essay on past environment

How the Environment Has Changed Since the First Earth Day

When the first Earth Day was held in 1970, pesticides were killing bald eagles, and soot was darkening the sky. Now, habitat loss and climate change are imperiling the planet.

When Earth Day was first created in 1970, it rode the coattails of a decade filled with social activism. Voting rights were strengthened, civil rights were outlined, and women were demanding equal treatment.

But there was no Environmental Protection Agency, no Clean Air Act , or Clean Water Act .

Fast forward 48 years and what started as a grassroots movement has exploded into an international day of attention and activism dedicated to preserving the environment. Officially, the United Nations recognizes this upcoming April 22 as International Mother Earth Day .

Across the globe, millions of people take part in Earth Day. According to the Earth Day Network , one of the largest activist bodies organizing Earth Day events, people celebrate by holding marches, planting trees, meeting with local representatives, and cleaning up their local environments.

In the Beginning

A series of critical environmental issues helped birth the modern environmental movement. Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring published in 1962. It brought to light the dangerous use of a pesticide called DDT that was polluting rivers and destroying the eggs of birds of prey like bald eagles.

When the modern environmental movement was at its genesis, pollution was in plain sight. White birds turned black from soot . Smog was thick. Recycling was nascent.

Then, in 1969, a large oil spill struck the coast of Santa Barbara , California. It moved then-Senator Gaylord Nelson from Wisconsin to put Earth Day on the national stage. More than 20 million people turned out.

It spurred a movement that pushed then-President Nixon to create the Environmental Protection Agency. In the 48 years since the first Earth Day, there have been more than 48 major environmental wins . Protections have been put in place on everything from clean water to endangered species.

The EPA also works to protect human health. For example, lead and asbestos, once common in homes and offices, have been largely phased out of many common products.

The theme of 2018's Earth Day celebration is plastics —specifically how to decrease their unwanted impacts on our environment. What was perhaps set in place in the mid-20th century when plastic was manufactured on a large scale has come back to haunt us.

Plastic refuse is everywhere. It's bigger than Texas in the Pacific garbage patch , and it's as small as the micro plastics getting eaten by fish and churned out on our dinner plates .

Some environmental groups are leading grassroots movements to cut back on the use of common plastics like straws ; the U.K. even recently proposed passing a law to ban them . It's one incremental way to cut back on the whopping 91 percent of plastic that isn't recycled .

And it's not just plastic imperiling the Earth. Today's worst environmental issues are seemingly a culmination of all the groundwork laid over the past two hundred years.

“The two most pressing issues we face today are habitat loss and climate change, and these issues are interrelated,” says Jonathan Baillie , chief scientist of the National Geographic Society .

Climate change has been called a threat to biodiversity and national security. Studies have linked it to the destruction of the Great Barrier Reef and abnormal weather .

Unlike the first Earth Day, 2018's celebration exists in a world with a more robust regulatory framework to enact environmental policy and regulate our impact.

Whether that framework will stay intact is now a matter of debate. ( See a running list of how the Trump administration is changing the environment .)

Baillie noted that addressing these issues requires fundamental changes.

“First, we need to place greater value on the natural world,” he says.

Then, we need to commit to protecting regions like the Amazon and Congo that house critical environments. Lastly, he notes, we need to innovate more rapidly. Producing protein for consumption more efficiently and cultivating renewable energy resources will help reduce the impacts of what he sees as the Earth's greatest threats.

“One of our biggest obstacles is our mindset: we need people to emotionally connect to the natural world, understand how it works and our dependence on it,” Baillie says. “Fundamentally, if we care about the natural world, we will value and protect it and make decisions that ensure the future of species and ecosystems.”

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Perspective

How the Environment Has Changed Since the First Earth Day 50 Years Ago

These charts show that while progress has been made in some areas, humanity still has a major impact on the planet.

Perspective • Climate • Policy

Words by Andrea Thompson

On April 22, 1970, millions of Americans took part in demonstrations, cleanups and other activities to make the first Earth Day. The event was the brainchild of then Democratic Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin, and it was a watershed moment for the growing U.S. environmental movement: Americans had become increasingly aware that the same industrialization that had made the country wealthy was having an impact on the environment and their own health. As famed anchorman Walter Cronkite put it in a special CBS News broadcast, Earth Day participants had a “common cause of saving life from the deadly by-products of that bounty: the fouled skies, the filthy waters, the littered earth.”

That same year would see the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency and the first in a series of important environmental laws. Since then efforts to tackle various environmental ills have waxed and waned: while enormous strides have been made in curbing air pollution, the threat of climate change has emerged and mushroomed. Here we take a look at a few environmental indicators to see what progress has—or has not—been made since that inaugural Earth Day 50 years ago.

The clear, inexorable rises of the curves in the two graphs below are at the heart of the global warming problem. As humans have piled more cars onto roads and burned more coal and natural gas for electricity, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has steadily ticked upward. The average atmospheric CO2 concentration now stands above 410 parts per million (ppm), compared with about 325 ppm in 1970 (and 280 ppm before the industrial revolution in the 19th century). The excess heat trapped by that CO2 has already raised global temperatures by about one degree Celsius since preindustrial times. Under the 2015 Paris climate accord, nations have agreed to limit total warming to no more than 2 degrees C above preindustrial levels—with a preferred goal of staying below 1.5 degrees C. To date, emissions-curbing efforts have been unable to put the brakes on quickly enough to meet those targets.

Air Pollution

Among the fundamental issues that drove Nelson and his colleagues to hold the first Earth Day was the rampant, deadly pollution clogging U.S. skies. One of the worst air pollution disasters in the nation’s history came in the fall of 1948, when weather conditions caused a stew of smog to build up in the industrial town of Donora, Pa., sickening thousands and killing 20 people. Congress passed various laws to limit air pollution in the ensuing years, but the Clean Air Act of 1970 was the landmark legislation that truly ushered in the stringent and comprehensive regulation of emissions from power plants, factories, and cars.

The graphs below show how the law and its subsequent revisions have led to notable nationwide drops in three major pollutants: nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and lead. Nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide can be harmful to human health when breathed in, and both react with other chemicals in the atmosphere to create the particles that contribute to smog. Lead is highly toxic and can cause neurological and cardiovascular problems. One of the key sources of airborne lead pollution in the mid-20th century was leaded gasoline; since it was phased out, beginning in the mid-1970s, lead levels have plummeted. Many environmentalists and scientists who study air pollution are concerned that the considerable progress over the past 50 years might be stalled—or even reversed—by actions the EPA has taken during the Trump administration to weaken air pollution rules and enforcement.

Perhaps the most emblematic moment of the crisis that afflicted U.S. waterways was the fire that erupted on the Cuyahoga River on June 22, 1969. Effluent from industrial activity along the river, running from Akron, Ohio, to Cleveland, had provided fuel for more than a dozen fires since the mid-19th century and killed off the waterway’s fish. The 1969 event helped lead to the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972. Another landmark law, this act addressed pollution entering waterways from industry, sewage facilities, and agriculture.

The graphs below highlights measurements from two major U.S. water bodies: Lake Michigan and Lake Erie. The first of them shows the change in levels of phosphorus—one of the key nutrients that fuel toxic algal blooms—carried into Lake Erie by the Maumee River, which flows into the lake in Toledo. Runoff from agricultural fields is the main contributor to the phosphorus load in the lake, which supplies drinking water to 11 million people. Researchers are actively working to figure out how farming practices might be changed to reduce the amount of phosphorus pouring in.

The graph for Lake Michigan shows a different type of pollutant: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which can cause cancer as well as other health effects. PCB production was banned in 1979. And although levels of the compounds in the air (from which these chemicals fall into the water) and in fish have declined, their presence is still high enough that some states warn people to limit consumption of fish from the lakes.

Americans are producing a lot more garbage than they did 50 years ago—and not just because the country’s population has risen: each person in the U.S. generates an average of 4.5 pounds of waste a day, compared with just 3.25 pounds in 1970. What they throw away has also changed, with plastic waste making up a larger percentage than in the past. That change reflects the explosion of plastic products over the past few decades, from less than 50 million tons of the material produced in 1970 to more than 320 million tons today. And though the recycling and composting of some materials have grown, a large chunk of trash still ends up in landfills: 139.6 million of the 267.8 million tons generated in 2017 (the last year for which data is available). That amount is, at least, a slight decline from the 145.3 million tons dumped in landfills in 1990.

It is clear that the U.S. and the world have made strides in realizing humanity’s impact and the need to safeguard the environment. But there is still a long way to go. As Nelson wrote in 1984, “The ultimate test of man’s conscience may be his willingness to sacrifice something today for future generations whose words of thanks will not be heard.”

Independent Journalism Needs You

Andrea is an associate editor at Scientific American covering sustainability.

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Most Read Today

100 Environment Essay Topics That Will Inspire Your Eco-Conscious Mind

Table of contents

• 1 Interesting Environment Topic Ideas
• 2 Easy Environment Essay Topics
• 3 Environmental Research Topics on Climate Change
• 4 Environmental Research Topics on Ecology
• 5 Sustainability Topics for an Essay
• 6 Topics about Renewable Energy
• 7 Topics on Greenhouse Effect
• 8 Global Warming Essay Topics
• 9 Pollution Essay Topics
• 10 Ideas for Environmental Essay
• 11 Conclusion

Interesting Environment Topic Ideas

If you are in the mood for considering complicated and challenging topics, you’ll like the essay topics on environmental issues from this list. You can dive into the subject and broaden your horizons. Every topic on the environment is relevant, and some of them are time-consuming. So if you’re afraid of missing your deadline and wondering who can write my paper , be attentive to choose the best service. Any subject about environmental issues needs appropriate investigations and should be well-disclosed.

• The Devastating Effects of Plastic Pollution on Our Oceans
• From Forests to Farms: The Impact of Deforestation on Climate Change
• A Greener Future: The Benefits of Renewable Energy Sources
• The Secret Life of Bees: How Their Decline Affects Our Ecosystems
• The Dark Side of Fast Fashion: The Environmental Cost of Cheap Clothes
• Food Waste: An Invisible Environmental Crisis
• The Environmental Impact of Transportation: From Cars to Planes
• How Urbanization is Changing the Landscape of Our Cities
• Water Crisis: The Importance of Conserving Our Most Precious Resource
• The Great Barrier Reef: Can We Save One of the World’s Natural Wonders?

Easy Environment Essay Topics

There are easy but equally important environmental essay topics. Share your valuable thoughts about climate change avoiding confusing topics. You may also use one of them if you don’t have enough time for investigation. In this case, you can find a reliable paper writing service to get your well-written essay and save your time. Ponder the environmental problems you are worried about, it may be pollution or the ways of recycling. Then check the list of topics and start your essay .

• 5 Simple Ways to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint Today
• How Composting Can Help Save the Planet
• The Power of Plant-Based Diets: How Eating Less Meat Can Help the Environment
• The Benefits of Biking: A Fun and Eco-Friendly Alternative to Driving
• How to Be Environmentally Conscious Without Breaking the Bank
• The Dangers of Single-Use Plastics: What You Need to Know
• Saving Energy at Home: Tips and Tricks for Lowering Your Utility Bills and Helping the Environment
• How to Start a Community Garden: Bringing People Together While Helping the Planet
• The Benefits of Using Natural Cleaners
• The Impact of Electronic Waste: How to Properly Dispose of Your Old Electronics

Environmental Research Topics on Climate Change

One of the global environmental issues of the 21st century is climate change, and students tend to investigate it in their essays. One of the problems caused by climate change is the reduction of biodiversity. Use one of our environment essay topics to explain the reasons for this phenomenon and possible solutions. Write the arguments to highlight the necessity of environmental protection.

