian as once believed.

Once she understood chimpanzees, Goodall turned her efforts to preserving their habitats and preventing unethical treatment of the animals in scientific experiments.

Learn More About Jane Goodall

Tyler Piccotti first joined the Biography.com staff as an Associate News Editor in February 2023, and before that worked almost eight years as a newspaper reporter and copy editor. He is a graduate of Syracuse University. When he's not writing and researching his next story, you can find him at the nearest amusement park, catching the latest movie, or cheering on his favorite sports teams.

Nobel Prize Winners

14 Hispanic Women Who Have Made History

Martin Luther King Jr.

Henry Kissinger

Malala Yousafzai

Jimmy Carter

10 Famous Poets Whose Enduring Works We Still Read

Wole Soyinka

Jean-Paul Sartre

Albert Camus

• International edition
• Australia edition
• Europe edition

The 10 biggest science stories of 2022 – chosen by scientists

From moon missions to fast-charging batteries and AI-sourced antibiotics, in no particular order, the year’s significant scientific developments

1. The Dart and Orion missions

The year opened with a bang. Or rather, it didn’t. The successful film Don’t Look Up , in which a comet is found to be on a collision course with Earth, had been released just before Christmas 2021. In the bleak days of post-festive gloom, the news media were on an adrenaline high, chasing any and every story about potential asteroid collisions to cheer us all up. Five asteroids were to pass close to the Earth in January alone! Happily for the health and wellbeing of humanity, none was predicted to come within a whisker of hitting the planet. Nonetheless, the possibility of an asteroid colliding with Earth is a reality – the globe is covered in craters from previous impacts, and it is well known that 65m years ago, dinosaurs became extinct following the impact of an asteroid about 10km across. Can anything be done about saving us from this existential extraterrestrial threat? Fortunately, the international space community has taken the first steps towards reducing the risk of an asteroid catching us unawares. The joint Nasa- Esa mission Dart (Double Asteroid Re-Direction Test) was an ambitious attempt to alter the trajectory of a small asteroid (Dimorphos) as it orbited a slightly larger asteroid (Didymos), by sending a spacecraft to crash into it. In October, we learned that the mission had been even more successful than anticipated, and that the orbit of Dimorphos had changed – showing that we could, if given sufficient time, alter the path of an asteroid if it were on a collision course with Earth.

As well as asteroid activity, our moon has been in the news, as a destination of choice for a new generation of astronauts. This year, it is 50 years since the Apollo 17 mission, the last time a human set foot on the moon. So it is a cause for celebration that Artemis, another joint Nasa-Esa programme, has started its operation to return people to the moon. The first phase of the mission, the Orion capsule, was launched in mid-November, and successfully returned to Earth last week. The capsule is designed to hold up to six astronauts – though there were none on board this maiden flight around the moon. We can now look forward to a series of increasingly complex flights of Orion – culminating in a crew of astronauts landing on the moon as soon as 2025.

Monica Grady

Monica Grady is professor of planetary and space sciences at Open University

2. Covid’s boost to immune research

Vaccine technology has seen an unprecedented acceleration in innovation that could soon be benefiting us in a host of ways. A vaccine works by delivering an “infection” signal (something from the germ) and an “alert” signal (to wake the immune response up). As our knowledge of immunology has increased, so too has our capacity to innovate in the vaccines that deliver those signals. Designing any new vaccine takes a long time, significant investment and a lot of eager volunteers, all of which was accelerated during the pandemic, resulting in a host of novel developments.

The autumn Covid-19 booster shots we have just been offered are one such example – these bivalent vaccines target the original strain of Sars-CoV-2 (the virus that causes Covid-19) alongside the Omicron variant. Bivalent vaccines have advantages over the original vaccines as they both top up and broaden our immunity . But what if you could broaden your immunity further – to not just two but multiple strains of virus? So-called multivalent vaccines for Covid-19 and flu are looking very promising. Another approach we could soon see is the use of sniffable or inhalable vaccines – mucosal vaccines . These are already used in China to tackle Covid-19 and may offer long-term protection against respiratory viruses. They are also much more appealing for those of us who are needle-phobic. If these new developments deliver on their promise, then one day soon the calls for annual shots could be a thing of the past. Sheena Cruickshank

Sheena Cruickshank is professor of biomedical sciences and public engagement at the University of Manchester

3. AI reveals new antibiotics

Over the course of the past few years, AI has transformed the field of molecular biology. The revolution started with the AlphaFold algorithm, which rapidly predicts the complex three-dimensional structures of proteins, thus aiding the understanding of protein functions and the identification of drug targets. This year, AI has achieved another breakthrough, this time at the other end of the drug discovery pipeline: several groups in 2022 have reported the first successful applications of AI to identify novel antibiotic drugs.

Antimicrobial resistance is a major global threat. This year, the global research on antimicrobial resistance report published in the Lancet indicated that, worldwide, 4.95m deaths were associated with drug-resistant bacteria in 2019, making untreatable infections one of the leading causes of death.

Developing new drugs that overcome resistance and replenish our arsenal of effective antimicrobials is a continuous struggle. And that is where AI is now beginning to make a major contribution. For example, Yue Ma and colleagues from the Chinese Academy of Sciences used machine-learning techniques originally developed for natural language processing to identify antimicrobial peptides encoded by the genome sequences of microbes in the human gut. The algorithm identified 2,349 potential antimicrobial peptide sequences. Of these, 216 peptides were synthesised by chemical methods, and 181 of them were shown to have antimicrobial activity. This is an impressive success rate, which would not have been possible without the aid of AI.

Even more strikingly, almost half of the peptides discovered were entirely new, without obvious sequence similarity to known antimicrobials, thus increasing the chances of circumventing existing resistance mechanisms. Animal experiments showed that three of the new peptides could be used for the safe and effective treatment of bacterial pneumonia in mice. Studies such as this are good news, promising an unprecedented rapid route towards novel treatment options for some of the scariest pathogenic threats we currently face. Eriko Takano

E riko Takano is professor of synthetic biology at the Manchester Institute of Biotechnology

4. Early weather warnings

In 2022, science was able to see a hurricane hitting the coast of the US before it even formed out at sea. We could visualise the Brisbane River spreading out into Australian homes before a drop of rain had fallen. And we put firefighters on action stations before the spark was lit that burned southern France. We now have the technology to see many of these natural hazards coming, days in advance.

And yet 2022 has been full of lethal events. In Europe, more than 20,000 people died from record-breaking heat this summer, hitting more than 40C (104F) across England for the first time. In August, one third of Pakistan was underwater during a monster monsoon season, killing 1,700 people . Global heating is making these types of disasters worse.

This is why the key scientific story from the past year is not cutting-edge research or hi-tech engineering, but the push by the UN secretary general António Guterres for the world to have equal access to early warnings . Alerting people to danger, so they can take action, is the best way to prevent tragedy. We need equal access to skills and systems that were pioneered years ago. Critical, too, is the leadership to share information and act on the warnings that ensue. Hannah Clo ke

Hannah Clo ke is professor of hydrology at Reading University

5. Inclusive inroads

This year saw a small but important advance in the treatment of sickle cell disease, a group of inherited disorders that cause red blood cells to become sickle shaped and can lead to anaemia. A drug developed to treat an enzyme deficiency (pyruvate kinase) was found to improve anaemia and reduced acute episodes of severe pain in sickle cell disease. While the research is still in its early phases, the researchers point out that their breakthrough came from looking at the characteristics of people with sickle cell disease rather than focusing only on their red blood cells. This development has been found to benefit people with other conditions and brings hope to millions of people worldwide, but predominantly in Africa, the Indian subcontinent and South America.

This was also the year when Nasa’s Artemis mission, which aims “to land the first woman and first person of colour on the moon” by 2025, put female torsos Helga and Zohar into space to test the effects of radiation on the grounds that women appear to be at a greater risk from space radiation than men. This may seem unremarkable, but it was only in 2022 that a Swedish research team designed a new crash test dummy representing an “average woman” , rather than a scaled-down version of the male dummy that is the size of a 12-year-old girl.

Developments such as these excite hope of inclusive science where gender, ethnicity and location neither privilege nor exclude. Ann Phoenix

Ann Phoenix is professor of psychosocial studies at the UCL Institute of Education

6. Elite mathematicians

The Fields medal recognises outstanding mathematical achievement for existing work. Often described as the Nobel prize of mathematics, it is awarded every four years to recipients under the age of 40.

Congratulation to Prof James Maynard, who was awarded a Fields medal this year for his “spectacular contributions” to analytic number theory, “which have led to major advances in the understanding of the structure of prime numbers and in Diophantine approximation”.

One of his standout proofs was to prove the following: there are infinitely many prime numbers whose decimal representation does not contain the digit 7.

Such a simple statement to understand but not very easy to prove. Maynard joins an elite list of British mathematicians who have won the medal.

Congratulations also to one of the other Fields medallists, the Ukrainian mathematician Maryna Viazovska , the second woman to win the award. The mathematician Henry Cohn stated: “Viazovska manages to do things that are completely non-obvious that lots of people tried and failed to do.” She was cited for many mathematical accomplishments, in particular her proof that an arrangement called the E8 lattice is the densest packing of spheres in eight dimensions. Nira Chamberlain

Prof Nira Chamberlain is president of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications

7. Soft cell, hard cell…

When we think about what influences how the cells inside our bodies develop, we often think of biological or chemical factors. But physical forces – what’s known as the “mechanical” environment – can be just as critical to a cell’s journey. The ability of cells to sense and respond to their mechanical environment has been known for several decades: for example, stem cells grown on soft jelly-like gels will become different cell types compared with stem cells grown on stiff glass-like surfaces.

Early signs of diseases such as cancer and Alzheimer’s are often associated with changes in cell stiffness. However, it has been difficult to measure the stiffness of cells and organs inside our bodies, and how they change during development and disease. Tools to measure cell mechanical properties have relied on applying forces to the cell – essentially poking or cutting a cell and seeing how it responds. This is often invasive and damaging, and isn’t easily performed on living cells or organs inside animals, let alone humans.

This year, two research groups, one from Germany , and one from the US , published separate studies demonstrating groundbreaking improvements in a method to measure cell-stiffness, known as Brillouin microscopy. This optical method is non-damaging, allowing you to “see” the stiffness of a material without having to touch it. Developments in this technique this year have significantly advanced imaging speed and resolution, and reduced photo-damage, making the method now widely applicable for observing changes in cell mechanical properties in living animals.

This method will provide a powerful tool for early diagnosis of diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis and Alzheimer’s. It will also revolutionise how scientists can measure and track the mechanical changes of our cells during normal development, and critically improve our understanding of the importance of mechanical forces in biology. Yanlan Mao

Yanlan Mao is professor of developmental biophysics at University College London

8. Quantum entanglement untangled

“Spooky action at a distance.” That’s what Albert Einstein called quantum entanglement, which is when two quantum particles have to be considered as a single entity, since influencing one of them affects the other even when they are far apart.

In October this year, the three pioneers of quantum information science, Alain Aspect of the University of Paris-Saclay, John Clauser of JF Clauser & Associates, and Anton Zeilinger of the University of Vienna were awarded the Nobel prize in physics for their contributions to understanding quantum entanglement.

There are many reasons to enjoy this long overdue award. For the sheer beauty of providing new insights into an exciting area of fundamental phenomena. For laying the groundwork for breakthroughs in quantum computers to carry out complex calculations that would be impossible on a conventional computer, and in quantum encryption that could allow secure communications. For spurring more experiments to address one of the great questions of science – how to reconcile quantum mechanics with Einstein’s general theory of relativity.

And finally, for demonstrating another example of the importance of curiosity-driven basic science leading to real-world applications that could change the way we live and work. Saiful Islam

Saiful Islam is professor of materials science at Oxford University

9. Nature positive

A huge moment for biodiversity is still ongoing as I write: the much-delayed 15th meeting of the parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Montreal, which will set a course for nature recovery from now until 2050. These international agreements feed into national legislation, such as the UK’s Environment Act. Alongside this, companies are making bold commitments to become “nature positive”, meaning that their activities should, overall, lead to nature being in a better state.

Nature-positive commitments need to translate into real, measurable – and attributable – recovery of nature. This is very challenging, though, partly because many products have tortuous supply chains so that the companies themselves don’t always know what the biodiversity impact of their activities is. For example, nickel is a crucial component of our daily lives, being used in the production of stainless steel. Yet how often do we stop and think about where the nickel in our cutlery or electric car batteries has come from, and how producing it has affected the environment?

One impact is the clearance of forests in areas where nickel ore is mined. Ambatovy nickel mine, the biggest mine in Madagascar, is one of a growing number of businesses to have made a commitment to leave nature in no worse a state as a result of its operations. The mine compensated for its forest clearance by putting measures in place to stop clearance of forest by local people for agriculture elsewhere. This year, Katie Devenish and colleagues at Bangor University published a paper looking at whether they had succeeded. Using sophisticated methods to separate out the effects of the mine’s activities from other factors leading to forest loss, the researchers demonstrated that the mine was on track to prevent at least as much deforestation as it had caused. The study is a model for how scientists can carry out thorough and independent evaluations of companies’ environmental commitments, reducing the temptation to greenwash.

