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Common Assignments: Writing in the Social Sciences

Although there may be some differences in writing expectations between disciplines, all writers of scholarly material are required to follow basic writing standards such as writing clear, concise, and grammatically correct sentences; using proper punctuation; and, in all Walden programs, using APA style. When writing in the social sciences, however, students must also be familiar with the goals of the discipline as these inform the discipline’s writing expectations. According to Ragin (1994), the primary goal of social science research is “identifying order in the complexity of social life” (para. 1). Serving the primary goal are the following secondary goals:

• Identifying general patterns and relationships
• Testing and refining theories
• Making predictions
• Interpreting culturally and historically significant phenomena
• Exploring diversity
• Giving voice
• Advancing new theories (Ragin, 1994, para. 2)

To accomplish these goals, social scientists examine and explain the behavior of individuals, systems, cultures, communities, and so on (Dartmouth Writing Program, 2005), with the hope of adding to the world’s knowledge of a particular issue. Students in the social sciences should have these goals at the back of their minds when choosing a research topic or crafting an effective research question. Instead of simply restating what is already known, students must think in terms of how they can take a topic a step further. The elements that follow are meant to give students an idea of what is expected of social science writers.

If you have content-specific questions, be sure to ask your instructor. The Writing Center is available to help you present your ideas as effectively as possible.

Because one cannot say everything there is to say about a particular subject, writers in the social sciences present their work from a particular perspective. For instance, one might choose to examine the problem of childhood obesity from a psychological perspective versus a social or environmental perspective. One’s particular contribution, proposition, or argument is commonly referred to as the thesis and, according to Gerring et al. (2009), a good thesis is one that is “ new, true, and significant ” (p. 2). To strengthen their theses, social scientists might consider presenting an argument that goes against what is currently accepted within that field while carefully addressing counterarguments, and adequately explaining why the issue under consideration matters (Gerring et al., 2009). For instance, one might interpret a claim made by a classical theorist differently from the manner in which it is commonly interpreted and expound on the implications of the new interpretation. The thesis is particularly important because readers want to know whether the writer has something new or significant to say about a given topic. Thus, as you review the literature, before writing, it is important to find gaps and creative linkages between ideas with the goal of contributing something worthwhile to an ongoing discussion. In crafting an argument, you must remember that social scientists place a premium on ideas that are well reasoned and based on evidence. For a contribution to be worthwhile, you must read the literature carefully and without bias; doing this will enable you to identify some of the subtle differences in the viewpoints presented by different authors and help you to better identify the gaps in the literature. Because the thesis is essentially the heart of your discussion, it must be argued objectively and persuasively.

In examining a research question, social scientists may present a hypothesis and they may choose to use either qualitative or quantitative methods of inquiry or both. The methods most often used include interviews, case studies, observations, surveys, and so on. The nature of the study should dictate the chosen method. (Do keep in mind that not all your papers will require that you employ the various methods of social science research; many will simply require that you analyze an issue and present a well reasoned argument.) When you write your capstones, however, you will be required to come to terms with the reliability of the methods you choose, the validity of your research questions, and ethical considerations. You will also be required to defend each one of these components. The research process as a whole may include the following: formulation of research question, sampling and measurement, research design, and analysis and recommendations. Keep in mind that your method will have an impact on the credibility of your work, so it is important that your methods are rigorous. Walden offers a series of research methods courses to help students become familiar with research methods in the social sciences.

Organization

Most social science research manuscripts contain the same general organizational elements:

Title 

Abstract 

Introduction 

Literature Review 

Methods 

Results 

Discussion 

References 

Note that the presentation follows a certain logic: in the introduction one presents the issue under consideration; in the literature review, one presents what is already known about the topic (thus providing a context for the discussion), identifies gaps, and presents one’s approach; in the methods section, one identifies the method used to gather data; in the results and discussion sections, one then presents and explains the results in an objective manner, acknowledging the limitations of the study (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020). One may end with a presentation of the implications of the study and areas upon which other researchers might focus.

For a detailed explanation of typical research paper organization and content, be sure to review Table 3.1 (pp. 77-81) and Table 3.2 (pp. 95-99) of your 7th edition APA manual.

Objectivity

Although social scientists continue to debate whether objectivity is achievable in the social sciences and whether theories really represent objective scientific analyses, they agree that one’s work must be presented as objectively as possible. This does not mean that writers cannot be passionate about their subject; it simply means that social scientists are to think of themselves primarily as observers and they must try to present their findings in a neutral manner, avoiding biases, and acknowledging opposing viewpoints.

It is important to note that instructors expect social science students to master the content of the discipline and to be able to use discipline appropriate language in their writing. Successful writers of social science literature have cultivated the thinking skills that are useful in their discipline and are able to communicate professionally, integrating and incorporating the language of their field as appropriate (Colorado State University, 2011). For instance, if one were writing about how aid impacts the development of less developed countries, it would be important to know and understand the different ways in which aid is defined within the field of development studies.

Colorado State University. (2011). Why assign WID tasks? http://wac.colostate.edu/intro/com6a1.cfm

Gerring, J., Yesnowitz, J., & Bird, S. (2009). General advice on social science writing . https://www.bu.edu/polisci/files/people/faculty/gerring/documents/WritingAdvice.pdf

Ragin, C. (1994). Construction social research: The unity and diversity of method . http://poli.haifa.ac.il/~levi/res/mgsr1.htm

Trochim, W. (2006). Research methods knowledge base . http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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2.1 Sociology as a Social Science

Learning objectives.

• Explain what is meant by saying that sociology is a social science.
• Describe the difference between a generalization and a law in scientific research.
• List the sources of knowledge on which people rely for their understanding of social reality and explain why the knowledge gained from these sources may sometimes be faulty.
• List the basic steps of the scientific method.

Like anthropology, economics, political science, and psychology, sociology is a social science. All these disciplines use research to try to understand various aspects of human thought and behavior. Although this chapter naturally focuses on sociological research methods, much of the discussion is also relevant for research in the other social and behavioral sciences.

When we say that sociology is a social science, we mean that it uses the scientific method to try to understand the many aspects of society that sociologists study. An important goal is to yield generalizations —general statements regarding trends among various dimensions of social life. We discussed many such generalizations in Chapter 1 “Sociology and the Sociological Perspective” : men are more likely than women to commit suicide, young people were more likely to vote for Obama than McCain in 2008, and so forth. A generalization is just that: a statement of a tendency, rather than a hard-and-fast law. For example, the statement that men are more likely than women to commit suicide does not mean that every man commits suicide and no woman commits suicide. It means only that men have a higher suicide rate, even though most men, of course, do not commit suicide. Similarly, the statement that young people were more likely to vote for Obama than for McCain in 2008 does not mean that all young people voted for Obama; it means only that they were more likely than not to do so.

A generalization regarding the 2008 election is that young people were more likely to vote for Barack Obama than for John McCain. This generalization does not mean that every young person voted for Obama and no young person voted for McCain; it means only that they were more likely than not to vote for Obama.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY 2.0.

Many people will not fit the pattern of such a generalization, because people are shaped but not totally determined by their social environment. That is both the fascination and the frustration of sociology. Sociology is fascinating because no matter how much sociologists are able to predict people’s behavior, attitudes, and life chances, many people will not fit the predictions. But sociology is frustrating for the same reason. Because people can never be totally explained by their social environment, sociologists can never completely understand the sources of their behavior, attitudes, and life chances.