• The Impact of Climate Change on Arctic Wildlife: A Study of Polar Bears and Their Habitat
• Rising Sea Levels: The Effects on Coastal Communities and Infrastructure
• The Role of Forests in Climate Change Mitigation: A Case Study of the Amazon Rainforest
• The Impact of Climate Change on Agricultural Productivity: A Study of Drought-Prone Regions
• The Consequences of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs and Marine Life
• The Effect of Climate Change on Human Health: A Study of Air Quality and Heat Waves
• The Impact of Climate Change on Indigenous Communities: A Case Study of Arctic and Subarctic Regions
• The Role of Renewable Energy Sources in Mitigating Climate Change: A Comparative Analysis of Solar and Wind Power
• The Economic Impact of Climate Change: A Study of Adaptation and Mitigation Costs
• The Potential of Carbon Capture and Storage Technologies in Mitigating Climate Change: An Assessment of Current and Future Applications

Need help with essay writing? Get your paper written by a professional writer Get Help Reviews.io 4.9/5

Environmental Research Topics on Ecology

In this category, we’ve gathered essential topics on environmental issues. Use any to do your research about the conservation of biodiversity. Present its role in the food chain and the possible environmental consequences of the violation of this process. Try to explore different approaches in your academic paper. It may become one of your most successful environmental science projects . Researchers are doing their best to resolve existing problems. So, with your essay, you can make a contribution to environmental science.

• The Impact of Invasive Species on Native Ecosystems: A Case Study of the Burmese Python in the Florida Everglades
• The Role of Keystone Species in Ecosystem Functioning: A Study of Wolves in Yellowstone National Park
• The Effect of Habitat Fragmentation on Biodiversity: A Study of Tropical Forests
• The Importance of Pollinators in Ecosystem Services: A Study of Bees and Their Role in Crop Pollination
• The Impact of Climate Change on Forest Ecosystems: A Study of Temperate and Boreal Forests
• The Effect of Human Disturbance on Marine Ecosystems: A Study of Coral Reefs and Coastal Habitats
• The Role of Wetlands in Water Quality and Flood Control: A Study of Marshes and Swamps
• The Impact of Overfishing on Marine Ecosystems: A Case Study of Sharks and Their Importance in Ocean Food Webs
• The Role of Ecological Restoration in Ecosystem Recovery: A Study of Dam Removal and River Restoration Projects
• The Effect of Pollution on Aquatic Ecosystems: A Study of Chemical Contamination and Its Effects on Fish and Other Aquatic Life

Sustainability Topics for an Essay

The best way of saving our home is its everyday protection. There you can focus on the topics on environmental issues related to sustainability and its effectiveness. Write your essay on environment about the benefits of making environmental conservation our daily routine. Offer the ways of its implementation in variable areas. With this list of environment essay topics, you’ll be a part of innovation.

• The Role of Sustainable Agriculture in Feeding a Growing Population
• he Importance of Sustainable Packaging: How to Reduce Waste and Carbon Footprint
• Green Building: The Benefits of Sustainable Design and Construction
• The Impact of Sustainable Tourism on Local Communities and the Environment
• The Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Promoting Sustainability
• The Benefits of Sustainable Transportation: A Study of Electric Cars and Public Transit Systems
• The Power of Sustainable Investing: How to Invest Responsibly for a Better Future
• Sustainable Fashion: How to Shop Responsibly and Reduce Environmental Impact
• Sustainable Energy Solutions for a Clean Future: The Pros and Cons of Renewable Energy Sources
• The Importance of Sustainable Water Management: How to Conserve and Protect Our Most Precious Resource

Topics about Renewable Energy

It’s no secret that natural resources are being depleted. It’s an occasion to think about ways of replacing them. Think about possible ways to reduce energy consumption and focus on renewable resources. Reflect on how humanity can stabilize climate issues and reduce the level of pollution with renewable energy. Share your opinion about energy conservation, the options for its replacement, and the further positive impact of such actions on climate. Check the list to compose your argumentative essay on conservation of nature.

• The Pros and Cons of Solar Energy: A Comprehensive Analysis
• The Potential of Wind Energy: A Case Study of the United States and Europe
• The Future of Hydrogen Fuel: A Study of Its Potential as a Renewable Energy Source
• The Role of Geothermal Energy in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• The Benefits and Challenges of Biomass Energy: A Study of Biofuels and Biopower
• The Power of Tidal Energy: A Study of Its Potential in Coastal Regions
• The Impact of Renewable Energy on Rural Communities: A Case Study of Small-Scale Projects
• The Role of Government Policies in Promoting Renewable Energy: A Comparative Analysis
• The Potential of Energy Storage Technologies in Facilitating the Integration of Renewable Energy
• The Benefits of Distributed Generation: A Study of Rooftop Solar and Small Wind Turbines

Topics on Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is the result of devastating human activities. The main consequences are the melting of glaciers, lack of drinking water in some regions, and climate change. Look through the environment essay topics that we have collected. Describe the reasons and further possible changes on earth, consult the articles of climate scientists, and make your arguments.

• The Science of Greenhouse Effect: How Does It Work and What Are Its Effects on the Climate?
• The Role of Carbon Dioxide in the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Its Sources and Sinks
• The Impact of Methane on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Its Sources and Consequences
• The Role of Water Vapor in the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Its Effects on Climate Feedback
• The Effect of Deforestation on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of the Loss of Carbon Sinks
• The Impact of Agriculture on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Livestock and Crop Production
• The Potential of Carbon Capture and Storage Technologies in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• The Role of Government Policies in Addressing the Greenhouse Effect: A Comparative Analysis
• The Impact of Human Activity on the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Fossil Fuel Use and Land Use Change
• The Future of the Greenhouse Effect: A Study of Climate Projections and Mitigation Strategies

Global Warming Essay Topics

One of the most common environmental issues of our generation is global warming. Natural disasters, abnormal weather changes, drought, and extreme temperatures aren’t the only consequences of global warming.

Due to the relevance of this subject, many students opt for this theme. We offer global warming essay samples to facilitate the process of writing for you. Check them to compose the best academic paper and receive the highest grade.

• Global Warming and the Arctic: How Melting Ice Impacts the Planet
• The Impact of Global Warming on Extreme Weather Events: A Study of Heat Waves and Hurricanes
• The Effects of Global Warming on Biodiversity: A Study of Climate Change and Species Extinction
• The Role of Human Activities in Causing Global Warming: A Study of Carbon Emissions and Land Use Change
• The Impact of Global Warming on Agriculture: A Study of Crop Yields and Food Security
• The Consequences of Global Warming on Ocean Acidification: A Study of Its Effects on Marine Life
• The Role of International Agreements in Addressing Global Warming: A Comparative Analysis
• The Potential of Renewable Energy in Reducing Global Warming: A Study of Clean Energy Technologies
• The Impact of Global Warming on Public Health: A Study of Heat-Related Illnesses and Disease Outbreaks
• The Future of Global Warming: A Study of Climate Projections and Adaptation Strategies

Pollution Essay Topics

Not only nature but also every person suffers from pollution. Air pollution, for instance, causes serious diseases, sometimes with lethal outcomes. One of the causative agents of water, air pollution, and spoiling soil are pollutants. Let us present youwith a few options of thought-provoking environmental issues for your essay.

• Air Pollution and Its Consequences: A Study of the Impact on Human Health
• The Effects of Water Pollution on Marine Ecosystems: A Study of Plastic Pollution and Overfishing
• The Role of Agricultural Practices in Causing Soil Pollution: A Study of Pesticides and Fertilizers
• The Impact of Industrial Pollution on Local Communities: A Study of Toxic Waste and Environmental Justice
• The Effect of Noise Pollution on Human Health and Well-being: A Study of Urban Environments
• The Role of Government Policies in Addressing Pollution: A Comparative Analysis
• The Consequences of Light Pollution on Wildlife and Ecosystems: A Study of Artificial Light at Night
• The Potential of Green Technologies in Reducing Pollution: A Study of Sustainable Production and Consumption
• The Impact of Indoor Pollution on Human Health: A Study of Household Chemicals and Poor Ventilation
• The Future of Pollution: A Study of Climate Change and Its Effects on Environmental Degradation

Ideas for Environmental Essay

Last but not least, top of environmental ideas and issues to reveal. By implementing these topics, you can generally speak about modern approaches and up-to-date scientific ideas. Think about the influence of the Government on ecological questions and some possible new projects. Share your opinion about clean tourism and transportation, or describe the model of an eco-friendly city. As you can see, in any of these subjects, you can reflect.

• The Urgency of Climate Action: Addressing the Environmental Crisis
• Sustainability: The Key to a Greener Future
• The Role of Government in Protecting the Environment
• The Environmental Impact of Transportation: Finding Solutions for Cleaner Travel
• The Power of Education in Environmental Awareness and Action
• The Ethics of Environmentalism: Balancing Human Needs and Nature’s Rights
• Wildfires, Floods, and Storms: The Increasing Frequency of Extreme Weather Events
• The Significance of Conservation and Preservation of Natural Resources for Future Generations.
• The Importance of Preserving Wetlands: A Critical Ecosystem
• Eco-Friendly Cities: Designing for Sustainable Living and Reducing Carbon Footprint.

Hope you’ve liked our selection of essay topics on environmental issues and managed to find the most appropriate one. There are plenty of problems that should be urgently resolved. In your academic paper, you can express and underline the necessity of actions on the part of every citizen. Describe new approaches and the ways of their implementation. By applying any topic from the list, you’ll definitely get the highest grade.

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How do we know what their environments were like?

• Author(s) Fran Dorey
• Updated 02/11/18
• Read time 2 minutes
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Worldwide climate changes

The Earth’s climate is not stable and fluctuates between colder periods called Ice Ages, and warmer periods known as Interglacials. It is possible to determine when these different climatic conditions occurred in the past by studying oxygen found in ice cores, speleothems (stalactites and stalagmites) and the remains of certain ocean creatures such as the tiny shelled Foraminifera. Oxygen is a useful indicator of past climates because it is plentiful and occurs in different forms. Some of those forms are more common in the atmosphere during cold periods than during warm periods. The forms of oxygen that were present at different times in the past reveal the pattern of past cold and warm periods.

Climate records using data from Foraminifera and ice cores

During cold periods, such as Ice Ages, the oceans and the shells of ocean dwelling Foraminifera contain a higher proportion of oxygen-18 (a heavy isotope of oxygen) than oxygen-16. This occurs because oxygen-16 is relatively light and quicker to evaporate. This oxygen-16 falls to the ground as rain or snow and, during an Ice Age, becomes locked-up in glaciers and ice sheets. During warmer periods the ice melts and oxygen-16 is returned to the oceans where it is incorporated into Foraminifera shells.

Foraminifera

Foraminifera are single-celled ocean creatures that often have a shell made of calcium carbonate. Some species of Foraminifera are better adapted to living in cold water, others are adapted to life in warm water. The shells of these different species can be identified from sediments cored out of the sea bed and can indicate the temperature of the ocean in past times. In addition, the proportions of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 within their shells can reveal past sea temperatures and climates.

Ice cores and cave formations

Ice cores are long cylinders of ancient ice collected by driving a hollow tube into the thick ice sheets of Antarctica, Greenland and some glaciers. Each layer of ice corresponds to a single year (or sometimes a single season) and almost everything that fell in the snow during that period, including gases, dust and volcanic ash, will be trapped in the ice sheets. Ice cores currently provide details on climate changes up to 200,000 years ago. The results from ice cores are complemented by studies of limestone cave formations, such as stalactites and stalagmites. These have annual growth rings that preserve the different forms of oxygen found in the calcium carbonate that formed them.

Reconstructing local environments

Scientists can reconstruct a general picture of an ancient environment by collecting information about the soil and the plant and animal remains that are found at a site. Comparisons of living plants and animals with these ancient remains can then indicate the types of environments that existed in the past.

Animal fossils

Many animal species are adapted to living in particular types of environments. Animals fossils found at a site can therefore reveal the types of environments at that site and the environmental changes over time. For example, certain species of antelope (such as gazelles and springboks) are common in grasslands but not in forests. If a number of gazelle or springbok fossils are found at a site then it can be assumed that this area was once grassland. Additional information can be obtained by analysing the chemicals found in fossil teeth. This can reveal whether the animal ate grasses or the leaves of forest trees.

Plant remains

Plant remains occur in many forms including fossils, charcoal, pollens or as chemical traces in the soil. These remains help scientists identify the types of plants that once grew in a particular area so that past environments can be reconstructed and climatic changes identified. For example, if a site has mainly tree pollens in the lower layers, but the upper layers contain mainly grass pollens, this can be used to indicate that the climate became drier and forest was replaced by grassland.

Plant pollens are microscopic but preserve well as they have an almost indestructible outer shell. Pollens have distinctive shape and surface patterns so they can be used to identify the plants they came from.