We need many more studies like this, that link the esoteric world of high-level policy-making to realities on the ground, in all sectors from mining, to food, to transport and infrastructure. Then we will have a much better chance to hold our governments and companies to account, and reverse the loss of nature, wherever it takes place. E J Milner-Gulland

EJ Milner-Gulland is a professor of biodiversity at Oxford University

10. Battery charge

It’s one of the greatest unappreciated stories of our time: the incredibly rapid improvements in battery technology that will form the foundation of an electrified world as we wean ourselves off fossil fuels.

Of course there are questions. What about the costs? Will batteries ever really store enough energy for their size to power something like a large plane? And where will we get all the rare metals necessary to build them?

That’s why my story of the year is the October Nature paper by Chao-Yang Wang and co-authors , describing a way to charge energy-dense batteries incredibly quickly – in just a few minutes. It really highlights the phenomenal speed at which battery chemists, engineers and technologists are rising to the challenge. If you can charge a car battery in 10-12 minutes, charging more frequently becomes much less of a problem, allowing for smaller batteries that are cheaper and less resource-intensive to make.

We are also seeing huge progress in battery technologies based on cheap, abundant sodium instead of expensive and relatively rare lithium, as well as methods to make all these batteries far easier to recycle.

The basic principles of a battery haven’t changed, but the potential of the newest versions is astonishing and getting better all the time. Helen Czerski

Helen Czerski is a research fellow at the department of mechanical engineering , University College London

• The Observer
• Artificial intelligence (AI)
• Climate crisis
• Mathematics
• Coronavirus

Comments (…)

Most viewed.

Science Achievement Essays

Factors influencing science achievement outcomes in the uae, popular essay topics.

• American Dream
• Artificial Intelligence
• Black Lives Matter
• Bullying Essay
• Career Goals Essay
• Causes of the Civil War
• Child Abusing
• Civil Rights Movement
• Community Service
• Cultural Identity
• Cyber Bullying
• Death Penalty
• Depression Essay
• Domestic Violence
• Freedom of Speech
• Global Warming
• Gun Control
• Human Trafficking
• I Believe Essay
• Immigration
• Importance of Education
• Israel and Palestine Conflict
• Leadership Essay
• Legalizing Marijuanas
• Mental Health
• National Honor Society
• Police Brutality
• Pollution Essay
• Racism Essay
• Romeo and Juliet
• Same Sex Marriages
• Social Media
• The Great Gatsby
• The Yellow Wallpaper
• Time Management
• To Kill a Mockingbird
• Violent Video Games
• What Makes You Unique
• Why I Want to Be a Nurse
• Send us an e-mail

Science | December 20, 2023

The Ten Most Significant Science Stories of 2023

From an asteroid sample that was delivered to Earth to a discovery about human migration from North America, these were the biggest moments of the year

Carlyn Kranking and Joe Spring

In 2023, a whirlwind of science headlines swept across our screens, from the find that our ancestors nearly went extinct 900,000 years ago to the discovery of a brilliant green comet in the sky. In major health news, the coronavirus public health emergency expired , and the disease took up less of our attention, though it continued to have disastrous impacts . Medical experts are anticipating updated annual vaccines will be released to continue fighting the virus as it evolves.

Also evolving rapidly this year was artificial intelligence, which found uses in everything from medicine to wildlife biology. In one innovative application, it was used to help forecast when birds took to the skies. Such an ability can help officials determine when to turn off building lights to prevent bird strikes—a conservation strategy that made national news when almost 1,000 birds died in one night after hitting a single lakeside building in Chicago.

That was a grim stat, but the year was filled with amazing news as well, including the astounding images released by the James Webb Space Telescope . In major math news, researchers found a shape with a pattern that never repeats. And in France, scientists discovered that arresting patterns left in rock are the oldest known Neanderthal cave engravings .

Unfortunately, but not unexpectedly, climate change continued to generate plenty of headlines, as the year became the hottest on record . Amid intensifying natural disasters , world leaders gathered in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, for the 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference, or COP28. While the proceedings closed with a landmark deal that made the first-ever global commitment to transition away from fossil fuels , several experts criticized the text for not going far enough .

While we were riveted by all of those stories and more, only some made our list of the biggest science events and discoveries this year. Plenty of amazing new findings surely await us in 2024, but before we cover them, here’s a look back at the moments that shaped 2023 as another major year in science.

Archaeologists find ancient Native Americans crossed back over to Asia

Between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago, hunter-gatherers from eastern Eurasia likely ventured over to North America across the Bering Strait. But research this year suggests they and their descendants didn’t make a one-way trip. Several times in history, ancient Native Americans made their way back across the strait to Eurasia , according to a study published in Current Biology in January. Researchers recovered ancient DNA from ten Eurasian individuals who lived 500 to 7,500 years ago. Their analysis shows that humans with Native American lineages traveled as far away as Kamchatka and central Siberia, likely returning from North America to Asia roughly 5,000 years ago.

The find was one of many interesting discoveries related to ancient migrations and the Americas this year. In July, a study published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B described three pendants in Brazil made from sloth bones that date to between 25,000 and 27,000 years before present. That find supports the theory that humans made it to the Americas earlier than previously thought. (For many decades, researchers thought humans traveled from Russia to Alaska roughly 15,000 years ago.) And in an October study published in Science , an analysis of evidence found near fossilized footprints in New Mexico suggests that the imprints date to 23,000 years ago, which also supports the idea of an earlier migration of humans to North America. While the timeline of migrations to the Americas—and back—continues to be debated, many sites that will offer more clues await discovery and analysis. —Joe Spring

Artificial intelligence yields scientific breakthroughs as experts call for caution

2023 was a “ breakout year ” for artificial intelligence. Following the release of OpenAI’s ChatGPT at the end of 2022, machine learning has increasingly been in the public eye. A.I. made its way into courtrooms , music and art this year, raising a slew of ethical concerns . In the realm of science, the cutting-edge technology is paving the path toward new discoveries and more advanced processing of data.

Several groups of researchers experimented with having A.I. algorithms generate words , images and even music based on people’s brain scans—a technique that, down the line, could help stroke patients and paralyzed people to communicate by thinking . Machine learning has helped in conservation, such as by tracking migrating birds —the A.I.-powered tool BirdCast can alert people to an incoming wave of migrants, which may help prevent disease , inform Lights Out programs to reduce window strikes , and tip off birders about flocks in their area. Scientists are also developing A.I. tools that can identify species based only on a photograph , distinguish between similar-looking mushrooms or pinpoint a bird species from its song. And, inspired by the way ChatGPT follows patterns in language to generate words, researchers have experimented with translating whale sounds using A.I.

At the same time, experts warned this year of the need to regulate the rapidly advancing technology. Geoffrey Hinton, a machine learning pioneer widely called the “Godfather of A.I.,” quit his part-time job with Google in May so that he could speak more freely about his unease regarding A.I.’s future. Experts have raised concerns that A.I. could spread misinformation, manipulate humans and alter the job market if it isn’t controlled. But innovation continues, and it seems likely that researchers will increasingly use A.I. to attempt breakthroughs in many fields. —Carlyn Kranking

NASA retrieves asteroid bits to shine light on Earth’s origins

On September 24, 8.8 ounces of rock and dust collected from an asteroid named Bennu landed in the Utah desert . The astronomical delivery was the result of a more than seven-year NASA mission in which the agency’s OSIRIS-REx probe journeyed 1.2 billion miles to the asteroid to retrieve the sample. The 4.5-billion-year-old Bennu existed before Earth did, so it could hold clues about how our planet formed and which building blocks of life meteorites delivered here long ago.

Initial analysis revealed evidence of water and a high carbon content on Bennu. While the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft is already off to visit another asteroid, researchers on Earth will study the Bennu sample for two years and set aside some of the rock for later examination. And while much of the rock will be analyzed behind closed doors, a 0.3-inch, 0.005-ounce sample is on display at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History, so you can get a glimpse of an object that is truly far-out. —J.S.

The Titan submersible imploded while searching for a shipwreck

The world watched in June after OceanGate’s Titan submersible went quiet during a dive to the Titanic . The craft and its five passengers descended toward the famous wreck on Sunday, June 18, at 8 a.m., but it lost contact with its base ship, the Polar Prince , around 10:45 a.m. At 5:40 p.m., roughly three hours after the sub was supposed to breach the surface, officials notified the Coast Guard the craft was overdue. Airplanes and a Bahamian research vessel with remote-operated robots helped scour an area twice the size of Connecticut. Numerous television stations and news outlets covered the search as fears mounted that the crew was running out of oxygen. And on Thursday morning, the Coast Guard found debris consistent with a catastrophic implosion of the submersible.

Onboard was Stockton Rush, the CEO and co-founder of OceanGate, who considered himself a maverick and breaker of rules . He had gone forward with that dive and others despite safety concerns. Two former employees had raised issues about the craft’s hull, and more than three dozen experts warned that catastrophic problems could occur due to company’s experimental approach. Though many in the public waited to hear news about the sub after it went missing, experts expected the worst . And while the actual scientific benefits of Titan ’s dive were likely minimal , the sub’s tragic end shed a light on the value of the time and effort that goes into scientific exploration of the deep sea. Scientists who dive to the ocean’s depths for serious study go down in crafts that have undergone rigorous testing. Because of that, nearly 50 years had passed since a fatal accident on such a submersible. That all changed with a company that dove despite multiple warnings. —J.S.

Wildfires burned through Canada and Hawaii

Devastating wildfires dominated the news again in 2023. Blazes set a record in Canada, scorching more than 45 million acres by October. The country’s previous annual record, standing since 1989, was less than half that, at 19 million acres burned . As climate change causes higher temperatures, Canada’s fire season has become longer by about two weeks, and larger fires have grown more common. Hundreds of such “megafires,” covering 39 square miles (10,000 hectares) or more, incinerated our northern neighbor this year. Many had massive clouds above them, like those usually seen above volcanoes , that created lightning and high winds. And Canada’s major burns affected others around the world: During June, parts of the United States’ Midwest and Northeast regions registered the globe’s worst air quality, and pollution reached as far as Spain, Britain and Norway .

Canada’s catastrophic fires weren’t alone. On August 8 , a devastating blaze swept across the Hawaiian island of Maui and engulfed the city of Lahaina , killing at least 100 people . The death toll is the highest caused by a wildfire in the U.S. in more than a century , and thousands of residents lost their homes. On the islands, some seasons are hotter and drier due to climate change, allowing wildfires to spread at increasing speeds. Climate change is altering many other such areas around the planet, threatening to make what was once considered extreme fire become more and more the norm . —J.S.

UFOs break into government discourse and spark conspiracy theories

In 2023, alien conspiracies and UFO speculation riddled social media, but at the same time, some of the stigma around researching unidentified anomalous phenomena, or UAP, began to break down.

For starters, the U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence released a report in January that announced more than 350 sightings of UAPs had been logged by the government since March 2021. Nearly half of these were described as “balloon or balloon-like entities”—a subject that took center stage the following month, when the U.S. government shot down what was suspected to be a Chinese high-altitude spy balloon off the coast of South Carolina. The incident demonstrated how identifying UAPs has implications for national security.

Then, at a House of Representatives hearing in July, former U.S. intelligence officer David Grusch alleged in a testimony under oath that the federal government is covering up evidence of crashed vehicles and biological material believed to be of “non-human” origin. In September, alien discourse appeared in legislative chambers once more, when a self-proclaimed UFO expert unveiled what he claimed were the bodies of extraterrestrials in front of Mexico’s Congress. Scientists balked at the suggestion, pointing to several previous alien theories from the speaker that had been debunked. Ultimately, anyone looking for confirmation of aliens on Earth didn’t get it this year—after a 12-month study, NASA released a report on UFOs in September , stating its scientists found “no conclusive evidence” that the mysterious phenomena have an extraterrestrial origin. —C.K.

Orcas break rudders and sink ships in the Strait of Gibraltar

Maybe it’s a form of play. Maybe it’s a passing fad . Or maybe, as internet onlookers from around the world have facetiously suggested, it’s a full-fledged, female-led orca uprising, planned as retribution for humanity’s presence in the high seas. (Scientists aren’t on board with that last one.) Whatever the reason, orcas off the coasts of Portugal and Spain have been ramming into and breaking rudders off ships in the Strait of Gibraltar. Since 2020, more than 500 interactions with contact between orcas and boats have occurred, and four of these incidents—with two this year—resulted in a vessel sinking, most recently in November .

In May, a scientist suggested the curious behavior started after one orca had a negative experience with a boat, and that it spread as juveniles watched her break rudders. This led people to cheer for the orcas on social media. But in an open letter in August, a group of 35 scientists warned against attributing human traits to the animals . Doing so, they wrote, could lead mariners to take aggressive action against the orcas, which belong to a critically endangered population of fewer than 50 individuals . Indeed, some sailors have thrown firecrackers into the water in an attempt to keep orcas away.

Amid all the mystery around the behavior, one thing seems clear—the orcas do not appear to have malicious intentions. “Quite frankly, if they really wanted to take revenge, they would,” biopsychologist Lori Marino told ABC News in July. —C.K.

