hypothesis on energy drinks

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Article Contents

Introduction, energy drinks and marketing to youth, evidence for concern, evidence that teens can safely consume energy drinks, need for additional research, policy options.

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Energy drinks and adolescents: what’s the harm?

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Jennifer L. Harris, Christina R. Munsell, Energy drinks and adolescents: what’s the harm?, Nutrition Reviews , Volume 73, Issue 4, April 2015, Pages 247–257, https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuu061

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Concerns about potential dangers from energy drink consumption by youth have been raised by health experts, whereas energy drink manufacturers claim these products are safe and suitable for marketing to teens. This review summarizes the evidence used to support both sides of the debate. Unlike most beverage categories, sales of energy drinks and other highly caffeinated products continue to grow, and marketing is often targeted to youth under the age of 18 years. These products pose a risk of caffeine toxicity when consumed by some young people, and there is evidence of other troubling physiological and behavioral effects associated with their consumption by youth. The US Food and Drug Administration has indicated it will reexamine the safety of caffeine in the food supply; however, more research is needed to better understand youth consumption of energy drinks and caffeine in general, as well as the long-term effects on health. Meanwhile, policymakers and physician groups have called on energy drink manufacturers to take voluntary action to reduce the potential harm of their products, including placing restrictions on marketing to youth under the age of 18 years. Additional regulatory and legislative options are also being discussed.

In 2011, the American Academy of Pediatrics issued a report that raised significant concerns about the consumption of energy drinks by youth; it concluded that “rigorous review and analysis of the literature reveal that caffeine and other stimulant substances contained in energy drinks have no place in the diet of children and adolescents.” 1 Despite the potential health issues presented in the report, manufacturers of energy drinks continue to market energy drink products to children under the age of 18 years. 2 In 2013, the US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation held a hearing as part of an ongoing investigation of energy drink marketing to youth. 3 During that hearing, industry representatives pledged that they would not market their products to young children but refused to place limitations on marketing to children aged 12 years and older. Assertions such as the following were made by company executives: “Red Bull is safe for teenagers and adults to consume” 4 and “We believe our product [Monster Energy Drink] is safe for teenagers, and there is no reason why teenagers should not be part of being able to consume the brand.” 3

In this review, the emerging issue of energy drink consumption by youth is discussed and the evidence used to support both sides of the debate is summarized. It also identifies the need for additional research to better understand youth consumption of energy drinks and caffeine in general and to confirm medical experts’ concerns about the potential physiological and behavioral risks of energy drink consumption by children under 18 years of age. Until these effects are better understood, it is recommended that the public health community increase awareness among young people and their parents about the potential risks related to energy drink consumption and for energy drink companies to refrain from marketing their products directly to youth. Policy options to restrict energy drink sales and marketing to protect youth from harm that could result from consuming energy drinks and other highly caffeinated products are offered.

In this review, “energy drinks” is defined as the category of beverages that contain high levels of caffeine plus specialty ingredients not commonly found in sodas and juices. 5 These products typically have the word “energy” in their names and include both energy drinks and energy shots. Although the category comprises a wide variety of products, energy drinks typically contain carbonation and added sugar and come in nonresealable containers, most commonly sized to hold 16 oz. In contrast, energy shots are concentrated, typically contain artificial sweeteners but not added sugar, and are sold in 2 - to 2.5-oz containers. 6 Energy drinks differ from sports drinks, which are marketed primarily to provide hydration during physical activity and contain electrolytes and no caffeine.

Total caffeine in energy drink products ranges from 70 to 240 mg in a 16-oz energy drink and 113 to 200 mg in a 2-oz shot. 2 By comparison, most colas contain approximately 35 mg per 12-oz container. 6 Most energy drinks and shots also contain a proprietary “energy blend” that consists of stimulants and other specialty ingredients such as taurine, ginseng, and guarana. 7 Added sugar in energy drinks also poses a concern. The most common 16-oz size contains 54–62 g of sugar (up to 280 kcal). 6 In addition, carbonated energy drinks often come in larger-sized nonresealable containers intended to be consumed in one sitting. For example, a 32-oz can of Monster Energy contains 320 mg of caffeine and 108 g of sugar, totaling 400 kcal.

Despite the high levels of caffeine and incidence of novel ingredients in energy drinks, consumers have limited information about energy drink contents due to inconsistent and incomplete labeling requirements. 2 , 5 Energy shots typically follow labeling requirements for dietary supplements, while manufacturers may designate energy drinks as either supplements or beverages. 5 The US Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act does not require companies to disclose the caffeine content of either beverages or supplements, and many companies do not disclose this information. 2 , 5 However, the American Beverage Association requires its member companies (which include Red Bull, Monster Energy, and Rockstar) to voluntarily disclose information regarding caffeine on the labels. 8 Novel ingredients such as taurine and guarana must be listed on nutrition and supplement facts panels, but the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not require that the amounts of these ingredients be disclosed. 2 , 5 As a result, consumers do not know how much of these novel ingredients they are ingesting, and independent researchers cannot study the interactive effects of these ingredients in amounts found in the food supply.

Sales of energy drinks

Energy drinks are relatively new to the US market. Red Bull was first introduced in California in 1997 as a niche product targeted to college students and extreme sports enthusiasts. 9 Since then, new companies and products have entered the market, marketing efforts have expanded to reach additional segments of the population, and sales of energy drinks have grown rapidly. In 2010, US energy drink sales totaled $20 per capita, equal to approximately one-half the sales of sugar-sweetened sodas and surpassing sales of both sports drinks and fruit drinks. 6 In 2012, total sales of energy drinks reached $6.9 billion and sales of energy shots totaled $1.1 billion, reflecting increases of 19% and 9%, respectively, over the previous year. 10 While sales of most sugary drinks, including soda, declined from 2007 to 2012, gallon sales of energy drinks increased by 53%. 11

Currently, there are few restrictions on sales of energy drinks. Common retail practices make these products readily available to young people and encourage impulse purchases. For example, 79% of energy drinks are sold in convenience stores. 6 Typically, they are stocked in beverage coolers alongside other sugary drinks, implying that they are a suitable substitution for soda and other soft drinks, or next to alcoholic beverages, suggesting their consumption with alcohol. Energy shots frequently are featured in freestanding displays near the checkout counter in convenience and drug stores. 6

Marketing of energy drinks

Marketing expenditures for energy drinks also have increased in recent years and now surpass expenses for all other categories of sugary drinks except soda. 6 In 2012, energy drink brands spent $282 million on advertising in all media, 71% more than was spent 2 years earlier and 2.5 times 2008 spending. 12 Much of this advertising appears designed to reach youth under the age of 18 years, and youth-directed marketing has increased in the past 5 years. On average, in 2012, adolescents (aged 12–17 years) saw 165 television ads for energy drinks and shots, which is approximately double the number of ads seen in 2008. 12 In addition, energy drink brands placed many of their television advertisements on networks watched disproportionately more often by youth under the age of 18 years than by adults, such as Adult Swim, MTV, MTV2, and Comedy Central. 12 Two brands appeared to target their television advertising directly to youth, as evidenced by exposure numbers: adolescents saw 31% more TV ads for Red Bull energy drinks and 44% more ads for Street King energy shots compared with adults.

Energy drink brands also have increased youth-oriented advertising on the Internet. 12 From 2010 to 2012, the number of adolescents visiting RedBull.com, 5HourEnergy.com, and DrinkNOS.com per month increased. 12 Of note, adolescent visitors to DrinkNOS.com increased by 4.5 times during that time, and adolescents were 54% more likely to visit the site compared with adults. Energy drink brands also greatly expanded their marketing in social media that are popular with teens. In 2012, Facebook was the most common website to feature display advertising for energy drinks, totaling more than 30 million ads viewed per month, while more than 6 million energy drink ads were viewed on YouTube monthly. 12 As of February 2014, Red Bull and Monster ranked 5 and 16 in number of likes for any corporate brand on Facebook, at 43 million and 24 million, respectively. 13 In early 2013, energy drink brands posted to their Facebook pages on average 1.3 times per day and tweeted 2–68 times per day. 12 YouTube videos posted by Red Bull had been viewed almost 600 million times and Monster Energy videos had been viewed 54 million times.

Companies that belong to the American Beverage Association commit that they will not advertise to children under 12 years of age, 8 , 14 and energy drink companies deny marketing directly to children. 3 However, analysis of their specific statements indicates that companies primarily pledge to limit advertising during children’s television programming. 15 Young children still view large amounts of energy drink advertising during other types of programming. For example, children between the ages 2 and 11 years saw, on average, 66 ads on television for energy drinks or shots in 2012, which amounts to more than 1 ad per week. 12 In 2010, children saw more television ads for 5-Hour Energy than for any brand of children’s beverage, except Capri Sun. 6 In addition, many of the messages in energy drink marketing likely appeal to children, including sponsorships of young athletes. For example, Red Bull sponsored Enzo Lopes, a 12-year-old Motocross athlete who appeared on the cover of Red Bulletin magazine, and Monster Energy’s Monster Army Recon Tour included age categories for children as young as 7 years. 3 Energy drink companies also commonly provide product samples at sporting events, concerts, local parks, and community events, without age restrictions on who can receive a sample. 3

A final concern about marketing of energy drinks involves stated and implied claims of product benefits. Advertising claims by energy drink companies typically promise increased energy, but many also claim to enhance mental alertness and focus, hydration, physical performance, and health from antioxidants and vitamins. 2 Companies generally are not required to substantiate these claims with the FDA. 2 However, the US Federal Trade Commission has the authority to investigate energy drink claims that may be false and misleading, especially those conveyed in advertising to youth. 16 Medical researchers have already highlighted some problems associated with the advertising of energy drinks to youth, including high youth appeal and promises of improved attention and physical performance as described below. 18

Claims of enhanced physical performance from energy drink use while participating in sports raise particular concerns for young consumers. The National Federation of State High School Associations warns student athletes about the health and safety risks of consuming energy drinks, including dehydration and harm to the central nervous and gastrointestinal systems, especially when consumed before, during, and after strenuous exercise. 17 The American Beverage Association specifically advises members that advertising should not suggest that energy drinks are appropriate for use in connection with sports. 8 However, common marketing practices such as sponsorships of sporting events and high school athletics and sports celebrity endorsers appear to contradict this recommendation. 3 One American Beverage Association member (Monster Energy) has specifically stated that it does not follow this voluntary guideline. 3

Parents also are concerned about energy drinks. Three-quarters of parents with children under the age of 18 years agree that energy drinks should not be marketed or sold to children or adolescents, and 85% support caffeine disclosures and warning labels about potential adverse effects on energy drink packaging. 5 In addition, almost one-half of parents (48%) agree that youth under the age of 18 years should not be allowed to consume energy drinks. 5

Recent introduction of new “energy” products

The success of energy drinks in the market has spurred a proliferation of new energy drinks as well as other types of so-called “energy” products. For example, in 2012, SK Energy was founded with the mission to “Create an energy shot that is better for you and better for the world” by producing “a new breed of energy shot” that appears to be targeted to a youth audience. 15 Sports celebrities endorse the product with direct claims that it helps improve their performance. The company spent $6 million in advertising in 2012 and it maintains Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube pages. 12 The company's extra strength energy shots contain 280 mg of caffeine per 2.5-oz shot (higher than most other shots). 19 Also in 2012, Kraft Foods introduced Mio Energy “drops” as part of a line of drink mixes to be added to water or other beverages, 20 supported by $16 million in advertising. 12 Package instructions call for 1 “squirt” (containing 60 mg of caffeine) to be added to 8 oz of liquid. However, the entire package contains 18 squirts, totaling 1,080 mg of caffeine, raising concerns that consumers may purposely or inadvertently add more. Furthermore, the product is stocked in the supermarket aisle with other drink mixes – including Kool-Aid, lemonade, and iced tea mixes – leading to the risk of consumer confusion about the product’s potential risks, particularly with regard to the possibility of inadvertently high caffeine intake.

