speech pattern defined

• April 21, 2021

Speech Pattern Fundamentals and How You Communicate

Whether they prefer slick slang or fancy formality, most people get their points across in unique ways. After all, talking feels more rewarding when you can say something that adds informative or emotional value to the conversation. It makes perfect sense that individuals pick the speech patterns that seem the most comfortable and efficient.

A speech pattern is a characteristic mode of verbal expression. These mannerisms are noteworthy because each person has their own version. Knowing how to describe speech patterns can dramatically improve your ability to create media content.

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This post was updated in April 2021

What Defines a Speech Pattern?

Every speaker has a unique speech pattern. That means the same quantifiers don’t fit all situations.

You might meet someone who talked at a rapid speed and uses lots of inflections. Although it would be natural to describe them as having a dynamic speech pattern, the same qualifiers might not help you categorize another person’s speech.

Next, imagine that you met someone whose only vocal quirk was that they used rare vocabulary. Discussing their speaking rate or the way they emphasize their words might not reveal much.

Speech pattern descriptions should ultimately focus on the most iconic elements. It’s particularly important to pay attention to these aspects when creating media. Want to tell your voice actors, scriptwriters, or other creative partners what you want?  You’re best off sticking to the elements that define the character.

What Are Some Ways to Describe Speech Patterns?

A few characteristics seem to crop up quite often when people discuss speech patterns. Some highlights you might want to touch on are

• Inflection,
• Speech rate,
• Brevity, and
• Emotive mood.

This term describes how someone places stress on the vocal elements in their speech. Some common modes of inflection include:

• Uptalk , also known as the  high-rising terminal,  Australian Question Intonation, or “valley girl” speech. This pattern involves people adding a rising sound to the end of their statements as if they were asking questions. Some people find it annoying or perceive its users as being less knowledgeable, but others feel it simply characterizes polite, deferent speakers. Such sentiments may decrease as the pattern becomes more prevalent in general use.
• Intonation contours  are distinctive tones used with individual expressions. According to the  University of Manitoba , these elements describe how a speaker’s pitch rises and falls. The same phrase, such as “you really like that boyfriend of yours,” might take on two different contours depending on whether it was capped off with a period or a question mark.

• Rhythm , as in music, reveals how people alternate between weak and robust stresses to give their speech a sense of motion. A speaker without much vocal rhythm might be described as “flat” or “monotone.” Speech pattern rhythm includes not only stress but also timing and syllable count, so an easy way to conceptualize it is as the flow of communication.
• Prosody  is pitch, volume, rhythm, and tempo — the non-phonetic elements of speech — rolled into one. It also conveys how people use these elements to communicate meaning and structure their ideas. A good way to understand this concept is to realize that it has a similar purpose in written literature, where it describes particulars like verse structure and poetic meter. Like intonation countors, prosody  helps speakers communicate meaning  that goes beyond what you’d get from looking up their words in a dictionary.

Speech Rate

The speed at which someone chats is a critical element of their communication. It plays a significant role in scripting audio ads, narrations, and voiceovers. With limited time to get the point across, you’ll usually need to hit a specific words-per-minute, or WPM, rate.

Variable Speech Rates

Speech rates aren’t set in stone. Even the fastest talkers instinctively seem to recognize the value of slowing down occasionally. For instance, you could ease your pace to explain a difficult concept or make yourself heard over a noisy background.

Some speech rate issues are less voluntary than others. Someone who speaks haltingly, or in abrupt starts and stops, might just be puzzled. Or they might be insecure or nervous. When writing a script, you might include voice stage directions in parenthesis, such as “haltingly” or “nervously” to make use of these familiar communication tropes.

Not everyone pronounces or groups their words in the same fashion. While this is part of what makes listening to people fun, it can also result in difficulties understanding others.

One  2003 study showed that non-native speakers  tended to be a bit harder to understand, but this wasn’t always the case. Clarity isn’t just a matter of pronunciation. The same investigation showed that, although listening to a non-native speaker’s accent could help listeners predict the clarity of their speech, the results weren’t consistent. Many people with heavy accents speak second languages perfectly clearly and understandably — especially with practice.

Communicating With Clarity

Rhythm can be a considerable aid to clarity.  Some experts believe  it plays a vital role in helping us tell where different words and thoughts begin and end. Reading your scripts and sentences aloud is an excellent way to understand how their rhythm might impact their clarity.