Covid-19 entered a new phase

Though, to many people, Covid-19 faded into the background this year, the disease remains a problem as the vaccine response has lagged. On May 11 , the Biden administration allowed the coronavirus public health emergency to expire, leading the virus to be treated like other respiratory ailments. (Insurance providers were no longer required to provide free Covid-19 tests, and some medicines, such as Paxlovid, were no longer guaranteed to be free.)

A new variant, XBB , became dominant in early 2023, and in September the Food and Drug Administration authorized an XBB booster , which also works for other Omicron variants. But by the end of October, the Department of Health and Human Services said only about 4.5 percent of the population had received the shots, despite the fact that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended the updated dose for everyone six months or older . The reception was lower than the previous year’s booster, which more than 23 million Americans had received after a similar timespan. The lackluster uptake continued a trend of declining response to boosters. As of December , roughly 70 percent of the population had the primary series of the vaccine, while less than 20 percent had received a bivalent booster. While the virus was not spreading at the rate of previous years, as of early December , more than 5,000 people were hospitalized on an average day and more than 1,200 deaths were occurring each week. Much of the population, including people who are over 65, pregnant or immunocompromised, are still vulnerable to the disease.

And some folks continue to deal with the aftereffects of the virus: This June, roughly 6 percent of the population was suffering from long Covid, according to the CDC . And of those, more than one in four experienced significant limitations in their ability to perform normal daily activities. As the disease continues to evolve, the Biden administration says citizens should expect to have a shot available each fall , like the schedule for flu vaccines. But whether people will actually be receptive to that shot remains to be seen, following the decline in this year’s response. —J.S.

A teenage tyrannosaur fossil preserves what young dinosaurs ate

Adult tyrannosaurs—large, bipedal carnivores of the Late Cretaceous—were fearsome predators in the prehistoric landscape. With their bone-crushing bite force, the fully grown dinosaurs could bring down massive plant-eaters . Young tyrannosaurs, on the other hand, might have had more limited pickings with their slender frames, narrow skulls and blade-like teeth . At least, that’s what paleontologists suspected. But they didn’t have proof until this year, when researchers reported a fascinating discovery: a “teenage” tyrannosaur, with its final meals preserved intact .

The astounding fossil of Gorgosaurus , uncovered in 2009 and described in Science Advances in December, provides the first direct evidence of shifts in a tyrannosaur’s diet from adolescence to adulthood. Within the carnivore’s stomach were four legs—two pairs—from small, bird-like dinosaurs called Citipes elegans . Each pair of legs shows different levels of digestion, suggesting they represent the young reptile’s last two meals, consumed hours or days apart. The juvenile tyrannosaur, which was between 5 and 7 years old, likely had to chase down these fast, turkey-sized prey. The findings suggest that young, agile Gorgosaurus survived on bits of baby dinosaurs until they grew big enough to take down titans. —C.K.

2023 becomes the hottest year on record

Worldwide, 2023 started out warm . April and May ranked among the hottest months of their kind in written history. But when summer arrived in the Northern Hemisphere, records fell left and right . Heat waves gripped regions of the United States and Southern Europe. American municipalities set more than 1,000 daily temperature records in June and July, and residents of Phoenix sweltered through an unprecedented 31-day stretch of at least 110 degree Fahrenheit temperatures. Even heat-adapted saguaro cactuses fell over and died . Oceans warmed to levels unparalleled in the nearly 45-year record , with one thermometer in the Florida Keys measuring “hot tub” heat levels at 101.1 degrees Fahrenheit in July.

The life-threatening heat was wide-reaching: On one weekend day in August, more than 111 million Americans in the South and Southwest were under heat warnings. Month after month—first June, then July, August, September, October and November—clocked in as the hottest months of their kind ever documented. With both climate change and the arrival of the heat- and moisture-bringing El Niño weather pattern, 2023 is now guaranteed to become the hottest year on record. But since, historically, El Niño’s most extreme heat arrives during its second year , some scientists warn that 2024 might be even more chart-topping. —C.K.

Caption of Top Image: Illustration by Emily Lankiewicz / Clockwise from upper left: Unsplash, Mojahid Mottakin; Nadezhda F. Stepanova; Francois Gohier / VW Pics / Universal Images Group via Getty Images; NASA Johnson Space Center; Unsplash, Jarosław Kwoczała; Unsplash, Fusion Medical Animation; Ocean Gate / Handout / Anadolu Agency via Getty Images; Unsplash, Bruce Warrington; Unsplash, Benjamin Lizardo; Julius Csotonyi © Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology

Get the latest Science stories in your inbox.

Carlyn Kranking | | READ MORE

Carlyn Kranking is the assistant web editor for science and innovation.

Joe Spring | READ MORE

Joe Spring is the associate digital science editor for Smithsonian magazine.

Science Essay Examples

Best Science Essay Examples to Learn From

Published on: May 3, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 31, 2024

Share this article

Are you struggling to write a science essay that stands out? 

Are you tired of feeling overwhelmed by scientific jargon and complicated concepts? 

You're not alone. 

Science essays can be a challenge for even the most dedicated students. It's no wonder that so many students struggle to produce top-notch papers.

But fear not! 

In this blog post, we'll provide you with some science essay examples and tips. We will help you write a top-notch paper that impresses your professor and earns you a high grade. 

So buckle up and get ready to tackle science essays like a pro!

On This Page On This Page -->

Science Essay Examples for Students

Writing a science essay can be a daunting task for students. However, with the right guidance and examples, it can also be a rewarding and enlightening experience.

Here, we'll provide you with examples so you can elevate your own writing.

Science Essay Example SPM

Scientific Essay Example Pdf (Insert

Science Paper Example

Science Project Essay Example

Science Essay Examples for Different Subjects

Science is a vast field that encompasses many different subjects, from biology to physics to chemistry. As a student, you may find yourself tasked with writing a science essay on a subject that you're not particularly familiar with. 

We have provided you with science essay examples for different subjects to help you get started.

Social Science Essay Example

Political Science Essay Example

Environmental Science Essay Example

Health Science Essay Example

Computer Science Essay Example

University Science Essay Examples

Science essays are important part of university-level education. However, different universities may have different requirements and expectations when it comes to writing these essays. 

That's why we've compiled some science essay examples for different universities. You can see what works and what doesn't, and tailor your own writing accordingly.

Scientific Essay Example University

Mcmaster Health Science Essay Example

Cornell Arts And Science Essay Example

Tough Essay Due? Hire Tough Writers!

Structure of a Science Essay

Science essays are a crucial part of many subjects, and learning to structure them effectively is essential for achieving academic success. 

Let’s explore scientific essay structure.

Introduction

The introduction of a science essay should introduce the topic and provide some context for the reader. 

You should explain the purpose of the essay and provide a thesis statement that outlines the main argument you will make in the essay. A good introduction should also capture the reader's interest and motivate them to read on.

Check out these how to start a science essay examples for better understanding:

Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs of a science essay should provide evidence to support the thesis statement. You should use scientific evidence, research, and data to support your argument. 

Each paragraph should focus on one key point, and the points should be organized logically to create a coherent argument. It is essential to provide citations for all sources you use in your essay.

Here is an example for you:

The conclusion of a science essay should summarize the main points of the essay and restate the thesis statement in a compelling manner. 

You should also provide some final thoughts or recommendations based on the evidence presented in the essay. 

The conclusion should be concise and leave a lasting impression on the reader.

Natural Science Essay Topics

There are countless interesting, thought-provoking and problem solving essay topics in science.

Explore some compelling natural science essay topics to inspire your writing.

Science Essay Topics for 5th Graders

• The importance of recycling for our environment
• The different types of clouds and how they form
• How animals hibernate during the winter months
• The different types of rocks and how they are formed
• The role of bees in pollination and food production
• How light travels and how we see objects
• The properties of magnets and how they work
• The different stages of stem cell research 
• The human digestive system and how it works
• The effects of pollution on our environment and health

Science Essay Topics for 6th Graders

• The impact of climate change on the planet
• The different types of energy and how they are produced
• The importance of water conservation and management
• The role of artificial intelligence in human life
• The structure and function of the human respiratory system
• The properties and uses of acids and bases
• The effect of light on plant growth and development
• The differences between renewable and non-renewable energy sources
• The process of photosynthesis and its importance for life on Earth
• The impact of technology on the environment and society

Science Essay Topics for 7th Graders

• The structure and function of the human circulatory system
• The different types of fossils and how they are formed
• The impact of natural disasters on the environment and human life
• The pros and cons of bacteria in our bodies and in the environment
• The physics of sound and how it travels
• The effects of air pollution in United States
• The properties and uses of different types of waves (sound, light, etc.)
• The process of cell division and its role in growth and repair
• The structure and function of the human nervous system
• The different types of ecosystems and their unique characteristics

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That's our Job!

Tips for Writing a Science Essay

Writing a science essay can be challenging, especially if you don't have much experience in writing academic papers. 

However, with the right approach and strategies, you can produce a high-quality science essays. 

Here are some tips to help you write a successful science essay:

Understand the assignment requirements: Before you start writing your essay, make sure you understand the assignment requirements. Read the prompt carefully and make note of any specific guidelines or formatting requirements.

Choose a topic that interests you: Writing about a topic that you find interesting and engaging can make the process enjoyable and rewarding. Consider topics that you have studied in class or that you have a personal interest in.

Conduct thorough research: To write a successful science essay, you need to have a deep understanding of the topic you are writing about. Conduct thorough research using reliable sources such as academic journals, textbooks, and reputable websites.

Develop a clear and concise thesis statement: Your thesis statement should clearly state your argument or position on the topic you are writing about. It should be concise and specific, and should be supported by evidence throughout your essay.

Use evidence to support your claims: When writing a science essay, it's important to use evidence to support your claims and arguments. This can include scientific data, research findings, and expert opinions.

Edit and proofread your essay: Before submitting your essay, make sure to edit and proofread it carefully. Check for spelling and grammatical errors. Ensure that your essay is formatted correctly according to the assignment requirements.

In conclusion, this blog has provided a comprehensive guide to writing a successful science essay. 

By following the tips, students can produce high-quality essays that showcase their understanding of science.

If you're struggling to write a science essay or need additional assistance, CollegeEssay.org is one of the best online essay services to help you out,

Our expert writers have extensive experience in writing science essays for students of all levels. 

So why wait? Contact our science essay writing service today!

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some common mistakes to avoid when writing a science essay.

Some common mistakes to avoid include:

• Plagiarizing content
• Using incorrect or unreliable sources
• Failing to clearly state your thesis
• Using overly complex language 

How can I make my science essay stand out?

To make your science essay stand out, consider choosing a unique or controversial topic. Using relevant and up-to-date sources, and present your information in a clear and concise manner. You can also consider using visuals such as graphs or charts to enhance your essay.

What should I do if I'm struggling to come up with a topic for my science essay?

If you're struggling to come up with a topic for your science essay, consider discussing potential topics with your instructor or classmates. You can also conduct research online or in academic journals to find inspiration.

How important is research when writing a science essay?

Research is an essential component of writing a science essay. Your essay should be grounded in accurate and reliable scientific information. That is why it's important to conduct thorough research using reputable sources.

Can I use personal anecdotes or experiences in my science essay?

While personal anecdotes or experiences can be engaging, they may not always be relevant to a science essay. It's important to focus on presenting factual information and scientific evidence to support your argument or position.

Caleb S. (Law, Literature)

Caleb S. has extensive experience in writing and holds a Masters from Oxford University. He takes great satisfaction in helping students exceed their academic goals. Caleb always puts the needs of his clients first and is dedicated to providing quality service.

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That’s our Job!

Legal & Policies

• Privacy Policy
• Cookies Policy
• Terms of Use
• Refunds & Cancellations
• Our Writers
• Success Stories
• Our Guarantees
• Affiliate Program
• Referral Program
• AI Essay Writer

Disclaimer: All client orders are completed by our team of highly qualified human writers. The essays and papers provided by us are not to be used for submission but rather as learning models only.

Essay on Science and Technology for Students and Children

500+ words essay on science and technology.

Essay on Science and Technology: Science and technology are important parts of our day to day life. We get up in the morning from the ringing of our alarm clocks and go to bed at night after switching our lights off. All these luxuries that we are able to afford are a resultant of science and technology . Most importantly, how we can do all this in a short time are because of the advancement of science and technology only. It is hard to imagine our life now without science and technology. Indeed our existence itself depends on it now. Every day new technologies are coming up which are making human life easier and more comfortable. Thus, we live in an era of science and technology.

Essentially, Science and Technology have introduced us to the establishment of modern civilization . This development contributes greatly to almost every aspect of our daily life. Hence, people get the chance to enjoy these results, which make our lives more relaxed and pleasurable.

Benefits of Science and Technology

If we think about it, there are numerous benefits of science and technology. They range from the little things to the big ones. For instance, the morning paper which we read that delivers us reliable information is a result of scientific progress. In addition, the electrical devices without which life is hard to imagine like a refrigerator, AC, microwave and more are a result of technological advancement.

Furthermore, if we look at the transport scenario, we notice how science and technology play a major role here as well. We can quickly reach the other part of the earth within hours, all thanks to advancing technology.