In this sense, sociology as a social science is very different from a discipline such as physics, in which known laws exist for which no exceptions are possible. For example, we call the law of gravity a law because it describes a physical force that exists on the earth at all times and in all places and that always has the same result. If you were to pick up the book you are now reading—or the computer or other device on which you are reading or listening to—and then let go, the object you were holding would definitely fall to the ground. If you did this a second time, it would fall a second time. If you did this a billion times, it would fall a billion times. In fact, if there were even one time out of a billion that your book or electronic device did not fall down, our understanding of the physical world would be totally revolutionized, the earth could be in danger, and you could go on television and make a lot of money.

People’s attitudes, behavior, and life chances are influenced but not totally determined by many aspects of their social environment.

redjar – Cheering – CC BY-SA 2.0.

For better or worse, people are less predictable than this object that keeps falling down. Sociology can help us understand the social forces that affect our behavior, beliefs, and life chances, but it can only go so far. That limitation conceded, sociological understanding can still go fairly far toward such an understanding, and it can help us comprehend who we are and what we are by helping us first understand the profound yet often subtle influence of our social backgrounds on so many things about us.

Although sociology as a discipline is very different from physics, it is not as different as one might think from this and the other “hard” sciences. Like these disciplines, sociology as a social science relies heavily on systematic research that follows the standard rules of the scientific method. We return to these rules and the nature of sociological research later in this chapter. Suffice it to say here that careful research is essential for a sociological understanding of people, social institutions, and society.

At this point a reader might be saying, “I already know a lot about people. I could have told you that young people voted for Obama. I already had heard that men have a higher suicide rate than women. Maybe our social backgrounds do influence us in ways I had not realized, but what beyond that does sociology have to tell me?”

Students often feel this way because sociology deals with matters already familiar to them. Just about everyone has grown up in a family, so we all know something about it. We read a lot in the media about topics like divorce and health care, so we all already know something about these, too. All this leads some students to wonder if they will learn anything in their introduction to sociology course that they do not already know.

How Do We Know What We Think We Know?

Let’s consider this issue a moment: how do we know what we think we know? Our usual knowledge and understanding of social reality come from at least five sources: (a) personal experience; (b) common sense; (c) the media (including the Internet); (d) “expert authorities,” such as teachers, parents, and government officials; and (e) tradition. These are all important sources of our understanding of how the world “works,” but at the same time their value can often be very limited.

Personal Experience

Let’s look at these sources separately by starting with personal experience. Although personal experiences are very important, not everyone has the same personal experience. This fact casts some doubt on the degree to which our personal experiences can help us understand everything about a topic and the degree to which we can draw conclusions from them that necessarily apply to other people. For example, say you grew up in Maine or Vermont, where more than 98% of the population is white. If you relied on your personal experience to calculate how many people of color live in the country, you would conclude that almost everyone in the United States is also white, which certainly is not true. As another example, say you grew up in a family where your parents had the proverbial perfect marriage, as they loved each other deeply and rarely argued. If you relied on your personal experience to understand the typical American marriage, you would conclude that most marriages were as good as your parents’ marriage, which, unfortunately, also is not true. Many other examples could be cited here, but the basic point should be clear: although personal experience is better than nothing, it often offers only a very limited understanding of social reality other than our own.

Common Sense

If personal experience does not help that much when it comes to making predictions, what about common sense? Although common sense can be very helpful, it can also contradict itself. For example, which makes more sense, haste makes waste or he or she who hesitates is lost ? How about birds of a feather flock together versus opposites attract ? Or two heads are better than one versus too many cooks spoil the broth ? Each of these common sayings makes sense, but if sayings that are opposite of each other both make sense, where does the truth lie? Can common sense always be counted on to help us understand social life? Slightly more than five centuries ago, everyone “knew” the earth was flat—it was just common sense that it had to be that way. Slightly more than a century ago, some of the leading physicians in the United States believed that women should not go to college because the stress of higher education would disrupt their menstrual cycles (Ehrenreich & English, 1979). If that bit of common sense(lessness) were still with us, many of the women reading this book would not be in college.

During the late 19th century, a common belief was that women should not go to college because the stress of higher education would disrupt their menstrual cycles. This example shows that common sense is often incorrect.

Steven Depolo – Female Black College Graduates Cap Gown – CC BY 2.0.

Still, perhaps there are some things that make so much sense they just have to be true; if sociology then tells us that they are true, what have we learned? Here is an example of such an argument. We all know that older people—those 65 or older—have many more problems than younger people. First, their health is generally worse. Second, physical infirmities make it difficult for many elders to walk or otherwise move around. Third, many have seen their spouses and close friends pass away and thus live lonelier lives than younger people. Finally, many are on fixed incomes and face financial difficulties. All of these problems indicate that older people should be less happy than younger people. If a sociologist did some research and then reported that older people are indeed less happy than younger people, what have we learned? The sociologist only confirmed the obvious.

The trouble with this confirmation of the obvious is that the “obvious” turns out not to be true after all. In the 2008 General Social Survey, which was given to a random sample of Americans, respondents were asked, “Taken all together, how would you say things are these days? Would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?” Respondents aged 65 or older were actually slightly more likely than those younger than 65 to say they were very happy! About 40% of older respondents reported feeling this way, compared with only 30% of younger respondents (see Figure 2.1 “Age and Happiness” ). What we all “knew” was obvious from common sense turns out not to have been so obvious after all.

Figure 2.1 Age and Happiness

Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2008.

The news media often oversimplify complex topics and in other respects provide a misleading picture of social reality. As one example, news coverage sensationalizes violent crime and thus suggests that such crime is more common than it actually is.

Wikiemedia Commons – CC BY-SA 2.0.

If personal experience and common sense do not always help that much, how about the media? We learn a lot about current events and social and political issues from the Internet, television news, newspapers and magazines, and other media sources. It is certainly important to keep up with the news, but media coverage may oversimplify complex topics or even distort what the best evidence from systematic research seems to be telling us. A good example here is crime. Many studies show that the media sensationalize crime and suggest there is much more violent crime than there really is. For example, in the early 1990s, the evening newscasts on the major networks increased their coverage of murder and other violent crimes, painting a picture of a nation where crime was growing rapidly. The reality was very different, however, as crime was actually declining. The view that crime was growing was thus a myth generated by the media (Kurtz, 1997).

Expert Authorities

Expert authorities, such as teachers, parents, and government officials, are a fourth source that influences our understanding of social reality. We learn much from our teachers and parents and perhaps from government officials, but, for better or worse, not all of what we learn from these sources about social reality is completely accurate. Teachers and parents do not always have the latest research evidence at their fingertips, and various biases may color their interpretation of any evidence with which they are familiar. As many examples from U.S. history illustrate, government officials may simplify or even falsify the facts. We should perhaps always listen to our teachers and parents and maybe even to government officials, but that does not always mean they give us a true, complete picture of social reality.

A final source that influences our understanding of social reality is tradition, or long-standing ways of thinking about the workings of society. Tradition is generally valuable, because a society should always be aware of its roots. However, traditional ways of thinking about social reality often turn out to be inaccurate and incomplete. For example, traditional ways of thinking in the United States once assumed that women and people of color were biologically and culturally inferior to men and whites. Although some Americans continue to hold these beliefs, these traditional assumptions have given way to more egalitarian assumptions. As we shall also see in later chapters, most sociologists certainly do not believe that women and people of color are biologically and culturally inferior.

If we cannot always trust personal experience, common sense, the media, expert authorities, and tradition to help us understand social reality, then the importance of systematic research gathered by sociology and the other social sciences becomes apparent.

