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My Visit To The Paddy Farm

Our ninth entry is from, Aakriti Krishnan who is studying in class 8 at the Hyderabad Public School in India. Find out how visiting a farm changed her perspective on interdependency!

Interdependency: It is something we come across in our daily life. For everything we do depends on so many people that it is quite astonishing. For instance, even to have a simple meal of Dal and rice, we require the farmer. The farmer depends on the people who bring him fertilizers, people who work on his farm, people who provide water and irrigation facilities and even the person who gives him simple advice on how to produce more crops and keep them infection free. The farmer also depends on insects and animals, like the earthworm and the cows to make the soil fertile. Even if one of these people or animals fails in doing their tasks, it affects us. Many people are unaware of this interdependency and take it for granted. In fact, even I was one of these people, who took things for granted before I visited a farm.

It was a lovely Sunday morning. The weather was pleasant, and our family had planned a visit to a paddy farm. The farm belonged to my father’s friend Mr. Praveen Kumar whom we call ‘Praveen Uncle’. We (my parents, sister, uncle and me) left for the farm around 10 in the morning. We reached the farm around 11 am. It was a beautiful view from the entrance of the farm. There was a small vegetable patch near the entrance and huge paddy fields that didn’t seem to end, lay ahead! We started our small ‘adventure’ with the lush green organic paddy fields. Praveen Uncle’s farm is special in its own way; it is organic and gets all its water supply from a humongous well.

Uncle explained how the paddy was planted and the small difficulties the other farmers and he faced during the process. Some of this produce was very thick and productive, but some had not grown to its full capacity. The ever changing season also had a major role to play – in the outcome of these fields. The small path was lined with beautiful marigold bushes. We proceeded towards the huge well. Actually from the outside, it looked like a tick dense forest. This was a really old well which had in fact been covered for a few years. The well also had a healthy family of turtles living inside, as Praveen uncle told us. The last few days had been pretty wet so the well was filling up fast. We headed down a rough slope almost slipping here and there and finally managed to reach the edge of the well. Oh! Its diameter was unbelievable, my first experience of seeing a conventional well! We found some earthworm pellets here and there. The place had not been tampered with and was as natural as possible. We stayed for a while at the well watching the turtles enjoy a good swim on a sunny afternoon, and left to see the compost heaps.

Praveen Uncle explained that they did not waste any material on the farm. They made the compost and used it to make the soil more fertile. They first add 6 inches of organic plant material and then add another 6 inches of cow dung. They use this process and make heaps that are almost 3-5 feet tall. They also place two sticks in this pile to ensure passage of air and also reduce the heat generated. In about 6-7 weeks they get good manure made by aerobic bacteria. We also saw few vegetable beds that had lots of green leafy vegetables and lots of bean varieties. Drip irrigation technique was used for these beds. We were slightly tired, so we decided to head back. On the way we walked through slushy mud, and picked a few custard apples from the tree. We also spotted a guava tree. Finally we reached our car and we had some snacks that included a custard apple and coconut water that we bought on the way to the farm. After refreshing ourselves we went to see the other vegetable patch. We saw tomatoes that were almost ripe, bottle gourd ready to be picked, sweet potatoes that had just flowered and the “Dosakai” which is a local name for a round, yellow type of cucumber found in Andhra Pradesh. We had explored most of the farm except the far away paddy fields and coconut trees that lined the edge of the farm. Our stomachs were growling, so we ended our lovely visit with a sumptuous meal at Prakriti resorts, that was a 2 minute drive from the farm.

Custardapple

This visit has taught me a lot of things, some I never knew some I knew but never really bothered learning about. Since Praveen uncle is practicing organic farming, he is trying to be self sufficient. He does not depend on anybody to bring him fertilizers, but he depends on bacteria, earthworms and cows to make compost and natural fertilisers. Organic farming is an excellent way of using the waste available on the farm, and the materials required will never run out. Even the method of composting used on the farm with aerobic bacteria is found everywhere. Wild plants in fact depend on dung of animals, earthworms and bacteria to grow. Thus there is natural interdependency. My dad’s friend has learnt to run a farm based on this very same interdependency. This visit has made me think deeply about how we can use simple interdependency in nature to meet our needs, rather than depend on artificial materials. This is “THE WAY FORWARD TO A GREEN EARTH WE CAN CREATE” which also indirectly helps us follow the 3Rs, commonly preached today – Reuse, Reduce and Recycle.

The Historical Development of Paddy Cultivation

First Online: 27 March 2021

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Karen Haydock 16 ,
Abhijit Sambhaji Bansode 17 ,
Gurinder Singh 16 &
Kalpana Sangale 16

Part of the book series: International Explorations in Outdoor and Environmental Education ((IEOEE,volume 7))

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In this chapter we will present a brief review of the history of paddy cultivation, and a discussion of how rice itself changes over time due to the ‘Unbalance of Nature’ and to the process of cultivation. We will discuss the origin of rice, its reproduction and evolution, and the development of variation in rice. We will then discuss the development of paddy cultivation in India, asking how and why the social, political, and economic development of agriculture occurred during British colonialism, the Green Revolution, and neo-liberalism, resulting in the present agricultural crisis.

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Haydock, K., Bansode, A.S., Singh, G., Sangale, K. (2021). The Historical Development of Paddy Cultivation. In: Learning and Sustaining Agricultural Practices. International Explorations in Outdoor and Environmental Education, vol 7. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64065-1_6

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The Paddy Field (Kumbura) is a traditional agricultural practice in ancient Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan Flora & Agricultural Heritage

Presented in a Rare Dimension

The Paddy Field (Kumbura)

A Kumbura or Ketha is the land on which farmers cultivate paddy. Rice is the staple food of Sri Lanka and as such, paddy cultivation in Sri Lanka is given utmost importance in the agriculture industry. Ancient and traditional farmers were self-sufficient in rice production and ancient Ceylon is said to have been among the foremost paddy exporters in the world. Paddy production in the country flourished during the reign of Sri Lankan kings, who fostered and nurtured production in various ways including, most notably, the supply of water through the construction of large scale irrigation tanks – Ceylon was popularly known as the ‘The Great Barn of the East’ during the reign of King Parakramabahu who is renowned for his hydraulic construction and renovation in aid of agriculture.

Ancient and traditional paddy cultivation practices were completely organic and did not induce any harm to the surrounding environment or health.

The Structure of a Kumbura

A Kumbura is a portion of a ‘Kumburuyaya’ or a large paddy tract that belongs to an individual farmer; i.e. the Kumburuyaya is divided into separately owned Kumburu. The paddy tract divides into discernible square areas of land called ‘Liyadi’ where paddy is grown. These are surrounded by ridges known as ‘Niyara’. An opening is made in the Niyara called ‘Vakkada’ which supplies water into the Liyadi. Areas of land, comparatively smaller than Liyadi, known as Kanati are constructed to regulate and manage the water flow into the Kumbura. Two Kanati are located at the two ends of the Kumburuyaya; these portions, called ‘Kurulupaluwa’ are dedicated to birds for feeding. Ancient farmers believed that by providing these feeding grounds to birds, their threat to paddy would be minimized.