In addition, science and technology have enabled man to look further than our planet. The discovery of new planets and the establishment of satellites in space is because of the very same science and technology. Similarly, science and technology have also made an impact on the medical and agricultural fields. The various cures being discovered for diseases have saved millions of lives through science. Moreover, technology has enhanced the production of different crops benefitting the farmers largely.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

India and Science and Technology

Ever since British rule, India has been in talks all over the world. After gaining independence, it is science and technology which helped India advance through times. Now, it has become an essential source of creative and foundational scientific developments all over the world. In other words, all the incredible scientific and technological advancements of our country have enhanced the Indian economy.

Looking at the most recent achievement, India successfully launched Chandrayaan 2. This lunar exploration of India has earned critical acclaim from all over the world. Once again, this achievement was made possible due to science and technology.

In conclusion, we must admit that science and technology have led human civilization to achieve perfection in living. However, we must utilize everything in wise perspectives and to limited extents. Misuse of science and technology can produce harmful consequences. Therefore, we must monitor the use and be wise in our actions.

{ “@context”: “https://schema.org”, “@type”: “FAQPage”, “mainEntity”: [{ “@type”: “Question”, “name”: “List some benefits of science and technology.”, “acceptedAnswer”: { “@type”: “Answer”, “text”: “Science and Technology helps us to function daily comfortably. It has given us railway systems, TV, refrigerator, internet and more.” } }, { “@type”: “Question”, “name”: “Name the most recent achievement of India with the help of science and technology.”, “acceptedAnswer”: { “@type”: “Answer”, “text”:”India most recently launched Chandrayaan 2 successfully. This lunar exploration helped India make a distinctive place amongst the other developed countries.”} }] }

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

• Travelling Essay
• Picnic Essay
• Our Country Essay
• My Parents Essay
• Essay on Favourite Personality
• Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
• Essay on Knowledge is Power
• Essay on Gurpurab
• Essay on My Favourite Season
• Essay on Types of Sports

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

• History Classics
• Your Profile
• Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)
• This Day In History
• History Podcasts
• History Vault

Mayan Scientific Achievements

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 23, 2023 | Original: May 17, 2010

The ancient Maya, a diverse group of indigenous people who lived in parts of present-day Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras, had one of the most sophisticated and complex civilizations in the Western Hemisphere. Between about 300 and 900 A.D., the Maya were responsible for a number of remarkable scientific achievements–in astronomy, agriculture, engineering and communications.

The Ancient Maya

Mayan civilization lasted for more than 2,000 years, but the period from about 300 A.D. to 900 A.D., known as the Classic Period, was its heyday. During that time, the Maya developed a complex understanding of astronomy. They also figured out how to grow corn, beans, squash and cassava in sometimes-inhospitable places; how to build elaborate cities without modern machinery; how to communicate with one another using one of the world’s first written languages; and how to measure time using not one but two complicated calendar systems.

Did you know? The written language of the Maya was made up of about 800 glyphs, or symbols. Each one represented a word or a syllable, and could be combined with the others in an almost infinite number of ways. As a result, there were three or four different ways to write almost every word in the Mayan language.

Mayan Astronomy and Calendar-Making

The Maya strongly believed in the influence of the cosmos on daily life. Consequently, Mayan knowledge and understanding of celestial bodies was advanced for their time: For example, they knew how to predict solar eclipses. They also used astrological cycles to aid in planting and harvesting and developed two calendars that are as precise as those we use today.

The first, known as the Calendar Round, was based on two overlapping annual cycles: a 260-day sacred year and a 365-day secular year. Under this system, each day was assigned four pieces of identifying information: a day number and day name in the sacred calendar and a day number and month name in the secular calendar. Every 52 years counted as a single interval, or Calendar Round. After each interval the calendar would reset itself like a clock.

Because the Calendar Round measured time in an endless loop, it was a poor way to fix events in an absolute chronology or in relationship to one another over a long period. For this job, a priest working in about 236 BC devised another system: a calendar that he called the Long Count. The Long Count system identified each day by counting forward from a fixed date in the distant past. (In the early 20th century, scholars found that this “base date” was August 11 or August 13, 3114 BC.) It grouped days into sets, or cycles, as follows: baktun (144,000 days), k’atun (7,200 days), tun (360 days), uinal or winal (20 days) and kin (one day).

The Long Count calendar worked the same way that the Calendar Round did–it cycled through one interval after another–but its interval, known as a “Grand Cycle,” was much longer. One Grand Cycle was equal to 13 baktuns, or about 5,139 solar years.

Pyramid at Chichén Itzá

The Maya incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. The pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico , for example, is situated according to the sun’s location during the spring and fall equinoxes. At sunset on these two days, the pyramid casts a shadow on itself that aligns with a carving of the head of the Mayan serpent god. The shadow forms the serpent’s body; as the sun sets, the serpent appears to slither down into the Earth.

Mayan Technology

Remarkably, the ancient Maya managed to build elaborate temples and great cities without what we would consider to be essential tools: metal and the wheel. However, they did use a number of other “modern” innovations and tools, especially in the decorative arts. For example, they built complicated looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from mica, a mineral that still has technological uses today.

Until recently, people believed that vulcanization–combining rubber with other materials to make it more durable–was discovered by the American (from Connecticut ) Charles Goodyear in the 19th century. However, historians now think that the Maya were producing rubber products about 3,000 years before Goodyear received his patent in 1843.

How did they do it? Researchers believe that the Maya discovered this process accidentally, during a religious ritual in which they combined the rubber tree and the morning-glory plant. Once they realized how strong and versatile this new material was, the Maya began to use it in a variety of ways: to make water-resistant cloth, glue, bindings for books, figurines and the large rubber balls used in the ritual game known as pokatok.

The Decline of the Maya

Despite the Maya’s remarkable scientific achievements, their culture began to decline toward the beginning of the 11th century. The cause and scope of the decline is a matter of some debate today. Some believe that the Maya were wiped out by war, while others attribute their demise to the disruption of their trade routes. Still others believe that the Maya’s agricultural practices and dynamic growth resulted in climate change and deforestation. While much of what was left of the ancient Maya culture was subsumed by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, the legacy of Mayan scientific achievement lives on in the discoveries that archeologists continue to make about this amazing ancient culture.

HISTORY Vault: Ancient History

From Egypt to Greece, explore fascinating documentaries about the ancient world.

Sign up for Inside History

Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.

By submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.

More details : Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact Us

Frequently asked questions

How do i write about my achievements and qualities.

Through specific stories, you can weave your achievements and qualities into your essay so that it doesn’t seem like you’re bragging from a resume.

Frequently asked questions: College admissions essays

When writing your Common App essay , choose a prompt that sparks your interest and that you can connect to a unique personal story.

No matter which prompt you choose, admissions officers are more interested in your ability to demonstrate personal development , insight, or motivation for a certain area of study.

The Common App essay is your primary writing sample within the Common Application, a college application portal accepted by more than 900 schools. All your prospective schools that accept the Common App will read this essay to understand your character, background, and value as a potential student.

Since this essay is read by many colleges, avoid mentioning any college names or programs; instead, save tailored answers for the supplementary school-specific essays within the Common App.

Most importantly, your essay should be about you , not another person or thing. An insightful college admissions essay requires deep self-reflection, authenticity, and a balance between confidence and vulnerability.

Your essay shouldn’t be a résumé of your experiences but instead should tell a story that demonstrates your most important values and qualities.

When revising your college essay , first check for big-picture issues regarding your message and content. Then, check for flow, tone, style , and clarity. Finally, focus on eliminating grammar and punctuation errors .

If your college essay goes over the word count limit , cut any sentences with tangents or irrelevant details. Delete unnecessary words that clutter your essay.

If you’re struggling to reach the word count for your college essay, add vivid personal stories or share your feelings and insight to give your essay more depth and authenticity.

If you’ve got to write your college essay fast , don’t panic. First, set yourself deadlines: you should spend about 10% of your remaining time on brainstorming, 10% on outlining, 40% writing, 30% revising, and 10% taking breaks in between stages.

Second, brainstorm stories and values based on your essay prompt.

Third, outline your essay based on the montage or narrative essay structure .

Fourth, write specific, personal, and unique stories that would be hard for other students to replicate.

Fifth, revise your essay and make sure it’s clearly written.

Last, if possible, get feedback from an essay coach . Scribbr essay editors can help you revise your essay in 12 hours or less.

Avoid swearing in a college essay , since admissions officers’ opinions of profanity will vary. In some cases, it might be okay to use a vulgar word, such as in dialogue or quotes that make an important point in your essay. However, it’s safest to try to make the same point without swearing.

If you have bad grades on your transcript, you may want to use your college admissions essay to explain the challenging circumstances that led to them. Make sure to avoid dwelling on the negative aspects and highlight how you overcame the situation or learned an important lesson.

However, some college applications offer an additional information section where you can explain your bad grades, allowing you to choose another meaningful topic for your college essay.

Here’s a brief list of college essay topics that may be considered cliché:

• Extracurriculars, especially sports
• Role models
• Dealing with a personal tragedy or death in the family
• Struggling with new life situations (immigrant stories, moving homes, parents’ divorce)
• Becoming a better person after community service, traveling, or summer camp
• Overcoming a difficult class
• Using a common object as an extended metaphor

It’s easier to write a standout essay with a unique topic. However, it’s possible to make a common topic compelling with interesting story arcs, uncommon connections, and an advanced writing style.

Yes. The college application essay is less formal than other academic writing —though of course it’s not mandatory to use contractions in your essay.

In a college essay , you can be creative with your language . When writing about the past, you can use the present tense to make the reader feel as if they were there in the moment with you. But make sure to maintain consistency and when in doubt, default to the correct verb tense according to the time you’re writing about.

The college admissions essay gives admissions officers a different perspective on you beyond your academic achievements, test scores, and extracurriculars. It’s your chance to stand out from other applicants with similar academic profiles by telling a unique, personal, and specific story.

Use a standard font such as Times New Roman or Arial to avoid distracting the reader from your college essay’s content.

A college application essay is less formal than most academic writing . Instead of citing sources formally with in-text citations and a reference list, you can cite them informally in your text.

For example, “In her research paper on genetics, Quinn Roberts explores …”

There is no set number of paragraphs in a college admissions essay . College admissions essays can diverge from the traditional five-paragraph essay structure that you learned in English class. Just make sure to stay under the specified word count .

Most topics are acceptable for college essays if you can use them to demonstrate personal growth or a lesson learned. However, there are a few difficult topics for college essays that should be avoided. Avoid topics that are:

• Overly personal (e.g. graphic details of illness or injury, romantic or sexual relationships)
• Not personal enough (e.g. broad solutions to world problems, inspiring people or things)
• Too negative (e.g. an in-depth look at your flaws, put-downs of others, criticizing the need for a college essay)
• Too boring (e.g. a resume of your academic achievements and extracurriculars)
• Inappropriate for a college essay (e.g. illegal activities, offensive humor, false accounts of yourself, bragging about privilege)

To write an effective diversity essay , include vulnerable, authentic stories about your unique identity, background, or perspective. Provide insight into how your lived experience has influenced your outlook, activities, and goals. If relevant, you should also mention how your background has led you to apply for this university and why you’re a good fit.

Many universities believe a student body composed of different perspectives, beliefs, identities, and backgrounds will enhance the campus learning and community experience.

Admissions officers are interested in hearing about how your unique background, identity, beliefs, culture, or characteristics will enrich the campus community, which is why they assign a diversity essay .

In addition to your main college essay , some schools and scholarships may ask for a supplementary essay focused on an aspect of your identity or background. This is sometimes called a diversity essay .

You can use humor in a college essay , but carefully consider its purpose and use it wisely. An effective use of humor involves unexpected, keen observations of the everyday, or speaks to a deeper theme. Humor shouldn’t be the main focus of the essay, but rather a tool to improve your storytelling.

Get a second opinion from a teacher, counselor, or essay coach on whether your essay’s humor is appropriate.

Though admissions officers are interested in hearing your story, they’re also interested in how you tell it. An exceptionally written essay will differentiate you from other applicants, meaning that admissions officers will spend more time reading it.

You can use literary devices to catch your reader’s attention and enrich your storytelling; however, focus on using just a few devices well, rather than trying to use as many as possible.

To decide on a good college essay topic , spend time thoughtfully answering brainstorming questions. If you still have trouble identifying topics, try the following two strategies:

• Identify your qualities → Brainstorm stories that demonstrate these qualities
• Identify memorable stories → Connect your qualities to these stories

You can also ask family, friends, or mentors to help you brainstorm topics, give feedback on your potential essay topics, or recall key stories that showcase your qualities.

Yes—admissions officers don’t expect everyone to have a totally unique college essay topic . But you must differentiate your essay from others by having a surprising story arc, an interesting insight, and/or an advanced writing style .

There are no foolproof college essay topics —whatever your topic, the key is to write about it effectively. However, a good topic

• Is meaningful, specific, and personal to you
• Focuses on you and your experiences
• Reveals something beyond your test scores, grades, and extracurriculars
• Is creative and original

Unlike a five-paragraph essay, your admissions essay should not end by summarizing the points you’ve already made. It’s better to be creative and aim for a strong final impression.