The Scientific Method

As noted earlier, because sociology is a social science, sociologists follow the rules of the scientific method in their research. Most readers probably learned these rules in science classes in high school, college, or both. The scientific method is followed in the natural, physical, and social sciences to help yield the most accurate and reliable conclusions possible, especially ones that are free of bias or methodological errors. An overriding principle of the scientific method is that research should be conducted as objectively as possible. Researchers are often passionate about their work, but they must take care not to let the findings they expect and even hope to uncover affect how they do their research. This in turn means that they must not conduct their research in a manner that “helps” achieve the results they expect to find. Such bias can happen unconsciously, and the scientific method helps reduce the potential for this bias as much as possible.

This potential is arguably greater in the social sciences than in the natural and physical sciences. The political views of chemists and physicists typically do not affect how an experiment is performed and how the outcome of the experiment is interpreted. In contrast, researchers in the social sciences, and perhaps particularly in sociology, often have strong feelings about the topics they are studying. Their social and political beliefs may thus influence how they perform their research on these topics and how they interpret the results of this research. Following the scientific method helps reduce this possible influence.

Figure 2.2 The Scientific Method

As you probably learned in a science class, the scientific method involves these basic steps: (a) formulating a hypothesis, (b) measuring and gathering data to test the hypothesis, (c) analyzing these data, and (d) drawing appropriate conclusions (see Figure 2.2 “The Scientific Method” ). In following the scientific method, sociologists are no different from their colleagues in the natural and physical sciences or the other social sciences, even though their research is very different in other respects. The next section discusses the stages of the sociological research process in more detail.

Key Takeaways

• As a social science, sociology presents generalizations, or general statements regarding trends among various dimensions of social life. There are always many exceptions to any generalization, because people are not totally determined by their social environment.
• Our knowledge and understanding of social reality usually comes from five sources: (a) personal experience, (b) common sense, (c) the media, (d) expert authorities, and (e) tradition. Sometimes and perhaps often, the knowledge gained from these sources is faulty.
• Like research in other social sciences, sociological research follows the scientific method to ensure the most accurate and reliable results possible. The basic steps of the scientific method include (a) formulating a hypothesis, (b) measuring and gathering data to test the hypothesis, (c) analyzing these data, and (d) drawing appropriate conclusions.

For Your Review

• Think of a personal experience you have had that might have some sociological relevance. Write a short essay in which you explain how this experience helped you understand some aspect of society. Your essay should also consider whether the understanding gained from your personal experience is generalizable to other people and situations.
• Why do you think the media sometimes provide a false picture of social reality? Does this problem result from honest mistakes, or is the media’s desire to attract more viewers, listeners, and readers to blame?

Ehrenreich, B., & English, D. (1979). For her own good: 150 years of the experts’ advice to women . Garden City, NY: Anchor Books.

Kurtz, H. (1997, August 12). The crime spree on network news. The Washington Post , p. D1.

Sociology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Research Proposal

• Purpose of Guide
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• The Research Problem/Question
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Is it Peer-Reviewed?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
• Annotated Bibliography
• Grading Someone Else's Paper

The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting the research are governed by standards within the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, so guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to ensure a research problem has not already been answered [or you may determine the problem has been answered ineffectively] and, in so doing, become better at locating scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals;
• Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of doing scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study and your analysis of those results. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your writing is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

• What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to research.
• Why do you want to do it? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of study. Be sure to answer the "So What?" question.
• How are you going to do it? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having trouble formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here .

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise; being "all over the map" without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
• Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.].
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
• Failure to stay focused on the research problem; going off on unrelated tangents.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal .  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal . Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal . International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal . University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing a regular academic paper, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty-five pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study?
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea or a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and be excited about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract [summary] before the introduction.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions :

• What is the central research problem?
• What is the topic of study related to that problem?
• What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
• Why is this important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

II.  Background and Significance

This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic; instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain the goals for your study.

To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to address some or all of the following key points:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted .
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. Answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
• Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research. Be sure to note how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem.
• Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where appropriate, state not only what you will study, but what is excluded from the study.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation . The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, where stated, their recommendations. Do not be afraid to challenge the conclusions of prior research. Assess what you believe is missing and state how previous research has failed to adequately examine the issue that your study addresses. For more information on writing literature reviews, GO HERE .

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you read more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or recommendations that are being made.

To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

• Cite , so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
• Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
• Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
• Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.] .
• Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that it is worth pursuing . The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following:

• Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results of these operations in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election outcomes in Europe ].
• Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you explain this.
• Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method is perfect so you need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your reader.

Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal . Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning . Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Juni, Muhamad Hanafiah. “Writing a Research Proposal.” International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences 1 (September/October 2014): 229-240; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal . The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills . Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal . International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal . University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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189+ Best Social Science Research Paper Topics For Students

• Post author By Pooja Barman
• October 23, 2023

Social Science Research Paper Topics can be intriguing, insightful, and engaging, offering students an opportunity to explore a wide range of subjects that impact our society. Are you looking for the most interesting and good topics for a sociology research paper?

If yes, in this article, we will explore what Social Science Research Paper Topics are, provide guidance on how to choose and find them, and discuss why they are beneficial for students.

Additionally, we’ll present a comprehensive list of research paper topics across various social science fields.

Must Read: 125+ Most Creative Art Therapy Projects For Seniors

Table of Contents

What Are Social Science Research Paper Topics

Social Science Research Paper Topics are subjects, questions, or themes within the realm of social sciences that students investigate and write about in research papers. These topics cover a broad spectrum of disciplines, including sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and more.

They aim to shed light on various aspects of human behavior, society, and culture, offering valuable insights and understanding.

How to Choose and Find Social Science Research Paper Topics

Selecting an engaging and relevant social science research paper topic is crucial for a successful paper. Here are some tips on how to choose and find the right topic:

1. Identify Your Interests

Start by considering your personal interests within the social sciences. What subjects or issues captivate your attention? Choosing a topic you’re passionate about will make the research and writing process more enjoyable.

2. Review Course Material

Reflect on what you’ve learned in your social science courses. Often, your coursework can spark ideas for research topics based on your studies and readings.

3. Current Events and Trends

Stay informed about current events and societal trends. These can provide inspiration for research topics that are both timely and relevant.

4. Consult with Professors

Seek guidance from your professors or advisors. They can offer suggestions and help refine your topic ideas.

5. Consider Feasibility

Ensure that your chosen topic is manageable within the scope of your assignment. You should be able to find sufficient research material and complete the project within the given timeframe.

6. Narrow or Broaden Your Focus

Depending on the assignment’s length and requirements, you may need to narrow down a broad topic or expand on a more specific aspect of a larger subject.