Diatoms are types of single-celled algae with cell walls made of silica. Their microscopic silica ‘skeletons’ accumulate on the bottom of lakes and oceans and can be retrieved from sediment cores to provide information about the water conditions in previous times.

Soil composition

Prehistoric soil can be analysed for its texture, which influences the type of plant that can grow in the soil, and also for its chemical composition. Trees and woody plants contain different types of carbon compared with grasses. These carbon isotopes remain in the soil after the plant decomposes and can be detected by chemical analysis.

The link between human evolution and climate change

Changes to past climates and environments have been linked with certain major events in human evolution. For example, three million years ago an Ice Age began which produced a worldwide trend toward cooler, drier climates. In east Africa, this climate change brought about changes to the local environments in which broad expanses of woodland were replaced by grassland. This environmental change probably resulted in physical and behavioural changes by some species as they adapted to the new conditions. Soon after this environmental change, the first human fossils (genus Homo) and manufactured stone tools appeared in east Africa.

The Australian Museum respects and acknowledges the Gadigal people as the First Peoples and Traditional Custodians of the land and waterways on which the Museum stands.

Image credit: gadigal yilimung (shield) made by Uncle Charles  Chicka  Madden

Human Impacts on the Environment

Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water. These negative impacts can affect human behavior and can prompt mass migrations or battles over clean water.

Help your students understand the impact humans have on the physical environment with these classroom resources.

Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

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Myllyntaus, Timo, and Mikko Saikku, eds. Encountering the Past in Nature: Essays in Environmental History . Athens: Ohio University Press, 2001. This small collection of essays by Finnish scholars establishes the basic tenets of environmental history as a field of inquiry. While the editors point to the similarities that exist between Finland and the United States with respect to their environmental histories, they also note that one of the most noticeable distinctions between Finnish and American environmental histories revolves around notions of wild spaces. The editors suggest that the Finnish customary concept of wilderness ( erämaa ) does not imply a completely intact or virgin nature, but rather translates as hunting ground—a far more practical idea than Anglo-American ideas of wilderness as a pure and original nature outside of human influence. Ari Aukusti Lehtinen’s “Modernization and the Concept of Nature” further stokes the debate over constructions and deconstructions of wilderness. Ismo Böjrn then presents a rich history of the North Karelian Biosphere Reserve in eastern Finland, leading readers through landscapes changed by evolving human economies, from hunter-gatherer economies to post-industrial economies, which read nature as more than simply an extractive resource. The two penultimate essays leave Finland for Thailand and the United States. Olavi Luukkanen’s fascinating essay examines forest depletion in Thailand. In his equally interesting essay on the extinct ivory-billed woodpecker of the southeastern United States, Mikko Saikku makes useful connections between wildlife species and ecosystem health, arguing that the bird’s disappearance is indicative of significant change in the southeastern hardwood forests caused by commercial industrialization and development. Encountering the Past in Nature concludes with a concise chapter by Myllyntaus, which might easily have served as an alternative introduction, outlining the parameters of environmental history as a discipline. (Text adapted from an H-Net review by Michael Egan .)

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Historical ecology: past, present and future

The term ‘historical ecology’ has been used with various meanings since the first half of the 20th century. Studies labelled as historical ecology have been produced in at least four academic disciplines: history, ecology, geography and anthropology. Although all those involved seem to agree that historical ecology concerns the historical interconnectedness of nature and human culture, this field of study has no unified methodology, specialized institutional background and common publication forums. Knowledge of the development of historical ecology is also limited. As a result, the current multitude of definitions of historical ecology is accompanied by divergent opinions as to where the origins of the field are to be sought. In this review, I follow the development of historical ecology from the 18th century to the present. In the first part, I briefly describe some early examples of historical ecological investigations, followed by a description of the various scientific strands in the 20th century that contributed to the formation of historical ecology. In the second part, I discuss the past five decades of historical ecological investigations in more detail, focusing mostly (but not exclusively) on works that their respective authors identified as historical ecology. I also examine the appearance and interconnectedness of the two main trends (ecological and anthropological) in historical ecological research. In the last part, I attempt to outline the future of historical ecology based on common features in existing research. It appears that at present historical ecology is at the crossroads. With rapidly growing interest in historical ecological research, it may move towards institutionalization or remain an umbrella term.

I. Introduction

Learned people developed an interest in the relationship between humans and the rest of nature already in Antiquity ( Glacken, 1967 ). Since modern science began to take shape in the 18th and 19th centuries, this interest has become part of several established academic disciplines. Some of these disciplines had a diachronic focus and consequently studied human–nature interactions in the past as well as in the present. While the subject matter of such investigations did not necessarily differ much, they were termed, among others, landscape history, environmental history, historical geography, environmental archaeology, forest history or historical ecology. Irrespective of whether one focuses on methodology or basic research areas, the borders among these (sub)disciplines remain fuzzy ( Williams, 1994 ; Rackham, 2000 ; McNeill, 2003 ). Nonetheless, most (sub)disciplines mentioned above have gone through a development process that has positioned them as accepted parts of academia, as expressed by university departments, specialized journals, learned societies and regular conferences. A prominent exception is historical ecology.

The term ‘historical ecology’ has been used with various meanings since the first half of the 20th century. Studies labelled as historical ecology have been produced in at least four well-established academic disciplines – history, ecology (including palaeoecology, landscape ecology and conservation/restoration ecology), geography and anthropology. Researchers from differing disciplinary backgrounds described and defined historical ecology in different ways. Although all those involved seem to agree that historical ecology is concerned with the historical interconnectedness of nature and human culture, this field of study has no unified methodology, specialized institutional background and (with few exceptions) common publication forums. Recent studies ( Girel, 2006 ; Bürgi & Gimmi, 2007 ; Szabó & Hédl, 2011 ) identified three main trends in historical ecological research: the anthropological, the ecological and the conservation/restoration ecological. It is, however, not implied that these trends are directed towards convergence.

Knowledge of the development of historical ecology is also limited. Studies that attempted to define historical ecology usually did not devote more than a paragraph to its historical development. As a result, the current multitude of definitions of historical ecology is accompanied by divergent opinions as to where the origins of the field are to be sought. This is not to say that there is a lack of historiographic studies on the development of research on human–nature interactions in the past. Quite the contrary, a number of publications paid detailed attention to the topic. However, such works were written from the perspective of environmental history ( White, 1985 ; Worster, 1988 ; McNeill, 2003 ; Locher & Quenet, 2009 ), historical geography ( Merrens, 1965 ; Williams, 1994 ), palaeoecology ( Ferguson, 2000 ; Sarjeant, 2002 ) or landscape archaeology ( Darvill, 2008 ). Historical ecology has common roots with all of these disciplines, therefore many of the pioneering works on past human–nature interactions could also be considered from the viewpoint of what later became known as historical ecology.

Given the above, there appear to be two possible approaches to study the development of historical ecology. The first is to follow as deeply as possible in the past the history of investigations that resemble the ideas and methods of current historical ecology. The second is to concentrate on self-conscious historical ecology, that is, to study the appearance and development of works that were explicitly identified by their authors as historical ecology. Within the latter approach, it is also possible to focus on the semantic development of the term ‘historical ecology’ itself. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. The first provides the necessary historical context to the development of historical ecology. It identifies the intellectual foundations and early attempts without which later developments would be impossible to interpret. However, it is necessarily subjective in assigning certain works to the historical ecological tradition while ignoring others. The second approach has a more restricted focus. Because, as argued above, historical ecology lacks a generally accepted definition, this approach fosters a more structured and objective understanding of current trends. However, by the same token it falls short of acknowledging works which, although their subject matter and methods would allow for this, did not identify themselves as historical ecology.

The most desirable method is clearly a combination of the two approaches. However, a comprehensive review of both is undoubtedly beyond the scope of this paper. A full investigation of the intellectual and practical roots of historical ecology alone would require a book-length study [as Worster (1977) did in his work on the history of ecological ideas]. Even a thematically more restricted analysis focusing on self-conscious historical ecology cannot aspire to include all studies in every possible language. In this review, I set out to achieve more modest goals, which I hope will provide foundations for further studies. More specifically, in the first part of this review I will briefly describe some early examples of historical ecological investigations reaching back to the 18th century, followed by a description of the various scientific strands that contributed to the formation of historical ecology. This part will also include the early history of the term ‘historical ecology’. In the second part, I will discuss the past five decades of historical ecological investigations in more detail. This part will mostly (but not exclusively) focus on works that their respective authors identified as historical ecology and will also include a list and analysis of all available descriptions and definitions of historical ecology. I will also examine the emergence of the main trends in historical ecology as well as their interconnectedness. In addition, I will provide an overview of where, according to the analysis of current trends, historical ecology might be heading in the future. I add that although explaining why historical information is relevant for the understanding and management of current ecosystems is a topic of paramount importance, it has been covered elsewhere ( Szabó, 2010 , with further literature) and does not form part of this review.

This paper is admittedly anglophone in its focus. To some extent this is justifiable because of the pioneering role of British researchers in historical ecology, which was often acknowledged in papers written in other languages as well (e.g. Girel, 2006 ; Moreno & Montanari, 2008 ; Cevasco & Tigrino, 2008 ). In addition, since around the year 2000 international research (especially in ecology) has been increasingly published in English. While I strove to include the majority of the most important works written in English, the coverage of similarly significant French literature is far less comprehensive; Italian, German and other European and non-European authors are mentioned less frequently. While this is a clear drawback, my hope is, as in the case of the thematic scope of the paper discussed above, that this review may provide inspiration for further regional studies, which will eventually lead to a comprehensive understanding of the past and present of historical ecology.

II. The Roots of Historical Ecology

Scientific investigations of a historical ecological character appeared as early as the 18th century. In 1769 , Daines Barrington proposed in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London the hypothesis that sweet chestnut ( Castanea sativa ) was not native to Britain. This was followed by a debate in which field observations, ancient timber, place names and historical documents were used (summarized in Rackham, 1980 ). Another well-known example is the Ruined Landscape theory, which blames the current, supposedly degraded state of Mediterranean landscapes on deforestation in the past. As a scientific idea, this theory is also from the 18th century, although a similar way of thinking can be followed as far back as Dante’s writings in the 14th century ( Grove & Rackham, 2001 ). The birth of modern forestry in the 18th century was also accompanied by historical ecological considerations, once again depicting older times in an unfavourable light. While fear of future wood shortage ( Warde, 2006 ) was perhaps the main motivation behind the works of authors such as Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1713) , modern forestry has a long tradition of blaming past forest uses for later unseemly conditions ( Hölzl, 2010 ). The first comprehensive works on forest history were also published in the 18th century, such as Stisser’s (1754) Forst und Jagd-Historie der Teutschen . In the 19th century, many great scholars dealt with past human–nature interactions at various spatial and temporal scales. Prominent examples include for example the towering figures of Charles Darwin and Alexander von Humboldt ( Bowler, 1990 ; Sachs, 2006 ). In The Earth as Modified by Human Action ( 1874 ), George Perkins Marsh started out with a description of the Roman Empire and identified many of the topics that still form an important part of historical ecological investigations. But not all scholars worked at such large spatial scales. For example Flóris Rómer – Benedictine monk, archaeologist and art historian – published an essay in 1860 in which, based on the examination of archival sources and place-names, he tried to reconstruct the vegetation and natural conditions of Hungary in the Middle Ages ( Rómer, 1860 ).

In the 20th century, several scientific strands contributed to the formation of historical ecology. I identify five strands, but, given the wide interdisciplinary spectrum of contemporary historical ecology, more such strands could be distinguished, for example historical climatology ( Brázdil et al. , 2005 ) or environmental archaeology ( Evans & O’Connor, 1999 ). Some of these research directions will be mentioned later in this review in connection with the development of historical ecology from the 1960s onwards. Generally speaking, I concentrated on those strands that appear to have had the largest influence on what is nowadays called historical ecology. The following descriptions are intended as brief reminders of the importance of each strand for historical ecology rather than exhaustive summaries.