Kurulupaluwa is one of many altruistic methods practiced by ancient farmers. Much of the agricultural practices of old worked harmoniously with nature, inducing very little (these were reversible) to no damage to the environment and wildlife.

Types of Kumburu

There are two types of Kumburu: Godakumburu and Madakumburu.

Godakumburu are cultivated without a permanent water supply, instead paddy is cultivated here with the aid of rain water. These types of Kumburu were not popular among farmers, due to the unpredictability of rainfall. Madakumburu were much more popular as these had a permanent water supply by way of an irrigation tank or stream.

See Sama (Harrowing)

See Sama is the process of harrowing and preparing land prior to paddy cultivation, which is done using a Nagula (plough) and oxen. See Sama was performed ceremoniously during the reign of kings in a festival called ‘Vapmagula’. Many religious rituals were also observed by traditional and ancient farmers before harrowing commenced.

Once harrowing is complete, paddy seeds are sown or saplings are planted in the ground.

Enriching Soil

No chemicals or toxins were used to enrich the soil of paddy fields. Ancient and traditional farmers used manure, fallen leaves and decayed hay to fertilize their land. These organic fertilizers improved microbial activity in soil. The yield from this method of fertilization was high and absent of harmful toxins.

Poru Gama (Leveling)

Poru Gama is the process of leveling the paddy field with the use of oxen and a tool known as the Poruva. Poru Gama is generally done a few weeks after harrowing and fertilizing paddy fields. This process ensures that there is uniform water flow from one Liyadda to another.

Caring for Bovines

Bovines (oxen, bullock, cows) who help the farmer in the many stages of paddy cultivation are an invaluable asset to him. Thus, farmers treat their working animals with utmost love and care. They are never induced injury by the Kewita (a stick used to drive and direct the bovines) during See Sama, Poru Gama etc. The animals are never over-worded and are provided plenty of food, water and rest in a timely manner. At the end of a working day, the bovines would be bathed and cleaned and provided forage. The animals are never employed the entire day (they are only worked around 5 to 6 hours a day) and are never worked under a harsh sun (this was especially during the day and at noon).

They were even referred to lovingly using names such as ‘Amma’ (mother), ‘Appa’ (father) and ‘Vahudaruvo’ (Calf children).

Sowing Seeds and Planting Sapling

Following the initial preparation, farmers would elect to either sow paddy seeds or plant sapling.

Weeding is chiefly performed by women. Rhymes called ‘Nelum Kavi’ are generally sung together during the process to cast off weariness and boredom. Weeding an entire Kumburuyaya often takes a fortnight.

Safeguarding the Kumbura

A wooden fence called the Danduvata, made by stacking and tying fallen and trimmed tree stems and branches, is set up around the entire Kumburuyaya to prevent wild animals from raiding crop. In addition, a scarecrow (Pambaya) is erected and a Takeya (a rough bell-type object) is hung to scare away birds and tiny animals. Farmers would keep watch over their Kumbura throughout the day and night in rough-hewn watch huts called ‘Pela’ to chase away raiding animals.

Ancient and traditional farmers tilled their land according to the Kanna (period or season) systems, which avoided pest invasion. They also employed organic pest control methods.

It was also common to pray to religious faiths to protect the crop.

Paddy was harvested when they turn light gold in color. Farmers would harvest their crop together while singing ‘Goyam Kavi’. The harvest is temporarily stored in the Kamatha (threshing floor) before it is taken home.

Photo Credit

Gamini abeykoon.

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Published: 06 August 2021

Rice paddy soils are a quantitatively important carbon store according to a global synthesis

Yalong Liu 1 , 2 , 3 ,
Tida Ge ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0422-6122 2 , 4 ,
Kees Jan van Groenigen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9165-3925 5 ,
Yuanhe Yang ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5399-4606 6 ,
Ping Wang 1 ,
Kun Cheng 7 ,
Zhenke Zhu 2 ,
Jingkuan Wang 1 ,
Yong Li 2 ,
Georg Guggenberger 2 , 3 ,
Jordi Sardans 8 , 9 ,
Josep Penuelas ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7215-0150 8 , 9 ,
Jinshui Wu 2 &
Yakov Kuzyakov ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9863-8461 10 , 11

Communications Earth & Environment volume 2 , Article number: 154 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Agroecology
Biogeochemistry
Carbon cycle

Rice paddies account for ~9% or the world’s cropland area and are characterized by environmental conditions promoting soil organic carbon storage, methane emissions and to a lesser extent nitrous oxide emissions. Here, we synthesize data from 612 sites across 51 countries to estimate global carbon stocks in paddy soils and determine the main factors affecting paddy soil carbon storage. Paddy soils (0–100 cm) contain 18 Pg carbon worldwide. Paddy soil carbon stocks decrease with increasing mean annual temperature and soil pH, whereas mean annual precipitation and clay content had minor impacts. Meta-analysis shows that paddy soil carbon stocks can be increased through several management practices. However, greenhouse gas mitigation through paddy soil carbon storage is generally outweighed by increases in methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Our results emphasize the key role of paddies in the global carbon cycle, and the importance of paddy management in minimizing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.

The carbon dioxide removal gap

Land conversion to agriculture induces taxonomic homogenization of soil microbial communities globally

Environmental drivers of increased ecosystem respiration in a warming tundra

Introduction.

Soils contain the largest reservoir of terrestrial organic carbon (C) and they are a main natural source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) 1 . Soil organic carbon (SOC) is widely recognized as a key element of soil fertility, and croplands with high SOC contents have better structure and lower risks of erosion 2 . Insights into the global distribution of SOC stocks and the effects of environmental variables will thus improve estimates of C-climate feedbacks, and may contribute to agricultural policies designed to improve soil quality 3 , 4 , 5 . Over the last decade, SOC stocks have been increasingly estimated at global and regional scales for numerous ecosystems, including croplands 6 , grasslands 7 , wetlands 8 , 9 , and forests 10 , 11 . However, even though rice paddies cover ~9% of the global cropland area and provide staple food for roughly half the world’s population 12 , a global assessment of SOC stocks in rice paddies is still lacking.

Paddy soils are anthropogenic soils (Anthrosols) for cultivation of rice, which are intentionally flooded and puddled, i.e., tilled under water saturated conditions. Paddy soils are widely distributed from temperate to tropical climates on all continents, but mainly in Asia. Rice paddies can be established on various natural and previously agriculturally used soil types, and on various parent materials, but are highly modified by management practices during rice-paddy cultivation 13 . Because rice paddies are frequently flooded and puddled, their properties differ substantially from those of all other arable upland soil. Anaerobic conditions induced by flooding slow down organic matter decomposition, and thus beneficial to SOC accumulation 14 . At the same time, these anaerobic conditions promote CH 4 production by methanogens, making rice paddies a main source of anthropogenic CH 4 emissions 15 .