Companies also have begun to add caffeine to other types of foods and beverages. Examples of products marketed and sold in the United States in recent years include V8 Fusion+ Energy fruit drinks, 21 Jelly Belly Sport Energizing Beans, 22 and Cracker Jack’d Power Bites snacks. 23 One product, Wrigley’s Alert Energy Caffeine Gum, appears to have been discontinued following an FDA statement of intent to evaluate the regulatory framework for added caffeine in food and beverage products. 24 Given the rapid introduction of new highly caffeinated products, including energy drinks, the Institute of Medicine hosted a workshop in 2013 at the request of the FDA to reassess the safety of caffeine in the food supply. 25 In particular, the FDA and workshop participants cited concerns about potentially harmful effects of caffeine and energy drink consumption on vulnerable populations, including children and adolescents.

This rapid expansion of energy drink sales and marketing coincides with increased concerns within the medical community about youth consumption of these products. In 2008, 100 scientists and physicians wrote a letter to the FDA requesting additional regulation of energy drinks due to risks from caffeine intoxication and alcohol-related consumption by youth. 26 In 2011, the American Academy of Pediatrics published its recommendation that children and adolescents should not consume energy drinks, 1 and in 2013 the American Medical Association adopted a policy to support banning the marketing of energy drinks and shots to adolescents under the age of 18 years as “a common sense action that we can take to protect the health of American kids.” 27

Public health research has just begun to document youth consumption of energy drinks, although study results are inconsistent due to differences in methodology and sample populations. A survey of almost 3,000 US adolescents in 2010–2011 found that 15% reported consuming energy drinks at least once per week, with greater intake by boys than girls but no differences for middle school versus high school students. 28 A study of eighth-graders during the same year indicated that 35% had consumed an energy drink in the past year and that 18% consumed more than 1 on the days they did consume the drink. 29 A survey of US high school students found that 8.8% of sugar-sweetened beverage calories consumed overall were in the form of energy drinks and energy drinks represented 10% of beverage calories consumed by Hispanic students and males. 30 However, this study did not assess consumption of zero-calorie energy drinks such as energy shots. In 2013, the European Food Safety Authority commissioned a survey of 32,000 youths in the European Union and found that 68% of adolescents and 18% of children consumed energy drinks and the average amount consumed per month was 16 oz for children and 71 oz for adolescents. 31 This study also found that 12% of adolescents consumed energy drinks 4 times or more per week.

Physicians and other health experts have raised numerous concerns about youth consumption of energy drinks and caffeine more generally. Caffeine may be addictive, 32 , 33 and as noted in one review of the literature, “may be the only psychoactive drug legally available over-the-counter to children.” 34 Caffeine withdrawal symptoms, including headache, drowsiness, and irritability, have been documented in school children, 34 , 35 and withdrawal is associated with decreased reaction and attention for up to 1 week after caffeine use is discontinued. 35 Although the American Psychiatric Association did not include caffeine use disorder as a clinically significant substance-related or addictive disorder in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition), the committee did conclude that there is sufficient evidence to support caffeine use disorder as a condition and to encourage further research on its impact. 36 The dangers of combining energy drinks and alcohol have been highlighted as an important public health issue. 37 , 38 However, studies also have documented severe adverse reactions and other troubling outcomes associated with youth consumption of energy drinks alone. 34 This review summarizes the growing body of evidence indicating that consumption of energy drinks raises health concerns for children and youth, including caffeine toxicity and other physiological effects as well as longer-term emotional, social, and behavioral effects.

Caffeine toxicity and other physiological effects

Recommendations by the American Academy of Pediatrics 1 and medical experts 18 , 34 , 39 are based primarily on the fact that energy drinks provide no nutritional benefits but can cause potentially dangerous adverse reactions in some vulnerable populations. Reviews of the medical literature provide substantial evidence of the potential for caffeine toxicity and other adverse physiological effects from consuming energy drinks. For example, a 2009 review by Reissig et al. 18 documented the potential for dependence and withdrawal resulting from regular consumption of energy drinks. In a 2011 review of studies published in the scientific literature and government agency reports, Seifert et al. 34 describe potentially problematic physiological effects for children and young adults, including cardiovascular and abdominal effects, seizures, and agitation. In extreme cases, caffeine toxicity may cause death, 40 especially when consumed by individuals with an underlying heart condition and no history of caffeine consumption. Recent lawsuits brought against energy drink companies allege that energy drink ingestion was the primary contributing factor in the deaths of youth under the age of 18 years. 3 , 41

Although reviews of the literature on the effects of energy drinks when consumed by adults report mixed findings, 42 , 43 1 review concluded that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that energy drinks are safe for adults or to allow “definitive dietary recommendations to be made regarding safe levels of ED [energy drink] consumption.” 44 Substantiating the potential risk, an experiment conducted with healthy young adults showed that consumption of 1 Red Bull energy drink increased blood pressure and other measures of cardiac workload while cerebral blood flow velocity was decreased. 45 The authors conclude that energy drink consumption is potentially harmful and could aggravate preexisting health problems. As caffeine acts on the body tissues at a concentration level, measured by milligrams of caffeine to units of blood volume or kilograms of body weight, 38 these effects would likely be even more pronounced in the smaller bodies of children, young adolescents, and other individuals who have not developed tolerance to caffeine, which also suggests that youth should be cautioned against consuming these products.

Emergency room visits associated with energy drink consumption also indicate potential acute physiological responses from consuming these products. According to a 2013 Drug Abuse Warning Network report, produced by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, the number of emergency department visits by 12- to 17-year-olds attributable to energy drink consumption increased from 1,145 in 2007 to 1,499 in 2011. 46 Moreover, 58% of energy drink–related visits were attributed to energy drink intake alone, not a combination of energy drinks and other substances such as alcohol. Consistent with these findings, analyses of calls to local poison centers compiled by the US National Poison Data System documented 3,028 energy drink–related calls in 2013, 47 up from 672 in 2010; 32 61% were for children 18 years of age and younger. 47 Moderate to major adverse effects reported include seizures, delirium, tachycardia, and dysrhythmia, all events consistent with caffeine toxicity. Studies have documented similar adverse effects in several European countries 31 and Australia. 39 For example, the number of energy drink–related calls to the Australian Poison Control Centre increased 5-fold from 2004 to 2010; the median age of the callers was 17 years, and 54% of the callers reported consuming no other substances. 39 Severe reactions, including cardiac events, hallucinations, and seizures, were reported in 10% of cases. Furthermore, 9% of adolescent boys take stimulants such as Adderall for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. 48 Potential drug interactions between energy drinks and prescription stimulants have not been studied; however, this combination could substantially increase risks from energy drink consumption. 32

In summary, the high concentration of caffeine in many energy drink products, together with evidence of frequent and growing energy drink consumption by young people who may not have yet developed a tolerance, appears to present substantial risks for caffeine toxicity among children and adolescents.

Potential behavioral effects

In addition to caffeine toxicity and other physiological effects of energy drink consumption by youth, there is growing evidence of a relationship between energy drink consumption (and caffeine consumption more generally) and other negative social, emotional, and behavioral health outcomes. Known side effects of caffeine consumption include sleep disturbances, anxiety, irritability, and restlessness. 32 Researchers in Iceland surveyed 7,400 adolescents (age 14 and 15 years) and found that the majority reported consuming caffeine on a typical day and that caffeine intake (primarily from soda and energy drinks) was related to daytime sleepiness and anger for both sexes. 49 A study of 13- to 17-year-olds admitted to urban US emergency rooms found that more than half reported consuming energy drinks in the past month, and those who had were also more likely to report that they had “gotten into trouble at home, school, or work” than those who consumed other types of caffeinated beverages. 50 In a 2013 study of 15- to 16-year-olds, self-reported caffeine intake was strongly correlated with self-reported violent behavior and conduct disorders. 51 In this study, 21% of participants consumed at least 1 energy drink per day.

Evidence of a possible link between energy drink consumption and abuse of alcohol and other illegal substances by young people raises further troubling concerns. 18 In one study, adolescents (age 14 and 15 years) who consumed caffeinated drinks were more likely to report both nicotine and alcohol use. 49 US studies also have shown associations between adolescent consumption of energy drinks and smoking, alcohol, and illicit drug use, 26 , 29 , 52 as well as other risky behaviors such as sexual risk-taking, fighting, and seat belt omission. 52 Messages in energy drink marketing may reinforce these associations with implicit comparisons between energy drinks and alcohol and drugs. 2 , 3 For example, energy drink companies encourage users to “chug down,” “throw it back,” and “pound it down” in social media. One Red Bull Instagram post suggested, “take a sleeping pill, wash down with Red Bull, and let the battle begin.” In testimony to the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, Suffolk County Legislator, Dr. William R. Spencer, raised a broader concern about energy drink marketing to youth, “the message to children, who are frequently overscheduled and under constant pressure to succeed, is to ignore the body’s signals of fatigue and hunger and use a stimulant instead.” 53

Representatives of energy drink manufacturers make 3 primary arguments for the safety of their products when consumed by teenagers aged 12–17 years: 1) caffeine consumption by children and adolescents is low and has not increased over time; 2) energy drinks contribute a small proportion of total caffeine intake, and the caffeine in these products is lower than in other caffeinated beverages; and 3) experts have determined that the caffeine and other ingredients in energy drinks are safe. 54–56

Consumption of energy drinks and other caffeinated products by teenagers

An FDA-commissioned report (referred to as the “Somogyi Report”) documented little change in caffeine consumption by children, teenagers, and adults from 2003 to 2008, with teenagers consuming an average of 100 mg of caffeine per day from all sources. 57 This report also showed that children and teens consume more caffeine from soft drinks, coffee, and tea than from energy drinks. Another study funded by the Caffeine Working Group (an industry trade group) found similar results, reporting that 13- to 17-year-olds consume an average of 6 mg caffeine per day from energy drinks and 83 mg from all sources. 58 Industry representatives also cite the caffeine content of premium coffeehouse coffees as evidence that caffeine levels in energy drinks are safe. 3 For example, a 16-oz can of Monster Energy contains approximately 160 mg of caffeine from all sources compared with 330 mg of caffeine in a 16-oz cup of Starbucks coffee. 55

A more recent analysis conducted by researchers at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which used 24-h dietary recall data, corroborates these general trends and sources of caffeine consumption by youth under 18 years of age. 59 From 1999 to 2010, mean caffeine intake did not increase for children or teens, and soda and tea contributed 56–78% of total caffeine consumed by youth under the age of 17 years. Coffee ranked third as a source of caffeine in diets of 12- to 16-year-olds, followed by energy drinks, which accounted for 3% of caffeine consumption. However, this study also found an increase in caffeine consumption from energy drinks and coffee by children and adolescents, while caffeine from soda consumption declined by 30% or more. The authors raise concerns about these trends due to higher concentrations of caffeine in energy drinks and coffee, and call for continued monitoring.