The first scientific strand is forest history. It was rapidly developing in the 19th century (e.g. Schwappach, 1886 ; Maury, 1867 ), and by the 1960s countless works were produced on all aspects of the topic (for an overview, see Agnoletti, 2006 ). While many authors focused on the history of forest legislation in various parts of the world, many others tried to establish causal relationships between historical human impact and later forest conditions.

The second important strand is the Annales school of historical method and thought. Named after the journal Annales d’histoire économique et sociale , founded in 1929 by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch in Strasbourg, the influence of this school on the development of history as an academic discipline cannot be overestimated. Annales historians were mainly active in promoting long-term social and economic history in opposition to traditional political history. Interpreting the study of the past in the widest possible sense (total history), one of their many contributions was to introduce the environment (physical as well as living) as a subject of investigations in rural history ( Ford, 2001 ; Locher & Quenet, 2009 ). In the early 1940s, Bloch wrote that “very few scholars can boast that they are equally well equipped to read critically a medieval charter, to interpret correctly the etymology of place-names, to date unerringly the remains of prehistoric (and historic) habitations, and to analyze the plants characteristic of a pasture, a field, or a moor. Without all these, however, how could one claim to write the history of land use?” [ Bloch, 1949 (posthumous first edition), translated and quoted by Crumley, 1998 , p. ix]. The most important figure of the second generation of Annales scholars was Fernand Braudel, whose La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l’époque de Philippe II ( 1949 ) emphasized the influence of the environment (in this case meaning mostly the physical environment of climate and geology) over the ‘long duration’ of history, even if Braudel’s environment was rather static. Another Annales historian, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie was among the first to study the history of climate ( Le Roy Ladurie, 1967 ); in 1974 there appeared a special issue of the Annales devoted to the history of the environment.

Many ideas of the Annales school originated in the (historical) geography of Paul Vidal de la Blache ( Claval, 1998 ; Ford, 2001 ). In general, early historical geography is the third important scientific strand in the making of historical ecology. For example Carl O. Sauer’s work on the history of cultural landscapes in the USA (e.g. Sauer, 1966 ) or H. C. Darby’s monumental volumes on 11th-century England ( Darby, 1977 ) have had a lasting effect on later research directions.

The fourth scientific strand to have contributed to the forming of historical ecology is palaeoecology (the reconstruction of past biota and environments over long periods, such as the Holocene: Birks & Birks, 1980 ), especially palynology. Fossilized pollen was first observed and identified in the 19th century, and the first modern pollen diagram was published by Lennart von Post in Sweden in 1916 ( von Post, 1916 ; Manten, 1967 ). Human activity as an ecological factor appeared early in pollen-analytical research, for example in the works of H. Godwin in the 1930s (e.g. Godwin, 1934 ) and in the debate concerning the Neolithic elm decline from the 1940s onwards (e.g. Iversen, 1949 ). Karl-Ernst Behre’s publications from the 1980s on anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams are still widely used (e.g. Behre, 1981 ).

The fifth scientific strand is landscape history/archaeology. Especially in Britain, detailed studies of local landscapes on the model of William Hoskins’ The Making of the English Landscape ( 1955 ) have provided inspiration for later historical ecological investigations. Influential authors in landscape archaeology, such as Michael Aston, shared many common interests with historical ecologists (e.g. Aston, 1985 ). In Italy, a similarly important role is attached to the work of Emilio Sereni ( Moreno & Raggio, 1999 ). In France, the above-mentioned Annales school took the leading role in rural historical research (e.g. Bloch, 1931 ). In the USA, considerable similarities were found between the early researches of James Malin in the 1940s on the history of grassland ecosystems and the methodology of the Annales rural history ( Swierenga, 1984 ).

As far as the term ‘historical ecology’ is concerned, its earliest usage known to me is in a 1940 publication by John Grainger. Grainger conducted research that would seamlessly fit into the ecological trend in current historical ecology. He compared a list of fungi in Yorkshire published in 1788 (a historical source per se ) to his own field observations to discuss changes in the fungus population in the area. Seibert (1947) used the term ‘historical ecology’ to refer to the possible geological explanations for the variety in the Hevea genus in Peru. A year later, Conway (1948) provided the first definition of historical ecology in a paper that discussed von Post’s palynological work. Because of its thematic focus, her definition is closest to what is nowadays called palaeoecology, a term not nascent but largely unused in English at that time ( Ager, 1963 ). Several more publications referred to historical ecology in the 1950s. Etter (1953) used the term in the title of a paper that described the flora, fauna and historical development of a woodlot in Missouri, USA. He studied archival sources but did not attempt to connect current ecosystem features to historical events. By contrast, Nicholls’ (1956) use of the term ‘historical ecology’ was more similar to that of Seibert’s (1947) in the sense that it discussed the non-human past (in this case past climate) as an explanatory factor for ecosystems in New Zealand. In his studies of California grasslands, Burcham (1957) was the first to explicitly connect past management (which he studied with the help of archival sources) to current ecosystem state under the heading ‘historical ecology.’

III. Historical Ecology Since the 1960s

(1) descriptions and definitions of historical ecology.

In the second part of this review, I focus on the development of historical ecology since the 1960s. In order to conduct a better structured historiographic analysis, I compiled a collection of descriptions and definitions of historical ecology by various authors. Such a collection (which cannot pretend to be complete) naturally does not equal the history of historical ecology. Not all relevant authors ever used the term ‘historical ecology’ and even if so, many never described or defined it. The value of this collection of descriptions and definitions should therefore not be overestimated. It is intended at most as a heuristic device and will be used mainly in Sections IV and V . I collected 34 descriptions and definitions of historical ecology from monographs, book chapters and journal articles spanning a period of 65 years from 1948 to 2013 ( Table 1 ). The distinction between description and definition should be noted: some authors simply described ongoing trends, while others formally defined historical ecology often aiming to delimit its boundaries and influence its research directions. Nonetheless, for the sake of simplicity henceforth I will refer to both as ‘definitions’. When compiling the list, the following guidelines were followed.

• (i) Each author is included in the list only once.
• (ii) Several authors defined historical ecology in more than one publication and published many works within the general topic of historical ecology. In such cases, I chose a representative definition, preferably the one that was most often quoted by other authors. However, I also include in parentheses the date of the first work known to me that was written based on the same methodological foundations as the definition.
• (iii) The list is ordered chronologically. In cases described in point ( ii ), the earliest publication served as the basis for chronological placement.
• (iv) Only works that contained original definitions were included. Those that merely quoted earlier definitions (e.g. Hayashida, 2005 ) were not included.
• (v) ‘Ecological history’ was taken to be a synonym of historical ecology, because the two terms have been used interchangeably. The only author to differentiate between them was Whitehead (1998) .
• (vi) Definitions in languages other than English were translated into English. The following expressions were considered to be equivalents of historical ecology: écologie historique, histoire écologique (French), ecologia storica (Italian), historische Ökologie (German), ecología histórica (Spanish).

Descriptions and definitions of historical ecology. ‘Synonym’ refers to terms that were used at least once as free variation of historical ecology in the given text. ‘Category’ is the two main trends in historical ecology: E, ecology and A, anthropology. ‘References’ include the number of references to other authors in the list. Where an author defined historical ecology in more than one publication, a representative definition is provided, with the date of the first work sourced that used the same methodological foundations provided in square brackets.

For each definition, Table 1 contains synonyms, references and category. ‘Synonym’ refers to expressions that were used at least once in the given publication as a free variation of historical ecology. ‘References’ include the number of references to those authors that are included in Table 1 . In some cases references were made to the same authors but to publications not in the list. Such references were included if they referred to works with a historical ecological topic. ‘Category’ refers to the main trends in historical ecological research. Although current research identified three main trends ( Bürgi & Gimmi, 2007 ; Szabó & Hédl, 2011 ), distinguishing between the ecological and conservation/restoration ecological trends proved to be impractical. There are indeed works whose focus is explicitly restoration ( Egan & Howell, 2001 ). However, most ecologically focused studies mentioned conservation and restoration as the application of historical ecological knowledge and by and large the boundary between the ecological and conservation/restoration ecological trends appeared to be too fuzzy to be meaningfully applied. Inasmuch as conservation/restoration ecology is part of ecology, such approaches to historical ecology were interpreted as ecological. Thus, the two categories distinguished were E (ecology) and A (anthropology). The main difference between these categories is their overall focus ( Szabó, 2010 ; Vellend et al. , 2013 ). ‘E’ includes scholars of usually natural scientific background who draw on historical sources and (sometimes) methods to understand current ecosystems better. For them humans are one, but not necessarily the most important, factor that have influenced current ecosystems. By contrast, ‘A’ includes authors who focus on human–nature interactions from the perspective of human society. Their ultimate goal is to understand human society as part of the natural world. For authors in the ecological trend, the historical ecology of a place completely devoid of human impact is a possible, if somewhat unlikely topic ( Rackham, 1998 ; Rhemtulla & Mladenoff, 2007 ), while those in the anthropological trend would arguably not find this an exciting challenge.

Lastly, it should be mentioned that there exists an interpretation of historical ecology that is independent of all other approaches discussed herein. In a 1985 article, Daniel R. Brooks defined historical ecology as a complementary approach to evolutionary ecology that uses phylogenetic systematics as its main method ( Brooks, 1985 ). Brooks elaborated on his definition in further publications ( Brooks & McLennan, 1993 ), and other scientists became involved in similar research (e.g. Mayden, 1992 ). Nonetheless, this definition seems to be incompatible with other definitions, research agendas and methods of historical ecology (even though evolution on the timescale of human history or prehistory cannot simply be ignored – Rackham, 2006 ). Authors who adhere to this version do not refer to or discuss other versions of historical ecology, and practically all definitions of historical ecology in Table 1 are silent about Brooks’ approach. Therefore I consider the phylogenetic definition to be an independent sideline in the development of historical ecology and will not deal with it further here.

(2) From the 1960s to the 1980s – Europe

Self-conscious historical ecology started to develop in the 1960s. It was in this period that studies which influenced the later development of historical ecology and which are regularly quoted were published. In the USA, eminent palaeolimnologist Edward Deevey discussed the differences between “general and historical ecology” ( Deevey, 1964 ), and initiated a historical ecological survey of the Yaxha and Sacnab basins (in Guatemala) in the early 1970s. The archaeological settlement studies in this survey were carried out by Don and Prudence Rice, and the former went on to write a PhD in ‘historical ecology’ ( Rice, 1976 ). The team’s joint article ( Deevey et al ., 1979 ) is a classic study combining palaeoecological and archaeological evidence. Deevey’s role in promoting historical ecology was acknowledged in 1984, when his seventieth birthday symposium was called “Topics in Historical Ecology.” His achievements are considered to be highly important by Carole L. Crumley, one of the leading figures of the anthropological trend in historical ecology ( Crumley, 1998 ; Meyer & Crumley, 2011 ).

In England, probably the first major publication to combine ecological, archaeological and historical evidence was The Making of the Broads ( Lambert et al ., 1960 ). The first book that explicitly defined its topic as ‘ecological history’ was Colin Tubbs’ The New Forest: An Ecological History in 1968 . This work was pioneering in connecting historical knowledge with nature conservation. According to George Peterken, Tubbs had his ideas fully formed by 1962 ( Peterken, 1999 ). Peterken wrote a similar study on Staverton Park, Suffolk ( Peterken, 1969 ). One of the most influential figures of historical ecology, Oliver Rackham, published his first history-based ecological study on Cambridgeshire woods in the late 1960s ( Rackham, 1967 ). Sheail & Wells (1969) discussed the historical approach to grasslands research two years later. From the same year onwards, this group of scholars organized approximately 40 meetings of the so-called Historical Ecology Discussion Group at the Monks Wood Experimental Station in Cambridgeshire.