The development of efficient irrigation techniques led to expansion of the global paddy area by >30% since the 1960s 16 . During this period, rising levels of mineral fertilizer application and subsequent increased straw return to soil stimulated SOC storage in paddy soils around the world 17 , 18 . For example, the topsoil layer (0–30 cm) of rice paddies in China store ~30% more SOC (45 Mg ha −1 ) than corresponding upland soils (35 Mg ha −1 ) 19 . Therefore, changes in the C pool size of paddies could strongly affect atmospheric CO 2 concentrations. However, the size of global rice-paddy SOC pool is still unclear. On a global scale, SOC stocks in upland soils increase with precipitation and clay content and decrease with temperature 20 , but the main environmental and management factors affecting paddy SOC stocks at different climates have not yet been determined. This information could help to optimize agronomical management designed to enhance SOC sequestration, inform agricultural policy measures designed to improve soil quality, and predict the potential impacts of climate changes on SOC stocks.

Several recent studies have reported paddy SOC stocks in regions that were previously underrepresented in rice-paddy research, such as South America and Africa (e.g., ref. 21 ). With SOC inventories now being available for most of the world’s rice-growing areas, a data synthesis may reduce the uncertainty regarding paddy soil C stocks and identify practices and areas with high potential for soil C storage. We thus conducted a global synthesis of SOC stocks in the topsoil (0–30 cm) and subsoil (30–100 cm) of rice paddies, including data from 612 sites around the world (Fig. 1a ; see Methods and Supplementary Data 1 ). Our objectives were (1) to determine climatic factors, soil properties, and management practices that affect SOC stocks of paddy topsoils on a global scale; (2) to compare paddy SOC storage between the main rice-producing countries and their contribution to the global paddy SOC pool; and (3) to determine the contribution of SOC storage in paddy soils to the global terrestrial and agricultural SOC pool.

a Distribution of the sites from the peer-reviewed literature reporting paddy SOC stocks (612 sites). Areas with rice paddies are colored green. b Frequencies in absolute cases of the global distribution of elevation, latitude, and longitude for paddies.

We found that paddy soils (0–100 cm) contain 18 Pg SOC worldwide, ~1.2% of the global SOC pool, corresponding to 14% of the total SOC pool in croplands. Paddy SOC stocks decrease with increasing mean annual temperature and soil pH, but mean annual precipitation and clay content had minor impacts. Meta-analysis further indicates that paddy SOC stocks (0–30 cm) increase with fertilization (9–32%), straw return (13%), and conservation tillage (8–10%). However, climate benefits of SOC storage in paddies are generally negated by increases in CH 4 and N 2 O emissions.

Our database included information about rice paddies between 48°N and 38°S and between 147°E and 90°W. The distribution of sites was skewed towards low elevations, with most sites located below 200 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1b ). The SOC content in the topsoil of most sites (>70%) ranged from 7 to 16 g kg −1 , with a mean of 13.8 g kg −1 . The bulk density (BD) of the topsoil at most sites (>70%) ranged between 1.2 and 1.6 g cm −3 , with a mean of 1.3 g cm −3 (Supplementary Fig. 1 ).

The estimated global average SOC stock of rice paddies is 108 Mg ha −1 for the 0–100 cm layer, ~10% higher than the global average for all soils (Table 1 ). Average SOC stocks in rice paddies are lower than for mangroves, forests, and wetlands, but substantially higher than for grasslands and croplands (Table 1 ). Totaled across the globe, the upper 1 m of paddy soils contains 18 Pg (95% CI: 17.2–18.9) organic C. This amounts to ~1.2% of the global SOC pool, or ~14.2% of the total SOC pool in croplands worldwide (Table 2 ).

Topsoil paddy SOC stocks ranged between 7 and 330 Mg ha −1 (Fig. 2a ). Mean SOC stocks increased with latitude ( p < 0.01), from 50 Mg ha −1 in the tropics to 62 Mg ha −1 in temperate regions (Supplementary Fig. 2 ). Topsoil SOC stocks in rice paddies differed more than three fold between main rice-producing countries (Fig. 2b ): paddies in Indonesia and Vietnam had the highest SOC stocks (~78 Mg ha −1 ), whereas paddies in Pakistan, Cambodia, Africa, and Central and South America contained less than 30 Mg C ha −1 . Paddies in China, India, and Indonesia together accounted for ~56% of the global paddy SOC pool (Fig. 2c ).

a Spatial distribution of SOC stocks in paddy topsoil (0–30 cm). b Boxplots of SOC stocks in the topsoil (0–30 cm) of the 13 countries. Upper and lower bars: 95th and 5th percentiles of all observations, respectively; top and bottom of boxes: third and first quartiles; black horizontal solid lines in boxes: median values; red dashed lines: mean values. Blue dashed lines indicate global average SOC stock (51 Mg ha −1 ). The embedded pie chart shows the percentage contribution of each country to global rice production. Countries are arranged by decreasing mean SOC stocks per ha: INA Indonesia, VIE Vietnam, CHN China, JPN Japan, MYA Myanmar, NGR Nigeria, THA Thailand, PHI Philippines, BRA Brazil, BNA Bangladesh, IND India, PAK Pakistan, CAM Cambodia. The numbers below the x -axis indicate the number of datapoints for each country. Three datapoints for Indonesia fell outside the y -axis; these data were included in SOC stock calculations. c Total paddy SOC stocks in the topsoil (0–30 cm) and the 100 cm profile in the 13 countries. The contributions of paddy SOC stocks (0–100 cm) to the global paddy SOC stock for each country are shown as percentages. Error bars indicate standard errors (±SE).

Correlation analyses indicated that paddy SOC stocks are mainly determined by soil pH and mean annual temperature (MAT), and to a much smaller extent by mean annual precipitation (MAP) and clay content (Table 3 ). SOC stocks decreased with increases in pH and MAT, and slightly increased with increasing MAP and clay content.

Our meta-analysis indicates that N fertilization increased SOC stocks by 9% on average, whereas combined NPK application doubled the increase in SOC stocks compared to sole N fertilization application (Fig. 3 ). Organic fertilizer application alone and combined with NPK increased SOC stocks by 19% and 32%, respectively. Returning straw to the soil increased C stocks by 13%. Compared to conventional tillage practices, no-till and reduced tillage increased SOC stocks by 10% and 8%, respectively.

Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals. The number of observations included in the meta-analysis is shown next to the corresponding data point. OF organic fertilizer. Dashed vertical line shows the average of all agronomical practices on the SOC increase. The effects of all presented management practices are significant ( p < 0.05).

Our data synthesis and meta-analysis reveal the importance of rice paddies for the global C cycle. Per unit area, paddy soils contain more SOC than upland agricultural soils 14 , 22 . Whereas rice paddies occupy less than 9% of the global cropland area, they harbor more than 14% of its SOC stocks (Table 2 ). These large SOC stores can be explained by anaerobic conditions of rice paddies after flooding, slowing down decomposition rates and thus, increasing soil C accumulation compared to other cropland types 13 , 23 , 24 , 25 .

SOC stocks were best predicted by soil pH (Table 3 ). This supports previous reports that soil acidity strongly affects ecosystem C balances (e.g., ref. 26 ). pH regulates several soil properties and processes that play key roles in determining C stocks. For example, the solubility of organic matter decreases under low pH by formation of organic matter complex with polyvalent metal ions such as iron and aluminum 26 , 27 . Consequently, leaching of dissolved organic matter will be reduced. Furthermore, low soil pH values slow down litter decomposition by reducing enzyme activity 28 , 29 and by changing the composition of microbial communities 30 , 31 .