Now, let’s dive into a comprehensive list of Social Science Research Paper Topics across various fields:

Sociology Research Paper Topics

• Income Inequality and Social Mobility
• The Impact of Immigration on Host Societies
• Gender Roles and Stereotypes in Society
• Social Isolation in the Digital Age
• Social Media’s Influence on Political Movements
• Social Media and Self-esteem: Impacts on Mental Health
• Gun Control Policies and Their Effects on Society
• The Sociology of Protests and Social Movements
• The Role of Religion in Social Cohesion
• Cultural Appropriation and Its Social Implications

Psychology Research Paper Topics

• The Psychology of Resilience in Adversity
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders
• Effects of Childhood Trauma on Adult Mental Health
• Cross-Cultural Differences in Psychological Disorders
• The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination
• Positive Psychology and Well-being
• The Impact of Technology on Cognitive Abilities
• Child Development and Attachment Theory
• The Psychology of Prejudice in Online Communities
• Understanding and Addressing Teenage Depression

Anthropology Research Paper Topics

• Cultural Relativism and Ethical Dilemmas
• Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainability
• Human-Environment Interactions in Archaeology
• Anthropological Perspectives on Global Health
• Cultural Change and Adaptation in the Modern World
• Urban Anthropology and the Study of City Life
• Ethical Dilemmas in Anthropological Research
• Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Agriculture
• Anthropology of Food and Cultural Significance
• Archaeological Methods and Discoveries

Economics Research Paper Topics

• The Economic Impact of Natural Disasters
• Minimum Wage Policies and Their Consequences
• Behavioral Economics and Consumer Decision-Making
• The Gig Economy and Labor Market Trends
• The Economics of Healthcare and Insurance
• Global Economic Recession: Causes and Impacts
• Economic Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic
• Economic Inequality and Social Unrest
• Behavioral Economics and Decision-Making in Investment

Political Science Research Paper Topics

• International Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution
• Political Polarization and Its Effects on Governance
• Comparative Analysis of Political Systems
• Global Governance and International Organizations
• Political Propaganda and Media Manipulation
• Women in Politics: Representation and Challenges
• Political Extremism and Counterterrorism Policies
• The Role of Soft Power in International Relations
• Political Populism and Its Rise in Contemporary Politics
• Environmental Policies and Political Will

Social Science Education Research Paper Topics

• Inclusive Education and Special Needs Programs
• Homeschooling: Trends and Outcomes
• The Impact of Standardized Testing on Students
• Teacher Training and Professional Development
• Education Funding and Equity
• The Impact of Technology in Classroom Learning
• Education and Socioeconomic Achievement Gap
• Teacher-Student Relationships and Academic Performance
• School Bullying Prevention and Interventions

Environmental Social Science Research Paper Topics

• Urbanization and Urban Planning for Sustainability
• The Role of Wetlands in Ecosystem Health
• Environmental Ethics and Conservation
• Environmental Justice and Marginalized Communities
• Renewable Energy Policies and Implementation
• Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Practices
• Soil Erosion and Agricultural Sustainability
• Wildlife Conservation and Biodiversity Preservation
• Environmental Education and its Role in Society
• Sustainable Urban Planning and Green Cities

History-Social Science Research Paper Topics

• The Historical Roots of Colonialism
• Decolonization Movements in the 20th Century
• The Impact of the Cold War on Global Politics
• Historical Perspectives on Women’s Rights
• The Cultural Significance of Historical Artifacts
• The Impact of the Renaissance on Art and Culture
• Historical Perspectives on the American Civil Rights Movement
• The Decline of Ancient Civilizations: Causes and Lessons
• Historical Analysis of Ancient Trade Routes
• Impact of Colonialism on Indigenous Peoples

Social Work Research Paper Topics

• Social Work in Crisis Intervention and Trauma Counseling
• Substance Abuse Treatment in Vulnerable Populations
• Child Protective Services and Family Welfare
• The Role of Social Workers in Healthcare
• Human Rights and Social Justice Advocacy
• Trauma-Informed Social Work Practice
• Homelessness and Social Services Interventions
• Social Work in Correctional Facilities
• Child Welfare and Family Reunification
• Human Rights and Advocacy in Social Work

Communication Research Paper Topics

• Crisis Communication in the Social Media Age
• The Impact of Fake News on Public Perception
• Visual Communication and its Influence
• Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges
• The Rhetoric of Political Speeches
• Digital Media and the Future of Journalism
• Intercultural Communication in a Globalized World
• Communication Technology and its Impact on Relationships
• Visual Communication and its Persuasive Power
• The Art of Public Speaking and Rhetoric

Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Cybersecurity and the Role of Law Enforcement
• Criminal Behavior and Psychological Profiles
• Recidivism and Rehabilitation Programs
• White-Collar Crime and Corporate Responsibility
• Policing Strategies and Community Relations
• Juvenile Justice and Rehabilitation Programs
• Cybersecurity and Law Enforcement Challenges
• Criminal Profiling and Offender Characteristics
• Hate Crimes and their Motivations
• The Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Programs

Gender Studies Research Paper Topics

• Toxic Masculinity in Popular Culture
• The Impact of #MeToo Movement
• Intersections of Gender and Race
• Transgender Rights and Healthcare Access
• The Influence of Gender in Language and Media
• Women’s Reproductive Rights and Policies
• Men’s Mental Health and Societal Expectations
• Gendered Violence and Prevention Strategies
• Gender Roles in Fairy Tales and Popular Culture
• The Role of Gender in Language and Linguistics

Social Policy Research Paper Topics

• Drug Policy and Harm Reduction Strategies
• Universal Basic Income and Poverty Alleviation
• Maternity and Paternity Leave Policies
• Aging Population and Social Security
• Immigration and Asylum Policies
• Universal Basic Income and Economic Equality
• Housing Policies and Affordable Housing Initiatives
• Youth and Social Services Programs
• Immigration and Family Reunification Policies
• Disability Rights and Social Inclusion

Health Science Research Paper Topics

• Healthcare Disparities in Underserved Communities
• Nutrition and Public Health Interventions
• The Opioid Epidemic and Prescription Drug Abuse
• Mental Health Services in Rural Areas
• Aging and Long-Term Care Services
• Mental Health Stigma in Healthcare
• The Impact of Social Determinants on Health Disparities
• Healthcare Access and Rural Communities
• Health Communication in Public Health Campaigns
• Healthcare Systems in Developing Countries

Family Studies Research Paper Topics

• The Impact of Divorce Mediation on Children
• Foster Care and Adoption Policies
• Sibling Relationships and Birth Order Effects
• Interethnic and Intercultural Marriages
• The Role of Grandparents in Child-Rearing
• The Effect of Divorce on Sibling Relationships
• Parental Involvement and Child Development
• Foster Care and Child Welfare Reforms
• Domestic Violence and Support Services
• Aging Parents and Caregiver Stress

Globalization and Development Research Paper Topics

• The Role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
• Humanitarian Aid and International Crisis Response
• Cultural Exchange Programs and Diplomacy
• Global Supply Chain and Labor Conditions
• Sustainable Tourism and Cultural Preservation
• The Role of Multinational Corporations in Developing Economies
• Indigenous Rights and Sustainable Development
• Microfinance and Poverty Alleviation
• Fair Trade and Ethical Consumerism
• Global Health Partnerships and Disease Prevention

Social Justice Research Paper Topics

• Environmental Racism and its Implications
• Disability Rights and Inclusion
• LGBTQ+ Refugees and Asylum Seekers
• Juvenile Justice and Restorative Practices
• Mass Incarceration and Prison Reform
• LGBTQ+ Rights and Global Advocacy
• Refugee Rights and Resettlement Challenges
• Disability Rights and Access to Healthcare
• Criminal Justice Reform and Social Equity
• Indigenous Land Rights and Environmental Justice

Sociology of Religion Research Paper Topics

• Religious Fundamentalism in Contemporary Society
• Religion and Healthcare Decision-Making
• Interfaith Dialogue and Understanding
• Cults and Their Social Impact
• Religion and Ethics in Bioengineering
• Religious Pluralism and Interfaith Dialogue
• Religious Radicalism and Terrorism
• Religion’s Influence on Political Policies
• The Role of Religion in Environmental Ethics
• Secularism and Non-religious Worldviews

Social Impact of Technology Research Paper Topics

• Online Privacy and Digital Surveillance
• Artificial Intelligence and Its Ethical Challenges
• E-Government and Online Civic Engagement
• Social Media Activism and Its Limitations
• Technology and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence
• The Digital Divide and Technological Inequities
• Social Media Activism and Online Movements
• Cybersecurity and Data Privacy Concerns
• Virtual Reality and Its Applications in Education