Safety of ingredients in energy drinks

According to energy drink manufacturers, another reason their products are safe for teenagers is because the caffeine and other ingredients in energy drinks are generally recognized as safe (GRAS). 4 , 55 , 56 Manufacturers also cite the small number of adverse event reports for energy drinks. 56 From 2002 to 2012, 145 adverse events were reported to the FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Adverse Event Reporting System by 3 energy drink companies (5-Hour Energy, Monster, and Rockstar). 60 However, the FDA cautions against making conclusions based on these reports for several reasons: 1) the reports rely on individuals’ self-report of the product that caused the event, 2) the FDA often does not have the required information to conclusively determine the cause of all events, and 3) these reports represent only a “small fraction” of adverse events associated with any product. 60 In addition, only energy drink manufacturers that designate their products as supplements (not beverages) are required to disclose adverse events associated with consumption of their products. Finally, manufacturers dispute conclusions drawn about the safety of energy drinks based on reports of poison center calls and emergency room visits (e.g., the 2013 Drug Abuse Warning Network report). 56 As evidence of their safety, one industry-commissioned report concluded that the number of emergency room visits reported to be associated with energy drink consumption is relatively low given the amount of energy drinks consumed. 56 According to the report, even if all emergency room visits were associated with energy drinks, they would represent just 1 emergency room visit per 168,400 energy drinks sold in 2011, or 1 visit per 336,800 drinks sold when the patient did not also admit alcohol or drug consumption.

Public health experts and the US Government Accountability Office have concluded, however, that current regulations are insufficient to ensure the safety of ingredients contained in many foods and beverages. 61 , 62 FDA regulations state that GRAS status must be reconsidered as new information becomes available; however, the FDA has limited information and resources to conduct these investigations. 62 Moreover, since 1997 the FDA has allowed manufacturers to self-determine GRAS status for ingredients that have not been approved as food additives by the FDA, provided there is “reasonable certainty in the minds of competent scientists that the substance is not harmful under the intended condition of use.” 63 Food and beverage manufacturers are not required to notify the FDA that they are using a new ingredient and have determined it to be GRAS nor to provide evidence of their determination. 2 , 62 Citizens may file a petition with the FDA to reevaluate the safety of GRAS substances. Eleven citizen petitions were filed from 2004 to 2008; however, as of December 2009, the FDA had decided on only 1 of these petitions, citing limited resources. 62

Notably, the FDA has not independently evaluated the GRAS status of caffeine since the 1970s. At that time, the Code of Federal Regulations described caffeine as GRAS in concentrations up to 71 mg/12 oz (0.02% concentration) in “cola-type beverages.” 2 At 80 mg of caffeine per 8-oz serving, 6 the standard energy drink on the market contains about 70% more caffeine than the 0.02% concentration proscribed as GRAS by the FDA. The safety of novel ingredients such as taurine, guarana, and ginseng, which are commonly part of the “energy blend” in most energy drinks, presents additional concerns. 5 , 7 According to energy drink manufacturers, these ingredients increase the effects of caffeine alone on physical or cognitive performance, 7 but these novel ingredients also may increase adverse effects versus caffeine intake alone. Such an interaction could help explain why the number of emergency room visits associated with energy drink consumption by young people appears to have increased, 39 , 46 , 56 even though total caffeine consumption by youths has not. 57–59 However, the FDA has not evaluated these other common energy drink ingredients for their current uses in the food supply. For example, the FDA has approved guarana as a flavor additive but not as a source of caffeine, and it has not approved taurine as a food additive nor confirmed its GRAS status. 2

FDA requirements for establishing the safety of ingredients used in dietary supplements (including energy shots and some energy drinks) differ somewhat from requirements for beverages. Supplement manufacturers may voluntarily notify the FDA in advance that they are using a new dietary ingredient but they are not required to do so, and the FDA monitors adverse event reports and other measures to identify safety concerns once products are in the market. 2 However, even for dietary supplements, the threshold for the FDA to remove a product from the market due to safety concerns is quite high. 2 Therefore, energy drink manufacturers have determined the GRAS status of the level of caffeine and other ingredients in energy drinks by hiring scientists who state that they are reasonably certain that these ingredients are safe. Although this practice complies with FDA requirements for all foods, beverages, and supplements, the objectivity of such designations has been questioned by public health experts and the US Government Accountability Office. 61 , 62

Clearly there are 2 distinct points of view regarding whether young people should be encouraged (e.g., through marketing), or even allowed, to consume energy drinks. In the absence of proof that energy drinks are not safe when consumed as intended, manufacturers argue that they should be allowed to continue to market and sell their products to teens and adults. However, The American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Medical Association, and other health experts argue that evidence of potential toxicity and other negative outcomes from consuming energy drinks, especially for vulnerable populations, justifies policies to restrict the sales and marketing of energy drinks to youth under the age of 18 years. 1 , 2 , 28 Although this debate may be largely philosophical, there are several in which additional research would provide valuable information to inform both sides. 64

Long-term, systematic assessment of energy drink and general caffeine intake at the population level, specifically intake by youth, should be a priority. It will be important to continue long-term dietary assessments (e.g., through National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) 59 and other longitudinal studies to appropriately identify sources and amounts of caffeine consumption, as well as consumption of caffeine together with the other stimulants and novel ingredients typically contained in energy drinks. Due to the rapid introduction of caffeine into nontraditional foods and beverages as well as new energy drink products, it also will be important to update dietary assessment tools to account for changing sources of caffeine and novel ingredients in the food supply.

However, published studies of intake generally lag several years behind data collection. For example, a recent 2014 paper provides information on 2009–2010 intake. 59 As sales of energy drinks have increased by as much as 19% per year since 2010, 15 it would be beneficial to add energy drink consumption to ongoing youth health monitoring programs such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Youth Risk Behavioral Risk Surveillance. 65 Furthermore, systematic collection of all adverse events, poison center data, and emergency room visits associated with energy drink consumption, together with more comprehensive evaluation of additional risk factors, are necessary to accurately determine the risks of toxicity for youth and other vulnerable individuals. Analyses should attempt to separate the contribution of the novel ingredients contained in energy drinks, as well as the ways that young people consume them (e.g., rapid intake, volume of intake, and intake together with other substances such as alcohol or drugs).

As discussed, the literature also suggests an association between energy drink and/or caffeine consumption and longer-term behavioral problems in youth, such as anger, violence, poor sleep, and alcohol and drug use. 66–68 However, these cross-sectional studies do not prove that these products caused these negative behavioral outcomes. Further research is necessary. In particular, longitudinal studies and randomized controlled trials (if they can be designed safely) are necessary to evaluate these troubling links. Given that some energy drink marketing also promotes other risky behaviors, including drug and alcohol use, it is important to examine whether exposure to these messages mediates the link between energy drink consumption and risk-taking behaviors.

In addition, the long-term consequences of caffeine addiction for young people are not well understood. With further understanding of caffeine use disorder and its potential clinical significance, 36 it will be important for researchers to investigate whether regular caffeine and/or energy drink usage during adolescence contributes to the severity of the disorder. It also will be critical to evaluate how caffeine consumption interacts with consumption of other stimulants (e.g., other ingredients in energy drinks, drugs to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) and potentially addictive substances (e.g., sugar) that are commonly consumed by youth. Furthermore, a better understanding of the potential dangers from consuming energy drinks before, during, and after athletic activity will be essential to identify the potential dangers of direct and implied claims of enhanced athletic performance, which is common in energy drink marketing.

Finally, it will be important for independent evaluations to confirm the findings of energy drink manufacturers' studies and conclude the GRAS status of today’s higher levels of caffeine in the food supply, as well as the additional stimulants and other novel ingredients contained in energy drinks and their interactions. In 2013, the FDA reported that it would reevaluate the GRAS status of caffeine. 69 At the Institute of Medicine workshop that was convened in preparation for this effort, speakers highlighted the critical need for further research and monitoring. 25 The summary report stated that “a wealth of unanswered questions remain about exposure to caffeine in food and dietary supplements, and the health consequences of that exposure, especially in certain potentially vulnerable populations.” In particular, it noted that evaluation of the safety of caffeine levels and other stimulants in energy drinks when consumed by lower-weight individuals (e.g., children and young teens) and by those who have not developed caffeine tolerance will be essential.

Although further research is needed to evaluate energy drink and caffeine consumption by youth and its effects, as well as to reevaluate the GRAS status of caffeine and other common energy drink ingredients, public health experts propose immediate actions to protect children and adolescents from the potential dangers of energy drink consumption. In 2013, Senators Markey, Durbin, and Blumenthal began an ongoing investigation of the energy drink industry and its marketing practices. 2 In the report of their findings, 2 the senators called on energy drink manufacturers to voluntarily “take steps to improve transparency and representation of its products and ensure that children and teens are adequately protected from deceptive advertising practices.” The following steps were recommended: 1) clearly label the caffeine content on product packaging, including caffeine in the entire container (in effect 1 serving) for nonresealable containers; 2) include the following warning label on all products that contain caffeine in concentrations greater than the level affirmed as GRAS by the FDA (i.e., 71 mg/12 fl oz), “This product is not intended for individuals under 18 years of age, pregnant or nursing women or for those sensitive to caffeine. Consult with your doctor before use if you are taking medication and/or have a medical condition”; 3) stop marketing energy drinks to youth under 18 years of age, including in traditional and social media, sponsorships, and other activities with a primarily youth audience; and 4) report all serious adverse events to the FDA, including for products labeled as beverages.

During the Senate hearing on energy drinks in July 2013, representatives from Red Bull, Monster Energy, and Rockstar agreed to voluntarily stop promoting rapid or excessive consumption of energy drinks and consumption of energy drinks with alcohol or other drugs, including in social media, and to not sell or market their products in K – 12 schools. 3 In addition, Red Bull submitted a letter agreeing to further restrict its marketing to children and adolescents by not selling in other institutions responsible for children under the age of 18 years, by not providing free samples in the vicinity of K – 12 schools or youth-targeted institutions, and by limiting the caffeine content of its products to 80 mg/8.4 fl oz (i.e., 61% higher than current FDA-affirmed GRAS limits). 54 Of note, the company also agreed to report serious adverse events to the FDA and to not sell products in containers larger than 12 fl oz, but only if producers of other beverages that contain sugar or caffeine do the same. As of May 2014, the company has not made any further public statements about the implementation of its pledge.

Following the hearing, Senators Markey, Rockefeller, Durbin, and Blumenthal sent letters to 17 manufacturers of energy drinks and shots calling on them to voluntarily commit to take these actions, as well as asking them to not market or sell their products in K-12 schools, to place access restrictions on social media sites for youth under the age of 18 years, to restrict purchases of advertising in media that has an audience share of 35% or more in the under-18-year category, and to not advertise energy drinks as sports drinks. 70 It is not clear how many energy drink manufacturers will voluntarily commit to change the sales, marketing, and/or packaging of their products in accordance with this request.

However, voluntary action on the part of industry is not the only solution. The FDA has the authority over the safety, labeling, and ingredients in energy drinks. The agency could restrict the inclusion and/or concentration of caffeine and novel ingredients in these products and require caffeine disclosure and/or warning labels. 5 The US Federal Trade Commission and states’ attorneys general could bring consumer protection action against energy drink manufacturers for labeling and ingredient violations as well as for unfair and deceptive marketing practices. 5 For example, both the New York State attorney general and the San Francisco city attorney are investigating whether companies have misled consumers about the ingredients in energy drinks and their potential health risks. 41 , 71 In addition, state and local governments have the authority to enact regulations of retail sales, including establishing age limits for purchase of energy drinks, placing restrictions on where these products may be sold, prohibiting sales of the most problematic products (e.g., containers larger than 12 fl oz or those with the highest caffeine content), and establishing excise taxes on high-sugar and/or high-caffeine products. 5 In 2013, Suffolk County New York was the first community to regulate marketing of energy drinks, prohibiting distribution of coupons and free samples to minors and sales in county parks and beaches. 72

Registered dietitians, healthcare providers, educators, and parents also can play an important role in reducing the potential harm of energy drink consumption by children and adolescents. Given the growing evidence of potential short-term and long-term negative effects from consumption of energy drinks and other highly caffeinated products by youth, pediatricians should assess their patients’ intake of energy drinks and advise parents about the American Academy of Pediatrics position that these products should never be consumed by children under the age of 18 years. 1 , 34 School officials could prohibit energy drinks on school grounds and ensure that coaches educate young players about the danger of consuming these products before, during, and after athletics. Parents should monitor their children’s caffeine intake, be aware of signs of excessive caffeine intake (e.g., poor sleep, anxiety), and discourage their children from consuming energy drinks and other highly caffeinated products.