The MAP was less important than MAT in determining C stocks because of the regular flooding of paddy fields. High temperatures and rainfall in the tropics typically stimulate plant productivity 32 , but accelerated SOM decomposition negate or even override the effects of increased C inputs from plant production on C stocks 33 . Similarly, the slowing down of SOC decomposition rates with decreasing temperature 34 explains the increase in C stocks with latitude.

Since paddy soils can develop from different parent materials, their initial mineralogy, texture, and fertility can vary considerably 13 . However, prolonged rice cultivation masks initial soil characteristics and minimizes the influence of parent material on pedogenic features (e.g., ref. 35 ). This likely explains why clay content explained less of the variation in SOC stock than did other environmental factors (e.g., pH and MAT, Table 3 ). Upland soils with high clay contents generally store more C than sandy soils 36 , because clay minerals provide binding surfaces for organic matter and creates anoxic microsites within aggregates. Soil aggregation has minor impact on C dynamics by regular puddling 35 , and strongly variable redox conditions may reduce the formation and stability of organic matter-clay complexes 37 . Other recent SOC inventories also suggested that clay contents accounted for a small amount of variation in SOC stocks in rice paddies 38 . Rather, SOC stabilization in paddies is largely regulated by thermodynamic constraints of organic matter decomposition under anaerobic conditions 39 .

The impact of environmental factors on paddy soil C stocks can explain some of the main differences between countries. For instance, average paddy SOC stocks were 1.8-fold larger for China (65 Mg ha −1 ) than India (36 Mg ha −1 ). The difference between countries partly reflects the specifics of climate; Chinese rice-growing regions predominantly have subtropical climates, whereas Indian rice-growing regions have predominantly hot tropical climates 40 . Compared to other climate zones, the rate of paddy SOC decomposition in tropical climates is fast 40 .

Management practices also strongly affect paddy SOC stocks, which probably explains the relatively low amount of variation explained by environmental factors (Table 3 ) compared to nonagricultural upland soils (e.g., ref. 19 ). Our global meta-analysis corroborates previous national syntheses of paddy SOC dynamics under various management practices 41 , 42 . C gains in fertilized soils are explained by N and other nutrients stimulating plant growth and rhizodeposition, thereby increasing soil C input rates 43 . Fertilizer N addition can also stimulate soil C storage by slowing down the decomposition of plant litter and SOM (e.g., refs. 44 , 45 ). Specifically, N additions might reduce so-called “microbial N mining”, whereby nutrient-poor conditions (e.g., low N) stimulate recalcitrant SOC decomposition by N-acquiring microbes 46 , 47 , 48 . Furthermore, organic fertilizers are additional C input into soil. Finally, organic fertilizers stimulate the succession of microbial communities favorable to SOC accumulation 49 . However, in addition to previous findings (e.g., ref. 42 ), significant differences in SOC stocks were recorded between organic fertilizers (OF) and mineral plus organic fertilizers (NPK + OF). High N and other nutrient levels increase microbial growth on the available C pools, and so more necromass will be produced, which is a main component of SOM 48 .

Our estimates of no-till effects on paddy SOC stocks are quantitatively similar to no-till effects observed in upland soils 50 and indicate potential for SOC storage. Conservation tillage increases soil C storage by reducing aeration and the oxidative decomposition of SOC at periods of paddy soil drainage 40 and by increasing the physical and chemical protection of C from microbial attacks through organo-mineral associations 51 . Furthermore, conservation tillage reduces C losses associated with erosion 40 . Many paddies, especially in Asia, have been continuously tilled for hundreds to thousands of years. These practices likely depleted soil C stocks 27 , suggesting further potential for C storage under no-till. However, due to data paucity, our meta-analysis only considered C stocks in the top 30 cm. SOC gains in upper soil layers under no-till can be partly offset by losses at lower depths 52 , thereby reducing the SOC storage potential. Thus, to improve estimates of paddy SOC storage potential under no-till, whole profile analyses are still needed.

Our meta-analysis also explains some of the differences in SOC stocks between countries. For instance, rice paddies in eastern Asia (China, South Korea, and Japan), western Indonesian islands and Madagascar contained more SOC per area unit than paddies in western Africa, southern Asia, and South and Central America (Fig. 2a ). These differences can be partly explained by management practices: farmers in southern/southeastern Asia and Africa often cannot afford sufficient mineral fertilizers to improve crop yield and support soil C storage 53 . Rice straw is also often removed for fodder and other uses in these regions 54 , thereby reducing soil C input rates and C stocks even further (Fig. 3 ). In contrast, high fertilizer application rates and high levels of crop residue return in China 55 , 56 , 57 contribute to high soil C stocks in Chinese rice paddies.

Another factor that might explain low soil C stocks in Africa might be the age of rice paddies. To feed a growing world population and to accommodate changing diets, global croplands have expanded by an average of 4 million hectares per year in recent decades 58 . Paddy expansion rates during this time differed strongly between continents, with half of the new global paddy area being located in Africa 16 . African rice paddies contain relatively low amounts of initial SOC compared to other continents 8 , suggesting a high potential of C sequestration. Our results also indicate considerable potential for paddy soil C sequestration in southern Asia, the central Indochina Peninsula and eastern South America (Fig. 2a ). Realizing this potential requires adoption of recommended management practices such as crop residue incorporation, conservation tillage associated with seldom (once per 10–15 years) deep tillage, crop rotations with inclusion of grasses, legumes and deep rooting crops, and integrated nutrient management with pH adjustment through liming 2 , 59 . Promoting these practices will require new environmental and economic policies. For instance, aggregating small cropland patches can facilitate efficient fertilizer application, whereas farmer subsidies could provide an incentive for straw incorporation and rotations with deep rooting crops 56 .

Even though rice paddies store more SOC than the global average, this does not necessarily mean that the recent expansion in paddy area equates to a net climate benefit. First, new rice paddies are often established in ecosystems with relatively high soil C stocks, such as wetlands 60 , 61 . Second, rice paddies require a considerable amount of global irrigation water, accounting for 20% of total freshwater withdrawals by crops 62 . Pumping this water requires energy, which in turn causes ancillary CO 2 emissions. In gravity-fed irrigation systems or when pumping water from shallow aquifers this energy requirement can be minimal, but it can be high with diesel-based groundwater extraction systems or when using electricity not generated by hydropower 63 . Finally, and most importantly, CH 4 emissions from rice paddies are substantially higher than for other staple crops 62 , 64 , and rice paddies also produce considerable amounts of N 2 O (e.g., ref. 15 ). Thus, any benefits in terms of soil C sequestration with rice-paddy establishment need to be considered against a backdrop of increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Soil C storage and GHG emissions can be compared directly by expressing them in CO 2 equivalents, using the global warming potential (GWP) values over a 100 year time horizon relative to CO 2 , i.e., 34 for CH 4 and 298 for N 2 O 65 . Global average GHG emissions from rice paddies have previously been estimated as 6300 kg CO 2 -eq ha −1 yr –1 for CH 4 16 and 280 kg CO 2 -eq ha −1 yr −1 for N 2 O 15 (Supplementary Table 1 ). Average annual soil C storage in rice paddies can be estimated from average rice yields 16 and previously reported conversion factors 66 , 67 , and amounts to roughly 314 kg CO 2 -eq ha −1 yr −1 , i.e., an order of magnitude less than the combined emissions of CH 4 and N 2 O (Supplementary Table 1 ). Our estimates are corroborated by field studies showing that even after accounting for soil C storage, rice paddies remain a large net source of GHGs (e.g., refs. 68 , 69 , 70 . Supplementary Table 2 ).