Social Movements and Activism Research Paper Topics

• Black Panther Party and its Legacy
• Disability Rights Movements
• Global Youth Activism and Climate Change
• The Arab Spring and Political Change
• Indigenous Rights Movements in Latin America
• Youth-Led Movements and Their Impact on Social Change
• Women’s Suffrage and the Fight for Voting Rights
• Environmental Activism and Conservation Efforts
• Indigenous Rights Movements in Asia

Why Social Science Research Paper Topics Are Beneficial for Students

Social Science Research Paper Topics offer several advantages for students:

• Critical Thinking : Researching and writing about social science topics fosters critical thinking skills. It encourages students to analyze, interpret, and evaluate information and arguments.
• Understanding Society : Social science research topics help students better understand the complexities of human society, culture, and behavior.
• Research Skills : Students develop valuable research skills, including finding and assessing sources, conducting surveys or interviews, and drawing meaningful conclusions.
• Communication Skills : Writing research papers hones students’ communication skills, including the ability to express complex ideas clearly and persuasively.
• Awareness of Social Issues : Exploring social science topics can raise awareness of pressing social issues and encourage students to engage with them more deeply.
• Preparation for Future Careers : Many careers in fields like sociology, psychology, and political science require strong research and analytical skills. Engaging in social science research prepares students for these roles.

Social Science Research Paper Topics provide students with an opportunity to explore, analyze, and contribute to our understanding of human society and its complexities. By following the guidance on selecting topics and recognizing their benefits, students can embark on research projects that are not only academically fulfilling but also socially relevant and impactful.

Whether you choose a topic from sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, or any other social science field. With this extensive list of Social Science Research Paper Topics, students have a wide range of subjects to choose from, spanning sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and more.

These topics offer an opportunity to delve into critical societal issues, analyze their implications, and contribute to a deeper understanding of human behavior and society’s complexities.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is an example of a social science research question.

What are the sources of social inequality, and how does it relate to political institutions and social structures?

How do you write a good social science research paper?

The information should be detailed enough for someone to replicate the study, but it should also be concise.

What is social science research essay?

Social Science Research is the activity of gathering, analysing and interpreting information for a variety of social, economic, educational and political purposes.

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10 Experimental research

Experimental research—often considered to be the ‘gold standard’ in research designs—is one of the most rigorous of all research designs. In this design, one or more independent variables are manipulated by the researcher (as treatments), subjects are randomly assigned to different treatment levels (random assignment), and the results of the treatments on outcomes (dependent variables) are observed. The unique strength of experimental research is its internal validity (causality) due to its ability to link cause and effect through treatment manipulation, while controlling for the spurious effect of extraneous variable.

Experimental research is best suited for explanatory research—rather than for descriptive or exploratory research—where the goal of the study is to examine cause-effect relationships. It also works well for research that involves a relatively limited and well-defined set of independent variables that can either be manipulated or controlled. Experimental research can be conducted in laboratory or field settings. Laboratory experiments , conducted in laboratory (artificial) settings, tend to be high in internal validity, but this comes at the cost of low external validity (generalisability), because the artificial (laboratory) setting in which the study is conducted may not reflect the real world. Field experiments are conducted in field settings such as in a real organisation, and are high in both internal and external validity. But such experiments are relatively rare, because of the difficulties associated with manipulating treatments and controlling for extraneous effects in a field setting.

Experimental research can be grouped into two broad categories: true experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs. Both designs require treatment manipulation, but while true experiments also require random assignment, quasi-experiments do not. Sometimes, we also refer to non-experimental research, which is not really a research design, but an all-inclusive term that includes all types of research that do not employ treatment manipulation or random assignment, such as survey research, observational research, and correlational studies.

Basic concepts

Treatment and control groups. In experimental research, some subjects are administered one or more experimental stimulus called a treatment (the treatment group ) while other subjects are not given such a stimulus (the control group ). The treatment may be considered successful if subjects in the treatment group rate more favourably on outcome variables than control group subjects. Multiple levels of experimental stimulus may be administered, in which case, there may be more than one treatment group. For example, in order to test the effects of a new drug intended to treat a certain medical condition like dementia, if a sample of dementia patients is randomly divided into three groups, with the first group receiving a high dosage of the drug, the second group receiving a low dosage, and the third group receiving a placebo such as a sugar pill (control group), then the first two groups are experimental groups and the third group is a control group. After administering the drug for a period of time, if the condition of the experimental group subjects improved significantly more than the control group subjects, we can say that the drug is effective. We can also compare the conditions of the high and low dosage experimental groups to determine if the high dose is more effective than the low dose.

Treatment manipulation. Treatments are the unique feature of experimental research that sets this design apart from all other research methods. Treatment manipulation helps control for the ‘cause’ in cause-effect relationships. Naturally, the validity of experimental research depends on how well the treatment was manipulated. Treatment manipulation must be checked using pretests and pilot tests prior to the experimental study. Any measurements conducted before the treatment is administered are called pretest measures , while those conducted after the treatment are posttest measures .

Random selection and assignment. Random selection is the process of randomly drawing a sample from a population or a sampling frame. This approach is typically employed in survey research, and ensures that each unit in the population has a positive chance of being selected into the sample. Random assignment, however, is a process of randomly assigning subjects to experimental or control groups. This is a standard practice in true experimental research to ensure that treatment groups are similar (equivalent) to each other and to the control group prior to treatment administration. Random selection is related to sampling, and is therefore more closely related to the external validity (generalisability) of findings. However, random assignment is related to design, and is therefore most related to internal validity. It is possible to have both random selection and random assignment in well-designed experimental research, but quasi-experimental research involves neither random selection nor random assignment.

Threats to internal validity. Although experimental designs are considered more rigorous than other research methods in terms of the internal validity of their inferences (by virtue of their ability to control causes through treatment manipulation), they are not immune to internal validity threats. Some of these threats to internal validity are described below, within the context of a study of the impact of a special remedial math tutoring program for improving the math abilities of high school students.

History threat is the possibility that the observed effects (dependent variables) are caused by extraneous or historical events rather than by the experimental treatment. For instance, students’ post-remedial math score improvement may have been caused by their preparation for a math exam at their school, rather than the remedial math program.

Maturation threat refers to the possibility that observed effects are caused by natural maturation of subjects (e.g., a general improvement in their intellectual ability to understand complex concepts) rather than the experimental treatment.

Testing threat is a threat in pre-post designs where subjects’ posttest responses are conditioned by their pretest responses. For instance, if students remember their answers from the pretest evaluation, they may tend to repeat them in the posttest exam.

Not conducting a pretest can help avoid this threat.

Instrumentation threat , which also occurs in pre-post designs, refers to the possibility that the difference between pretest and posttest scores is not due to the remedial math program, but due to changes in the administered test, such as the posttest having a higher or lower degree of difficulty than the pretest.

Mortality threat refers to the possibility that subjects may be dropping out of the study at differential rates between the treatment and control groups due to a systematic reason, such that the dropouts were mostly students who scored low on the pretest. If the low-performing students drop out, the results of the posttest will be artificially inflated by the preponderance of high-performing students.

Regression threat —also called a regression to the mean—refers to the statistical tendency of a group’s overall performance to regress toward the mean during a posttest rather than in the anticipated direction. For instance, if subjects scored high on a pretest, they will have a tendency to score lower on the posttest (closer to the mean) because their high scores (away from the mean) during the pretest were possibly a statistical aberration. This problem tends to be more prevalent in non-random samples and when the two measures are imperfectly correlated.