You should also avoid stating the obvious (for example, saying that you hope to be accepted).

There are a few strategies you can use for a memorable ending to your college essay :

• Return to the beginning with a “full circle” structure
• Reveal the main point or insight in your story
• Look to the future
• End on an action

The best technique will depend on your topic choice, essay outline, and writing style. You can write several endings using different techniques to see which works best.

College deadlines vary depending on the schools you’re applying to and your application plan:

• For early action applications and the first round of early decision applications, the deadline is on November 1 or 15. Decisions are released by mid-December.
• For the second round of early decision applications, the deadline is January 1 or 15. Decisions are released in January or February.
• Regular decision deadlines usually fall between late November and mid-March, and decisions are released in March or April.
• Rolling admission deadlines run from July to April, and decisions are released around four to eight weeks after submission.

Depending on your prospective schools’ requirements, you may need to submit scores for the SAT or ACT as part of your college application .

Some schools now no longer require students to submit test scores; however, you should still take the SAT or ACT and aim to get a high score to strengthen your application package.

Aim to take the SAT or ACT in the spring of your junior year to give yourself enough time to retake it in the fall of your senior year if necessary.

Apply early for federal student aid and application fee waivers. You can also look for scholarships from schools, corporations, and charitable foundations.

To maximize your options, you should aim to apply to about eight schools:

• Two reach schools that might be difficult to get into
• Four match schools that you have a good chance of getting into
• Two safety schools that you feel confident you’ll get into

The college admissions essay accounts for roughly 25% of the weight of your application .

At highly selective schools, there are four qualified candidates for every spot. While your academic achievements are important, your college admissions essay can help you stand out from other applicants with similar profiles.

In general, for your college application you will need to submit all of the following:

• Your personal information
• List of extracurriculars and awards
• College application essays
• Transcripts
• Standardized test scores
• Recommendation letters.

Different colleges may have specific requirements, so make sure you check exactly what’s expected in the application guidance.

You should start thinking about your college applications the summer before your junior year to give you sufficient time for college visits, taking standardized tests, applying for financial aid , writing essays, and collecting application material.

Yes, but make sure your essay directly addresses the prompt, respects the word count , and demonstrates the organization’s values.

If you plan ahead, you can save time by writing one scholarship essay for multiple prompts with similar questions. In a scholarship tracker spreadsheet, you can group or color-code overlapping essay prompts; then, write a single essay for multiple scholarships. Sometimes, you can even reuse or adapt your main college essay .

You can start applying for scholarships as early as your junior year. Continue applying throughout your senior year.

Invest time in applying for various scholarships , especially local ones with small dollar amounts, which are likely easier to win and more reflective of your background and interests. It will be easier for you to write an authentic and compelling essay if the scholarship topic is meaningful to you.

You can find scholarships through your school counselor, community network, or an internet search.

A scholarship essay requires you to demonstrate your values and qualities while answering the prompt’s specific question.

After researching the scholarship organization, identify a personal experience that embodies its values and exemplifies how you will be a successful student.

A standout college essay has several key ingredients:

• A unique, personally meaningful topic
• A memorable introduction with vivid imagery or an intriguing hook
• Specific stories and language that show instead of telling
• Vulnerability that’s authentic but not aimed at soliciting sympathy
• Clear writing in an appropriate style and tone
• A conclusion that offers deep insight or a creative ending

While timelines will differ depending on the student, plan on spending at least 1–3 weeks brainstorming and writing the first draft of your college admissions essay , and at least 2–4 weeks revising across multiple drafts. Don’t forget to save enough time for breaks between each writing and editing stage.

You should already begin thinking about your essay the summer before your senior year so that you have plenty of time to try out different topics and get feedback on what works.

Your college essay accounts for about 25% of your application’s weight. It may be the deciding factor in whether you’re accepted, especially for competitive schools where most applicants have exceptional grades, test scores, and extracurricular track records.

In most cases, quoting other people isn’t a good way to start your college essay . Admissions officers want to hear your thoughts about yourself, and quotes often don’t achieve that. Unless a quote truly adds something important to your essay that it otherwise wouldn’t have, you probably shouldn’t include it.

Cliché openers in a college essay introduction are usually general and applicable to many students and situations. Most successful introductions are specific: they only work for the unique essay that follows.

The key to a strong college essay introduction is not to give too much away. Try to start with a surprising statement or image that raises questions and compels the reader to find out more.

The introduction of your college essay is the first thing admissions officers will read and therefore your most important opportunity to stand out. An excellent introduction will keep admissions officers reading, allowing you to tell them what you want them to know.

You can speed up this process by shortening and smoothing your writing with a paraphrasing tool . After that, you can use the summarizer to shorten it even more.

If you’re struggling to reach the word count for your college essay, add vivid personal stories or share your feelings and insight to give your essay more depth and authenticity.

Most college application portals specify a word count range for your essay, and you should stay within 10% of the upper limit to write a developed and thoughtful essay.

You should aim to stay under the specified word count limit to show you can follow directions and write concisely. However, don’t write too little, as it may seem like you are unwilling or unable to write a detailed and insightful narrative about yourself.

If no word count is specified, we advise keeping your essay between 400 and 600 words.

In your application essay , admissions officers are looking for particular features : they want to see context on your background, positive traits that you could bring to campus, and examples of you demonstrating those qualities.

Colleges want to be able to differentiate students who seem similar on paper. In the college application essay , they’re looking for a way to understand each applicant’s unique personality and experiences.

You don’t need a title for your college admissions essay , but you can include one if you think it adds something important.

Your college essay’s format should be as simple as possible:

• Use a standard, readable font
• Use 1.5 or double spacing
• If attaching a file, save it as a PDF
• Stick to the word count
• Avoid unusual formatting and unnecessary decorative touches

There are no set rules for how to structure a college application essay , but these are two common structures that work:

• A montage structure, a series of vignettes with a common theme.
• A narrative structure, a single story that shows your personal growth or how you overcame a challenge.

Avoid the five-paragraph essay structure that you learned in high school.

Campus visits are always helpful, but if you can’t make it in person, the college website will have plenty of information for you to explore. You should look through the course catalog and even reach out to current faculty with any questions about the school.

Colleges set a “Why this college?” essay because they want to see that you’ve done your research. You must prove that you know what makes the school unique and can connect that to your own personal goals and academic interests.

Depending on your writing, you may go through several rounds of revision . Make sure to put aside your essay for a little while after each editing stage to return with a fresh perspective.

Teachers and guidance counselors can help you check your language, tone, and content . Ask for their help at least one to two months before the submission deadline, as many other students will also want their help.

Friends and family are a good resource to check for authenticity. It’s best to seek help from family members with a strong writing or English educational background, or from older siblings and cousins who have been through the college admissions process.

If possible, get help from an essay coach or editor ; they’ll have specialized knowledge of college admissions essays and be able to give objective expert feedback.

When revising your college essay , first check for big-picture issues regarding message, flow, tone, style , and clarity. Then, focus on eliminating grammar and punctuation errors.

Include specific, personal details and use your authentic voice to shed a new perspective on a common human experience.

When writing about yourself , including difficult experiences or failures can be a great way to show vulnerability and authenticity, but be careful not to overshare, and focus on showing how you matured from the experience.

First, spend time reflecting on your core values and character . You can start with these questions:

• What are three words your friends or family would use to describe you, and why would they choose them?
• Whom do you admire most and why?
• What are you most proud of? Ashamed of?

However, you should do a comprehensive brainstorming session to fully understand your values. Also consider how your values and goals match your prospective university’s program and culture. Then, brainstorm stories that illustrate the fit between the two.

In a college application essay , you can occasionally bend grammatical rules if doing so adds value to the storytelling process and the essay maintains clarity.

However, use standard language rules if your stylistic choices would otherwise distract the reader from your overall narrative or could be easily interpreted as unintentional errors.

Write concisely and use the active voice to maintain a quick pace throughout your essay and make sure it’s the right length . Avoid adding definitions unless they provide necessary explanation.

Use first-person “I” statements to speak from your perspective . Use appropriate word choices that show off your vocabulary but don’t sound like you used a thesaurus. Avoid using idioms or cliché expressions by rewriting them in a creative, original way.

If you’re an international student applying to a US college and you’re comfortable using American idioms or cultural references , you can. But instead of potentially using them incorrectly, don’t be afraid to write in detail about yourself within your own culture.

Provide context for any words, customs, or places that an American admissions officer might be unfamiliar with.

College application essays are less formal than other kinds of academic writing . Use a conversational yet respectful tone , as if speaking with a teacher or mentor. Be vulnerable about your feelings, thoughts, and experiences to connect with the reader.

Aim to write in your authentic voice , with a style that sounds natural and genuine. You can be creative with your word choice, but don’t use elaborate vocabulary to impress admissions officers.

Admissions officers use college admissions essays to evaluate your character, writing skills , and ability to self-reflect . The essay is your chance to show what you will add to the academic community.

The college essay may be the deciding factor in your application , especially for competitive schools where most applicants have exceptional grades, test scores, and extracurriculars.

Some colleges also require supplemental essays about specific topics, such as why you chose that specific college . Scholarship essays are often required to obtain financial aid .

Ask our team

Want to contact us directly? No problem.  We  are always here for you.

• Email [email protected]
• Start live chat
• Call +1 (510) 822-8066
• WhatsApp +31 20 261 6040

Our team helps students graduate by offering:

• A world-class citation generator
• Plagiarism Checker software powered by Turnitin
• Innovative Citation Checker software
• Professional proofreading services
• Over 300 helpful articles about academic writing, citing sources, plagiarism, and more

Scribbr specializes in editing study-related documents . We proofread:

• PhD dissertations
• Research proposals
• Personal statements
• Admission essays
• Motivation letters
• Reflection papers
• Journal articles
• Capstone projects

Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker is powered by elements of Turnitin’s Similarity Checker , namely the plagiarism detection software and the Internet Archive and Premium Scholarly Publications content databases .

The add-on AI detector is powered by Scribbr’s proprietary software.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

Essay About Achievements: Top 5 Examples and 6 Prompts

Are you having problems writing your essay about achievements? Then, continue reading this article for samples and prompts to guide you in your writing.

Achievement influences our expectations and self-growth. It’s also often connected with an individual’s progress in life. It gives way for recognition in attaining a goal through standards. 

Achievement acknowledges successes, productiveness, and involvement. But sometimes, achieving doesn’t result in a feeling of satisfaction. Writing an achievement essay is usually based on experiences from yourself or others. You can explore different viewpoints, such as what they consider an “achievement,” how to overcome weaknesses, or why they want a specific achievement. Below are 5 examples and 6 writing prompts to assist you in your essay:

1. The Greatest Achievements In Life by Gerard Reese

2. greatest professional or academic achievement by james taylor , 3. essay on achievements from my professional life by bdoan, 4. my accomplishment by taylor wood, 5. when my weakness became my greatest accomplishment by jay merrill logan, 6 writing prompts on essay about achievements, 1. ways to achieve within different settings, 2. achievements in the small things, 3. how to build confidence, 4. the power of overcoming fear, 5. steps to be successful, 6. guide to building a strong character.

“Nobody succeeds on the first try, we take our mistakes and learn from them. Mistakes are the things that help us strive for greatness, which is why failure should not be viewed as something negative, but more as something we can use to attain [what] we want in life.”

Reese’s piece on achievement talks about learning from failure and trying again until you reach success. Time and failure are contributors to our achievements. He emphasizes that failure can be a steward and teacher to help us get where we want to be. He also provides lists of individuals who encountered crises in their lives until they reached their most successful phases. 

“My father always instilled in me the importance of education. He knew very well that in order for his children to be successful he needed to set them up for success and place them in a position where we would be afforded the opportunity to succeed.”

Family significantly impacts one’s interpretation of what achievements are about. Taylor’s essay highlights the idea of what his father taught him about education and success. He mentions how he embarked through life while keeping his father’s acknowledgment of his potential in the field he has chosen. His essay shows that family shapes one’s belief about what’s considered a successful life.

“I consider the experience in Japan as a big achievement and an important step in my career. The fact that I could master the complex situation gave me much self-confidence and showed that I could manage people successfully even in difficult situations. Today, this unique ability of handling teams attributed me as a strong leader for my people.”

Bdoan’s essay focuses on past experiences and how she handled cultural differences and beliefs, leading to her successful professional life. To achieve fulfillment in work, she breaks the barrier, communicates effectively, and embraces Japanese culture, which she set as a significant setting stone in her career life.

“Through the influence of my best friend, I have motivated myself to spend two hours during the night before I go to sleep to master the lessons the teacher has discussed in class. This helped me greatly since I would no longer have to cram and study everything for the exams later.”

Wood’s essay highlights the external factors that contributed to his achievements. External factors can lead a person to success or frustration. Through a piece of great advice, he changed his lifestyle by allowing himself to move forward and build a quality life. He compares this to Newton’s First law of motion, which he quoted and put at the beginning of his essay.

“…the more I thought about my own greatest personal academic achievement, I realized it was simply getting an A in a college history class my freshman year. Succeeding in this upper-level history class set the tone for all my future college courses and gave me the confidence I needed to achieve greatness, and I am not even a history major.”