Management practices that increase SOC sequestration in rice paddies need to account for increased CH 4 emissions as well. Even though rice straw incorporation stimulates soil C storage, it more than doubles CH 4 emissions from rice paddies on average 71 . Previous syntheses suggest that the net effect of these two responses is negative, i.e., straw incorporation constitutes a net source of GHG emissions 72 . Whereas reduced till and no-till practices generally increase paddy soil C stocks, their effect on CH 4 emissions remains uncertain, with recent syntheses suggesting either increases 73 or decreases 74 in CH 4 emissions with no-till. Higher surface SOC with no-till may stimulate CH 4 production by increasing the availability of organic substrates 75 . On the other hand, increased soil macroporosity and soil pore continuity with no-till may accelerate gas diffusion and increase CH 4 oxidation 76 . The net effect of these opposing mechanisms is still unclear, and further research is needed to determine which of these mechanisms dominates under which conditions. Fertilizer N addition not only stimulates paddy SOC storage; it also stimulates N 2 O emissions from rice paddies 77 . The effect of fertilizer N on CH 4 emissions depends on application rates, with positive effects at low and medium rates, but negative effects at very high rates 77 . The increase in GHG emissions with fertilizer addition generally outweighs the climate benefit of soil C storage 68 , 69 . Moreover, the manufacturing and distribution of fertilizer requires energy and thus produces ancillary CO 2 emissions, possibly negating climate benefits 78 . In addition, excessive fertilizer N application in rice paddies causes a range of other environmental problems 79 .

Although rice agriculture represents a large net source of GHGs compared to other staple crops, it also shows large potential for GHG mitigation through management 64 . For instance, mid-season drainage and intermittent irrigation can prevent the development of strong anaerobic conditions, thereby reducing CH 4 emissions by 53% 80 . While these practices stimulate N 2 O emissions, their net effect on GHG emissions is still negative 80 . Combining intermittent irrigation with several other management practices, the System of Rice Intensification may reduce both GHG emissions and the use of irrigation water (e.g., refs. 63 , 81 ). Applying rice straw off season rather than in season may reduce global CH 4 emissions by 4.1 Tg year –1 82 . Moreover, selecting high-yielding cultivars can simultaneously reduce CH 4 emissions and increase crop yields 83 , and so, the C input into soil. A full accounting of the mitigation potential of these measures calls for long-term experiments under real-world conditions that account for changes in soil C stocks, interactions between management practices, as well as direct and ancillary GHG emissions. In addition, models such as DNDC-rice (e.g., ref. 84 ) may be used to evaluate trade-offs between soil C sequestration and CH 4 and N 2 O emissions under a range of management practices 85 .

In summary, we present the first global assessment of paddy soil C stocks. Our results identify paddy soils as an important C pool, containing ~20% more SOC per hectare than croplands on average. Our analysis underlines the role of both natural factors and agronomical management in determining paddy SOC stocks; fertilization, straw incorporation, and no-till practices all increased paddy SOC storage, whereas SOC levels decreased with MAT and soil pH. However, the climate benefit of SOC storage in rice paddies is generally outweighed by increases in GHG emissions. These data underline the importance of paddies in the terrestrial C cycle, and should be used to improve global C inventories and to inform policy advice related to land use.

Data collection

We used Web of Science, Google Scholar, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure to search for studies published between 1999 and 2019, applying the search terms “paddy AND soil organic carbon” and “rice AND soil organic carbon”. We only considered studies reporting contents for soil organic carbon (SOC) or soil organic matter (SOM) and sampling depth for the quantitative determination of paddy SOC storage (excluding upland rice). For each study we tabulated SOC contents and sampling depth; we also tabulated soil bulk density (BD) data when these were reported. We selected a total of 239 publications reporting 2234 sets of raw data from rice paddies around the world for analyses (see Supplementary Data 1 ). To avoid data duplication, we checked the latitude and longitude of all the sites included in our dataset, and we eliminated duplicated sites. Finally, our dataset included 612 sampling locations in 50 countries (out of 118 rice-producing countries, Fig. 1a ) encompassing 95% of the global paddy area and 98% of the global rice production.

We also tabulated the following information for each study: (1) geographical location of sites (latitude, longitude, elevation above sea level, and country), (2) climatic conditions (mean annual temperature, MAT; and mean annual precipitation, MAP), and (3) properties of the paddy soil (pH and clay content). Missing data for latitude, longitude, and elevation were estimated using Google Maps ( https://maps.google.com/ ). Missing data for MAT and MAP were obtained from https://en.climate-data.org/ .

Data processing

Estimating missing data for soc content and bd.

Paddy SOC stocks were calculated separately for the topsoil (0–30 cm) and subsoil (30–100 cm) to facilitate a comparison between our results and global SOC storage data in the Harmonized World Soil Database 86 . Original data reported as SOM content were converted to SOC content using the conventional “van Bemmelen factor” of 1.724 87 .

Most SOC data in our database were for soil layers to a maximum depth of 30 cm or less. To extrapolate these data to lower depths, we used a subset of 42 studies that reported SOC contents for 409 profiles ≥50 cm. We assume that soil compaction was similar across all the profiles and could be extrapolated to other SOC data in the deep soil. The relative ratio of SOC content (RR SOC , see ref. 88 ) was first calculated as:

where SOC surface is the SOC content (g kg −1 ) of surface soil and SOC below is the SOC content below the surface soil for various depths in the profile. Combing the data for all studies in the subset, the relationship between RR SOC and soil depth could be described by a logarithmic curve (Supplementary Fig. 3 , R 2 = 0.63, n = 1227, see ref. 89 ). SOC content at depth i (cm) was then estimated as:

The depth gradient for BD was less pronounced than for SOC content (Supplementary Fig. 4a ). The relationship between BD and SOC content of the topsoil in our dataset could be described by a negative power function (Fig. S5 ; R 2 = 0.49, n = 1370):

The availability of subsoil BD data was insufficient to perform a regression analysis with SOC content. Because the ratio of subsoil over topsoil bulk density averaged 1.18 across our dataset (Supplementary Fig. 4b ; standard error = 0.01, n = 376), we estimated missing subsoil BDs by multiplying the topsoil BDs by 1.18.

Estimating paddy SOC stocks in the topsoil and subsoil

For each soil layer at each sampling location in our dataset, total SOC stock (SOCT, Mg ha −1 ) was calculated according to ref. 21

where SOC and BD are SOC content (g kg −1 ) and bulk density (g cm −3 ), respectively, H is soil thickness (cm) and δ 2mm is the fraction (%) of fragments >2 mm in the soil. Since the paddy soils were mostly derived from deposits in flat areas, the >2 mm fraction of the total mass is usually negligible 21 .