Two-group experimental designs

Pretest-posttest control group design . In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups, subjected to an initial (pretest) measurement of the dependent variables of interest, the treatment group is administered a treatment (representing the independent variable of interest), and the dependent variables measured again (posttest). The notation of this design is shown in Figure 10.1.

Statistical analysis of this design involves a simple analysis of variance (ANOVA) between the treatment and control groups. The pretest-posttest design handles several threats to internal validity, such as maturation, testing, and regression, since these threats can be expected to influence both treatment and control groups in a similar (random) manner. The selection threat is controlled via random assignment. However, additional threats to internal validity may exist. For instance, mortality can be a problem if there are differential dropout rates between the two groups, and the pretest measurement may bias the posttest measurement—especially if the pretest introduces unusual topics or content.

Posttest -only control group design . This design is a simpler version of the pretest-posttest design where pretest measurements are omitted. The design notation is shown in Figure 10.2.

The treatment effect is measured simply as the difference in the posttest scores between the two groups:

The appropriate statistical analysis of this design is also a two-group analysis of variance (ANOVA). The simplicity of this design makes it more attractive than the pretest-posttest design in terms of internal validity. This design controls for maturation, testing, regression, selection, and pretest-posttest interaction, though the mortality threat may continue to exist.

Because the pretest measure is not a measurement of the dependent variable, but rather a covariate, the treatment effect is measured as the difference in the posttest scores between the treatment and control groups as:

Due to the presence of covariates, the right statistical analysis of this design is a two-group analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). This design has all the advantages of posttest-only design, but with internal validity due to the controlling of covariates. Covariance designs can also be extended to pretest-posttest control group design.

Factorial designs

Two-group designs are inadequate if your research requires manipulation of two or more independent variables (treatments). In such cases, you would need four or higher-group designs. Such designs, quite popular in experimental research, are commonly called factorial designs. Each independent variable in this design is called a factor , and each subdivision of a factor is called a level . Factorial designs enable the researcher to examine not only the individual effect of each treatment on the dependent variables (called main effects), but also their joint effect (called interaction effects).

In a factorial design, a main effect is said to exist if the dependent variable shows a significant difference between multiple levels of one factor, at all levels of other factors. No change in the dependent variable across factor levels is the null case (baseline), from which main effects are evaluated. In the above example, you may see a main effect of instructional type, instructional time, or both on learning outcomes. An interaction effect exists when the effect of differences in one factor depends upon the level of a second factor. In our example, if the effect of instructional type on learning outcomes is greater for three hours/week of instructional time than for one and a half hours/week, then we can say that there is an interaction effect between instructional type and instructional time on learning outcomes. Note that the presence of interaction effects dominate and make main effects irrelevant, and it is not meaningful to interpret main effects if interaction effects are significant.

Hybrid experimental designs

Hybrid designs are those that are formed by combining features of more established designs. Three such hybrid designs are randomised bocks design, Solomon four-group design, and switched replications design.

Randomised block design. This is a variation of the posttest-only or pretest-posttest control group design where the subject population can be grouped into relatively homogeneous subgroups (called blocks ) within which the experiment is replicated. For instance, if you want to replicate the same posttest-only design among university students and full-time working professionals (two homogeneous blocks), subjects in both blocks are randomly split between the treatment group (receiving the same treatment) and the control group (see Figure 10.5). The purpose of this design is to reduce the ‘noise’ or variance in data that may be attributable to differences between the blocks so that the actual effect of interest can be detected more accurately.

Solomon four-group design . In this design, the sample is divided into two treatment groups and two control groups. One treatment group and one control group receive the pretest, and the other two groups do not. This design represents a combination of posttest-only and pretest-posttest control group design, and is intended to test for the potential biasing effect of pretest measurement on posttest measures that tends to occur in pretest-posttest designs, but not in posttest-only designs. The design notation is shown in Figure 10.6.

Switched replication design . This is a two-group design implemented in two phases with three waves of measurement. The treatment group in the first phase serves as the control group in the second phase, and the control group in the first phase becomes the treatment group in the second phase, as illustrated in Figure 10.7. In other words, the original design is repeated or replicated temporally with treatment/control roles switched between the two groups. By the end of the study, all participants will have received the treatment either during the first or the second phase. This design is most feasible in organisational contexts where organisational programs (e.g., employee training) are implemented in a phased manner or are repeated at regular intervals.

Quasi-experimental designs

Quasi-experimental designs are almost identical to true experimental designs, but lacking one key ingredient: random assignment. For instance, one entire class section or one organisation is used as the treatment group, while another section of the same class or a different organisation in the same industry is used as the control group. This lack of random assignment potentially results in groups that are non-equivalent, such as one group possessing greater mastery of certain content than the other group, say by virtue of having a better teacher in a previous semester, which introduces the possibility of selection bias . Quasi-experimental designs are therefore inferior to true experimental designs in interval validity due to the presence of a variety of selection related threats such as selection-maturation threat (the treatment and control groups maturing at different rates), selection-history threat (the treatment and control groups being differentially impacted by extraneous or historical events), selection-regression threat (the treatment and control groups regressing toward the mean between pretest and posttest at different rates), selection-instrumentation threat (the treatment and control groups responding differently to the measurement), selection-testing (the treatment and control groups responding differently to the pretest), and selection-mortality (the treatment and control groups demonstrating differential dropout rates). Given these selection threats, it is generally preferable to avoid quasi-experimental designs to the greatest extent possible.

In addition, there are quite a few unique non-equivalent designs without corresponding true experimental design cousins. Some of the more useful of these designs are discussed next.

Regression discontinuity (RD) design . This is a non-equivalent pretest-posttest design where subjects are assigned to the treatment or control group based on a cut-off score on a preprogram measure. For instance, patients who are severely ill may be assigned to a treatment group to test the efficacy of a new drug or treatment protocol and those who are mildly ill are assigned to the control group. In another example, students who are lagging behind on standardised test scores may be selected for a remedial curriculum program intended to improve their performance, while those who score high on such tests are not selected from the remedial program.

Because of the use of a cut-off score, it is possible that the observed results may be a function of the cut-off score rather than the treatment, which introduces a new threat to internal validity. However, using the cut-off score also ensures that limited or costly resources are distributed to people who need them the most, rather than randomly across a population, while simultaneously allowing a quasi-experimental treatment. The control group scores in the RD design do not serve as a benchmark for comparing treatment group scores, given the systematic non-equivalence between the two groups. Rather, if there is no discontinuity between pretest and posttest scores in the control group, but such a discontinuity persists in the treatment group, then this discontinuity is viewed as evidence of the treatment effect.

Proxy pretest design . This design, shown in Figure 10.11, looks very similar to the standard NEGD (pretest-posttest) design, with one critical difference: the pretest score is collected after the treatment is administered. A typical application of this design is when a researcher is brought in to test the efficacy of a program (e.g., an educational program) after the program has already started and pretest data is not available. Under such circumstances, the best option for the researcher is often to use a different prerecorded measure, such as students’ grade point average before the start of the program, as a proxy for pretest data. A variation of the proxy pretest design is to use subjects’ posttest recollection of pretest data, which may be subject to recall bias, but nevertheless may provide a measure of perceived gain or change in the dependent variable.