Although additional research is needed, there is growing evidence that energy drinks can have adverse physiological effects when consumed by some individuals, particularly children and youth. Additional evidence of potential harmful effects of energy drinks on young people’s long-term health raises further concerns. Given these risks, it is recommended that energy drink manufacturers refrain from marketing their products directly to adolescents unless and until independent research confirms the companies’ claims that their products are safe for teenagers. Policymakers and physicians’ groups have called on energy drink manufacturers to voluntarily take steps to reduce the potential harm of their products on young people’s health. However, regulatory and legislative options also are available to limit the marketing and sales of these products to children and adolescents under the age of 18 years.

Funding. This research is funded by a grant from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.

Declaration of interest . The authors have no relevant interests to declare.

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Is the Consumption of Energy Drinks Associated With Academic Achievement Among College Students?

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas, Austin, 2109 San Jacinto, D3700, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
• 2 Frank W. and Sue Mayborn School of Journalism, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, 76203, USA.
• 3 Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas, Austin, 2109 San Jacinto, D3700, Austin, TX, 78712, USA. [email protected].
• 4 UT Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health, Austin Campus, Austin, TX, 78701, USA.
• PMID: 27236788
• DOI: 10.1007/s10935-016-0437-4

Despite widely reported side effects, use of energy drinks has increased among college students, who report that they consume energy drinks to help them complete schoolwork. However, little is known about the association between energy drink use and academic performance. We explored the relationship between energy drink consumption and current academic grade point average (GPA) among first-year undergraduate students. Participants included 844 first-year undergraduates (58.1 % female; 50.7 % White). Students reported their health behaviors via an online survey. We measured energy drink consumption with two measures: past month consumption by number of drinks usually consumed in 1 month and number consumed during the last occasion of consumption. We used multiple linear regression modeling with energy drink consumption and current GPA, controlling for gender, race, weekend and weekday sleep duration, perceived stress, perceived stress management, media use, and past month alcohol use. We found that past month energy drink consumption quantity by frequency (p < 0.001), and energy drinks consumed during the last occasion (p < 0.001), were associated with a lower GPA. Energy drinks consumed during the last occasion of consumption (p = 0.01) remained significantly associated with a lower GPA when controlling for alcohol use. While students report using energy drinks for school-related reasons, our findings suggest that greater energy drink consumption is associated with a lower GPA, even after controlling for potential confounding variables. Longitudinal research is needed that addresses whether GPA declines after continued use of energy drinks or if students struggling academically turn to energy drinks to manage their schoolwork.

Keywords: Academic performance; Caffeine; College students; Energy drinks; Sleep; Substance use.

• Academic Success*
• Alcohol Drinking
• Energy Drinks*
• Surveys and Questionnaires
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Science in School

Cans with a kick: the science of energy drinks teach article.

Author(s): Emmanuel Thibault, Kirsten Biedermann, Susan Watt

If you ever buy an energy drink as a pick-me-up, do you know what it contains? Here we use laboratory chemistry to find out.

Look along the shelves in any local convenience store, and you’ll see an increasing number of ‘energy drinks’, all offering the promise of improved performance in sports and other activities – and with a strong appeal to many teenagers. But what’s in these drinks, and how much of it? Are they just high-priced sugar solutions – or can they actually be dangerous?

In this article, we show how you can check out some of the ingredients of energy drinks and their concentrations using the laboratory techniques of chromatography and colorimetry. Because of the advanced techniques involved, these activities are most suitable for older students (ages 14–19), and together take around 3–4 hours to complete. If your own school does not have all the equipment needed, perhaps link up with other schools: the activities work well as a collaboration.

Preparation: reading the labels

Manufacturers have to list the ingredients of energy drinks on the packaging (figure 1) or a website, so we start with this without doing any chemistry. Later on, we will compare the manufacturers’ information to the laboratory results.  

The ingredient in energy drinks that has the greatest effect is caffeine, which is also found in other drinks including tea, coffee and Coca-Cola®. Its effect as a stimulant is well known. In this preparatory activity, students research and compare caffeine concentrations in different drinks and work out how many portions would be needed to cause harmful side-effects. We suggest allowing 30–60 minutes for this activity.

• Internet access to carry out research
• Notebooks to record findings

Ask the students to do the following, on their own or in groups:

• Make a list of around five energy drinks, especially those that are promoted as containing caffeine. Include coffee (as a single espresso) for comparison.
• Use the internet to research each drink’s ingredients, including caffeine. Note the amount of caffeine in a single can or bottle and per 100 ml, if listed. If not, note the volume of the can or bottle so that you can work out the caffeine concentration (we will use this in one of the experiments).
• Use the internet to find out the caffeine dose at which harmful side-effects are expected. Does this depend on any other factors, e.g. body weight, or whether the consumer is an adult or a child?
• Make a table showing the following characteristics for each drink:
• List of ingredients
• Amount of caffeine in one can
• How many single espressos this is equivalent to
• How many cans you would need to drink to risk harmful side-effects.

Discuss the results as a class. What do students conclude about the ingredients of energy drinks and how safe they are? Could they kill you?

In our research, we found that an average can (250 ml) of an energy drink contains about 80 mg of caffeine, which is similar to the amount in a single espresso (60–100 mg). This is close to the dose that is likely to cause side-effects (100–160 mg).

Extracting the caffeine

Now we move on to the practical chemistry: extracting the caffeine and other organic compounds from the energy drink, and then identifying the caffeine using thin-layer chromatography. This activity takes 1.5–2 hours to complete.

Safety note

This procedure involves the use of pure caffeine (figure 2), which is toxic and should therefore not be available to students as a reagent. Teachers are advised to prepare the very small quantities needed for the experiment in advance.

See also the general safety note on the Science in School website.

For the extraction

• 50 ml of an energy drink
• 2 x 15 ml of an organic solvent that evaporates easily, e.g. ethyl ethanoate (ethyl acetate)
• 10 ml of a 1 M solution of suitable alkali, e.g. sodium carbonate
• 10 g anhydrous magnesium sulfate (for drying)
• Rotary evaporator, if available
• Universal indicator paper
• Separating funnel
• Filter paper
• 100 ml beakers
• Graduated cylinder
• Glass rod for stirring

For the chromatography

• Stationary phase: thin-layer chromatography plates pre-coated with silica gel, about 10 cm x 5 cm
• Eluent (mobile phase): 10 ml of a mixture of 30% methanoic (formic) acid and 50% butyl ethanoate (butyl acetate)
• Sample of pure caffeine (to provide a reference spot), made by dissolving the tip of one spatula of caffeine in 2–3 ml of ethanol
• UV light source
• Take 50 ml of the energy drink and add it to 9 ml of a 1 M solution of sodium carbonate in a beaker.
• Using indicator paper, check that the pH of the solution is between 8 and 10. If not, adjust the pH by adding a little more alkali or energy drink.
• Pour this solution into a separating funnel and add 15 ml of ethyl ethanoate. Shake the mixture well and leave it to settle so that the aqueous phase and the organic phase separate.
• Run off the aqueous phase (lower layer), then collect the organic phase (the top layer) in a clean beaker (figure 3).
• Add another 15 ml of ethyl ethanoate to the beaker containing the organic phase and repeat the operation, shaking and then collecting the organic phase.

• Remove the water from the organic phase by adding the anhydrous magnesium sulfate (figure 4).

• Evaporate the solvent from the organic phase using the rotary evaporator, if you have one. The water bath temperature should be 40 °C. Once the solvent has evaporated, you are left with a white powder – this is the caffeine extract. If you don’t have a rotary evaporator, continue to the next step with the caffeine extract still dissolved in the solvent.
• Now you are ready to analyse your sample. If you evaporated the solvent, add 1 ml of ethyl ethanoate to the caffeine extract powder to re-dissolve it.
• To begin the chromatography, prepare the 10 ml of eluent and pour this mixture into an elution tank (or a beaker with a cover).
• On a chromatography plate, make one spot using the pure caffeine solution (as a reference) and one spot using the caffeine extract solution.
• Allow the chromatography to proceed (figure 5; 10–15 mins), and then carefully remove the chromatogram.

• Finally, view the chromatogram under UV light, so that the spots become visible (figure 6). What do you see?

After the practical work, the whole class can discuss what they found. Try the following questions:

• In the extraction, why is the caffeine found in the liquid and not on the filter paper? (The caffeine dissolves in the solvent.)
• Why do we use an organic solvent for the extraction rather than water? (Sugars and minerals dissolve in the water, while caffeine dissolves better in organic solvents.)
• Why is UV light needed to see the caffeine on the chromatogram? (Caffeine is not coloured, but its chemical bonds absorb light in the near-UV region.)

For some drinks, there will be other spots visible on the chromatogram under UV light as well as caffeine, which students can try to identify from the drink’s list of ingredients. Probable compounds are the vitamins B 3 (niacin) and B 6 (pyridoxine), because some of the bonds (figure 7) in these compounds also absorb light in the near-UV region.

Testing the concentration

In this final activity, we use another chemical technique – colorimetry – to work out the concentration of caffeine in an energy drink and compare this to the advertised figure. Allow 60–90 minutes for this activity.

The strategy here is to use a set of reference solutions of caffeine at different known concentrations, and to compare the absorption of the energy drink to these values via a calibration graph.

As with the previous activity, this procedure involves the use of pure caffeine, which is toxic and should therefore not be available to students as a reagent. Teachers are advised to prepare the reference solutions of caffeine needed for the experiment in advance.

 Materials

• Energy drink (at least 20 ml)
• Reference solutions of pure caffeine in distilled water at concentrations of 5, 10, 20 and 50 mg/l (at least 20 ml of each)
• Distilled water
• Colorimeter that is sensitive to wavelengths between 250 nm and 380 nm (near-UV light)
• 20 ml volumetric flask
• Weighing balance and weighing dish
• Calibrate the colorimeter using distilled water.
• Using the colorimeter, measure the absorption at 271 nm of each reference solution in turn and record these readings. (Caffeine absorbs very strongly at this wavelength; figure 8.)

• Use the readings to plot a calibration graph linking absorption at 271 nm to caffeine concentration, drawing a straight line of best fit between the points (figure 9).

• Using a volumetric flask and pipette, dilute the drink by a factor of 20. (In normal concentrations, the absorption of caffeine is too high for the colorimeter to measure accurately.)
• Measure the absorption of the diluted drink at 271 nm.
• Using the calibration curve you have drawn, estimate the caffeine concentration of the diluted drink solution. Multiply this by 20 to find an estimate of the caffeine concentration of the original energy drink, in mg/l.
• Compare this result to the concentration of caffeine stated by the manufacturers (making sure you are using the same units in each case). Are they the same? If not, can you think of any possible reasons why this is? Has the manufacturer cheated?

Ask students to compare their results for the caffeine content of different energy drinks as a class discussion.

Then discuss what they found when they compared their own results to those published by the manufacturers. Were any of the experimental results higher than those published?

To explain this, students should think back to the first part of the experiment where some compounds other than caffeine were revealed by the chromatogram – typically the vitamins B 3 and B 6 . In fact, these same compounds also absorb at the 271 nm wavelength, so they increase the energy drink’s absorption at that wavelength. So when the drink’s absorption is used to find the caffeine concentration via the calibration graph, the reading is higher than it should be as a measure of the caffeine alone.

Caffeine and the brain

Energy drinks are popular because of their branding and association with sports and physical stamina. But can they also affect the way our brains work by stimulating our mental powers?