When SOC content and BD data were available for the entire 0–100 cm profile, we calculated SOC stock (Mg ha −1 ) in the 0–30 cm topsoil layer (SOCT 30 ) and the entire 0–100 cm profile (SOCT 100 ) by adding SOCT of all soil layers within the 0–30 cm and 0–100 cm range, respectively.

When SOC content or BD were not available for some of the 0–30 cm or 0–100 cm profile, we used the following formulas instead:

where SOC a and SOCT a are the SOC content (g kg −1 ) and SOC stock in the topsoil, respectively, BD is bulk density (g cm −3 ) in the topsoil. Missing BDs were estimated using the formula in Supplementary Fig. 5 .

Estimating national and global paddy SOC stocks

National paddy SOC stocks (SOCT N , Pg) for any country in our dataset were estimated as:

where SOCTmean (Mg ha −1 ) is the mean SOC stock across all sampling locations in that country and HA is the rice harvest area (ha) in that country. HA data for all countries in our analysis were derived from FAO 15 .

The global SOC stock (SOCT G , Pg) was estimated as:

where SOCTNa is paddy SOC stock (Pg) in country a, and SOCT Nn is paddy SOC stock (Pg) in country n. No SOC data were available for some countries where HA was small (e.g., Congo, Mali, and Peru). For these countries, we estimated SOCT N using the SOC N data from neighboring countries with the closest climate based on Köppen-Geiger climate classification. These estimates did not substantially affect the estimates of the global SOC stocks because of the small areas of these countries (~5% of total HA). Global mean SOC stocks per unit area was calculated based on global SOC stocks (SOCT G ) divided by global rice-paddy area.

Data analysis

The importance of the environmental variables was estimated using Pearson’s and partial correlation coefficients, which are commonly used to measure the association between variables, implemented in SPSS 20.0 (SPSS, Chicago, USA). In these correlations, the p value defines whether two variables are statistically correlated. p values below 0.05 were accepted as significant correlations. Optimized model for SOC with environmental variables was determined by stepwise regression using forward selection criteria ( p of 0.05 for entering and 0.1 for removal). ArcGIS 10.3 (Esri, Redlands, USA) was used to analyze and visualize the spatial distribution of SOC stocks.

The 95% confidence interval (CI) of SOC stocks (SOCT N ) in each country was calculated by bootstrapping, using 4999 iterations 90 . The uncertainty (U) of the total SOC stock in each country was then calculated as:

where x is the SOC stock in a country, and CI is the 95% confidence interval of x . The total uncertainty (U total ) at the global scale was calculated as:

where U a and U n are the uncertainties associated with x a and x n in country a and country n. Because some countries were represented by only one site, the CI of that country could not be calculated. In these cases, the coefficient of variation was conservatively set to 50% 91 . Global SOC stocks were then estimated as described by Eq. 8 , and the 95% confidence CI of this estimate was calculated using Eq. 9 .

Meta-analysis

We assessed the effects of management practices (fertilization, return of straw, and tillage) on paddy SOC stocks by creating subsets of experiments that included side-by-side comparisons between management practices. Studies had to meet specific criteria to be included in the dataset. First, growing conditions in the control and treatment plots had to be identical (except for the management practice being studied). Second, mean SOC stock and the number of field replicates had to be reported for both control and treatment plots. Studies were incorporated into seven datasets, based on seven types of management practices: (1) addition of mineral nitrogen (N) fertilizer, (2) addition of mineral nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium (NPK) fertilizer, (3) addition of organic fertilizer (e.g., green/farmyard manure, compost), (4) addition of mineral NPK and organic fertilizer, (5) no tillage, (6) reduced tillage, and (7) the return of straw.

The effects of these management practices on SOC stocks were quantified as the natural log of the response ratio (lnRR), a metric commonly used in meta-analyses: 92

where SOCTt and SOCTc represent the mean SOC stock in the 0–30 cm layer of the treatment and control groups, respectively. SOC stocks for the 0–30 cm layer were calculated as described above. Treatments included (i) the application of mineral fertilizers (e.g., N or NPK), organic fertilizer (OF), and mineral plus organic fertilizers (NPK + OF) versus no application, (ii) straw return versus no return, and (iii) no or reduced tillage versus conventional tillage.

Most studies in our analysis did not report the standard deviations of the means. We therefore adopted a replication‐based weighting method: 93 , 94

where nt and nc are the numbers of replicates of the treatment and control, respectively.

Mean effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were generated by bootstrapping with 4999 iterations using MetaWin 2.1 90 . Effects of paddy management were considered significant if the 95% CIs did not overlap with zero. To ease interpretation, results were back-transformed to percent change ((RR − 1) × 100) in SOC stocks. Positive and negative changes indicate increases and decreases due to the management practices, respectively.

Data availability

The datasets generated during the current study are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5102775

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development program (2017YFD0800104), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41977088, 41807089; 41977093; 41761134095); the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province (2019JJ10003; 2019JJ30028), the Youth Innovation Team Project of Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences (2017QNCXTD_GTD), and the International Postdoctoral Exchange Fellowship Program 2018 (20180017). The research of J.P. and J.S. was funded by the European Research Council Synergy grant ERC-2013-SyG-610028 IMBALANCE-P. The grants or other support to Ge T. from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation of Germany and K. C. Wong Magna Fund in Ningbo University are also acknowledged with gratitude.

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Key Laboratory of Arable Land Conservation (Northeast China), Ministry of Agriculture and National Engineering Laboratory for Efficient Utilization of Soil and Fertilizer Resources; College of Land and Environment, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China

Yalong Liu, Ping Wang & Jingkuan Wang

Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region and Changsha Research Station for Agricultural and Environmental Monitoring, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, Hunan, China

Yalong Liu, Tida Ge, Zhenke Zhu, Yong Li, Georg Guggenberger & Jinshui Wu

Institute of Soil Science, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany

Yalong Liu & Georg Guggenberger

State Key Laboratory for Managing Biotic and Chemical Threats to the Quality and Safety of Agro-products, Key Laboratory of Biotechnology in Plant Protection of Ministry of Agriculture and Zhejiang Province, Institute of Plant Virology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China

Department of Geography, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, RJ, UK

Kees Jan van Groenigen

State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Yuanhe Yang

Institute of Resource, Ecosystem and Environment of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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Jordi Sardans & Josep Penuelas

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Contributions

Y.L.L., T.G., K.J.v.G., G.G., and Y.K. conceived and designed this work; Y.L.L. and P.W. collected and organized data; Y.L.L., T.G., K.J.v.G., Y.Y., K.C., Z.Z., J.K.W., Y.L., G.G. J.S., J.P., J.S.W., and Y.K. took part in data discussion; Y.L.L. analyzed data and wrote the manuscript with contributions from all authors; Y.L.L. and K.J.v.G. revised the manuscript with contributions from all authors.

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Correspondence to Tida Ge or Kees Jan van Groenigen .