Separate pretest-posttest samples design . This design is useful if it is not possible to collect pretest and posttest data from the same subjects for some reason. As shown in Figure 10.12, there are four groups in this design, but two groups come from a single non-equivalent group, while the other two groups come from a different non-equivalent group. For instance, say you want to test customer satisfaction with a new online service that is implemented in one city but not in another. In this case, customers in the first city serve as the treatment group and those in the second city constitute the control group. If it is not possible to obtain pretest and posttest measures from the same customers, you can measure customer satisfaction at one point in time, implement the new service program, and measure customer satisfaction (with a different set of customers) after the program is implemented. Customer satisfaction is also measured in the control group at the same times as in the treatment group, but without the new program implementation. The design is not particularly strong, because you cannot examine the changes in any specific customer’s satisfaction score before and after the implementation, but you can only examine average customer satisfaction scores. Despite the lower internal validity, this design may still be a useful way of collecting quasi-experimental data when pretest and posttest data is not available from the same subjects.

An interesting variation of the NEDV design is a pattern-matching NEDV design , which employs multiple outcome variables and a theory that explains how much each variable will be affected by the treatment. The researcher can then examine if the theoretical prediction is matched in actual observations. This pattern-matching technique—based on the degree of correspondence between theoretical and observed patterns—is a powerful way of alleviating internal validity concerns in the original NEDV design.

Perils of experimental research

Experimental research is one of the most difficult of research designs, and should not be taken lightly. This type of research is often best with a multitude of methodological problems. First, though experimental research requires theories for framing hypotheses for testing, much of current experimental research is atheoretical. Without theories, the hypotheses being tested tend to be ad hoc, possibly illogical, and meaningless. Second, many of the measurement instruments used in experimental research are not tested for reliability and validity, and are incomparable across studies. Consequently, results generated using such instruments are also incomparable. Third, often experimental research uses inappropriate research designs, such as irrelevant dependent variables, no interaction effects, no experimental controls, and non-equivalent stimulus across treatment groups. Findings from such studies tend to lack internal validity and are highly suspect. Fourth, the treatments (tasks) used in experimental research may be diverse, incomparable, and inconsistent across studies, and sometimes inappropriate for the subject population. For instance, undergraduate student subjects are often asked to pretend that they are marketing managers and asked to perform a complex budget allocation task in which they have no experience or expertise. The use of such inappropriate tasks, introduces new threats to internal validity (i.e., subject’s performance may be an artefact of the content or difficulty of the task setting), generates findings that are non-interpretable and meaningless, and makes integration of findings across studies impossible.

The design of proper experimental treatments is a very important task in experimental design, because the treatment is the raison d’etre of the experimental method, and must never be rushed or neglected. To design an adequate and appropriate task, researchers should use prevalidated tasks if available, conduct treatment manipulation checks to check for the adequacy of such tasks (by debriefing subjects after performing the assigned task), conduct pilot tests (repeatedly, if necessary), and if in doubt, use tasks that are simple and familiar for the respondent sample rather than tasks that are complex or unfamiliar.

In summary, this chapter introduced key concepts in the experimental design research method and introduced a variety of true experimental and quasi-experimental designs. Although these designs vary widely in internal validity, designs with less internal validity should not be overlooked and may sometimes be useful under specific circumstances and empirical contingencies.

Social Science Research: Principles, Methods and Practices (Revised edition) Copyright © 2019 by Anol Bhattacherjee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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PEDAGOGY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE [Teaching of Social Science]

Pedagogy of social science | teaching of social science | pedagogy of social studies | teaching of social studies.

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What is Social Science?

In general, any branch of study that deals with the social life of man and employs scientific methods for its study may be conceived as a social science. Thus, it includes a wide variety of branches of knowledge from History and Philosophy to Law and Education .

According to Charles Beard’s, “social sciences are a body of knowledge and thought pertaining to human affairs.”

NATURE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

• It is a unique combination of various disciplines
• It is a study of human relationships
• It is a study of man’s development through ages
• It aims at preparing the learner for wholesome social living
• It is a realistic course of study
• It forms an important part of the core –curriculum
• It includes Commitment to action

SCOPE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

• It is as vast and wide as the world
• It is a functional study of natural and physical sciences and fine arts.
• It is a study of current affairs.
• It is a study leading to international understanding .
• It is a practical study of various Resources.

Major aspects of Social Science

• Anthropology

Major Disciplines under the family of Social Science

• Pure Social Science
• Semi Social Science
• Sciences with Social Implications

SOCIAL SCIENCE CORRELATION WITH OTHER SUBJECTS

There is no school subject which is not related to Social Science in some form or another. Social science provides the natural setting for meaningfully learning the various school subjects such as languages, sciences, mathematics, fine arts, etc.

Relation of Social Science with History:

History has a close relationship with social science is often taught as part of social science at school. History provides a basis and perspective to the important topics in social science such as education, population, war, trade union movements, towns and cities, customs and social moves, etc.

Relation of Social Science with Geography:

Social science includes the study of the living conditions of the people of various countries, their mode of living, their occupations, their standard of living, etc. All these are very much influenced by the geographical conditions of those countries.

Relation of Social Science with Economics:

Social science draws from Economics some of the knowledge of the basic need of human being such as food, shelter, and clothing.

Relation of Social Science with Languages:

Conversely, topics in social sciences can be meaningfully presented and comprehended only with the help of appropriate language skills and by adopting literary forms of expression .

Relation of Social Science with General Science:

The study of general science will have to be planned in relation to societal issues. At the same time, the historical, cultural, economic, and sociological aspects of human life have to be related to the developments in the various sciences that have revolutionized all aspects of human life.

Relation of Social Science with Mathematics:

Mathematics has to be taught by correlating it with different aspects and activities of human life to enable children to become useful members of society.

Relation of Social Science with Biology:

Biological concepts woven into social science are of great help to the understanding of the overpopulation problem.

Relation of Social Science with Physics:

Physical science and social science are closely related to dealing with food, clothing shelter, weather, transport, and communication are used in science as well as in social science . Advances in science and technology have revolutionized social life all over the world.

Relation of Social Science with Fine Arts:

The study of social science and that of fine arts could be made meaningful and goal oriented only if the relation between the two subjects is made evident by adopting appropriate instructional strategies.

GENERAL AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE

• To acquaint the child with his past and present geographical and social environment.
• To enable children to appreciate India’s rich cultural heritage as also to recognize.
• To build social competence.
• To build intelligent democratic citizenship .
• To help the child acquire the right attitudes knowledge understanding and competence which he will need in the interaction with the social and physical environment.
• To help the child gain insight into spiritual economic and political values as forces in human behavior and human relationships.
• To develop desirable qualities for the all-round development of a rich personality.
• To foster an attitude towards knowledge, life, and learning relevant to the present.
• To promote understanding of all history and all human experience as a process of change and development.
• To give a sense of belonging
• To enable the pupils to use their leisure properly.
• To help resolve our contemporary social and individual problems
• To foster national feelings.
• To promote international understanding .

VALUES OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE

Social Science is valuable as a study in more ways than one.

• Disciplinary Values
• Information Values
• Educational Values
• Ethical Values
• Cultural Values
• Political Values
• Nationalistic Values
• Vocational Values

TEACHING SKILLS

Teaching skill is a set of related overt behaviors of the teacher (verbal and non-verbal) which are observable, definable, measurable, demonstratable, and refinable through practice.

IMPORTANT TEACHING SKILLS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

• Writing instructional objectives
• Introducing a lesson
• Fluency in questioning
• Probing questioning
• Illustrating with examples
• Stimulus variation
• Reinforcement
• Silence and nonverbal cues
• Increasing pupil’s participation
• Recognizing attending behavior
• Using Blackboard
• Achieving closure
• Learn More about Teaching Skills

Some of the skills are extensively used by all teachers in routine teaching. These skills are known as Core Teaching Skills.