Historical ecology developed further in England in the 1970s. Based on a decade or so of investigations, the first major historical ecological books came out. Pollard, Hooper & Moore published their classic book Hedges in 1974 , while Oliver Rackham’s first book ( Hayley Wood: Its History and Ecology ) appeared a year later ( Rackham, 1975 ) and his first syntheses ( Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape and Ancient Woodland ) in 1976 and 1980, respectively. He also published the first results of his work on the Mediterranean ( Rackham, 1972 ), which was later summarized in two monographs ( Rackham & Moody, 1996 ; Grove & Rackham, 2001 ). Peterken’s first major book ( Woodland Conservation and Management ) was published in 1981 . A contemporary study by Crompton & Sheail (1975) investigated animal as well as plant communities. Hooper (1974) , Peterken (1975) and Rackham (1980) described historical ecology in similar ways, which signalled the consolidation of the field in England. Sheail (1980) summarized the methodology used for handling archival evidence. A somewhat neglected figure in the development of British historical ecology is Leslie Rymer, who started historical ecological investigations based on his own palynological research ( Rymer, 1974 ) as well as on archival and ethnographic sources ( Rymer, 1976 , 1977 , 1979 a ). He was the first to discuss historical ecology from a more theoretical point of view, outlining what he called the “epistemology of historical ecology” in four short papers in the journal Environmental Conservation ( Rymer, 1979 b , c , 1980 a , b ).

In France, at approximately the same time, geographer Georges Bertrand proposed to write the history of the French countryside from a historical ecological point of view ( Bertrand, 1975 ). His work formed the general introduction to the four-volume Histoire de la France rurale , edited by Georges Duby ( Duby, 1975 ), another influential figure in the French Annales school, discussed above. Within the same tradition, Deléage & Hémery (1989) tried to connect historical ecology to ‘world ecology’ and Beck & Delort (1993) edited the volume Pour une histoire de l’environnement , in which mostly historians and geographers described their work in the 1980s in ‘éco-histoire’ (see also Ford, 2001 ; Locher & Quenet, 2009 ). Important works from a more anthropological point of view were also produced, which, nonetheless, drew on the Annales tradition (e.g. Guille-Escuret, 1989 ). At the end of the 1970s, Emily Russell in the USA published her PhD dissertation Vegetational change in northern New Jersey since 1500 AD , in which she combined palynological, botanical and archival sources ( Russell, 1979 ). It is perhaps not altogether by accident that she had studied for a year in Paris, where, according to her own words, she had been introduced “to the residual impacts of people on the forests of France and to the idea that all forests have experienced some human impact” ( Russell, 1997 , p. xix). A year later American historian Lester J. Bilsky edited a volume entitled Historical Ecology: Essays on Environment and Social Change ( Bilsky, 1980 ). This book was written by historians and social scientists, and with chapters like “Attitudes toward the environment in medieval society” had a distinctly historical (as opposed to ecological) flavour. Another American scholar to be influenced by the French Annales school is anthropologist Carole L. Crumley, whose first major historical ecological research project was set in Burgundy in France ( Crumley, 1987 ).

(3) The 1990s – USA

The most important development of the 1990s was the increased interest (both practical and theoretical) of northern American scholars in historical ecology. By this time there was ample attention directed towards historical human–nature interactions, albeit from the perspective of historians. Environmental history, as the pertinent discipline came to be called, initially represented the political and intellectual history of the conservation movement ( White, 1985 ). Although there had always been calls in American environmental history for a more ecological focus from Aldo Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac ( 1949 ) through James Malin’s grassland studies in the 1940s ( Malin, 1984 ) to Donald Worster’s ‘agroecological perspective’ ( Worster, 1990 ), generally speaking there was little communication between historians and ecologists until the 1990s. The realization by American ecologists of the importance of historical factors in their investigations came relatively suddenly. To quote George Peterken: “When I worked at Harvard Forest in 1989–1990, historical studies in the USA were a novelty, but now [1999] they are burgeoning…” ( Peterken, 1999 , p. 520). This upsurge in interest started with Christensen’s thought-provoking paper ( Christensen, 1989 ). His article was published together with comments by environmental historian William Cronon, who also mentioned the previous lack of ecological research on historical matters in the USA.

Many other ecologists started historically oriented investigations in this period, for example ecologist and director of Harvard Forest David R. Foster ( Foster, Schoonmaker & Pickett, 1990 ; Foster, 2000 ) and plant ecologists S.T.A. Pickett ( McDonnell & Pickett, 1993 ; Pickett, Kolasa & Jones, 1994 ) and Glenn Motzkin ( Motzkin et al ., 1999 ). Importantly, northern American ecologists treated palaeoecological and archival sources as equally relevant and intensively interacted with local environmental historians, such as William Cronon. Meanwhile in Europe, Martin Hermy initiated what was to become the Belgian school of historical ecology. At least at the beginning, his work was mostly influenced by the British historical ecology of the 1970s and 1980s ( Hermy, 1992 ; Tack, van dem Bremt & Hermy, 1993 ). At the end of the decade Swiss landscape ecologist Matthias Bürgi – not least as a result of his postdoctoral stay at Harvard Forest and the University of Wisconsin – started his investigations of European forests with the methodological toolkit developed in the USA. As an example of rare intercontinental cooperation in historical ecology, he published a paper together with Emily Russell that compared changes in Swiss and American woodlands ( Bürgi & Russell, 2001 ). In Italy, the Laboratory of Environmental Archaeology and History in Genoa aimed to follow up on Sereni’s pioneering work under the leadership of such prominent scholars as Carlo Montanari and Diego Moreno ( Moreno & Montanari, 2008 ). Historical ecological work continued to be produced in France as well, as demonstrated for example in the works of geographer Jean-Paul Bravard (1999) or in Jean-Jacques Dubois’ ‘biogéographie historique’ ( Dubois, 1994 ).

The anthropological trend in historical ecology also emerged in the 1990s in the USA. Crumley (1994) edited a ground-breaking volume that set the direction for future research. In addition to anthropological case studies, this book included more theoretical pieces of writing ( Winterhalder, 1994 ) as well as what is probably the most insightful analysis of the practical problems of cooperation between scholars on either side of the sciences–humanities divide ( Ingerson, 1994 ). Subsequently, William Balée established himself as the other leading figure of the anthropological trend in historical ecology. Balée produced the most comprehensive theoretical writings on historical ecology ( Balée, 1998 b , and especially 2006 ) and edited a volume that could be seen as the continuation of Crumley’s 1994 book ( Balée, 1998 a ). This work also included several theoretical discussions on historical ecology (e.g. Whitehead, 1998 ). Crumley and Balée together edit the Historical Ecology Series at Columbia University Press and the New Frontiers in Historical Ecology series at Left Coast Press. Although the works of both Crumley and Balée reflect the holistic view of Boasian anthropology ( Darnell, 1998 ), they stem from somewhat different traditions. While Crumley’s background is archaeology, ecology and geology, Balée, with training in ethnobotany and ethnography, approached historical ecology from the perspective of human ecology. Balée’s work brought a historical focus to ethnography, replacing the time-static aspects of earlier ethnographic work and of cultural/human ecology. The anthropological trend of historical ecology is also strongly connected to European and northern American environmental archaeology. The major influence of Brothwell & Higgs’ (1963) Science in Archaeology shows how firmly rooted environmental topics already were in that discipline. Geographer/archaeologist Karl Butzer wrote several books that further transformed archaeological thinking towards a more ecological perspective in northern America ( Butzer, 1971 , 1982 ). A significant contribution of the anthropological branch to historical ecology in general has been its wide geographical focus, including hitherto neglected territories, such as the neotropics. It should be noted that similar research exists in Europe as well, especially in German speaking areas, where it forms part of human ecology ( Winiwarter & Wilfing, 2002 – for an explicit connection of the two trends, see Bürgi, 2008 ). In England, social anthropologists James Fairhead and Melissa Leach published an influential book on the history of western African savannas and forests that combined the anthropological approach with methods of landscape history ( Fairhead & Leach, 1996 ). It is perhaps justified to note that scholars’ different approaches to historical ecology are to a certain extent due to differences in the material available, rather than to differences in their philosophies and methodologies. The initial focus of European historical ecology on written material was certainly facilitated by the exceptional richness of European archives. By contrast, the ethnographic method must be dominant in areas where traditional oral culture has been prevalent.

A further direction in historical ecology appeared at the turn of the millennium. Even though the connection between nature conservation and historical ecology was, as I argued above, present in England already in the 1960s, research that emphasized the applied side of historical ecology became a dominant force in the late 1990s in the USA. The publication by Swetnam, Allen & Betancourt (1999) entitled “Applied historical ecology: using the past to manage for the future” is by far the most often quoted of all papers that include a definition of historical ecology. Two years later, Dave Egan and Evelyn A. Howell co-edited a book in which 23 northern American authors provided theoretical and pragmatic advice on types of historical evidence with the purpose to create a “restorationist’s guide to reference ecosystems” ( Egan & Howell, 2001 ).

(4) Since 2000 – globalization

In the past 15 years historical ecology has become more diversified and globalized. Many researchers in various parts of the world have contributed to the theoretical debate on historical ecological research. In Australia, ecologists Ian Lunt and Peter Spooner illustrated five historical ecology postulates with local examples in order to explain patterns in biodiversity ( Lunt & Spooner, 2005 ). Bowman did much the same in a guest editorial in the Journal of Biogeography , although instead of historical ecology he used the expression ‘environmental history’ ( Bowman, 2001 ). In France, Marage and his colleagues examined parts of the Jura Mountains and emphasized the role of interdisciplinarity in historical ecology ( Marage, Jaccottey & Puertas, 2001 ). The present author started his woodland historical investigations in East-Central Europe in the mid-2000s, which included several theory-oriented papers as well ( Szabó, 2005 , 2010 ; Szabó & Hédl, 2011 ). In addition to geographical diversification, the range of topics has also broadened. While in the 20th century historical ecology for the most part focused on the interactions between humans and vegetation (usually forests), recently zoologists have also begun to contribute. Although zooarchaeology has a tradition spanning more than a century ( Landon, 2005 ) and has been part of standard archaeological practice since at least the mid-20th century ( Brothwell & Higgs, 1963 ), it was only exceptionally viewed as part of historical ecology (but see Beaufort, 1987 ). This appears to have changed in the past decade. For example Fitzpatrick & Keegan (2007) emphasized the importance of archaeological faunal assemblages in historical ecology. Stahl (2008) discussed in detail the connections between zooarchaeology and historical ecology, and Rick & Lockwood (2013) coined the term ‘conservation archeobiology’ which they proposed to include in a broad definition of historical ecology. Furthermore, historical ecological theory also contributed to discussions on global environmental change ( Vellend et al ., 2013 ). A brand new research trend tries to involve historical ecological data in ecosystem modelling ( Gimmi & Bugmann, 2013 ), which inevitably leads towards global models.

Despite diversification, there are signs that historical ecology has started a process of unification. While especially in the 1980s and 1990s it was relatively common to find the use of the terms ‘environmental history’ and ‘landscape history’ as synonyms for historical ecology, this practically disappeared by 2000 ( Table 1 ). Furthermore, historical ecologists have become more aware of each other, and this awareness now includes scholars from both trends of historical ecological research (ecology and anthropology). Fig. 1 shows that until the 1990s most works defining historical ecology did not include references to any other author in Table 1 , and if so, only to those in the same research trend. Since the 1990s this has changed and in the past 15 years the majority of papers quoted works by researchers both in the ecological and anthropological trends of historical ecology. The same general trajectory towards globalization and unification was demonstrated in the first international conference of historical ecologists, organized by Matthias Bürgi at the Swiss Federal Institute of Forest, Snow and Landscape Research in 2011. At this conference the four main topics were the connections between historical ecology and ( i ) global environmental change, ( ii ) general patterns of ecosystem change, ( iii ) ecosystem modelling and ( iv ) environmental history/archaeology.

Number of references in papers describing and defining historical ecology to other authors in Table 1 based on whether individual authors quoted others in the ecological (E) or anthropological (A) trend of historical ecological research. Data are grouped into three periods that correspond to the main phases in the development of historical ecology.