Logan talks about his worst subject, History. He recounts how he approached his professor and overcame his weakness. This essay points out that words from others can influence self-growth and confidence. He says he developed faith in his study during college and attained his most outstanding accomplishment.

Are you having problems connecting your ideas smoothly? See this guide on transition words for essays.

After reading through the samples above, it’s time to explore your desired achievement subjects. Here are six prompts about achievements you can use:

Everyone sets expectations for themselves, dependent on the environment they’re in. It can be at work, school, or home. In these cases, the result is just as important as the process.

You can focus your essay on a relatable viewpoint, such as a student who wants to get A+ grades or an office worker who wants to get the Employee of the Month Award. Discuss ways they can excel in their surroundings. Your essay will serve as a guide to help them grow personally and professionally.

Achievements don’t need to be grand. Sometimes, simply getting out of bed is an achievement, especially for those suffering from mental illnesses such as depression. Center your essay on the simple things that can be considered achievements in their way. 

Your essay will not only serve as a reminder that it’s essential to appreciate the small things. It will also comfort those who are going through a hard time.

This topic asks you to highlight the relationship between confidence and achievements. You can interview someone confident in themselves. Ask for tips on building confidence and relay them to your readers while explaining the opportunities they can get by believing in themselves more.

In this busy world, fear is one of the most significant setbacks for people in accomplishing their goals in life. In this essay, you can explain to your readers how acknowledging their fears will help them advance.  

You can also conceptualize the effect of anxiety in achieving your desires and help you set your standard in developing self-growth. Feel free to share your experience with fears and how you plan to deal with them.

To be successful is everyone’s goal. However, sharing steps and tips on how to achieve success is general prompt many writes about. To make your piece stand out, you can tailor it to a group of individuals. For example, a student’s image of success is going on stage and graduating with honors.

Someone’s character is critical to achieving achievements. You can write about a well-known individual who went against the usual route of how success is reached. Such as Steve Jobs, who founded Apple but was a college dropout. 

There are many ways to reach a goal. Tell your readers that they don’t need to follow the conventional method of accomplishing things to get their hands on the achievements they crave.

Do you want to be more confident with your writing? Here are 11 essay writing tips you need to learn today!

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

View all posts

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• 10 April 2024

Randomness in computation wins computer-science ‘Nobel’

• Davide Castelvecchi

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Avi Wigderson received the Turing Award for his foundational contributions to the theory of computation. Credit: Dan Komoda

A leader in the field of computational theory is the latest winner of the A. M. Turing Award, sometimes described as the ‘Nobel Prize’ of computer science.

Avi Wigderson at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, New Jersey, is known for work straddling several disciplines, and had already won a share of the Abel Prize , a top mathematics award, three years ago.

He receives the Turing Award “for foundational contributions to the theory of computation, including reshaping our understanding of the role of randomness in computation, and for his decades of intellectual leadership in theoretical computer science”, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in New York City announced on 10 April.

“I was extremely happy, and I didn’t expect this at all,” Wigderson tells Nature . “I’m getting so much love and appreciation from my community that I don’t need prizes.”

‘A towering intellectual force’

Wigderson was born in Haifa, Israel, in 1956. He studied at Technion — Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa and later at Princeton University; he has been at the IAS since 1999. He is known for his work on computational complexity — which studies how certain problems are inherently slow to solve, even in principle — and on randomness in computation. Many practical algorithms make random choices to achieve their objectives more efficiently; in a series of groundbreaking studies in the 1990s, Wigderson and his collaborators showed that conventional, deterministic algorithms can, in principle, be roughly as efficient as ‘randomized’ ones 1 . The results helped to confirm that random algorithms can be as accurate as deterministic ones are.

“Wigderson is a towering intellectual force in theoretical computer science,” said ACM president Yannis Ioannidis in a statement. In addition to Wigderson’s academic achievements, the ACS cited his “friendliness, enthusiasm, and generosity”, which have led him to be a mentor to or collaborate with hundreds of researchers worldwide. Wigderson admits that he is a “big proselytizer” of the intellectual pleasures of his discipline — he wrote a popular book about it and made it freely available on his website . “I think this field is great, and I am happy to explain it to anybody.”

The Turing Award is named after the celebrated British mathematician and code-breaker Alan Turing (1912–54), who in the 1930s laid the conceptual foundations of modern computing. “I feel completely at home with mathematics,” says Wigderson, adding that as an intellectual endeavour, theoretical computer science is indistinguishable from maths. “We prove theorems, like mathematicians.”

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01055-y

Impagliazzo, R. & Wigderson, A. in Proc. 29th ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing 220–229 (ACM, 1997).

Download references

Reprints and permissions

Related Articles

• Mathematics and computing

How scientists are making the most of Reddit

Career Feature 01 APR 24

Climate change has slowed Earth’s rotation — and could affect how we keep time

News 27 MAR 24

A global timekeeping problem postponed by global warming

Article 27 MAR 24

Junior Group Leader Position at IMBA - Institute of Molecular Biotechnology

The Institute of Molecular Biotechnology (IMBA) is one of Europe’s leading institutes for basic research in the life sciences. IMBA is located on t...

Austria (AT)

IMBA - Institute of Molecular Biotechnology

Open Rank Faculty, Center for Public Health Genomics

Center for Public Health Genomics & UVA Comprehensive Cancer Center seek 2 tenure-track faculty members in Cancer Precision Medicine/Precision Health.

Charlottesville, Virginia

Center for Public Health Genomics at the University of Virginia

Husbandry Technician I

Memphis, Tennessee

St. Jude Children's Research Hospital (St. Jude)

Lead Researcher – Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation & Cellular Therapy

Researcher in the center for in vivo imaging and therapy.

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Advertisement

What Solar Eclipse-Gazing Has Looked Like for the Past 2 Centuries

Millions of people on Monday will continue the tradition of experiencing and capturing solar eclipses, a pursuit that has spawned a lot of unusual gear.

• Share full article

By Sarah Eckinger

• April 8, 2024

For centuries, people have been clamoring to glimpse solar eclipses. From astronomers with custom-built photographic equipment to groups huddled together with special glasses, this spectacle has captivated the human imagination.

Creating a Permanent Record

In 1860, Warren de la Rue captured what many sources describe as the first photograph of a total solar eclipse . He took it in Rivabellosa, Spain, with an instrument known as the Kew Photoheliograph . This combination of a telescope and camera was specifically built to photograph the sun.

Forty years later, Nevil Maskelyne, a magician and an astronomy enthusiast, filmed a total solar eclipse in North Carolina. The footage was lost, however, and only released in 2019 after it was rediscovered in the Royal Astronomical Society’s archives.

Telescopic Vision

For scientists and astronomers, eclipses provide an opportunity not only to view the moon’s umbra and gaze at the sun’s corona, but also to make observations that further their studies. Many observatories, or friendly neighbors with a telescope, also make their instruments available to the public during eclipses.

Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen, Fridtjof Nansen and Sigurd Scott Hansen observing a solar eclipse while on a polar expedition in 1894 .

Women from Wellesley College in Massachusetts and their professor tested out equipment ahead of their eclipse trip (to “catch old Sol in the act,” as the original New York Times article phrased it) to New London, Conn., in 1922.

A group from Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania traveled to Yerbaniz, Mexico, in 1923, with telescopes and a 65-foot camera to observe the sun’s corona .

Dr. J.J. Nassau, director of the Warner and Swasey Observatory at Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, prepared to head to Douglas Hill, Maine, to study an eclipse in 1932. An entire freight car was required to transport the institution’s equipment.

Visitors viewed a solar eclipse at an observatory in Berlin in the mid-1930s.

A family set up two telescopes in Bar Harbor, Maine, in 1963. The two children placed stones on the base to help steady them.

An astronomer examined equipment for an eclipse in a desert in Mauritania in June 1973. We credit the hot climate for his choice in outfit.

Indirect Light

If you see people on Monday sprinting to your local park clutching pieces of paper, or with a cardboard box of their head, they are probably planning to reflect or project images of the solar eclipse onto a surface.

Cynthia Goulakos demonstrated a safe way to view a solar eclipse , with two pieces of cardboard to create a reflection of the shadowed sun, in Lowell, Mass., in 1970.

Another popular option is to create a pinhole camera. This woman did so in Central Park in 1963 by using a paper cup with a small hole in the bottom and a twin-lens reflex camera.

Amateur astronomers viewed a partial eclipse, projected from a telescope onto a screen, from atop the Empire State Building in 1967 .

Back in Central Park, in 1970, Irving Schwartz and his wife reflected an eclipse onto a piece of paper by holding binoculars on the edge of a garbage basket.

Children in Denver in 1979 used cardboard viewing boxes and pieces of paper with small pinholes to view projections of a partial eclipse.

A crowd gathered around a basin of water dyed with dark ink, waiting for the reflection of a solar eclipse to appear, in Hanoi, Vietnam, in 1995.

Staring at the Sun (or, How Not to Burn Your Retinas)

Eclipse-gazers have used different methods to protect their eyes throughout the years, some safer than others .

In 1927, women gathered at a window in a building in London to watch a total eclipse through smoked glass. This was popularized in France in the 1700s , but fell out of favor when physicians began writing papers on children whose vision was damaged.

Another trend was to use a strip of exposed photographic film, as seen below in Sydney, Australia, in 1948 and in Turkana, Kenya, in 1963. This method, which was even suggested by The Times in 1979 , has since been declared unsafe.

Solar eclipse glasses are a popular and safe way to view the event ( if you use models compliant with international safety standards ). Over the years there have been various styles, including these large hand-held options found in West Palm Beach, Fla., in 1979.

Parents and children watched a partial eclipse through their eclipse glasses in Tokyo in 1981.

Slimmer, more colorful options were used in Nabusimake, Colombia, in 1998.

In France in 1999.

And in Iran and England in 1999.

And the best way to see the eclipse? With family and friends at a watch party, like this one in Isalo National Park in Madagascar in 2001.

Achievements of Ancient Greek Architecture

This essay about ancient Greek architecture highlights its enduring brilliance and innovation. From the iconic Parthenon to the tranquil Theater of Epidaurus, Greek builders showcased unparalleled creativity. Through meticulous design and dedication, they crafted temples and theaters that transcend time, reflecting the cultural ideals of harmony and excellence. Beyond mere structures, Greek architecture embodies the spirit of democracy and communal living, leaving a profound legacy that continues to inspire admiration and reverence in modern times.

How it works

In the vast expanse of history, the brilliance of ancient Greek architecture shines like a beacon, guiding us through the annals of time with its unparalleled creativity and innovation. From the breathtaking heights of the Parthenon to the intimate tranquility of the theaters, the achievements of Greek builders stand as a testament to human ingenuity and artistic vision.

Perched atop the Acropolis of Athens, the Parthenon stands as a masterpiece of Doric design, its columns reaching skyward in a symphony of marble.

Dedicated to the goddess Athena, this temple is more than just a monument—it’s a testament to the power of faith, the glory of civilization, and the enduring legacy of Greek culture. Each sculpted frieze, each meticulously crafted detail, speaks volumes about the skill and dedication of the artisans who brought this vision to life.

But the Parthenon is just one chapter in the story of Greek architecture. Venture to the sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus, and you’ll discover another marvel—the Theater of Epidaurus. Nestled amidst the serene beauty of the Peloponnesian countryside, this ancient theater is celebrated for its impeccable acoustics and elegant design. Here, amid the whispering pines and the gentle breeze, audiences were transported to worlds of myth and legend, their spirits uplifted by the power of storytelling and the magic of theater.

Yet, Greek architecture is not confined to grand temples and theaters. In the bustling agora of Athens, the heartbeat of urban life pulses strong, echoing the vibrant energy of Greek civilization. Here, amidst the throng of merchants and philosophers, architects laid the foundations of democracy, shaping public spaces and civic institutions that would endure for centuries. The Athenian Agora, with its bustling markets and stately colonnades, served as a testament to the ideals of democracy and the spirit of communal living.

But Greek architecture is more than just a reflection of physical structures—it’s a window into the soul of a culture. The concept of arete—excellence in all things—infused every aspect of Greek society, from art to athletics, and architecture was no exception. Each temple, each theater, was a manifestation of Greek ideals—a celebration of beauty, harmony, and proportion. In the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greeks sought not only divine wisdom but also a connection to the cosmic order—a reminder of humanity’s place in the grand tapestry of existence.

As we reflect on the achievements of ancient Greek architecture, we are reminded of the timeless power of human creativity to transcend the boundaries of time and space. From the towering majesty of the Parthenon to the serene beauty of the Theater of Epidaurus, Greek builders left an indelible mark on the world—a legacy of beauty, innovation, and cultural significance that continues to inspire and captivate us to this day.