Some Core Teaching Skills:

• Skill of Fluency in Questioning
• Skill of Explaining
• Skill of Stimulus Variation
• Skill of Reinforcement
• Skill of Using Blackboard

MICRO TEACHING

Microteaching is a new design for teacher training which provides trainees with feedback about their performance immediately after completion of a micro lesson.

Objectives of Microteaching

• To enable the teacher trainees to learn and assimilate new teaching skills under controlled conditions.
• To enable the teacher trainees to gain confidence in teaching and to master a number of skills by dealing with a small group of students

Characteristic of Micro teaching

• It is a scaled-down teaching
• It is less complex than regular teaching
• It involves a lesser number of students usually 5 to 10
• Its duration is short about 5 to 10 minutes
• Learn More About Micro Teaching and All Microteaching Skills

ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER

In the teaching of social science, the teacher occupies a pivotal role.

The qualities of a Social Science teacher may be categorized as

• Scholarship
• Professional Training
• Personality
• Teaching Skills
• Human Relations

Scholarship:

• Acquaintance with problems of present-day life and awareness about social issues
• Constant reading of newspapers, magazines, and other materials
• Wide reading of books on the subject taught
• Sound knowledge of the subject taught

Professional Training:

• Development of a positive professional attitude
• Creating interest in reading educational magazines
• Mastering professional skills

Personality:

• Physical aspects
• Inner virtues
• Executive abilities

1. Physical Aspects:

• Personal appearance including dress body, language, social expression, mannerism, and personal cleanliness
• Etiquette including good manners observances of social norms, courtesy, and refinement
• Voice rich and mellow
• Good language command including excellence in pronunciation enunciation and correct grammar
• Health and hygiene 

2. Inner Virtues:

• Friendliness
• Self-control
• Tactfulness
• Understanding

3. Executive abilities:

• Adaptability
• Directive ability
• Organizing ability
• Resourcefulness
• Self-confidence
• Self-reliance

Teaching Skills:

• Control and modulation of facial expression
• Greeting and taking up proper positions in the class.
• Use of appropriate gestures in various
• Quality as a social being
• Social moderator and engineer
• Deep knowledge of the subject

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCE

• To create leadership development opportunities for students
• To foster a commitment to social and civic responsibility
• To promote learning both for students and for community members
• To play a role in creating capacity in the community to work on complex societal problems
• To design a more effective way for the campus to contribute to economic and community development.
• Prepares students to be intentional learners who can adapt to new environments, integrate knowledge from different sources and continue to learn throughout their lives
• Open up boundaries and stimulate the exchange of ideas using some of the strategies of learning organizations
• Celebrate the diversity of the school community.
• Create school democracie s that have real power. 

PROBLEMS FACED BY SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHERS

• Dealing with controversial Topics
• Making connections to students
• Need to vary Instruction
• Staying at the lower level of Blooms Taxonomy
• Too much reliance on Textbooks
• Lack of Interest
• Lack of resources available

Curriculum is a tool in the hands of an artist (teacher) to mould his materials (pupils) according to his ideals (objectives) in his studio (School) – Arthur Cunningham

The curriculum includes all those activities and environmental influences to which the student is exposed during his educational career, which in turn results in deep-rooted experiences for him. These experiences then help for the realization of a variety of anticipated goals.

IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SOCIAL SCIENCE CURRICULUM

• Synthesis of the subjects of study and life
• Acquisition and strengthening of knowledge
• Complete development
• Development of democratic values
• Realization of values
• Harmony between individual and society
• Creation of a suitable environment

TYPES OF CURRICULA

• Traditional or subject-centered curriculum
• Activity centered curriculum
• Child-centered curriculum
• Experience centered curriculum
• Undifferentiated curriculum

PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION

• The Principle of Child Centeredness
• The Principles of Community Centeredness
• The Principle of Activity Centeredness
• The Principle of Integration
• Forward-Looking Principle
• Conservation Principle
• Renewal Principle
• Creative Principle
• Motivation Principle
• Maturity Principle
• The Principle of Preparation for Life
• The Principle of Elasticity and Flexibility
• The Principle of Comprehensiveness
• The Principle of Balance
• The Principle of Utility 

To develop the competence of choosing the relevant instructional process, the teacher is required to develop the skill of planning the instruction. How do we plan for teaching social studies?

Developing instructional objectives (cognitive/affective etc.) in precise terms is one of the most important aspects of instructional planning. It helps in selecting suitable teaching-learning alternatives and evaluation procedures too.

PLANNING THE DAILY LESSON

The lesson plan is the smallest unit plan which contains similar elements arranged in much the same way to achieve the objectives as in the extended unit plan.

LESSON PLANNING

A lesson plan represents a single teaching unit meant for a class period. Generally, a lesson plan is a teacher’s mental and emotional visualization of classroom activities.

In the words of Lester B. Stands, “A lesson plan is actually a plan of action.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD LESSON PLAN

• Objective-based
• The decision about appropriate material aids
• Based on previous knowledge
• Division of lesson plan in units
• Simplicity of activities
• Determination of activities
• Self-evaluation
• Use of illustration
• Use of blackboard
• Learn More About Lesson Planning

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY- TAXONOMY OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Instructional objectives are often classified according to the kind or level of learning that is required in order to reach them.

There are numerous taxonomies of instructional objectives; the most common taxonomy was developed by Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues. 

The first level of the taxonomy divides objectives into three categories:

• Psychomotor
• Cognitive objectives focus on the mind
• Affective objectives focus on emotions or affect
• Psychomotor objectives focus on the body
• Learn More about Bloom’s Taxonomy and Revised Boom Taxonomy

MAJOR METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE

• Storytelling method
• Supervised Study
• Text Book Method
• Source Method
• Lecture Method
• Demonstration Method
• Dramatization Method
• Team Teaching Method
• Problem-solving method
• Project Method
• Discussion Method

RESOURCES AND EQUIPMENT FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHING

• Social science library
• Social science laboratory
• Social science museum
• Study circles
• Community resources
• Social science club
• Celebration of national festivals
• Model parliament
• Organization of field trips and excursions

Author Remarks:

PEDAGOGY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE Is A Subject Taught In B.Ed And In Some Other Teaching Courses Also. On This Page, You Will Find Teaching of Social Science Short Examination Notes And Downloadable Free PDF Book In English Medium For B.Ed First Year And Second Year and Semester 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Here We Have Covered Some of The Main Topics and Important MCQ Questions of PEDAGOGY OF SOCIAL STUDIES Which Will Really Help in Your Exam Preparation and Also You Can Make Your Assignment Report and File for BEd Very Easily with The Help of These Notes. These Notes and Free PDF Book on Teaching of Social Studies Subject Will Be Helpful for All the Students and Teachers of Any College or University. We Have Also Suggested Some of the Best Reference Books and Study Material PDF for PEDAGOGY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE (Teaching of Social Science) That you can Also Go Through. Students and Teachers Preparing for All The Teaching Exams Like CTET, TET, UPTET, HTET Can Also Learn With The Notes Provided Above.

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This meeting took place over four days: 5/8/24, 5/9/24, 5/17/24, and from 3-5 pm on all days. The following documents the number of participants and the type of workshop :

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Purpose of Guide

This guide is intended to help college students successfully manage and complete specific assignments that are commonly used to assess student learning in social and behavioral sciences classes. Note that, if you have any questions about an assignment, you should always seek advice from your professor before you begin. Requirements set forth by your professor will always supersede advice provided under these general guidelines.

NOTE : This content was previously included with my Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. The assignment pages have been removed to create this writing guide so as to make both more accessible.

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• Last Updated: May 7, 2024 9:45 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/assignments