If you would like to find out about ways to investigate this, two classroom experiments that assess mental agility by measuring thinking and reaction times can be downloaded from the additional material section w1 . One is a number-matching task, the other a catching task.

Acknowledgement

This article is based on an activity published by Science on Stage, the network for European science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) teachers, which was initially launched in 1999 by EIROforum, the publisher of Science in School . The non-profit association Science on Stage brings together science teachers from across Europe to exchange teaching ideas and best practice with enthusiastic colleagues from 25 countries.

At Science on Stage workshops, as well as discussions via email, 20 teachers from 15 European countries worked together for 18 months to develop 12 teaching units that show how football can be used in physics, chemistry biology, maths or IT lessons. These units were then published in 2016 by Science on Stage Germany as iStage 3 – Football in Science Teaching w2 . The project was supported by SAP.

The follow-up activity of iStage 3 is the European STEM League, which readers are invited to join and compete to become the European STEM Champion w3 .

Web References

• w1 – Download the supporting classroom experiments from the additional material section.
• w2 – The iStage 3 publication can be found on the Science on Stage website.
• w3 – Find out more about the European STEM League .
• The US Department of Agriculture website provides a breakdown of ingredients for a huge variety of foods and drinks available in the USA .
• The Authority Nutrition website has an informative article about the amount of caffeine in coffee .
• The How Stuff Works website has an accessible article on the history and composition of energy drinks .

Institutions

Emmanuel Thibault is an associate professor of physics and chemistry at Vaucanson High School in Tours, France. As well as teaching, he works on scientific and technical projects with his students, which has allowed them to win several prizes in national and international contests. Since 2013, Emmanuel has been involved with Science on Stage, and he contributed to the recent iStage 3 publication.

Kirsten Biedermann teaches at Widukind-Gymnasium (high school) in Enger, Germany. A graduate in physics, mathematics, fine arts and education, he specialises in teaching gifted and special-needs students. He is president of Ravensberger Erfinderwerkstatt, a non-profit club that supports STEM activities for young people, and is also active with Science on Stage, presenting projects at national and international festivals.

Susan Watt worked as a freelance science writer and editor before joining Science in School as an editor in 2016. She studied natural sciences at the University of Cambridge, UK, and has worked for many publishers and scientific organisations, including UK science research councils. Her special interests are in psychology and science education.

Do you need to teach organic chemistry but are worried that your students are not enthusiastic about the subject? Then this article is what you need to really engage your students.

Starting from energy drinks, a very popular beverage among teenagers, the authors provide activities that cover a wealth of science topics ranging from chemistry (including analytical techniques) to physics, biology, and health and nutritional education.

The activities begin with a web quest before continuing to qualitative and quantitative investigations, which together provide a progressive understanding of the topic and ensure your students stay engaged.

The activities may also be valuable for promoting critical thinking and encouraging students to make responsible choices about nutrition and health.

The online extension activity provides teachers with the opportunity to perform inspiring experiments on the effect of energy drinks on the brain, with further opportunities to address scientific methods, experiment planning and data processing.

Possible questions include:

• Which of the following beverages does not contain caffeine?
• How much caffeine is contained in one litre of an average energy drink?
• The concentration of caffeine in energy drinks measured with a colorimeter (according to the article protocol) is:
• Lower than that stated by manufacturer due to the presence of vitamin B 3 and B 6
• Higher than that stated by manufacturer due to the presence of vitamin B 3 and B 6
• Equal to that stated by manufacturer because vitamin B 3 and B 6 do not interfere
• Higher than that stated by manufacturer due to the presence of vitamin B 3 , C and B 12

Giulia Realdon, Italy

Supporting materials

Supporting classroom experiments (Word)

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Energy Drink Science Project

Ideas for Projects on Energy in the Fifth Grade

The belief concerning energy drinks is that they will, of course, give you energy. But do they really? Some people believe that they do and some believe they don't. The questions are, do they really provide energy and if so, how long does this effect last? These are questions that can be answered by the completion of a science project or two.

Throughout history people have consumed beverages that are purported to provide energy. Two common examples are coffee and tea In Newcastle, England in 1927, a drink called Lucozade was one of the first modern-like energy drinks that came about as a supplementary liquid for patients in hospitals. More recent energy drinks emerged, overseas, in 1960. It wasn’t until 1980 that the first energy drink, Jolt Cola, appeared in the U.S. and, 17 years later, in 1997 Red bull entered the U.S. market.

Modern energy drinks include but are not limited to Red Bull, Full Throttle, Snapple Green Tea, AMP Energy Mountain Dew and SoBe Essential Energy. Certain energy drinks have caffeine while others may also contain extra vitamins, minerals, and herbal supplements. These drinks are often carbonated, contain large amounts of caffeine, and generally are high in sugar.

Students testing the effectiveness of energy drinks learn several things. One is they learn to follow the scientific method. In science, as in many other areas of life, it is important to develop a step-by-step method for answering questions and solving problems. This helps people focus on the problem at hand while eliminating the influence of opinion.

Secondly, science projects on energy drinks help students determine the difference between fact and advertising gimmicks. Advertisers are well known for using flashy images to catch the attention of a viewer and to imply benefits that may not exist. Scientifically proving or disproving these potential benefits helps students make educated decisions when searching for a product in addition to helping them separate fact from fiction.

Science Project

In this science project you will test whether energy drinks provide more energy than the equivalent amount of water. First develop an energy rating survey. Choose a scale from 1 to 5 with 1 being the lowest level of energy and 5 the highest. Next, choose 10 of your classmates to participate in your project; explain the procedure and your rating scale In the beginning, before drinking anything, ask them to rate their current energy levels. Next, direct five students to drink 8 oz. of water and five students to drink 8 oz. of the chosen energy drink. After 10 minutes of rest, ask them to rate their energy levels again.

Once you have established their baseline energy levels, direct the students to complete five minutes of a prescribed activity such as walking, skipping, or running. Whichever you choose, make sure they are all participating in the same activity. At the end of five minutes, ask them to again rate their energy level. Repeat this procedure three more times for a total of twenty minutes of activity.

If you have the human resources, repeat this project every day, at the same time, for five days. There is a good chance your PE/health teacher will agree to “loaning” you the students you need. He may even be willing to act as your assistant, helping you as needed.

Record your data in a table and average out your values. Graph the data on a line graph or a bar graph with time values on the x axis and average energy level ratings on the y axis. Analyze your data and write down your conclusions.

Alternate Project

An option for determining the long-term effects of energy drinks compared with non-energy drinks would be to first choose a class to participate in your activity. Explain your purpose and the procedures you will follow. Direct every student to rate their energy levels before drinking anything. Choose half the class to drink a serving of energy drink and the other a serving of water. Ask them to rate their energy level every 10 minutes until lunch time. Make sure you have their teachers’ permission and that you supply the liquids and the worksheets with rating scales and times included. Again, record your data in a table, determine the averages and create a graph. Analyze your data and form a conclusion about the long-term effects of energy drinks.

Considerations

Due to the placebo effect you may want to choose a flavored, non-energy drink in lieu of water.

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Energy Drinks and the Neurophysiological Impact of Caffeine

Leeana aarthi bagwath persad.

1 Department of Physiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive stimulant with prevalent use across all age groups. It is a naturally occurring substance found in the coffee bean, tea leaf, the kola nut, cocoa bean. Recently there has been an increase in energy drink consumption leading to caffeine abuse, with aggressive marketing and poor awareness on the consequences of high caffeine use. With caffeine consumption being so common, it is vital to know the impact caffeine has on the body, as its effects can influence cardio-respiratory, endocrine, and perhaps most importantly neurological systems. Detrimental effects have being described especially since an over consumption of caffeine has being noted. This review focuses on the neurophysiological impact of caffeine and its biochemical pathways in the human body.

Introduction

In today’s fast-paced lives people need vigor to keep up with their demanding schedules and lifestyles. Often, they need some assistance in doing so. Caffeine is a naturally occurring chemical and is referred to as an “ancient wonder drug” (McCarthy et al., 2008 ) for its potential to revive weary workaholics. It was discovered in the coffee bean ( Coffea arabica ) in Arabia, the tea leaf ( Thea sinensis ) in China, the kola nut ( Cola nitida ) in West Africa, and the cocoa bean ( Theobroma cacao) in Mexico (Chou, 1992 ). Caffeine products are so widely distributed these days that abuse of the substance may be unnoticed. In fact, caffeine is the world’s most widely consumed stimulant, with 54% of adults in America consuming on average three cups of coffee a day (Chen and Parrish, 2008 ). Aside from occurring organically in tea and coffee, caffeine is now an additive in soft drinks, energy drinks, chocolates, bottled water, chewing gum, and medication (Mednick et al., 2008 ). The aim of this paper is to elicit an awareness of the neurophysiological effects of caffeine. This article emphasizes caffeine’s potential effects on the nervous system within the context of increased caffeinated energy drink consumption around the world.

Caffeine Consumption

Aside from being added to beverages, caffeine is now being added to food products such as potato chips, chocolates, and bottled water, which confirms its growing popularity (Temple, 2009 ). Since the introduction of Red Bull in 1987, the energy drink market has grown extensively, with hundreds of different brands of varying caffeine content now available (Reissig et al., 2009 ).

There has been an increase in reports of caffeine-intoxication since 1982, with 41 cases of caffeine abuse reported in the United States from 2002 to 2004 (Reissig et al., 2009 ). This could be an indicator of an increase in caffeine dependence and withdrawal symptoms (Reissig et al., 2009 ).

European and North American statistics report that 90% of adults consume caffeine on a daily basis, with an average intake of 227 mg (Reissig et al., 2009 ; Temple, 2009 ). The South African Food Based Dietary guidelines recommend that adults limit their daily intake of caffeine drinks to no more than four cups of coffee per day or eight cups of tea per day, which is in line with the US Food and Drug Administration reporting a moderate caffeine use as safe (a moderate daily dose being 300 mg and below and high daily doses being 500–2000 mg 1 ; Temple, 2009 ). Unfortunately, the statistics on South African consumptions are not readily available 2 , so European and North American statistics are described instead: The top three sources of caffeine are coffee (70%), cold drinks (16%), and tea (12%) in the United States. Table ​ Table1 1 shows the caffeine content in some popular dietary sources.

Types of food and drink caffeine content (Jones and Fernyhough, 2008 ) .

From Table ​ Table1 1 it is clear that brewed coffee has almost three times the amount of caffeine as instant. Energy drinks have twice the amount of caffeine as regular cold drinks and with ever increasing consumption, this constrains us to be informed about the neurological consequences this could have.

Biochemical Characteristics

Caffeine has a chemical structure of is 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine (Figure ​ (Figure1). 1 ). Methylxanthine has a similar structure to purines, adenosine, xanthine, and uric acid (Chou, 1992 ).

Chemical structure of caffeine (Deng et al., 2008 ) .

In nature, caffeine is found in a diversity of plants, kola nuts, cherries, and cocoa beans and is presumed to offer protection to plants by acting as an anti-herbivory and allelopathic agent (Chen et al., 2008 ). In humans, caffeine is quickly absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract. Caffeine from coffee is absorbed faster than caffeine from cold drinks. Some reasons for this could be: the lower temperature of the beverage may decrease the rate of blood flow within the intestines; phosphoric acid in cold drinks could decrease gastric emptying; absorption rate could increase with caffeine dose; sugar in cold drinks could inhibit gastric emptying of caffeine and delay absorption (Ligouri et al., 1997 ). In fact, 99% of the orally ingested chemical is taken up within 45 min (Chou, 1992 ).