Cite this page

Achievements Of Ancient Greek Architecture. (2024, Apr 14). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/achievements-of-ancient-greek-architecture/

"Achievements Of Ancient Greek Architecture." PapersOwl.com , 14 Apr 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/achievements-of-ancient-greek-architecture/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Achievements Of Ancient Greek Architecture . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/achievements-of-ancient-greek-architecture/ [Accessed: 14 Apr. 2024]

"Achievements Of Ancient Greek Architecture." PapersOwl.com, Apr 14, 2024. Accessed April 14, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/achievements-of-ancient-greek-architecture/

"Achievements Of Ancient Greek Architecture," PapersOwl.com , 14-Apr-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/achievements-of-ancient-greek-architecture/. [Accessed: 14-Apr-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). Achievements Of Ancient Greek Architecture . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/achievements-of-ancient-greek-architecture/ [Accessed: 14-Apr-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

• marquette.edu //
• Contacts //
• A-Z Index //
• Give to Marquette

Marquette.edu  //  Career Center  //  Resources  // 

Properly Write Your Degree

The correct way to communicate your degree to employers and others is by using the following formats:

Degree - This is the academic degree you are receiving. Your major is in addition to the degree; it can be added to the phrase or written separately.  Include the full name of your degree, major(s), minor(s), emphases, and certificates on your resume.

Double Majors - You will not be receiving two bachelor's degrees if you double major. Your primary major determines the degree (Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science). If you're not fully sure which of your majors is primary, check CheckMarq or call the registrar's office.

Example: Primary Major: Psychology ; Secondary Major: Marketing

• Bachelor of Arts Degree in Psychology & Marketing

Primary Major: Marketing ; Secondary Major: Psychology

• Bachelor of Science Degree in Marketing & Psychology

In a letter, you may shorten your degree by writing it this way:

• In May 20XX, I will graduate with my Bachelor's degree in International Affairs.
• In December 20XX, I will graduate with my Master's degree in Counseling Education.

Not sure which degree you are graduating with? Here is a list of Undergraduate Majors and corresponding degrees:

• College of Arts & Sciences
• College of Business Administration
• College of Communication
• College of Education
• College of Engineering
• College of Health Sciences
• College of Nursing  

• Online Resources
• Handouts and Guides
• College/Major Specific Resources
• Grad Program Specific Resources
• Diverse Population Resource s
• Affinity Group Resources
• Schedule an Appointment
• Major/Career Exploration
• Internship/Job Search
• Graduate/Professional School
• Year of Service
• Resume and Cover Letter Writing

• Login to Handshake
• Getting Started with Handshake
• Handshake Support for Students
• Handshake Support for Alumni
• Handshake Information for Employers

CONNECT WITH US

PROBLEM WITH THIS WEBPAGE? Report an accessibility problem  

To report another problem, please contact  [email protected]

Marquette University Holthusen Hall, First Floor Milwaukee, WI 53233 Phone: (414) 288-7423

• Campus contacts
• Search marquette.edu

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Privacy Policy Legal Disclaimer Non-Discrimination Policy Accessible Technology

© 2024 Marquette University

Prestigious cancer research institute has retracted 7 studies amid controversy over errors

Seven studies from researchers at the prestigious Dana-Farber Cancer Institute have been retracted over the last two months after a scientist blogger alleged that images used in them had been manipulated or duplicated.

The retractions are the latest development in a monthslong controversy around research at the Boston-based institute, which is a teaching affiliate of Harvard Medical School. 

The issue came to light after Sholto David, a microbiologist and volunteer science sleuth based in Wales, published a scathing post on his blog in January, alleging errors and manipulations of images across dozens of papers produced primarily by Dana-Farber researchers . The institute acknowledged errors and subsequently announced that it had requested six studies to be retracted and asked for corrections in 31 more papers. Dana-Farber also said, however, that a review process for errors had been underway before David’s post. 

Now, at least one more study has been retracted than Dana-Farber initially indicated, and David said he has discovered an additional 30 studies from authors affiliated with the institute that he believes contain errors or image manipulations and therefore deserve scrutiny.

The episode has imperiled the reputation of a major cancer research institute and raised questions about one high-profile researcher there, Kenneth Anderson, who is a senior author on six of the seven retracted studies. 

Anderson is a professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and the director of the Jerome Lipper Multiple Myeloma Center at Dana-Farber. He did not respond to multiple emails or voicemails requesting comment. 

The retractions and new allegations add to a larger, ongoing debate in science about how to protect scientific integrity and reduce the incentives that could lead to misconduct or unintentional mistakes in research. 

The Dana-Farber Cancer Institute has moved relatively swiftly to seek retractions and corrections. 

“Dana-Farber is deeply committed to a culture of accountability and integrity, and as an academic research and clinical care organization we also prioritize transparency,” Dr. Barrett Rollins, the institute’s integrity research officer, said in a statement. “However, we are bound by federal regulations that apply to all academic medical centers funded by the National Institutes of Health among other federal agencies. Therefore, we cannot share details of internal review processes and will not comment on personnel issues.”

The retracted studies were originally published in two journals: One in the Journal of Immunology and six in Cancer Research. Six of the seven focused on multiple myeloma, a form of cancer that develops in plasma cells. Retraction notices indicate that Anderson agreed to the retractions of the papers he authored.

Elisabeth Bik, a microbiologist and longtime image sleuth, reviewed several of the papers’ retraction statements and scientific images for NBC News and said the errors were serious. 

“The ones I’m looking at all have duplicated elements in the photos, where the photo itself has been manipulated,” she said, adding that these elements were “signs of misconduct.” 

Dr.  John Chute, who directs the division of hematology and cellular therapy at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and has contributed to studies about multiple myeloma, said the papers were produced by pioneers in the field, including Anderson. 

“These are people I admire and respect,” he said. “Those were all high-impact papers, meaning they’re highly read and highly cited. By definition, they have had a broad impact on the field.” 

Chute said he did not know the authors personally but had followed their work for a long time.

“Those investigators are some of the leading people in the field of myeloma research and they have paved the way in terms of understanding our biology of the disease,” he said. “The papers they publish lead to all kinds of additional work in that direction. People follow those leads and industry pays attention to that stuff and drug development follows.”

The retractions offer additional evidence for what some science sleuths have been saying for years: The more you look for errors or image manipulation, the more you might find, even at the top levels of science. 

Scientific images in papers are typically used to present evidence of an experiment’s results. Commonly, they show cells or mice; other types of images show key findings like western blots — a laboratory method that identifies proteins — or bands of separated DNA molecules in gels. 

Science sleuths sometimes examine these images for irregular patterns that could indicate errors, duplications or manipulations. Some artificial intelligence companies are training computers to spot these kinds of problems, as well. 

Duplicated images could be a sign of sloppy lab work or data practices. Manipulated images — in which a researcher has modified an image heavily with photo editing tools — could indicate that images have been exaggerated, enhanced or altered in an unethical way that could change how other scientists interpret a study’s findings or scientific meaning. 

Top scientists at big research institutions often run sprawling laboratories with lots of junior scientists. Critics of science research and publishing systems allege that a lack of opportunities for young scientists, limited oversight and pressure to publish splashy papers that can advance careers could incentivize misconduct. 

These critics, along with many science sleuths, allege that errors or sloppiness are too common , that research organizations and authors often ignore concerns when they’re identified, and that the path from complaint to correction is sluggish. 

“When you look at the amount of retractions and poor peer review in research today, the question is, what has happened to the quality standards we used to think existed in research?” said Nick Steneck, an emeritus professor at the University of Michigan and an expert on science integrity.

David told NBC News that he had shared some, but not all, of his concerns about additional image issues with Dana-Farber. He added that he had not identified any problems in four of the seven studies that have been retracted. 

“It’s good they’ve picked up stuff that wasn’t in the list,” he said. 

NBC News requested an updated tally of retractions and corrections, but Ellen Berlin, a spokeswoman for Dana-Farber, declined to provide a new list. She said that the numbers could shift and that the institute did not have control over the form, format or timing of corrections. 

“Any tally we give you today might be different tomorrow and will likely be different a week from now or a month from now,” Berlin said. “The point of sharing numbers with the public weeks ago was to make clear to the public that Dana-Farber had taken swift and decisive action with regard to the articles for which a Dana-Farber faculty member was primary author.” 

She added that Dana-Farber was encouraging journals to correct the scientific record as promptly as possible. 

Bik said it was unusual to see a highly regarded U.S. institution have multiple papers retracted. 

“I don’t think I’ve seen many of those,” she said. “In this case, there was a lot of public attention to it and it seems like they’re responding very quickly. It’s unusual, but how it should be.”

Evan Bush is a science reporter for NBC News. He can be reached at [email protected].

Search Results

“Know thyself” – avoiding policy mistakes in light of the prevailing climate science

Keynote speech by frank elderson, member of the executive board of the ecb and vice-chair of the supervisory board of the ecb, at the delphi economic forum ix.

Delphi, 12 April 2024

For centuries the oracle of Delphi guided those seeking advice on what the future might hold. [ 1 ] Perhaps the most famous prophecy originating here from the Temple of Apollo is the one delivered during the Ancient Greek era to Croesus, the King of Lydia. When he consulted the oracle about going to war with Persia, he was told that if he were to attack, “a great empire would fall”. Emboldened by this apparent foresight, King Croesus went to war. And an empire did indeed fall. But it was the Lydians, not the Persians, who were defeated. The oracle was right. Yet King Croesus had overlooked the considerable room for interpretation that the prophecy allowed, with significant implications for his assessment of the outlook and the consequences of his decisions.

Today, policymakers count not on prophecies and oracles but on facts and science when assessing the outlook so they can make informed decisions. But while facts and science leave far less room for interpretation and uncertainty than ancient prophecies, they cannot eliminate it entirely. The scientific method requires established knowledge to be scrutinised and reviewed, especially – though certainly not exclusively – knowledge that pushes the boundaries of modern science. So science-based models that are used to describe what happens in the real world need to be updated regularly, in terms of both their structure and their parameters. And we have to acknowledge that these models are subject to uncertainty, including statistical, measurement and policy uncertainty. These caveats are relevant whenever we use these models to describe what has happened in the past, and they are especially relevant when assessing how present day knowledge is used to project an outlook for the future.

At the same time, policy must remain robust in the face of this uncertainty and build on what is scientifically established. Policymakers need to identify and spell out those questions that, if resolved, would reduce uncertainty and increase the level of confidence with which decisions are taken.

Today I will discuss how the prevailing evidence from climate and nature science can inform the actions of public authorities, even those that are not responsible for climate and nature policy, such as central banks and supervisors. [ 2 ] These public authorities – just like companies and individuals – are increasingly taking decisions whose outcomes will be subject to the tangible consequences of the ongoing climate and nature crises. In fact, in a ground-breaking ruling earlier this week, the European Court of Human Rights, explicitly referring to “the compelling scientific advice provided, in particular, by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”, established that States “need to put in place the necessary regulations and measures aimed at preventing an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in the Earth’s atmosphere and a rise in global average temperature beyond levels capable of producing serious and irreversible adverse effects on human rights”. [ 3 ] So how can we ensure that decisions taken today reflect what we know about climate science while remaining robust in the face of uncertainty?

Fundamental challenges of failing to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement

Currently, the best assessment by climate scientists tells us that the world is not on a path to limit the increase in the average global temperature to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels – the overarching goal of the Paris Agreement. We are not even on course to limit the increase to 2 degrees. In fact, last November the UN Emissions Gap Report concluded that the world is on track for an average increase of 2.9 degrees, and even that will only be achieved if all government commitments to mitigation measures are implemented. [ 4 ] In other words, without a full and prompt implementation of these commitments, we will see an increase of even more than 2.9 degrees. In any case – acknowledging the uncertainty – the world is currently heading for a temperature rise far above the Paris Agreement goals.

This raises a number of critical challenges for maintaining wellbeing as we know it. These go far beyond the economic challenges that may emerge and will be particularly relevant for central banks and supervisors. In a recent report, the European Environment Agency sent a dire message about climate risks, pointing out that “several climate risks have already reached critical levels” and observing that “[i]f decisive action is not taken now, most climate risks could reach critical or catastrophic levels by the end of this century”. [ 5 ] Global heating will have an impact on food, water and energy security and the health of the general population, and these effects will be aggravated by ecosystem degradation, which is itself worsened by global heating. Moreover, increasing climate and natural hazards can disrupt critical infrastructure, putting people’s livelihoods and even their basic needs at risk.

There may also be second-round effects that compound the direct impact of an increase in climate and natural hazards. One example of this would be changes in migration flows, which like other such second-round effects are generally not yet accounted for in models of the impact of climate change and nature degradation. But the more severe the climate scenario, the more likely it is that these flows will increase, and the greater the impact these increasing flows will have. [ 6 ]

In addition, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has been increasingly emphasising the risks of various tipping points. These are critical thresholds that, when breached, will lead to large, accelerating and irreversible changes to our climate system. According to the most recent IPCC assessment report from 2021, the risk of reaching these tipping points is already assessed as being high if the average global temperature increase amounts to between 1.5 and 2.5 degrees. And it is assessed as very high if global temperatures increase by 2.5 to 4 degrees. [ 7 ] Climate science can provide indications of potential tipping points and what their consequences might be, like the melting of the Greenland ice sheet and the impact it would have on global sea levels. There is, however, no scientific consensus yet on the systemic changes that might occur after these tipping points are reached. Further research is therefore urgently required here, especially in light of the current trajectory for global heating. [ 8 ] Over the last 12 months, the global average temperature was already 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels.