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Liu, Y., Ge, T., van Groenigen, K.J. et al. Rice paddy soils are a quantitatively important carbon store according to a global synthesis. Commun Earth Environ 2 , 154 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00229-0

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Govt may consider lifting curbs on rice exports

Sources told fe that the government will assess the sowing of kharif paddy—expected to commence next month—before taking a call on removing curbs on shipments..

Given the huge surplus of rice stocks and the forecast of an ‘above normal’ monsoon that will likely boost paddy sowing in the kharif season, the government may need to look at lifting the restrictions on rice exports imposed last year.

Sources told FE that the government will assess the sowing of kharif paddy—expected to commence next month—before taking a call on removing curbs on shipments. “We need to look at lifting restrictions on rice shipments as kharif crop prospects look bright,” an official said.

With the onset of monsoon over the Kerala coast next month, sowing of kharif paddy, which has a share of 80% in total rice output, is carried out in the June-July period with the progress of rains across the country.

MGNREGA aims to provide at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household in rural areas.

Last month, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) forecast ‘above normal’ rainfall in June-September this year, with 90% chances of the rains being in the “normal-to-excess” range. Last year, precipitation was patchy and below normal, which had hit the rice output.

“Surplus stocks and prospects of bountiful monsoon rains augur well for lifting restrictions on rice exports,” an official said.

While retail prices of rice rose by 12.69% on year in March, the price rise is expected to soften in the next few months due to higher base effect. The inflation in rice prices has been in double digits since October 2022.

The rice stocks held by the Food Corporation of India (FCI) is currently close to four times the buffer for July 1 despite a 7% fall in procurement in the current season (October-September) compared with the same period last season. Currently, FCI holds 53.19 million tonne (MT) — 31.81 MT of rice stocks and 21.38 MT of grain receivable from millers. The stock is against the buffer of 13.54 MT for July 1.

In addition, officials said FCI so far has received purchase indent for 1.5 MT of rice from the agencies such as Nafed, NCCF and Kendriya Bhandar for selling ‘Bharat’ rice. About 0.71 MT of grain has been lifted by these agencies for distribution through retail outlets at `29/kg.

Last year, the government had initially banned white rice exports and subsequently imposed a 20% shipment duty on parboiled rice to improve domestic supplies as price rise remained in double digits. The government, from time to time, allowed rice exports to meet the food security needs of some countries on the basis of request.

The shipment of aromatic Basmati rice currently has a minimum export price of $950/tonne.

In FY23, India exported a record 22 MT of rice to more than 100 countries and last fiscal because of restrictions on rice shipment, the volume of exports dropped to around 16 MT.

India has been the world’s largest exporter of rice since 2012 with more than 40% share in annual global trade of 52-54 MT.

Paddy procurement by the government agencies has crossed 68.59 MT (45.95 MT in terms of rice) in the current season – 2023-24 (October-September) so far, which is 7% lower than the same period in the last fiscal.

In addition, the agencies are targeting to purchase around 10 MT of rice in the ongoing rabi marketing season in Odisha, Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, which is expected to bolster grain stock further.

The government had purchased a total of 56.87 MT of rice in the 2022-23 season.

FCI requires around 40 MT of rice annually to distribute to 800 million beneficiaries under Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyana Anna Yojana.

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10 lines on Paddy in English - Short essay on Paddy in English

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10 lines on paddy in english for class 1

10 lines on Paddy in English - Few lines on Paddy

Paddy is a type of grain from which rice is made.
Rice is extracted from paddy by crushing it in a mill.
Paddy grows in small plants, which are in bunches.
There are more than two bunches of paddy in a plant, which are called paddy bales.
To separate the rice from the paddy, the paddy has to be milled in a mill.
Paddy is cultivated more in countries like India.
Paddy is cultivated in India between June and July.
It takes 5 to 6 months for the paddy to be fully grown.
When the paddy crop is completed, it is cut and removed from the fields.
These harvested paddy plants are separated from the paddy plants by machine.

F.A.Q ( Frequently Asked Questions )

Who is Paddy?
What is rice made of?
When is paddy cultivated?
What is Paddy called in Hindi?

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Paddy McCarthy to remain on Oliver Glasner’s Crystal Palace coaching staff

LONDON, ENGLAND - MARCH 19: Paddy McCarthy, Interim Manager of Crystal Palace, reacts during the Premier League match between Arsenal FC and Crystal Palace at Emirates Stadium on March 19, 2023 in London, England. (Photo by Shaun Botterill/Getty Images)

Paddy McCarthy will remain part of Crystal Palace ’s coaching staff under new manager Oliver Glasner.

The 40-year-old had been working as Roy Hodgson’s assistant manager, having been promoted from his role with the under-21s last March.

After Hodgson’s departure as manager was announced on Monday, McCarthy took charge of Monday night’s 1-1 draw against Everton alongside first team coach Ray Lewington.

But while Lewington has now left his role, McCarthy will be kept on by Glasner as part of a new-look set-up that will include former Middlesbrough defender Emanuel Pogatetz, who played under the Austrian at LASK. Goalkeeping coach Dean Kiely will also remain at the club.

McCarthy — who played 151 times for Palace, and also took charge of the team for one game following Patrick Vieira’s sacking last season, a 4-1 defeat at Arsenal — will offer continuity during a period of change.

Palace are five points clear of the relegation zone with 13 games remaining and face Burnley in a crucial match at Selhurst Park on Saturday, when Glasner will take the team for the first time.

McCarthy switched Palace’s formation to a 3-4-2-1 at Everton , a formation that Glasner has used regularly throughout the coaching career.

On Monday, when asked about his future, he said: “It has been full focus on preparing for the game and I have not had any conversation with the hierarchy on my position – I am sure that will become clear in the next couple of days.”

Glasner's Palace in-tray: Restore confidence, stop leaking late goals, energise the fans...

(Shaun Botterill/Getty Images)

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Matt Woosnam is the Crystal Palace writer for The Athletic UK. Matt previously spent several years covering Palace matches for the South London Press and contributing to other publications as a freelance writer. He was also the online editor of Palace fanzine Five Year Plan and has written columns for local papers in South London. Follow Matt on Twitter @ MattWoosie