Clarity also depends on elements like background noise. Although this isn’t strictly a speech-pattern factor, it’s critically important for creating media. Since things like commercials usually include sound effects and background music, you need to mix and master them correctly. Investing in facilities such as  whisper rooms  can also help you do more with a talented voice actor’s speech patterns.

As with speaking rates, talkers habitually modulate this speech pattern element. People who want to be understood commonly  articulate, or clearly pronounce, the different sounds in words  using an exaggerated manner. Although this can be rather annoying when someone does it to you in person, it’s a valuable technique for tasks like recording voiceovers.

Brevity represents a speaker’s ability to express a lot in the space of a few words. Someone who speaks with notable brevity might also be described as “terse” or “concise.”

With so many different ways to say the same thing, most languages make it easy to pick a concise option. For instance, you might choose a word with fewer syllables instead of trying to win  Wheel of Fortune  with every sentence. Or, you might generally practice  economy of language  by breaking your ideas down into quick blurbs.

Making the Most of Fewer Syllables

The same ideas apply to speech, and you can leverage them to great effect in media like commercials. A narrator that used fewer words might make your content more listenable since the audience could get the idea faster.

Imagine you wanted to create a commercial for a company that sold baby monitors. Your crucial selling point might be that parents could rest more comfortably when they knew what was happening with their toddlers. You could have a frazzled dad figure who “stumbled over their words” contrasted with a character that depicted one of your product’s users. For instance, they might meet a cool mom who spoke in a calm, collected voice and used concise language. This kind of strategy would play off of listeners’ automatic mental associations to evoke the desired mood.

Emotive Mood

Although they’re not the same things, someone’s mood can be a part of their speech pattern. This factor commonly influences the other descriptors we’ve covered.

Sometimes, people who speak with extreme brevity get labeled as “curt” or “gruff.” These words additionally communicate a rude or dismissive element on top of describing efficient talkers. Someone who doesn’t speak clearly might be labeled as “garbled,” meaning that they’re not just unintelligible; they may also distort the truth, omit facts, or simply get things wrong.

Specifiers That Carry Weight

Should you use a loaded descriptor to discuss a desired character or voiceover speech pattern? Doing so can help voice actors bring out the big guns and produce memorable output. On the other hand, it might change the overall dramatic tone of your creative work. Here are some helpful project organization rules for keeping things clear:

• Take a top-down approach to mood.  Decide on — and commit to writing — the tone you want your whole piece to take before breaking it down by character and scene. By considering the big picture first, you can increase your odds of staying on track.
• Be realistic.  Most people are more than their speech patterns, and creating nuanced characters tends to be more productive. Moods also change, so each character’s tone should reflect the situation at hand.
• Don’t be insulting.  Loaded language appeals to people’s emotions to influence their reactions. While you want to push voice actors and other creatives in a particular direction, using highly negative speech pattern descriptors can backfire. Would you want someone working on your project after your specification left a permanent sour taste in their mouth?

Also, remember that loaded language might constrain voice actors. Voice actors who feel locked into one mood often find it hard to communicate all of the ideas you’re asking for.  Err on the side of simplicity.

Honesty, Humor, Sarcasm, and More

Many people use irony, sarcasm, jokes, and other qualities to communicate additional moods that give their words more impact. These elements can be hard to pick up on in writing, but speech makes it easier to drive the point home.

Although anyone can use such linguistic tools, they dominate some speech patterns. They’re so common, however, that they might prove insufficient as descriptors. For instance, you could ask the same voice actor to portray a sarcastic character and get a whole range of different results.

Remember prosody and intonation contours from earlier? They come into play again here, and everyone interprets them differently. It pays to be specific — unless you don’t mind letting your creatives flex their creative muscles.

How Do Speech Patterns Translate From Writing Into Sound?

As we’ve been hinting at, speech patterns are subject to interpretation. This reality makes it imperative to write clear scripts and apply the brevity idea to your descriptions. Since voiceovers and other content begin with your written specs, avoiding confusion helps them shine more clearly.

One surprise that many first-time cross-media creators encounter is that things don’t go the way they intended. In fields like drawing or music, this can seem pretty devastating, but audio ads and voiceovers grant you more leeway. It’s easy to ask someone to try a take differently, so don’t get discouraged by misfires.