The period since 2000 brought a sudden rise in the number of publications that identified themselves as historical ecology. Fig. 2 illustrates this trend based on the two most widely used citation databases. I searched for the term ‘historical ecology’ in ‘topic’ and ‘title’ in Thomson Reuters’ Web of Science , and in ‘title, topic and keyword’ in Elsevier’s much larger Scopus database (date of query: 15.11.2013). Excluding the year 2013, I found 374 and 962 publications, respectively. In the Web of Science database, 76% of all records were published after 2000, whereas Scopus showed 87% for the same variable. Although even a basic summary of the most important research topics would exceed the limits of this review and is not my primary aim, a list of some topics is included here to illustrate the diversity of current historical ecological research. I emphasize that such research is not necessarily new; the novel aspect is often the growing awareness of and identification with historical ecology. Woodland historical ecology as established in England in the 1960s has grown in strength. In particular, the ancient woodland indicator species concept has been adapted in many regions including Poland ( Dzwonko & Loster, 1989 ), Germany ( Wulf, 1997 ), Belgium ( Bossuyt, Hermy & Deckers, 1999 ) or Denmark ( Petersen, 1994 ), and a European overview was published ( Hermy et al ., 1999 ). Subsequently the reactions of plant species to land-use change were studied (e.g. Verheyen et al ., 1999 ), which, based on life-history traits, was applied on a global scale as well ( Verheyen et al ., 2003 ). The connection between plant ecology and archaeology is especially strong in France, where strikingly long-term legacies of previous land-use were demonstrated (e.g. Dupouey et al ., 2002 ). Historical ecologists in Europe and northern America also actively cooperate with palaeoecologists in the study of those periods for which palaeoecological and archival evidence are both available ( Jamrichová et al ., 2013 ; Ireland, Oswald & Foster, 2011 ). In the USA, archival sources, especially lists of witness trees, were used to create large databases in order to reconstruct pre-European settlement vegetation (e.g. Cogbill, Burk & Motzkin, 2002 ). Narrative written sources were used for the same purposes in Australia ( Jurskis, 2011 ). Historical ecological research was also produced in Spain ( Valladares, 2004 ; Buxó, 2006 ) and southern America ( López & Ospina, 2008 ). A highly significant area of historical ecological research is meadow vegetation. Meadows are the par excellence semi-natural vegetation. Their species richness as well as their importance for humans, which resulted in large amounts of detailed written sources from the Middle Ages onwards, make them a favourite subject in historical ecology (e.g. Eriksson, Cousins & Bruun, 2002 ; Poschlod & WallisDeVries, 2002 ). As far as aquatic ecosystems are concerned, both marine (e.g. Nadon et al ., 2012 ; McClenachan & Kittinger, 2013 ) and freshwater (e.g. Zu Ermgassen et al ., 2012 ; Haidvogl et al ., 2013 ) environments are intensely studied. The traditional interest in the history of predators and large mammals has continued and expanded to new continents ( Oates & Rees, 2013 ). Historical ecology has progressed on an epistemological level as well. New and significant concepts emerged, such as the historical range of variability or extinction debt. The former replaced the earlier ‘baseline conditions’ concept to provide a dynamic background against which to evaluate current ecosystems and restoration efforts ( Morgan et al. , 1994 ; Keane et al. , 2009 ). The latter describes extinctions that are inevitable through habitat loss but are temporarily delayed by the longevity of individual organisms ( Kuussaari et al ., 2009 ). New types of historical sources have also been identified and examined, such as anecdotes (short narrative accounts) ( Al-Abdulrazzak et al ., 2012 ) and oral history ( Bürgi, Gimmi & Stuber, 2013 ). Arguably the most significant methodological innovation in recent historical ecology has been the creation of larger databases and their use in modelling various temporal scenarios [see e.g. Iverson & McKenzie (2013) and further articles in the 2013 special issue of Landscape Ecology , dedicated to “Integrating historical ecology and ecological modeling”]. At the same time, the anthropological trend in historical ecology has gone from strength to strength and now investigates regions as far apart as the Pyrenees, Tanzania and Amazonia and a wide range of topics from malaria through pastoralism to landesque capital ( Vaccaro & Beltran, 2010 ; Hĺkansson & Widgren, 2014 ; Schaan, 2011 ; Cormier, 2011 ; Bauer, 2004 ).

Number of papers that defined themselves as ‘historical ecology’ in the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases from 1975 to 2012.

IV. The Two Main Trends of Historical Ecology

The analysis of the development of historical ecology showed that the ecological trend pre-dated the anthropological one ( Table 1 ). Even though the first ‘anthropological’ definition was published in 1975 ( Bertrand, 1975 ), and Crumley’s early work was from the 1980s, the anthropological trend in historical ecology became fully established only in the 1990s through the efforts of Balée and Crumley. Over approximately the same period the usage of the term ‘historical ecology’ to denote the work of historians on environmental topics (e.g. in the USA: Bilsky, 1980 ; Hungary: R. Várkonyi & Kósa, 1993 ; Czech Republic: Purš, 1988 ; Germany: Leidinger, 1986 ) disappeared (but see France: Clément, 2011 ). Such research nowadays forms part of environmental history, a well-established subfield of history all over the world with its own journals and university departments studying topics ranging from the ecological effects of colonialism through fire history to the history of pollution (e.g. Grove, 1996 ; Pyne, 1997 ; Brimblecombe, 1987 ). Table 1 demonstrates that in addition to being the older of the two trends, ecology also dominates in descriptions and definitions of historical ecology. Out of 34 definitions 26 are ‘ecological’ and only eight ‘anthropological.’

When examining the interconnectedness of the two main trends, it is apparent that ‘anthropologists’ are more aware of ‘ecological’ work in historical ecology than vice versa , although this may be to a certain extent the consequence of the relatively later formation of the anthropological trend. It is nonetheless worth noticing that out of the 26 papers containing ‘ecological’ definitions of historical ecology 20 (77%) quoted other ‘ecological’ definitions but only eight (31%) ‘anthropological’ ones. By contrast, from among the eight papers defining historical ecology from an anthropological point of view six (75%) contained references to both ‘ecological’ and ‘anthropological’ authors and definitions.

V. The Future of Historical Ecology

In the following, I try to summarize those features that are common to the majority of existing definitions of historical ecology (see also Bürgi & Gimmi, 2007 ).

• (i) Almost all authors referred to human–nature interactions in the past. In other words, they emphasized the interconnectedness of humans and nature as well as the fact that influences and feedback mechanisms are active in both directions.
• (ii) Most authors acknowledged the importance of archival as well as natural scientific sources of data, and by implication the role of interdisciplinarity in historical ecology. It appears that crossing the divide between the ‘two cultures’ of humanities and natural sciences ( Snow, 1959 ) is an integral part of historical ecology.
• (iii) Most authors mentioned the practical application of historical ecological knowledge in the conservation and restoration of both natural and cultural heritage. For some it is a central tenet, the raison d’être of historical ecology, while others see it as a possibility, but this is mostly a matter of emphasis.
• (iv) All authors agreed that historical ecology studies particular patterns, events and processes in the past to understand the present. Because the production and preservation of past data (both archival and natural scientific) is accidental (although naturally not completely random), historical ecological research is limited by source availability and is essentially inductive.

The question remains whether this intellectual common ground will direct historical ecology towards the formation of a recognizable scientific discipline. Two features observed in the 21st century might indicate upcoming changes. Firstly, the striking increase in the number of publications (that is, publications that identify themselves as historical ecology) is a clear sign of the inclination of the scientific community to do historical ecology, however it is defined. Secondly, as described above, the interconnectedness of individual researchers and trends in all parts of the world is growing. This is reflected in recent definitions as well. Authors increasingly noted the existence of various trends (e.g. Bürgi & Gimmi, 2007 ; Vellend et al ., 2013 ; Szabó & Hédl, 2011 ), and some explicitly mentioned their intention to advocate a broad definition of historical ecology that covers all trends (e.g. Bürgi & Gimmi, 2007 ; Moreno & Montanari, 2008 ; Rick & Lockwood, 2013 ). This may induce a process of systematization and institutionalization of historical ecology. However, it is equally possible that historical ecology remains – as far as academic disciplines are concerned – an umbrella term. Significantly, at the 2011 international conference on historical ecology mentioned above, the establishment of neither a journal nor a society for historical ecology found much support among those present. Being an umbrella term would preserve the current flexibility of historical ecology, which could continue to attract scholars with diverse academic backgrounds without increasing disciplinary rivalry.

A challenge emerging from recent comprehensive definitions of historical ecology which will need to be tackled in the future is the meaning of the word ‘history’ itself in the given context ( Wiens et al ., 2012 ; Girel, 2006 ). ‘History’ can refer to the past as such, the human past or that part of the human past for which written records exist. In the first and second cases, the temporal scope of historical ecology overlaps with palaeoecology, which appears to be undesirable. On the other hand, palaeoecological methods are increasingly applied in the study of recent periods as well (e.g. Ireland et al ., 2011 ). It would then appear logical to separate ‘historical ecology’ and ‘palaeoecology’ on the basis of their source material rather than temporal scope. However, most historical ecological investigations are interdisciplinary and combine various types of data, which makes it increasingly difficult to draw a dividing line between palaeoecology and historical ecology and offers no easy way out of terminological contradictions. Notably, since approximately 2000 several authors advocated a definition of historical ecology that included palaeoecology and environmental archaeology as well ( Swetnam et al ., 1999 ; Marage et al ., 2001 ; Fitzpatrick & Keegan, 2007 ; Meyer & Crumley, 2011 ; Rick & Lockwood, 2013 ). When viewed as part of a longer process, it seems that ‘history’ in historical ecology originally referred to the study of written sources (as in England in the 1970s and 1980s), in other words what would equal history as an academic discipline. With the increasingly interdisciplinary focus of historical ecological investigations, the meaning of ‘history’ has recently shifted towards a more comprehensive meaning including all periods and sources from the past.

It is decidedly not my intention here to choose the ‘right’ definition of historical ecology from among those that exist. I cannot but agree with Alice E. Ingerson (1994, p. 44) in that “new definitions imposed by fiat simply create a new, smaller ‘speech community’ of people who accept those peculiar definitions, within an otherwise unchanged larger community of speech and action.” Historical ecology has gone a long way from its beginnings more than two centuries ago to those dozens of publications that appear yearly nowadays. Where it is heading will be, in the end, decided by historical ecologists themselves.

VI. Conclusions

• (1) The first scientific investigations of a historical ecological character appeared as early as the 18th century, while in the 20th century at least five important scientific strands contributed to its development: forest history, the Annales school of historical method and thought, early historical geography, palaeoecology and landscape history/archaeology.
• (2) The history of historical ecology since the 1960s can be divided into three main periods. European (mostly British) research dominated the development of this field of study from the 1960s to the 1980s. This was followed by an increased interest in historical ecology in the USA in the 1990s. In the 21st century, historical ecology has become more globalized. The number of publications that identified their topic as historical ecology has grown sharply and so has the geographical range of research.
• (3) Out of the two main trends in historical ecological research, the ecological approach appeared earlier than the anthropological one and it is noteworthy that scholars in the latter trend are more aware of work in the former than vice versa .
• (4) Several features are common to most definitions of historical ecology. These include the interconnectedness of nature and human culture, the role of interdisciplinarity, the importance of applied historical ecology and identifying historical ecological research as an inductive process. Such features may provide the intellectual basis for the formation of historical ecology as an established academic discipline, and a trend towards unification is also apparent in recent, more comprehensive definitions of historical ecology. However, it is equally possible, and arguably not any less desirable, that historical ecology will remain an umbrella term.

VII. Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Gertrud Haidvogl for her input on the first version of this paper. Thanks are also due to Oliver Rackham and Carole L. Crumley for their highly useful comments. The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC Grant agreement n° 278065. This study was supported as a long-term research development project no. RVO 67985939.

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Essay on Save Environment

• Updated on  
• Apr 24, 2020

Essay writing is an important part of the school curriculum, competitive exams like GRE , IELTS , TOEFL , etc. and higher education as well. One must know how to precisely select arguments, collect the data based on them and put it all together in their write-up. Usually, the essay topics given to students are based on the latest political, social and environmental issues. Due to the changes occurring in our surroundings, essays based on saving the Environment are becoming very popular. Keeping that in mind, this blog presents you some sample essays on Save Environment. 

Sample Essay 1 on Save Environment

This essay on save environment can help you in the PTE Writing Essay, TOEFL Essay Topics and TOEFL Sample Essays !

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Essay on Environment

Here we have shared the Essay on Environment in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

You can use this Essay on Environment in any assignment or project whether you are in school (class 10th or 12th), college, or preparing for answer writing in competitive exams. 

Topics covered in this article.

Essay on Environment in 150-200 words

Essay on environment in 250-300 words, essay on environment in 500-1000 words.