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COMMENTS

Paddy
paddy, small, level, flooded field used to cultivate rice in southern and eastern Asia. Wet-rice cultivation is the most prevalent method of farming in the Far East, where it utilizes a small fraction of the total land yet feeds the majority of the rural population. Rice was domesticated as early as 3500 bc, and by about 2,000 years ago it was ...
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Paddy Farm. Paddy Pod. Uncle explained how the paddy was planted and the small difficulties the other farmers and he faced during the process. Some of this produce was very thick and productive, but some had not grown to its full capacity. The ever changing season also had a major role to play - in the outcome of these fields.
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Abstract and Figures. Paddy is an important artificial wetland ecosystem related to sustainable development of agriculture and environment. According to 12,276 paddy-related publications in SCIE ...
The Historical Development of Paddy Cultivation
6.1.1 Variation and Change in Paddy. Variation exists within all populations of organisms, and variation also exists in rice. For example, if you compare any paddy plants, you will see many differences: the lengths, sizes, shapes, weights, smells, tastes, and colours of any two plants, tillers, leaves, panicles, florets or grains of rice are different.
PDF The Art and Science of Paddy Cultivation: A Comprehensive Overview
5.1.Land preparation: To reduce the amount of water needed for early soil preparation plough the surface during the summer. Before planting flood the field and give it a few of days to absorb the water. Maintain a layer of water covering the field's surface. When puddling keep the water depth to 2.5 cm.
National Paddy Day
National Paddy Day (Nepali: राष्ट्रीय धानरोपाई दिवस, romanized: Rastriya Dhanropai Diwas) is an annual festival in Nepal which marks the beginning of the rice planting season. It is celebrated on the 15th of Ashadh (29 June) every year. The festival is also named Ropain Diwas, Dhan Diwas, and Ashadh Pandra. The festival usually starts with people ...
Paddy Cultivation in Sri Lanka
The Paddy Field (Kumbura) A Kumbura or Ketha is the land on which farmers cultivate paddy. Rice is the staple food of Sri Lanka and as such, paddy cultivation in Sri Lanka is given utmost importance in the agriculture industry. Ancient and traditional farmers were self-sufficient in rice production and ancient Ceylon is said to have been among ...
(PDF) Rice and paddy industry in Malaysia: governance and policies
In Malaysia, rice and paddy cultivation kickstarted in the early 60s with small-scale farming, which later expanded by leaps and bounds before emerging as the country's utmost important food crop.
Full article: Paddy, rice and food security in Malaysia: A review of
Throughout the Eleventh Malaysian Plan (2016-2020) and National Agro-Food Policy (2011-2020), Malaysia continues its proactive and progressive measures to promote paddy and rice sector development. The impacts of climate change, however, are projected to exacerbate challenges in increasing paddy yields and achieving food security in the future.
Rice paddy soils are a quantitatively important carbon store ...
Rice paddies represent approximately 1.2% of the global soil organic carbon pool and contain 20% more soil organic carbon per hectare than croplands on average, according to a global synthesis.
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Paddy straw is the vegetative part of rice plant which is left behind after harvesting the grains. It is the most abundant lignocellulosic waste material amounting to 731 million tons/year.
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This research examines current trends in paddy cultivation in Kerala. Analysis of available data reveals adecade-long variability in paddy cultivation area, marked by notable fluctuations. Recognizing thesignificance of rice in Kerala's diet, the study forecasted rice production up to 2030.
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Paddy rice is a major crop for most of the world's population. It is also the main source of greenhouse gas methane, which is responsible for approximately 40 million tons or 10% of global emissions each year. Sustainable rice production practices that reduce water consumption and fertilizer demand can control the
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The area under paddy in Kerala was 8.75lakh hectare in 1970-71. During the period 70-71 to 2015-16, production of paddy decreased from 12.92lakh tons to 5.49 lakh tons (In 1972-73 there was even a peak production of 13.76lakh tons). Over the period, the productivity of paddy approximately doubled from 1483kg/ha to 2877kg/ha.
Paddy Doctor: A Visual Image Dataset for Automated Paddy Disease
This paper presents Paddy Doctor, a visual image dataset for identifying paddy diseases. Our dataset contains 16,225 annotated paddy leaf images across 13 classes (12 diseases and normal leaf). We benchmarked the Paddy Doctor dataset using a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and four transfer learning based models (VGG16, MobileNet, Xception ...
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Paddy (Oryza sativa) is one of the most consumed food grains in the world. The process from its sowing to consumption via harvesting, processing, storage and management require much effort and expertise. The grain quality of the product is heavily affected by the weather conditions, irrigation frequency, and many other factors. However, quality control is of immense importance, and thus, the ...
Paddy: The Image and Reality of Irish Immigrants in the American
Review Essay 119. demographic data on a number of important points regarding the Irish experience in America: "An Agnostic View of the Historiography of the Irish-Americans," Labour/Le Travail, 14 (Fall 1984): 123-59. Title. Paddy: The Image and Reality of Irish Immigrants in the American Community: A Review Essay.
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Paddy was grown on an area of 13.40 lakh ha in 2013-14, with an annual production of 40.53 lakh tonnes and an average yield of 3103 kg/ha (DES Bangalore-2013-14). In terms of paddy output, the ...
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Paragraph On Paddy || Essay On Paddy || Paragraph Writing On Paddy In English #paddy @All Bangla Education 👇About this video 👇paragraph on paddyparagraph...
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Essay On Paddy Straw; Essay On Paddy Straw. 1020 Words 5 Pages. Title Delignification and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of paddy straw by white-rot fungi, Phlebia sp. MG-60 for production of bio-ethanol Objective
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The Paddy Doctor dataset contains 16,225 labeled paddy leaf images across 13 classes (12 different paddy diseases and healthy leaves). It is the largest expert-annotated visual image dataset to experiment with and benchmark computer vision algorithms. The paddy leaf images were collected from real paddy fields using a high-resolution (1,080 x 1,440 pixels) smartphone camera.
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W ays and Means of Paddy Straw Management: A Review. Bindu, Manoj Sharma and Jatinder Manan. Krishi V igyan Kendra, Kapurthala 144620 ( Punjab) Corresponding Author: [email protected] ...
Govt may consider lifting curbs on rice exports
Paddy procurement by the government agencies has crossed 68.59 MT (45.95 MT in terms of rice) in the current season - 2023-24 (October-September) so far, which is 7% lower than the same period ...
10 lines on Paddy in English
Today, we are sharing short essay on Paddy in English.This article can help the students who are looking for information about Paddy in English.These 10 sentences about Paddy for class 2 is very simple and easy to understand. The level of this paragraph about Paddy is medium so any student can write on this topic. This short essay on Paddy is generally useful for class 1, class 2, and class 3.
Paddy McCarthy to remain on Oliver Glasner's Crystal Palace coaching
Paddy McCarthy will remain part of Crystal Palace's coaching staff under new manager Oliver Glasner. The 40-year-old had been working as Roy Hodgson's assistant manager, having been promoted ...

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My Visit To The Paddy Farm

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The Historical Development of Paddy Cultivation

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The Paddy Field (Kumbura) is a traditional agricultural practice in ancient Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan Flora & Agricultural Heritage

The Paddy Field (Kumbura)

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Rice paddy soils are a quantitatively important carbon store according to a global synthesis

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The carbon dioxide removal gap

Land conversion to agriculture induces taxonomic homogenization of soil microbial communities globally

Environmental drivers of increased ecosystem respiration in a warming tundra

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Estimating paddy SOC stocks in the topsoil and subsoil

Estimating national and global paddy SOC stocks

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Meta-analysis

Data availability

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Temporal variations in carbon stocks and soil fertility in Inceptisols after 12 years of paddy rice cultivation

CO2 Fluxes Over Water-Saving Paddy Fields with Different Straw Management Methods on the Basis of the Same Amount of Carbon Input

Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture

Change in Microbial Metabolic Quotient Under Biochar Amendment Was Associated with Soil Organic Carbon Quality, Microbial Community Composition, and Enzyme Activity in Bulk and Rhizosphere Soils in an Acid Rice Paddy

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Govt may consider lifting curbs on rice exports

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Paddy McCarthy to remain on Oliver Glasner’s Crystal Palace coaching staff

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