Caffeine disperses throughout the body and penetrates the biological membranes, the blood brain barrier and placenta, however it does not accumulate in the tissues or organs (Chou, 1992 ; Temple, 2009 ). Just 15–20 min after oral ingestion, peak plasma concentration is reached. The half-life in adult males is decreased by 30–50% in smokers and is doubled in women taking oral contraceptives and extended further in the last trimester of pregnancy and in patients with chronic liver disease (Chou, 1992 ). This means that there is increased caffeine metabolism in conjunction with cigarets while oral contraceptives, pregnancy, and chronic liver disease delay metabolism of caffeine in the body. This can be accounted for by examining caffeine’s metabolism which is species-specific. In Camellia (tea) species caffeine is degraded via theophylline into primary metabolites. In coffea (coffee) species caffeine is also degraded via theophylline but through a different route (Ashihara et al., 2008 ). Caffeine is converted into dimethylxanthines, dimethyl and monomethyl uric acids, trimethyl and dimethyl-allantoin and uracil derivatives in the liver. Only 2–3% of caffeine is excreted in urine unchanged (Chou, 1992 ; Nehlig, 1998 ). While caffeine itself is eliminated overnight from the body, some primary metabolites such as theobromine and theophylline have longer half-lives.

Caffeine and its primary metabolites, theobromine, paraxanthine, and theophylline are identified in all body fluids (Grosso and Bracken, 2005 ). Paraxanthine levels decrease less rapidly than caffeine and are further metabolized via two independent reactions. These paraxanthine metabolites are found in urine (Grosso and Bracken, 2005 ). Theobromine makes up the largest part of caffeine metabolites, with only 50% excreted in urine. Some of the effects of caffeine in systems other than the nervous system are described.

Cardiovascular and respiratory effects

Caffeine induces various acute cardiovascular effects such as an up regulation of circulating catecholamines. Arterial stiffness and endothelium dependent vasodilatation also result, leading to increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (DBP; Riksen et al., 2009 ). An increase in the respiration rate (RR) is the prime effect dependent on the plasma caffeine value (Chou, 1992 ).

Endocrine and metabolic effects

Caffeine enhances circulating catecholamine levels. Owing to this mechanism there is an increase in the basal metabolic rate – this includes lipolysis which releases free fatty acids (Chou, 1992 ).

Gastrointestinal and urinary effects

Caffeine excites the small intestine, causing secretion of water and sodium (Chou, 1992 ). Its pharmacological effects include diuresis.

From a medical view, caffeine has been seen to promote apoptosis in UVB-damaged cells, to antagonize adenosine receptors for regulating contraction of blood vessels and even serves as a psychoactive drug in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (Chen et al., 2008 ). With its potential utilization in medicine, the safety and effects of caffeine are important issues.

Benefits of Caffeine to the Human Body

Unfortunately, a review of the literature shows two important limitations in caffeine research. Firstly, research on animals uses doses that are hundreds to thousands of times higher than those seen in human consumption. Therefore, relating the results to humans becomes difficult (Chou, 1992 ). Secondly, some studies investigate pure caffeine, while others pose research questions pertaining to coffee, not pointing out the other components in coffee and their potential confounding effects (Chou, 1992 ).

Despite these limitations, extensive explorations of caffeine have been carried out and have provided a great deal of information regarding the effects of caffeine. Under the next few headings the major neurophysiologic effects of caffeine are discussed as the main focus of this article.

Arousal and fatigue

Arousal is considered to be a variable state reflecting the present energetic factors and task-related activation, the degree of “awareness” an individual has and in neuropsychology context an increase in arousal relates to a better ability to carry out a task (Barry et al., 2005 ). There is an apparent link between caffeine effects and dopamine functions. This evidence does not preclude the involvement of other neuromodulator systems, though. In fact, it has been reported that caffeine increases the firing rates in mesopontine cholinergic neurons, which participate in the production of arousal (Lorist and Tops, 2003 ). These cholinergic neurons are inhibited by adenosine, providing a coupling mechanism that links arousal and caffeine, yielding proof for the role of caffeine in the behavioral state of arousal (Lorist and Tops, 2003 ).

A study conducted by Barry et al. ( 2008 ) proves that caffeine does increase arousal by increasing skin conductance level (SCL), while decreasing heart rate (HR) and decreasing levels of DBP. Arousal effects from caffeine were noted in a 30-min period approximately 25 min after ingestion. An increase in RR was noted to peak at 33 min and then decrease with time. The subjects carried out two tasks – an auditory task composed of an active auditory oddball task and a visual task requiring the subjects to focus their vision on a specific spot without excessive blinking. Barry et al. ( 2008 ) suggest that caffeine produced a reduction in reaction time in the tasks carried out, supporting the idea that blood pressure effects reflect effortful task-related activity rather than arousal changes. Caffeine produced an increase in SCL levels and a reduction in alpha power. Alpha generators are unchanged by caffeine and therefore caffeine causes arousal without manipulating task requirements, consistent with caffeine’s antagonistic effects on adenosine receptors reducing inhibition of cholinergic neurons. Post-task effects of caffeine included changes in blood pressure activity and alpha and beta power implying that caffeine may have effects on task performance above arousal effects (Barry et al., 2008 ). Caffeine also has beneficial effects on choice reaction time, especially in the elderly with a daily dosage of 200–400 mg (Smith, 2002 ).

It is noted that caffeine can affect the attention system. Attention can alter the neural activity in cortical areas that may intensify the responsivity of cells to specific stimulus features (Lorist and Tops, 2003 ). A substantial number of studies show that caffeine consumption increases alertness and decreases fatigue (Barry et al., 2008 ; Smith, 2002 ; Biggs et al., 2007 ; Kennedy et al., 2008 ) in large and moderate doses.

To evaluate the effect of caffeine on sleep deprivation and driving Biggs et al. ( 2007 ) conducted a study using 12 regular drivers that are non-smokers, with healthy BMIs, between the ages of 20 and 30 years. Coffee and placebo were administered, with every subject acting as his/her own control. Caffeine was shown to have a beneficial effect on all driving tests and the data suggests that caffeine returned driving performance to baseline (pre-sleep deprivation) levels (Kennedy et al., 2008 ); thereby proving that caffeine does increase alertness and can be beneficial in driving tasks.

Perceptual processing

Perception is a process of gaining some form of knowledge through thought, experience, and the senses (Wang, 2009 ). Lorist and Tops ( 2003 ) used a task consisting of a stimulus quality which was manipulated. The non-degraded stimulus consisted of a dot pattern surrounded by a rectangular frame of dots (see Figure ​ Figure2). 2 ). In the degraded condition dots were placed from the frame into variable positions. This new arrangement impaired the identification of the stimulus. Caffeine increased the ability to process degraded stimuli (see Figure ​ Figure3; 3 ; Lorist and Tops, 2003 ). By contrast, Smith ( 2002 ) conducted a perceptual task requiring participants to discriminate between two targets per trial. The group that received caffeine showed no significant difference in the perceptual task compared to those that did not receive caffeine. Another study conducted by Ruijter et al. ( 2000 ) tested the effect of caffeine on sustained attention required by subjects to work continuously for 10 min in a self-paced task. The task consisted of a color selection task, a spatial selection task, and a concentration task. Subjects were administered a moderate dose of 250 mg of caffeine. The results showed an increase in arousal but no change in perceptual behavior. From this we can see that the effect of caffeine on perception is inconsistent.

Non-degraded stimulus .

Degraded stimulus .

Motor behavior

Motor skill learning is one of the main functions of the central nervous system. It is a process of increasing the spatial and temporal accuracy of movements with practice. Motor skill has two prominent learning phases: an initial fast learning phase and later, slow learning phase (Xiong et al., 2009 ). In the early stage of learning a great deal of improvement in performance is attainable within a few minutes. Precise knowledge of the movement is used to promote the control and co-ordination of specific body action. During the later phase, there is slow learning progress and less attention is needed to perform the task. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for movement in the parts of the body, it also guides eye and head co-ordination (Xiong et al., 2009 ).

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter with excitatory and inhibitory effects. Neurons of the substantia nigra have nerve endings in the caudate nucleus and putamen of the cerebrum, where they release dopamine. Dopamine acts as an inhibitor in the basal ganglia and is excitatory in other areas of the brain (Xiong et al., 2009 ). U-shaped dose–response curves in humans show that either too much or too little dopamine results in diminished prefrontal cortex functioning.

The mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic system mediates approach motivation. Dopamine receptors D 2 regulate neural networks that are involved in selective and involuntary attention (Lorist and Tops, 2003 ). Caffeine increases behavior related to dopamine by inhibiting adenosine A 2A receptors and increasing transmission via dopamine D 2 receptors (Lorist and Tops, 2003 ). Lorist and Tops ( 2003 ) used an echoencephalograph (EEG) to highlight the alpha brain wavelength (alpha power). They found that caffeine intake increased left frontal activation compared to the right, suggesting that dopamine function could be linked to fatigue, with caffeine reducing fatigue.

Mednick et al. ( 2008 ), conducted a study was composed of 61 adults 18–39 years old that were given a motor task requiring them to finger tap a 4-1-3-2-4 sequence on a keyboard with the non-dominant hand. The caffeine group showed significantly impaired motor learning.

Learning and memory

Learning is the acquisition of new information by the nervous system, resulting in changes in behavior or “analytical-specific perceptual skills” (Mangina and Sokolov, 2006 ). Memory is the ability to store, process, and recall learnt information. Modality-non-specific memory is associated with the limbic system, especially the hippocampus (Mangina and Sokolov, 2006 ). Neurons in the hippocampus contribute to the formations of declarative memory units. These neurons can be trained to memorize perceptual images and these “trained” neurons are then arranged in a column in accordance to their learning sequence (Mangina and Sokolov, 2006 ).

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a major candidate for the neurophysiological basis of learning and memory. The LTP mechanism seems to be dependent on activity of glutamatergic receptors and N -methyl d -aspartate (NMDA) receptors are required for induction of LTP while expression of LTP involves α-amino-3-hydorxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors also seem to be involved in the mechanisms of LTP, along with other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine (Myhrer, 2003 ) Dopamine has an impact on performances, motivational processes, and procedural memory, while acetylcholine interacts with dopamine in cognitive functions and with serotonin acts in cognitive behavior, to a lesser extent serotonin and norepinephrine have a weaker influence.

The results from a perceptual learning task and a motor task according to Smith ( 2002 ) may be explained by the relative level of explicit information involved in learning. The perceptual learning task requires the least explicit material, while the motor task shows a strong explicit component. The information shows that caffeine may help in some tasks but impair others. This may be because caffeine increases alertness and decreases fatigue, causing a better performance in some tasks (Smith, 2002 ).

There is concern regarding strategies that can improve the elderly quality of life regarding the diminished cognitive and motor functions that occur with aging (Costa et al., 2008 ). In a study conducted by Costa et al. ( 2008 ) it is stated that the caffeine administered in adult mice prevented age-associated decline in recognition memory when evaluated 90 min after training (corresponding to short term memory). There is however, the possibility of anxiety being elicited, due to high caffeine doses.

Stress and addiction

Stress can be defined to when the human body is not able to cope suitably to physical or emotional threats. The brain is the major component of interpreting and responding to potentially stressful events and determines what is stressful. It is also the central organ of the behavioral and physiological response to stressors and is also a target for the actions of stress hormones such as glucocorticoids (Ferreira et al., 2004 ).

Studies show that during periods of increased stress, caffeine consumption increases (Yeomans et al., 2007 ). Caffeine increases cortisol secretion by stimulating the central nervous system so it is advisable to individuals with hypertension to avoid caffeine during periods of stress as this further increases blood pressure (Yeomans et al., 2007 ; Dack and Reed, 2009 ). Chronic caffeine consumption causes sensitization of a specific subset of cannabinoid receptors in the striatum, consistent with the psychoactive properties of the compound (Sheperd et al., 2000 ; Herrick et al., 2009 ). This may explain why enhanced relaxation and a sense of well being are some of the reported effects of caffeine use during stressful events. Caffeine mechanism action can be explained as follows.