The environment is our natural surroundings, encompassing air, water, land, and diverse ecosystems. It sustains life on Earth, providing essential resources and habitats for all living beings. However, human activities such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change are posing significant threats to the environment and its delicate balance.

Protecting the environment is crucial for our well-being and the planet’s sustainability. It requires collective action and individual responsibility. We must adopt sustainable practices, reduce pollution and waste, conserve resources, and support conservation efforts. By valuing and preserving the environment, we ensure a healthier and more prosperous future.

Governments, businesses, and individuals must work together to address these environmental challenges. Promoting renewable energy, implementing effective policies, and raising awareness about the importance of environmental conservation are key steps to protect our planet.

Preserving the environment is not just an obligation but also an opportunity to enhance our quality of life and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come. Let us embrace this responsibility and work towards creating a harmonious relationship with nature, respecting its intrinsic value and preserving its abundance for future generations.

The environment is the natural world around us, comprising the air we breathe, the water we drink, the land we live on, and the diverse ecosystems that support life. It encompasses everything from the smallest microorganisms to the largest forests and oceans. This essay briefly discusses the importance of the environment and the need for its protection.

The environment plays a crucial role in sustaining life on Earth. It provides us with essential resources, such as clean air, water, and food, and offers habitats for countless species. It regulates the climate, supports biodiversity, and contributes to the overall well-being of human beings and the planet.

Unfortunately, human activities have had a detrimental impact on the environment. Deforestation, pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change pose significant threats to ecosystems and biodiversity. These activities have resulted in the loss of species, degradation of ecosystems, and disruption of natural cycles.

To ensure a sustainable future, it is imperative that we take collective action to protect and preserve the environment. This includes adopting sustainable practices, reducing pollution and waste, conserving natural resources, promoting renewable energy sources, and supporting conservation efforts.

Individual actions, such as reducing carbon emissions, recycling, and conserving water, can make a significant difference. Additionally, governments, businesses, and organizations must implement policies and initiatives that promote environmental sustainability.

By valuing and protecting the environment, we not only safeguard the well-being of future generations but also enhance our own quality of life. Preserving the environment is essential for maintaining the balance of ecosystems, combating climate change, and ensuring a healthy planet for all living beings.

In conclusion, the environment is of utmost importance for the well-being of both humans and the planet. It provides essential resources, supports biodiversity, and regulates the climate. Protecting the environment is a shared responsibility that requires individual and collective action. By adopting sustainable practices and supporting conservation efforts, we can contribute to the preservation of our environment and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.

Title: Environmental Conservation – Protecting Our Planet for Future Generations

Introduction :

The environment is the foundation of life on Earth, encompassing the air, water, land, and ecosystems that support all living beings. It provides us with vital resources, regulates the climate, and sustains biodiversity. This essay explores the significance of environmental conservation, the threats it faces, and the urgent need for collective action to protect our planet.

Importance of Environmental Conservation

The environment is vital for our well-being and the sustainability of the planet. It provides us with clean air to breathe, safe water to drink, and nutritious food to eat. Ecosystems support biodiversity and provide habitats for countless species, contributing to the overall health of our planet. The environment also plays a crucial role in regulating the climate, preserving natural cycles, and mitigating the impacts of natural disasters.

Environmental Threats

Human activities have led to various environmental threats that endanger ecosystems and biodiversity. Deforestation for agriculture, logging, and urbanization destroys habitats and contributes to climate change. Pollution from industrial activities, transportation, and improper waste disposal contaminates air, water, and soil. Climate change, primarily caused by the excessive release of greenhouse gases, results in rising temperatures, melting ice caps, and extreme weather events. These threats have far-reaching consequences for both the environment and human societies.

Conservation Strategies

To protect the environment, proactive conservation strategies are necessary. Sustainable practices, such as reducing waste, conserving resources, and promoting renewable energy sources, are key to mitigating environmental impacts. Reforestation and afforestation efforts are crucial for restoring habitats and combating climate change. Conservation initiatives, including protected areas, wildlife sanctuaries, and marine reserves, help preserve biodiversity and ensure the long-term sustainability of ecosystems.

Individual and Collective Responsibility

Environmental conservation is a shared responsibility that requires both individual and collective action. Individuals can contribute by adopting sustainable lifestyles, reducing their carbon footprint, and supporting eco-friendly initiatives. Governments play a vital role in implementing policies and regulations that promote environmental protection, investing in renewable energy infrastructure, and fostering sustainable practices in industries. International cooperation is essential to address global environmental challenges and promote knowledge-sharing and technology transfer.

Benefits of Environmental Conservation

Environmental conservation yields numerous benefits. Preserving ecosystems and biodiversity supports the health of our planet and ensures the availability of vital resources for future generations. Conservation efforts contribute to climate change mitigation, reducing the risks of extreme weather events and preserving natural carbon sinks. Protecting natural areas enhances opportunities for eco-tourism, generating economic benefits for local communities. Conservation also fosters a sense of connection to nature and promotes physical and mental well-being.

Conclusion :

Environmental conservation is crucial for the well-being of both humans and the planet. It is our responsibility to protect the environment, mitigating threats such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change. By adopting sustainable practices, supporting conservation initiatives, and advocating for effective policies, we can ensure a healthier and more sustainable future for all. Environmental conservation is not just an obligation; it is an opportunity to preserve the beauty and abundance of our planet for future generations. Let us strive to live in harmony with nature, valuing and protecting the environment that sustains us. Together, we can create a better, more sustainable world for ourselves and for future generations.

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Environmental Issues Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on environmental issues.

The environment plays a significant role to support life on earth. But there are some issues that are causing damages to life and the ecosystem of the earth. It is related to the not only environment but with everyone that lives on the planet. Besides, its main source is pollution , global warming, greenhouse gas , and many others. The everyday activities of human are constantly degrading the quality of the environment which ultimately results in the loss of survival condition from the earth.

Source of Environment Issue

There are hundreds of issue that causing damage to the environment. But in this, we are going to discuss the main causes of environmental issues because they are very dangerous to life and the ecosystem.

Pollution – It is one of the main causes of an environmental issue because it poisons the air , water , soil , and noise. As we know that in the past few decades the numbers of industries have rapidly increased. Moreover, these industries discharge their untreated waste into the water bodies, on soil, and in air. Most of these wastes contain harmful and poisonous materials that spread very easily because of the movement of water bodies and wind.

Greenhouse Gases – These are the gases which are responsible for the increase in the temperature of the earth surface. This gases directly relates to air pollution because of the pollution produced by the vehicle and factories which contains a toxic chemical that harms the life and environment of earth.

Climate Changes – Due to environmental issue the climate is changing rapidly and things like smog, acid rains are getting common. Also, the number of natural calamities is also increasing and almost every year there is flood, famine, drought , landslides, earthquakes, and many more calamities are increasing.

Above all, human being and their greed for more is the ultimate cause of all the environmental issue.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

How to Minimize Environment Issue?

Now we know the major issues which are causing damage to the environment. So, now we can discuss the ways by which we can save our environment. For doing so we have to take some measures that will help us in fighting environmental issues .

Moreover, these issues will not only save the environment but also save the life and ecosystem of the planet. Some of the ways of minimizing environmental threat are discussed below:

Reforestation – It will not only help in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem but also help in restoring the natural cycles that work with it. Also, it will help in recharge of groundwater, maintaining the monsoon cycle , decreasing the number of carbons from the air, and many more.

The 3 R’s principle – For contributing to the environment one should have to use the 3 R’s principle that is Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. Moreover, it helps the environment in a lot of ways.

To conclude, we can say that humans are a major source of environmental issues. Likewise, our activities are the major reason that the level of harmful gases and pollutants have increased in the environment. But now the humans have taken this problem seriously and now working to eradicate it. Above all, if all humans contribute equally to the environment then this issue can be fight backed. The natural balance can once again be restored.

FAQs about Environmental Issue

Q.1 Name the major environmental issues. A.1 The major environmental issues are pollution, environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate change. Besides, there are several other environmental issues that also need attention.

Q.2 What is the cause of environmental change? A.2 Human activities are the main cause of environmental change. Moreover, due to our activities, the amount of greenhouse gases has rapidly increased over the past few decades.

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• Environment Essay

Essay on Understanding and Nurturing Our Environment

The environment is everything that surrounds us – the air we breathe, the water we drink, the soil beneath our feet, and the diverse flora and fauna that inhabit our planet. It's not just a backdrop to our lives; it's the very essence of our existence. In this essay, we'll explore the importance of our environment, the challenges it faces, and what we can do to ensure a sustainable and thriving world for generations to come.

Our environment is a complex and interconnected web of life. Every living organism, from the tiniest microbe to the largest mammal, plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ecosystems. This delicate balance ensures the survival of species, including humans. For instance, bees pollinate plants, which produce the oxygen we breathe. Nature is a masterpiece that has evolved over millions of years, and we are just one small part of this intricate tapestry.

Importance of Environment  

The environment is crucial for keeping living things healthy.

It helps balance ecosystems.

The environment provides everything necessary for humans, like food, shelter, and air.

It's also a source of natural beauty that is essential for our physical and mental health.

The Threats to Our Environment:

Unfortunately, our actions have disrupted this delicate balance. The rapid industrialization, deforestation, pollution, and over-exploitation of natural resources have led to severe environmental degradation. Climate change, driven by the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, is altering weather patterns, causing extreme events like floods, droughts, and storms. The loss of biodiversity is another alarming concern – species are disappearing at an unprecedented rate due to habitat destruction and pollution.

Impact of Human Activities on the Environment

Human activities like pollution, deforestation, and waste disposal are causing environmental problems like acid rain, climate change, and global warming. The environment has living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. Biotic components include plants, animals, and microorganisms, while abiotic components include things like temperature, light, and soil.

In the living environment, there are producers (like plants), consumers (like animals), and decomposers (like bacteria). Producers use sunlight to make energy, forming the base of the food web. Consumers get their energy by eating other organisms, creating a chain of energy transfer. Decomposers break down waste and dead organisms, recycling nutrients in the soil.

The non-living environment includes climatic factors (like rain and temperature) and edaphic factors (like soil and minerals). Climatic factors affect the water cycle, while edaphic factors provide nutrients and a place for organisms to grow.

The environment includes everything from the air we breathe to the ecosystems we live in. It's crucial to keep it clean for a healthy life. All components of the environment are affected by its condition, so a clean environment is essential for a healthy ecosystem.

Sustainable Practices:

Adopting sustainable practices is a key step towards mitigating environmental degradation. This includes reducing our carbon footprint by using renewable energy, practicing responsible consumption, and minimizing waste. Conservation of natural resources, such as water and forests, is essential. Supporting local and global initiatives that aim to protect the environment, like reforestation projects and wildlife conservation efforts, can make a significant impact.

Education and Awareness:

Creating a sustainable future requires a collective effort, and education is a powerful tool in this regard. Raising awareness about environmental issues, the consequences of our actions, and the importance of conservation is crucial. Education empowers individuals to make informed choices and encourages sustainable practices at both personal and community levels.

Why is a Clean Environment Necessary?

To have a happy and thriving community and country, we really need a clean and safe environment. It's like the basic necessity for life on Earth. Let me break down why having a clean environment is so crucial.

First off, any living thing—whether it's plants, animals, or people—can't survive in a dirty environment. We all need a good and healthy place to live. When things get polluted, it messes up the balance of nature and can even cause diseases. If we keep using up our natural resources too quickly, life on Earth becomes a real struggle.

So, what's causing all this environmental trouble? Well, one big reason is that there are just so many people around, and we're using up a lot of stuff like land, food, water, air, and even fossil fuels and minerals. Cutting down a bunch of trees (we call it deforestation) is also a big problem because it messes up the whole ecosystem.

Then there's pollution—air, water, and soil pollution. It's like throwing a wrench into the gears of nature, making everything go wonky. And you've probably heard about things like the ozone layer getting thinner, global warming, weird weather, and glaciers melting. These are all signs that our environment is in trouble.

But don't worry, we can do things to make it better:

Plant more trees—they're like nature's superheroes, helping balance everything out.

Follow the 3 R's: Reuse stuff, reduce waste, and recycle. It's like giving our planet a high-five.

Ditch the plastic bags—they're not great for our landscapes.

Think about how many people there are and try to slow down the population growth.