Structural economic challenges

Let me now turn to the implications for the global economy if temperatures increase by significantly more than 2 degrees. The structural economic consequences will be profound, with impacts on both the supply and demand sides of the economy.

First, resources will have to be dedicated to protecting citizens and society from increased climate and natural hazards like wildfires, droughts and floods.

Second, to the extent that the increase in hazards can no longer be avoided, the economy will need to cater for the critical needs that the European Environment Agency identifies as being at risk. Specifically, maintaining adequate food production, water availability and health care will require substantially more resources than those sectors currently receive.

Third, beyond catering for these critical needs, the economy will undergo further structural transformation as both preferences and production possibilities change. Tourism is a case in point, with destinations that are currently popular no longer being similarly in demand or even accessible in the future. Another example is international trade, which may be forced to redevelop as existing routes and ports become unavailable and others open up. And there will also be a reallocation between sectors, with some losing out while others benefit, much like we have seen following the pandemic and the energy crisis.

Fourth, the economy needs to be made resilient to the increase in climate and natural hazards. The existing capital stock – including people’s homes – will need to be upgraded and adapted, with all the increases in structural costs this entails. Achieving such resilience may even require physically relocating part of the capital stock to avoid proximity to areas that will be heavily exposed to hazards.

Any capital stock that is not made resilient to hazards will most likely see its economic lifespan shorten significantly. This will take the form of higher depreciation rates, which imply greater financial risks for anyone with exposures to the capital stock. It is particularly noteworthy that investments that are currently being made to green the capital stock may not be immune to this effect. For example, a hydroelectric power plant may become obsolete prematurely if a river runs dry or changes course. Resilience to the more disastrous climate and nature outcomes that are the consequence of failing to meet the Paris Agreement goals should, therefore, feature prominently in any decisions related to mitigation investment that are being taken today.

A key challenge for economic policymakers will be to ensure that the economy is suitably prepared to undergo these structural transformations. If it is not, there is a significant risk that economic and financial factors will actually exacerbate the critical challenges we will face in a world that overshoots the goals of the Paris Agreement.

Against this backdrop, it will be crucial for economic policymakers to identify potential barriers to effective and efficient adaptation. First, a failure to coordinate may lead to investment being misallocated. Some investments may not materialise at all if the private sector fails to consider the benefits for society. And others may materialise but only inefficiently, for example if investment in cooling homes and offices takes place at the level of individual households and firms.

Second, structural adjustment in an economy requires the right combination of flexibility, education and social safety nets to navigate an inclusive and effective adaptation process.

Third, financial bottlenecks may emerge. Increased uncertainty due to potential climate and natural hazards may lead to an increase in risk premia, which in turn could hold back investment. And this situation could be exacerbated if it is no longer possible to obtain insurance against certain risks – or if it is only possible at a prohibitive cost. [ 9 ] Besides the greater frequency and impact of hazards, uninsurable risks occur when hazards become systemic – in other words, when a hazard would affect the entire population at once if it were to materialise. And when such risks are uninsurable, individuals and firms – as well as the financial institutions that finance them – need greater loss-absorbing capacity themselves. This self-insurance will mean that – all other things being equal – the aggregate propensity to invest decreases further.

Bottlenecks in the flow of finance that reduce investment or that lead to misallocation can be mitigated with a sound banking system and well-developed capital markets that bolster transparency and ensures climate- and nature-related risks are properly priced. Against this backdrop, there is an urgent need to complete the banking union and the capital markets union – as the ECB has previously called for – irrespective of the climate and nature scenario that ultimately materialises.

In areas where private investment bottlenecks cannot be resolved, governments may need to step in with increased public investment and safety nets. This would give rise to significant government contingent liabilities that are not yet appropriately reflected in credit ratings or in institutional economic governance frameworks.

The relevance for central banks and supervisors

Many of the challenges I have mentioned – both the critical and the structural economic challenges – fall to policymakers in other areas, rather than central banks and supervisors. But the challenges presented and the policy choices that are taken in response will have a bearing on the environment in which central banks and supervisors pursue their mandates to maintain price stability and ensure the safety and soundness of banks.

First, our objectives are even more important in a world that is facing increased climate and natural hazards. Price stability and sound banks provide an anchor that makes an economy – and therefore a society – more resilient to shocks. The more frequent and intensive the shocks, the more important it becomes that the anchor doesn’t break.

Second, while our tasks become more important when the world around us becomes more daunting, maintaining price stability and a sound banking sector becomes more complicated. And this is not just because shocks are more frequent and more intense. It also becomes more complicated to assess the type of shock that is hitting the economy, yet this is crucial to gauging the potential risk to price stability or to the soundness of banks, as well as the appropriate policy response. It could raise questions about whether climate and natural hazards can be fully captured in the traditional categorisation of demand, supply and financial shocks that are inherent in most macroeconomic models. For example, my fellow ECB Executive Board member Isabel Schnabel has suggested thinking about the impact of climate change on inflation using concepts that she has referred to as “climateflation”, “fossilflation” and “greenflation”. [ 10 ] The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, meanwhile, has already established that climate-related risks translate into the traditional types of risk that banks consider. [ 11 ] This covers credit risk, liquidity risk, market risk and operational risk, including litigation risk. [ 12 ] However, the exact mechanisms of mapping actual hazards to risks still need to be analysed further to fully capture climate-related factors in quantifiable regulatory and supervisory requirements.

Third, climate and natural hazards limit the productive capacity of the economy. Some of the consequences may eventually fade – although they may well persist for quite some time – for example if supply chains are disrupted as a result of hazards materialising. Others may be permanent, for example if nature providing critical services – including land use and fisheries – becomes degraded. In both cases, the risk of the economy running into capacity constraints would be greater. Therefore, to properly assess the state of the economy and identify risks, central banks and supervisors need to further deepen their understanding of the supply side of the economy, just as we had to do after the pandemic and the energy crisis. This also means that we need to extend the horizon of our analyses well beyond the typical horizon considered today. Climate science gives us a window into the rest of this century. What we can see through this window should be taken seriously, including by central banks and supervisors as we identify and assess risks in the pursuit of our mandates. The time to think seriously about the long term is now.

Fourth, the combination of heightened uncertainty and a greater need for self-insurance could lead to an increase in the propensity to save in the private sector. This could create space for the investment that is so urgently needed and – in the absence of increased savings – would lead to an increase in the equilibrium real interest rate. [ 13 ] At the same time, if owing to coordination failures the increased savings are not channelled towards providing the investment needed, the equilibrium real rate of interest would instead be depressed. As this equilibrium rate is the interest rate that prevails when all shocks to the economy have dissipated and monetary policy is neither accommodative nor restrictive, it is an important yardstick for central banks. Thus, for monetary policy, understanding which of these effects ultimately dominates will be key.

Fifth, increasing financial risks arising from the climate and nature crises can impair the soundness of financial institutions and the stability of the financial system as a whole. Should these risks materialise – despite all our efforts to mitigate them – the transmission of our monetary policy could be affected. Monetary policy decisions would be transmitted through the financial system and the economy in a less orderly and less predictable manner, potentially making it more difficult for us to achieve our price stability objective.

More generally, the effectiveness and efficiency of our policies benefit from well-functioning markets. This holds true in terms of both our ability to maintain price stability and the need to avoid the risk of our monetary policy impulses unduly contributing to a misallocation of resources.

Concluding remarks

Let me conclude.

The Temple of Apollo in Delphi famously bore the inscription “Know thyself” – a maxim that is often understood to mean “know your limits”.

Know what you know and know what you don’t know – this is what I have sought to convey to you today. And act upon that knowledge in a way that is robust in the face of known and unknown uncertainties, to avoid making avoidable mistakes like that of King Croesus after he consulted the oracle of Delphi. This includes identifying and seeking answers to questions that reduce uncertainty and increase the scope of “no-regret” policy actions. This will require policymakers to engage with stakeholders beyond their own fields of expertise – just like the Bank of Greece is doing through the interdisciplinary Climate Change Impacts Study Committee, which recently announced the preliminary results of analytical work on the economic, social and environmental impacts of climate change in Greece. [ 14 ] Experts from all disciplines – including climate and nature scientists, biologists, economists, legal experts and sociologists, to name just a few – will need to work closely together in responding to the multifaceted challenges ahead. If ever there was an urgent need to pool knowledge and draw on different fields of expertise, it is now.

Let me be clear: my remarks today are by no means a signal that we should throw in the towel on mitigation. Quite the opposite. I hope that I have been able to show you why, in light of the prevailing climate science, no effort should be spared in working towards the goals of the Paris Agreement. The European Climate Law requires it, and the European Court of Human Rights has ruled that governments that fail to meet their climate commitments are violating human rights. Analysis by the ECB and other central banks and supervisors repeatedly shows that, from an economic perspective, an orderly transition is by far preferable to alternative scenarios of doing nothing or doing too little too late. [ 15 ]

That said, even though climate and nature policymakers are under a legal obligation to deliver on the goals of the Paris Agreement and even if they have committed to achieving these objectives, they still have a duty to prepare for risks that lie ahead as the entire world needs to live up to its obligations – and it is not a given that it will – and critical thresholds may have already been surpassed. The duty to prepare for these risks also holds for central banks and supervisors in the pursuit of their mandates. We must both unwaveringly strive for the best and diligently prepare for what climate science tells us lies in store.

It is not a Delphic prophecy that is calling for action. It is facts and science.

Thank you for your attention.

To my knowledge, there are at least three instances of central banks and supervisory authorities paying tribute to the ancient oracle. The semi-structural macroeconomic model of the Dutch economy that De Nederlandsche Bank uses for its projections is named DELFI. In ECB Banking Supervision we have developed a tool named Delphi that integrates market indicators and information from the media to better understand risk developments affecting banks in real time. And central banks have been described as giving “Delphic” forward guidance when communicating about how they intend to adjust policy in relation to incoming data.

I have emphasised in other speeches that central banks are not climate and nature policymakers , but climate and nature policy takers . See, for example, Elderson, F. (2023), “ Policymakers as policy takers – accounting for climate-related and environmental factors in banking supervision and monetary policy ”, speech at the Peterson Institute for International Economics, 21 April.

European Court of Human Rights (2024), “ Judgment Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz and Others v. Switzerland – Violations of the European Convention for failing to implement sufficient measures to combat climate change ”, press release, 9 April.

United Nations Environment Programme (2023), Emissions Gap Report 2023: Broken Record – Temperatures hit new highs, yet world fails to cut emissions (again) .

European Environment Agency (2024), European climate risk assessment .

According to the World Bank, climate change could contribute to the movement of 216 million people within their own countries by 2050, unless concrete climate and inclusive development actions are taken. See Clement, V. et al. (2021), Groundswell Part 2: Acting on Internal Climate Migration , World Bank Group, Washington, D.C.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2021), Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis .

The Central Banks and Supervisors Network for Greening the Financial System has previously developed scenarios to assess how economies might look on different climate policy paths. In future work it will prioritise the inclusion of non-linear elements – like climate tipping points – in its models (see Aerts, S., Spaggiari, M. and Stracca, L. (2023), “ Climate scenarios: procrastination comes at high cost ”, The ECB Blog , 4 December). For it to achieve this, climate and nature science will be crucial in advancing its understanding of tipping points.

Together with EIOPA the ECB has issued a discussion paper that outlines policy options to promote climate catastrophe insurance that could mitigate the effect of reduced insurability, see ECB and EIOPA (2023), “ Policy options to reduce the climate insurance protection gap ”, Discussion Paper , April.

Schnabel, I. (2022), “ A new age of energy inflation: climateflation, fossilflation and greenflation ”, speech at a panel on “Monetary Policy and Climate Change” at The ECB and its Watchers XXII Conference, 17 March.

Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (2021), Climate-related risk drivers and their transmission channels , April.

On litigation risk, see Elderson, F. (2023), “ “Come hell or high water”: addressing the risks of climate and environment-related litigation for the banking sector ”, speech at the ECB Legal Conference, 4 September.

See, for example, Schnabel, I. (2024), “ R(ising) star? ”, speech at The ECB and its Watchers XXIV Conference session on Geopolitics and Structural Change: Implications for Real Activity, Inflation and Monetary Policy, 20 March.

Bank of Greece (2023), “ Preliminary results of the studies on the vulnerability assessment and the impact of climate change in Greece ”, 15 December.

Emambakhsh, T. et al. (2023), “ The Road to Paris: stress testing the transition towards a net-zero economy ”, Occasional Paper Series , No 328, ECB.

Related topics

• Climate change

Disclaimer Please note that related topic tags are currently available for selected content only.

European Central Bank

Directorate general communications.

• Sonnemannstrasse 20
• 60314 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
• +49 69 1344 7455
• [email protected]

Reproduction is permitted provided that the source is acknowledged.

Our website uses cookies

We are always working to improve this website for our users. To do this, we use the anonymous data provided by cookies. Learn more about how we use cookies

We have updated our privacy policy

We are always working to improve this website for our users. To do this, we use the anonymous data provided by cookies. See what has changed in our privacy policy

Your cookie preference has expired