With regular average doses of caffeine in humans, caffeine acts as an antagonist of the adenosine receptors and exhibits an equal affinity for A1 and A 2A receptors. However when acutely administered caffeine acts dominantly on A1 receptors (as ambient adenosine activates it). Chronic caffeine consumption causes tolerances of the A1 receptors, caffeine then has negligible effects on A1 receptor and dominant effects on A 2A receptors (Rossi et al., 2010 ).

The endocannabinoid, endogenous ligands of the cannabinoids receptors are synthesized when needed, in response to the increased neuronal excitation and activates the presynaptic CB1 receptor, decreases the levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP) released and decreases neurotransmitter release (Rossi et al., 2010 ). Caffeine increases neurotransmitter release by removing inhibitory control for acetylcholine in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, regulating the opening of potassium channels which is mediated by A1 receptors, increasing the firing rate of neurons (Rossi et al., 2010 ).

A 2A receptor striatum dendrite spines, here they inhibit Glutamatergic-thalamo-cortical neurons by inducing cell activation and stimulating adenylate cyclase pathway. Caffeine blocks A 2A receptors and decreases stimulatory actions on cAMP induced by adenosine (Rossi et al., 2010 ).

The striatum is the main receiving area of the basal ganglia, consisting mainly of GABAergic neurons that receive excitatory input from the cortex, inhibitory input from the axon collaterals and striatal interneurons, and modulatory input from the midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Impacts of these inputs control the outputs to the substantia nigra and globus pallidus and play a role on the effect caffeine has on the striatal neurotransmission (Rossi et al., 2010 ).

Caffeine can reduce the inhibition on striatal dopamine transmission reducing the activity of striatal neurons and causing thalamo-cortical projections neurons to disinhibit. The activation of A 2A receptors results in cAMP production, activation of D2 receptors decreases the production of cAMP causes a reverse regulation of the activity of cAMP-dependant protein kinase (PKA; Rossi et al., 2010 ). Since caffeine mimics the dopamine action on the striatopallidal neurons, it causes a progressive sensitization of cannabinoid CB 1 receptors controlling GABergic inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs; Herrick et al., 2009 ). Caffeine blocking the A 2A receptors reduces the activation of cAMP–PKA pathways causing an increase in glutamate release, activation of metabotropic mGlu5 receptors, and endocannabinoid release (Rossi et al., 2010 ). The blockade of adenosine A 2A receptors in the striatum, has been associated with the psychoactive properties of caffeine. Also, evidence shows that a specific genetic polymorphism of the adenosine A 2A receptor influences the habitual caffeine consumption in humans (Herrick et al., 2009 ).

Evidence has also shown that caffeine induces striatal synaptic adaptations and does not alter the sensitivity of glutamate synapses to CB1 receptor stimulation in mice, displaying the existence of differential regulation mechanisms of distinct cannabinoid receptors in the striatum (Rossi et al., 2010 ). The caffeine induced adaptation of the endocannabinoid in mice was reversible and after drug withdrawal, symptoms were reversed with a decline in 15 days and totally reversed in 30 days.

Caffeine induced alteration of cannabinoid transmission may have synaptic consequences during the physiological activity of the striatum since chronic caffeine has been shown to enhance the sensitivity of the GABergic synapses to synthetic cannabinoid CB1 receptors agonist and the endocannabinoids, mobilized to respond to the stimulation of metabotropic receptors (Rossi et al., 2010 ). A study on mice shows at toxic levels, caffeine causes calcium release from intracellular space, inhibition of phosphodiesterase, GABBA receptor antagonism, protein kinase C activity (Rossi et al., 2010 ). It is likely that caffeine effects in humans are more complicated than it is in animal studies.

Evidence exists that cannabinoid receptors are implicated in the mechanism of action of psychoactive drugs and stress, so enhanced activity of the cannabinoid CB 1 receptors plays a role in the rewarding effects of morphine, heroin, cocaine, ethanol, amphetamine, and nicotine (Herrick et al., 2009 ). Caffeine induced alterations of cannabinoid transmission may have relevant outcomes during the physiological activity of the striatum. Caffeine effects on the striatal cannabinoid system were similar to those of cocaine (such as the enhanced synaptic defects prompted by stress). It also has been reported that caffeine and cocaine have additive properties and caffeine reinforces cocaine-seeking behavior following elimination of cocaine self-administration (Herrick et al., 2009 ).

The Disadvantages of Caffeine to the Human Body

As previously stated, caffeine could have detrimental effects on a hypertensive that is stressed and consumes caffeine as ultimately caffeine is a stimulant and as with as all stimulants and substance’s abuse or overuse has negative effects. This review looks at some of the detriments of caffeine on the nervous system.

Deficits in learning

Multiple doses of caffeine are consumed in individuals suffering from insomnia to reduce fatigue and increase alertness (Mednick et al., 2008 ). However caffeine may have negative effects on cognition in general and perceptual memory and learning in particular (Mednick et al., 2008 ). The study by Mednick et al. ( 2008 ) shows a comparison of a nap and caffeine on verbal, motor, and perceptual memory. Caffeine causes an increase in hippocampal acetylcholine. This may block consolidation by congesting replay of memories. A moderate dosage of caffeine impairs motor skill and may not be an adequate substitute for memory enhancements or daytime sleep (Mednick et al., 2008 ).

Neurogenesis is the growth and development of the nervous tissue. Neurogenesis occurs in the hippocampal and olfactory bulbs until adulthood (Guyton and Hall, 2006 ; Wentz and Magavi, 2009 ). A study conducted by Wentz and Magavi ( 2009 ) showed that administering high doses of caffeine (20–30 mg/ml) to adult mice influenced the proliferation of hippocampal neural precursors in a duration-dependent dose. This negatively influenced the neural circuits into which adult-born neurons are integrated (Wentz and Magavi, 2009 ). Caffeine can therefore depress hippocampal neurogenesis.

Anxiety and panic attacks

When a single dose of 300 mg is administered, caffeine can increase anxiety and tension. Meanwhile a 400-mg dose of caffeine increases anxiety when paired with a stressful task (Smith, 2002 ). In general, high doses of caffeine may increase anxiety, but this is rarely seen in normal consumption (Smith, 2002 ).

The study by Nardi et al. ( 2007 ) analyzed in two ways how panic from the caffeine challenge test manifested in subjects that suffer from anxiety. The aim of the study was to determine whether patients with PD experience more caffeine-related symptoms or whether they perceive their symptoms more severely than others.

Nardi et al. ( 2007 ) suggest that patients with panic disorder (PD), when compared to depressive patients, showed increased sensitivity to the effects of low doses of caffeine. Patients with PD have an increase in subject-related anxiety, nervousness, fear, nausea, palpitations, and tremors after administration of caffeine. The precise mechanism underlying caffeine panicogenic potentials is uncertain, with the antagonism of adenosine receptors being the most likely pathway (Nardi et al., 2007 ). Imaging studies of cerebral blood flow using position emission topography indicates a decrease in panic attacks with caffeine and increase in glucose utilization (Nardi et al., 2007 ). However, not all individuals with PD display increased panic attack frequency with caffeine ingestion, suggesting that there might be subgroups of patients with PD with caffeine-provoked panic being linked to long-lasting anxiety symptoms lasting hours (Nardi et al., 2007 ).

Hallucinations

Caffeine users that consume caffeine approximate to seven cups of instant coffee (>300 mg caffeine) a day are more likely to report hallucinatory experiences such as seeing things that are not there and hearing voices, when compared to low-level caffeine users that consume caffeine equivalent to one to three cups of coffee a day (Jones and Fernyhough, 2009 ). Researchers indicate that the hallucinatory experiences may be due to caffeine intensifying the physiological effects of stress, as cortisol is released during stressful periods when people have recently taken in caffeine (Lovallo et al., 2006 ), this additional upsurge of cortisol may link caffeine consumption with a higher tendency to hallucinate (Jones and Fernyhough, 2009 ). Caffeine use can lead to caffeine-intoxication, symptoms of which are nervousness, irritability, anxiety, muscle-twitching, insomnia, headaches, palpitations (Jones and Fernyhough, 2009 ).

Caffeine dependence

Ninety-eight percent of North America consumes some form of caffeine, making it the most widely used drug on that continent (Jones and Fernyhough, 2009 ). Many caffeine consumers proclaim that they are addicted to the substance, however the evidence is inconsistent. Table ​ Table2 2 lists the DSM-IV Criteria for evaluating substance dependency (American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ; Dews et al., 2002 ). Users must meet a minimum of three criteria to be considered dependent on a substance. However, with caffeine, complications arise in the grading of the criteria as the effects of caffeine are highly variable across consumers and because the use of caffeine is socially acceptable. Entire afternoons are planned around coffee dates and many social rituals revolve around the drink.

The DSM-IV criteria for evaluating substance dependence (American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ; Dews et al., 2002 ) .

Using the DSM criteria it was reported that 11% of 6778 daily caffeine users evaluated proclaimed to experience withdrawal symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000 ; Dews et al., 2002 ). Controversy arose when the withdrawal symptoms were reported to be mild to moderately bearable and diminishing over a short period of time, therefore reducing the intensity of withdrawal symptoms (Dews et al., 2002 ; Jones and Fernyhough, 2008 ). According to Keast and Riddell ( 2007 ) only the minority of the caffeine users are actually dependent on caffeine. The debate about the possible addictive strength of caffeine remains unsettled, but caffeine withdrawal has been linked with feelings of fatigue, increased depression, and anxiety (Smith, 2002 ).

In summary, the most salient effects of caffeine can be summarized as follows.

Most people consume caffeine to compensate for a lack of sleep, to complete tiring tasks, or to ease stress. Caffeine products are ubiquitously used for these reasons and more yet, Table ​ Table3 3 indicates that the disadvantages of caffeine are more clearly documented than the advantages. The health benefits from caffeine are increased arousal and facilitating against stress in the human body. These benefits are important in maintaining safety and efficacy in the workplace and other environments. To derive an increase in arousal could lead to individuals over consuming caffeine drinks, this over consumption could then bring about some of the disadvantages such as anxiety and panic attacks (when doses more than 300 mg caffeine are ingested) or cause individuals to hallucinate (again when doses more than 300 mg are ingested). It was noted that when individuals are stressed, their caffeine intake increases and caffeine lead to a sensitization of the cannabinoid receptors to help alleviate stress. Despite this benefit, it could create a larger predicament by causing individuals to become dependent on the substance or exemplifying this by becoming dependent on other drugs. Morphine, heroin, cocaine, and ethanol also cause enhancement of the cannabinoid receptors and caffeine has additive properties (like cocaine). Furthermore it reinforces the cocaine-seeking behavior strengthening the dependence potential of caffeine. While caffeine may be used to increase arousal, in contrast it causes impairment in learning by congesting replay of memories and impairing motor skills with a moderate dose of caffeine.

Summary of some effects of caffeine on humans .

It appears that the most significant benefits derived from caffeine involve increased alertness. Further benefits are generally only derived from high dosages of caffeine. However, such doses cause harmful effects on neurophysiological health, with the exception of the effects on cardiac conditions which are experienced even at low to moderate doses of caffeine.

One of the most important current caffeine concerns involves energy drinks. There has been a vast increase in energy drink consumption in young adults aged 18–24 years (Côté, 2009 ). These energy drinks are not to be confused with sports drinks as they contain high amounts of caffeine and taurine and do not hydrate the body. In 2006 Thailand had the leading energy drink consumption per person but the United States reported the highest sales of energy drinks (Reissig et al., 2009 ). The energy drink industry has grown exponentially with almost 500 brands launched internationally in 2006.