By doing these things, we're basically giving our planet a little TLC (tender loving care), and that's how we can keep our environment clean and healthy for everyone.

Policy and Regulation:

Governments and institutions play a vital role in shaping environmental policies and regulations. Strong and enforceable laws are essential to curb activities that harm the environment. This includes regulations on emissions, waste disposal, and protection of natural habitats. International cooperation is also crucial to address global environmental challenges, as issues like climate change know no borders.

The Role of Technology:

Technology can be a double-edged sword in environmental conservation. While some technological advancements contribute to environmental degradation, others offer solutions. Innovative technologies in renewable energy, waste management, and sustainable agriculture can significantly reduce our impact on the environment. Embracing and investing in eco-friendly technologies is a step towards a greener and more sustainable future.

Conclusion:

Our environment is not just a collection of trees, rivers, and animals; it's the foundation of our existence. Understanding the interconnectedness of all living things and recognizing our responsibility as stewards of the Earth is essential. By adopting sustainable practices, fostering education and awareness, implementing effective policies, and embracing eco-friendly technologies, we can work towards healing our planet. The choices we make today will determine the world we leave for future generations – a world that can either flourish in its natural beauty or struggle under the weight of environmental degradation. It's our collective responsibility to ensure that it's the former.

FAQs on Environment Essay

1. What is the Environment?

The environment constitutes the entire ecosystem that includes plants, animals and microorganisms, sunlight, air, rain, temperature, humidity, and other climatic factors. It is basically the surroundings where we live. The environment regulates the life of all living beings on Earth.

2. What are the Three Kinds of Environments?

Biotic Environment: It includes all biotic factors or living forms like plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Abiotic Environment: It includes non-living factors like temperature, light, rainfall, soil, minerals, etc. It comprises the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.

Built Environment: It includes buildings, streets, houses, industries, etc. 

3. What are the Major Factors that Lead to the Degradation of the Environment?

The factors that lead to the degradation of the environment are:

The rapid increase in the population.

Growth of industrialization and urbanization.

Deforestation is making the soil infertile (soil that provides nutrients and home to millions of organisms).

Over-consumption of natural resources.

Ozone depletion, global warming, and the greenhouse effect.

4. How do we Save Our Environment?

We must save our environment by maintaining a balanced and healthy ecosystem. We should plant more trees. We should reduce our consumption and reuse and recycle stuff. We should check on the increase in population. We should scarcely use our natural and precious resources. Industries and factories should take precautionary measures before dumping their wastes into the water bodies.

5. How can we protect Mother Earth?

Ways to save Mother Earth include planting more and more trees, using renewable sources of energy, reducing the wastage of water, saving electricity, reducing the use of plastic, conservation of non-renewable resources, conserving the different flora and faunas, taking steps to reduce pollution, etc.

6. What are some ways that humans impact their environment?

Humans have influenced the physical environment in many ways like overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have generated climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water. These negative impacts can affect human behavior and can prompt mass migrations or battles over clean water.  

7. Why is the environment of social importance?

Human beings are social animals by nature. They spend a good amount of time in social environments. Their responsibility towards the environment is certainly important because these social environments might support human beings in both personal development goals as well as career development goals.

Essay on The Environment In 150 To 200 Words For Students

We all know, the environment is in danger.  We need to do our part and help save the Earth. In this essay, you’ll learn how you can become more conscious of your actions and think before you act in order to help the environment.

Table of Contents

The Environment Essay For Students

Introduction

The environment is a term that has been used for centuries and refers to the natural world outside of humans. In recent years, the environment has come under increased scrutiny as many people have begun to realize the importance of protecting it.

The environment can be divided into three categories: the natural world, the human world, and the built world. The natural world includes all of the things that exist outside of human influence, such as plants, animals, and landscapes. The human world includes everything that exists within human influence, such as buildings, roads, and landscapes. The built world refers to all of the things that are made by humans, including machines, tools, and furniture.

The environment is important for a number of reasons. First, it is important for our survival as a species. We need to protect the environment so that we can continue to live on this planet. Second, the environment is important for our quality of life . We need to protect the environment so that we can have access to clean air and water and avoid harmful environmental toxins. Third, the environment is important for our economy. We need to protect the environment so that we can continue to produce goods and services that people want to buy. Fourth, the environment is

What is the environment?

The environment is the sum total of all of the physical and chemical conditions in which an organism or group of organisms lives and interacts with its surroundings. It includes air, water, land, plants, animals, and rocks.

What are the challenges of living in an environment?

If you look at the planet Earth, it is an incredibly diverse and beautiful place. There are mountains, rivers, and forests all over the planet. But there are also a lot of challenges that humans face when living in an environment.

The first challenge that humans face is that the environment is changing quickly. The Earth is getting warmer, and the oceans are rising. This means that there are more floods, and more droughts.

The second challenge that humans face is that the environment is changing too fast for us to adapt to it. We are changing the climate, and things are happening faster than we can adapt to them. The third challenge that humans face is that we are not taking care of the environment. We are polluting the air, and we are destroying our forests. We need to start taking care of our environment, or it will take care of us.

How do different people see the environment?

There are many ways to see and experience the environment, and this diversity provides opportunities for both understanding and conservation.

Whilst people may see the environment in different ways, the environmental issues that concern all of us are the same. We need to protect our planet from pollution, climate change, and other dangers.

Here are some examples of how people see the environment:

1. Some people see the environment as a treasure trove of natural resources that should be exploited without regard for the consequences.

2. Others see the environment as a place where they can connect with nature and feel reverence for its beauty.

3. Still others see the environment as a place where they can find refuge from their everyday lives.

Regardless of our individual perspectives on the environment, we all need to work together to protect it.

The environment is one of the most important topics to discuss, as it concerns all of humanity. Climate change is an ever-growing problem, and we need to do something about it. The effects of climate change are being felt by everyone on the planet, and we need to start taking steps towards solving it. We have been talking about the environment for far too long; now it’s time that we take action.

Hello! Welcome to my Blog StudyParagraphs.co. My name is Angelina. I am a college professor. I love reading writing for kids students. This blog is full with valuable knowledge for all class students. Thank you for reading my articles.

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GP Essay Questions on Environment

GP Essay Questions on Environment. Have a look at these GP Essay Questions on Environment from the past papers

• How far can we satisfy the worldwide demand for food and still protect the environment?
• ‘ Environmental concerns and economic growth  cannot co-exist.’ Do you agree?
• Should we be concerned about the ‘greenhouse effect’?
• ‘Human beings have unlimited desires, but limited resources.’ Is it possible to reconcile the two?
• ‘The only future for the car is its elimination.’ Discuss.
• Consider whether noise is a problem in modern society.
• Evaluate the problems, and benefits, of the various ways in which society deals with waste materials.
• ‘Air travel creates more problems than benefits.’ Is this a fair comment?
• Have multi-national businesses had a positive or negative impact on your society?
• How far is recycling the answer to the problem of waste?
• Can the transport of food over vast distance be justified?
• Is effective farming possible without science?

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In the U.S. and around the world, inflation is high and getting higher

Two years ago, with millions of people out of work and central bankers and politicians striving to lift the U.S. economy out of a pandemic-induced recession , inflation seemed like an afterthought. A year later, with unemployment falling and the inflation rate rising, many of those same policymakers insisted that the price hikes were “transitory” – a consequence of snarled supply chains, labor shortages and other issues that would right themselves sooner rather than later.

Now, with the inflation rate higher than it’s been since the early 1980s, Biden administration officials acknowledge that they  missed their call . According to the latest report from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the annual inflation rate in May was 8.6%, its highest level since 1981, as measured by the consumer price index . Other  inflation metrics  also have shown significant increases over the past year or so, though not quite to the same extent as the CPI.

With inflation in the United States running at its highest levels in some four decades, Pew Research Center decided to compare the U.S. experience with those of other countries, especially its peers in the developed world. An earlier version of this post was published in November 2021.

The Center relied primarily on data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), most of whose 38 member states are highly developed democracies. The OECD collects a  wide range of data  about its members, facilitating cross-national comparisons. We chose to use quarterly inflation measures, both because they’re less volatile than monthly figures and because they were available for all but one OECD country (Costa Rica, which joined the OECD in May 2021). Quarterly inflation data also were available for seven non-OECD countries with sizable national economies, so we included them in the analysis as well.

For each country, we calculated year-over-year inflation rates going back to the first quarter of 2010 and ending in the first quarter of this year. We also calculated how much those rates had risen or fallen since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the first quarter of 2020.

To get a sense of longer-term inflation trends in the U.S., we analyzed two measures besides the commonly cited consumer price index: The  Consumer Price Index Retroactive Series  (R-CPI-U-RS) from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and the  Personal Consumption Expenditures Price Index  from the Bureau of Economic Analysis.

Inflation in the United States was relatively low for so long that, for entire generations of Americans, rapid price hikes may have seemed like a relic of the distant past. Between the start of 1991 and the end of 2019, year-over-year inflation averaged about 2.3% a month, and exceeded 5.0% only four times. Today, Americans rate inflation as the  nation’s top problem , and President Joe Biden has said addressing the problem is his top domestic priority .

But the U.S. is  hardly the only place  where people are experiencing inflationary whiplash. A Pew Research Center analysis of data from 44 advanced economies finds that, in nearly all of them, consumer prices have risen substantially since pre-pandemic times.

In 37 of these 44 nations, the average annual inflation rate in the first quarter of this year was at least twice what it was in the first quarter of 2020, as COVID-19 was beginning its deadly spread. In 16 countries, first-quarter inflation was more than four times the level of two years prior. (For this analysis, we used data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, a group of mostly highly developed, democratic countries. The data covers 37 of the 38 OECD member nations, plus seven other economically significant countries.)

Among the countries studied, Turkey had by far the highest inflation rate in the first quarter of 2022: an eye-opening 54.8%. Turkey has experienced high inflation for years, but it shot up in late 2021 as the government pursued  unorthodox economic policies , such as cutting interest rates rather than raising them.

The country where inflation has grown  fastest  over the past two years is Israel. The annual inflation rate in Israel had been below 2.0% (and not infrequently negative) every quarter from the start of 2012 through mid-2021; in the first quarter of 2020, the rate was 0.13%. But after a relatively mild recession , Israel’s consumer price index began rising quickly: It averaged 3.36% in the first quarter of this year, more than 25 times the inflation rate in the same period in 2020.

Besides Israel, other countries with very large increases in inflation between 2020 and 2022 include Italy, which saw a nearly twentyfold increase in the first quarter of 2022 compared with two years earlier (from 0.29% to 5.67%); Switzerland, which went from ‑0.13% in the first quarter of 2020 to 2.06% in the same period of this year; and Greece, a country that knows something about economic turbulence . Following the Greek economy’s near-meltdown in the mid-2010s, the country experienced several years of low inflation – including more than one bout of deflation, the last starting during the first spring and summer of the pandemic. Since then, however, prices have rocketed upward: The annual inflation rate in Greece reached 7.44% in this year’s first quarter – nearly 21 times what it was two years earlier (0.36%).

Annual U.S. inflation in the first quarter of this year averaged just below 8.0% – the 13th-highest rate among the 44 countries examined. The first-quarter inflation rate in the U.S. was almost four times its level in 2020’s first quarter.

Regardless of the absolute level of inflation in each country, most show variations on the same basic pattern: relatively low levels before the  COVID-19 pandemic  struck in the first quarter of 2020; flat or falling rates for the rest of that year and into 2021, as many governments sharply curtailed most economic activity; and rising rates starting in mid- to late 2021, as the world struggled to get back to something approaching normal.

But there are exceptions to that general dip-and-surge pattern. In Russia, for instance, inflation rates rose steadily throughout the pandemic period before surging in the wake of its invasion of Ukraine . In Indonesia, inflation fell early in the pandemic and has remained at low levels. Japan has continued its years-long struggle with inflation rates that are too  low . And in Saudi Arabia, the pattern was reversed: The inflation rate surged  during  the pandemic but then fell sharply in late 2021; it’s risen a bit since, but still is just 1.6%.

Inflation doesn’t appear to be done with the developed world just yet. An  interim report  from the OECD found that April’s inflation rate ran ahead of March’s figure in 32 of the group’s 38 member countries.

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