The drinks differ rather dramatically in caffeine content (Reissig et al., 2009 ). From Table ​ Table4 4 it is clear that levels of caffeine in these drinks are very high. These drinks are sold without age restrictions and the majority of these drinks do not have a warning label advising the consumer on the caffeine content and the potential health risks (Reissig et al., 2009 ).

Energy drinks in the United States (Reissig et al., 2009 ) .

* Sold in South Africa .

Aside from the possible addictive potential of caffeine, caffeine intoxication is a recognized syndrome (Reissig et al., 2009 ). The high caffeine content in energy drinks increases the risk for caffeine overdose, so awareness of this is required (Reissig et al., 2009 ). Unfortunately though, there is no regulation of the marketing of energy drinks targeted at the young adults. This is surprising, given that pharmacological and epidemiological studies show an association between caffeine use, dependence on alcohol, nicotine, and drugs such as cocaine, morphine, and heroin because caffeine shares features with these commonly studied drugs (Reissig et al., 2009 ; Dack and Reed, 2009 ).

There is also increased popularization of combined use of alcoholic beverages and energy drinks. This may seem harmless, given that some reports suggest that energy drinks could decrease the intensity of the depressant effects of ethanol (Ferreira et al., 2004 ). In the study by Ferreira et al. ( 2004 ) ethanol in doses of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.5 g/kg was combined with a well-known energy drink and administered to mice. The results are found in Table ​ Table5 5 .

Effects of the energy drink combined with ethanol administered (Ferreira et al., 2004 ) .

The data obtained suggests that energy drinks did antagonize the depressant effect of ethanol in the locomotor activity of mice but only at high does of ethanol. Considering that mice have a much faster metabolism than humans, the alterations of the levels of locomotor activity in mice cannot simply be interpreted as a reversion of the symptoms of acute effects of alcohol (Ferreira et al., 2004 ). Furthermore, the combination of energy drinks and alcohol reduces participants’ perceptions of impairment of motor co-ordination but does not decrease objective measures of alcohol-induced impairment of motor co-ordination, reaction time, or breathe alcohol concentration. This may increase the possibility of alcohol-related injury and motor accidents as the individuals may feel that the energy drink has antagonized the effects of alcohol while their co-ordination and judgment are still impaired (Reissig et al., 2009 ).

The massive popularity of caffeine has created a need to discover the possible inflictions on the human body. By delving into the biochemical characteristics of caffeine, findings on its structure and chemical properties have led to findings on its function, absorption in the body and metabolism. The neurophysiological benefits of caffeine are brief and ironically could lead to health disadvantages. Therefore in order to obtain the benefits consumption should be limited to moderate doses. The neurophysiological health disadvantages of caffeine include anxiety and panic attacks and hallucinations brought about by above moderate doses of caffeine. In addition to this caffeine may impair learning and memory. However, most alarming is the similarity of caffeine to other drugs such as morphine, heroin, ethanol, and most importantly to cocaine. Caffeine shows the most similarity to cocaine and reinforces cocaine-seeking behavior after elimination of the drug. This finding strengthens the argument that the potential of caffeine dependence is high and awareness of this should be created.

Regarding caffeine in energy drinks, a number of questions arise out of this review. For example, should such aggressive marketing be allowed for a substance that serves as a portal to other forms of drug dependence? With energy drinks decreasing the perceived depressant effects of alcohol individuals may consume more alcohol and therefore jeopardize their perception and hence safety. Given the neurophysiological implication of caffeine use, advertising and marketing of energy drinks and caffeinated soft drinks should be considered. Research on caffeine in South Africa is very limited and considering the potential negative health impacts of this drug further research to focusing on the negative health impacts of moderate caffeine consumption is needed. In the mean time, awareness on its potential health consequences, caffeine intoxication, withdrawal, and dependence should be mandatory.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

1 http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodAdditives/FoodAdditiveListings/ucm091048.htm [accessed August 31, 2011]

2 http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Health_Sciences/English/Centres%20and%20Institutions/Nicus/NutritionFactssheets/Beverage%20Consumption.pdf-beverageconsumption [accessed August 31, 2011]

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The Monster That Turned $1 Into $20,000: Why This Energy Drink Stock Is a Must-Buy

T he leader in terms of energy drink production, Monster Beverage stock (NASDAQ: MNST ) remains the top way to play this space globally. The company’s steady top and bottom line growth have yielded remarkable returns for long-term investors that have stuck with the stock.

Although the beverage market may be getting saturated, Monster Beverage stock has prioritized its product innovation to keep up with their target market. The company’s international expansion is a key growth driver, with over half of the total energy drink market located outside the U.S. Monster has efficiently managed through inflationary challenges, maintaining solid year-over-year performance.

That said, many investors may ask: is Monster Beverage stock worth the risk and the investment in this current climate? Let’s dive in.

MNST Stock Has Rocketed Higher Over the Past Three Decades

For 31 consecutive years, Monster’s stock price has surged alongside its sales. Incredibly, over the past two decades, MNST stock has surged over 200,000%. That’s a 2,000X for those counting. Not many stocks can ever provide these kind of returns, and continue showing strong growth year in and year out.

In 1935, the company started as a family juice business named Hansen’s. It wasn’t until 1990 that the company released its energy drinks, a business that didn’t really thrive until 2002. Through the company’s meticulous and ingenious strategic moves, Monster Beverage was able to dominate the market in a slow but steady. (Really, it was a fast and steady move, something that’s hard to find in today’s market). Overall, most analysts and experts following the stock continue to love the CEOs’ strategies and excellent market predictions. 

Coca-Cola (NYSE: KO ) has also noticed how fast Monster Beverage gained traction. The world’s largest beverage company decided to invest in Monster in 2015, for a 16.7% stake in the company. What a bet that was, as that stake is now valued at roughly 20% of the company. This collaboration made Coca-Cola Monster’s preferred global distributor and involved swapping ownership of various brands. 

Monster Beverage stock gained energy drinks like NOS and Full Throttle, while Coca-Cola acquired Hansen’s Natural Sodas and other brands. This partnership contributed significantly to Monster’s global expansion and stock performance.

The Bear Case

Monster Beverage defied expectations in the Nasdaq 100 index, experiencing significant growth despite not being a tech firm. Over the past decade, its shares have surged by over 400%. 

However, Monster faces challenges as the energy drink market saturates and competition intensifies. Consumer spending tailwinds may also wane, affecting its growth trajectory. Competition is tight, especially from up-and-coming rival Celsius Holdings (NASDAQ: CELH ).

Celsius poses formidable competition, reminiscent of Monster’s earlier days. Monster’s high price-earnings ratio may not reflect its current growth prospects, but rather the competitive environment the company current faces.

Strategy is Key

Due to its product expansions and brilliant strategic moves, Monster Beverage has seen continued top-line growth which has surpassed its overall industry. Energy drinks were the main driver of the company’s strong performance in 2023, which was the company bring in a 15.1% increase in net sales.

Fueled with its product innovations, Monster Beverage is a promising stock. The company continues to launching various drinks globally, like Monster Aussie Lemonade and Ultra Paradise, driving growth. The company also mitigated rising costs through price adjustments globally. In Q4 2023, they increased prices and planned further hikes. Due to these actions, the gross margin expanded.

All that in consideration, Monster Beverage stock shows promise as an investment with its favorable factors. Over the long-term, this leading energy drink player should continue to dominate this space and grow alongside surging demand.

On the date of publication, Chris MacDonald did not have (either directly or indirectly) any positions in the securities mentioned in this article. The opinions expressed in this article are those of the writer, subject to the InvestorPlace.com  Publishing Guidelines .

Chris MacDonald’s love for investing led him to pursue an MBA in Finance and take on a number of management roles in corporate finance and venture capital over the past 15 years. His experience as a financial analyst in the past, coupled with his fervor for finding undervalued growth opportunities, contribute to his conservative, long-term investing perspective.

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7-Eleven Offers Exclusive Energy Drink

By Emily Boes | April 15, 2024

Co-founded by Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, ZOA Energy drinks provide functional benefits for sustained energy with immune system support from electrolytes, B and C vitamins, BCAAs and caffeine from green tea and green coffee beans.

“We’re bringing big flavor and major Big Dwayne Energy to 7-Eleven stores nationwide along with this exclusive new flavor,” said Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, chief energy officer at ZOA Energy. “Our collaboration with 7-Eleven will make ZOA Energy products more readily available than ever. We can’t wait to bring that kind of energy to our ZOA Warrior community and help them crush their everyday goals.”

To celebrate the debut of ZOA Energy Mango Splash at 7-Eleven, customers can visit ZOA Energy’s website now through April 30 to enter for a chance to win a custom ZOA Energy Ford F-150 Raptor with a bed full of ZOA Mango Splash and a 7-Eleven gas gift card to fuel their day.

“We love working with vendors like ZOA to create new and innovative items to excite our customers,” said Jesus Delgado-Jenkins, executive vice president and chief merchandising officer at 7-Eleven. “Knowing that most trips to our stores include a beverage purchase, we couldn’t pass up the opportunity to get in on the ZOA craze that is sweeping the nation.”

Based in Irving, Texas, 7-Eleven Inc. operates, franchises and/or licenses more than 13,000 stores in the U.S. and Canada. In addition to 7-Eleven stores, 7-Eleven Inc. operates and franchises Speedway, Stripes, Laredo Taco Co. and Raise the Roost Chicken and Biscuits locations. It is known for its iconic brands such as Slurpee, Big Bite and Big Gulp.

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Ikea’s new gaming furniture looks like furniture, not an energy drink

With a focus on simple designs mixing bright and neutral colors, ikea’s upcoming brännboll collection is made for homes instead of ‘gamer dens.’.

By Jess Weatherbed , a news writer focused on creative industries, computing, and internet culture. Jess started her career at TechRadar, covering news and hardware reviews.

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Ikea is introducing a new range of gaming furniture that subverts the usual dark, edgy “gamer” aesthetic for designs that are more likely to blend in with your existing home decor. 

The company’s Brännboll collection is a lineup of 20 items, including a desk, chairs, accessories, and various storage solutions. Following the mostly-black ROG collaboration Ikea released back in 2021, which was similarly free from overly aggressive “gamer” flourishes , the new Brännboll collection instead focuses on the kind of designs that Ikea does best — simple and recognizably Scandinavian.

Seating is the main focus. There’s an armchair that folds out into a lounging position, a rocking-style chair designed to swing with your body’s movement, and an inflatable donut-style chair with a matching footstool.

The Brännboll collection also includes a “gaming station” that folds away into something resembling a wardrobe, complete with a foldable tabletop, integrated PC tower storage, and cable management. There’s also a storage box that doubles as a side table, display shelving, and some textile accessories like a mousepad, rug, and a throw.

It’s a little difficult to pin down what qualifies any of this as “gaming” furniture, but I guess that’s kinda the point — anything designed to accommodate lengthy sessions of sitting down is suitable for gaming, and not everyone wants a section of their home to look like it was sponsored by an energy drink company. Ikea says the Brännboll collection is instead inspired by street sports and athleisure, with a mix of neutrals and bright colors that easily blend into modern homes.

“With Brännboll, we are embracing the idea that gaming is for everyone and belongs everywhere in the home,” Ikea product design developer Philip Dilé said in the company’s press release. “It’s about making it simple for people to create spaces that adapt to gaming, living, and everything in between.”

While it’s mostly children in Ikea’s press images, Dilé confirmed to The Verge that the range is age-inclusive and suitable for adults. There’s no pricing available yet, but we should learn more about the Brännboll collection before its September launch.

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