Choosing a Speech Pattern That Suits Your Content

Voiceovers benefit from creative direction that identifies target speech patterns without overly restricting voice actors. Describing a speech pattern can be tricky since there are so many different ways to speak. Taking the time to plan this element leads to more satisfactory creative results.

If you’re not sure which speech pattern might fit the bill, be open to creative input. Instead of writing a whole novel trying to describe a job’s specs, give your voice over artists freedom to contribute. Doing so can result in a more realistic, natural-sounding final product, particularly when you  pick a voiceover studio with the experience to help .

Need help with one of your voiceover projects? Submit a project with us and we’ll be happy to deliver excellent results! 

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10.2 Using Common Organizing Patterns

Learning objectives.

• Differentiate among the common speech organizational patterns: categorical/topical, comparison/contrast, spatial, chronological, biographical, causal, problem-cause-solution, and psychological.
• Understand how to choose the best organizational pattern, or combination of patterns, for a specific speech.

Twentyfour Students – Organization makes you flow – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Previously in this chapter we discussed how to make your main points flow logically. This section is going to provide you with a number of organization patterns to help you create a logically organized speech. The first organization pattern we’ll discuss is categorical/topical.

Categorical/Topical

By far the most common pattern for organizing a speech is by categories or topics. The categories function as a way to help the speaker organize the message in a consistent fashion. The goal of a categorical/topical speech pattern is to create categories (or chunks) of information that go together to help support your original specific purpose. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, we have a speaker trying to persuade a group of high school juniors to apply to attend Generic University. To persuade this group, the speaker has divided the information into three basic categories: what it’s like to live in the dorms, what classes are like, and what life is like on campus. Almost anyone could take this basic speech and specifically tailor the speech to fit her or his own university or college. The main points in this example could be rearranged and the organizational pattern would still be effective because there is no inherent logic to the sequence of points. Let’s look at a second example.

In this speech, the speaker is talking about how to find others online and date them. Specifically, the speaker starts by explaining what Internet dating is; then the speaker talks about how to make Internet dating better for her or his audience members; and finally, the speaker ends by discussing some negative aspects of Internet dating. Again, notice that the information is chunked into three categories or topics and that the second and third could be reversed and still provide a logical structure for your speech

Comparison/Contrast

Another method for organizing main points is the comparison/contrast speech pattern . While this pattern clearly lends itself easily to two main points, you can also create a third point by giving basic information about what is being compared and what is being contrasted. Let’s look at two examples; the first one will be a two-point example and the second a three-point example.

If you were using the comparison/contrast pattern for persuasive purposes, in the preceding examples, you’d want to make sure that when you show how Drug X and Drug Y differ, you clearly state why Drug X is clearly the better choice for physicians to adopt. In essence, you’d want to make sure that when you compare the two drugs, you show that Drug X has all the benefits of Drug Y, but when you contrast the two drugs, you show how Drug X is superior to Drug Y in some way.

The spatial speech pattern organizes information according to how things fit together in physical space. This pattern is best used when your main points are oriented to different locations that can exist independently. The basic reason to choose this format is to show that the main points have clear locations. We’ll look at two examples here, one involving physical geography and one involving a different spatial order.

If you look at a basic map of the United States, you’ll notice that these groupings of states were created because of their geographic location to one another. In essence, the states create three spatial territories to explain.

Now let’s look at a spatial speech unrelated to geography.

In this example, we still have three basic spatial areas. If you look at a model of the urinary system, the first step is the kidney, which then takes waste through the ureters to the bladder, which then relies on the sphincter muscle to excrete waste through the urethra. All we’ve done in this example is create a spatial speech order for discussing how waste is removed from the human body through the urinary system. It is spatial because the organization pattern is determined by the physical location of each body part in relation to the others discussed.

Chronological

The chronological speech pattern places the main idea in the time order in which items appear—whether backward or forward. Here’s a simple example.

In this example, we’re looking at the writings of Winston Churchill in relation to World War II (before, during, and after). By placing his writings into these three categories, we develop a system for understanding this material based on Churchill’s own life. Note that you could also use reverse chronological order and start with Churchill’s writings after World War II, progressing backward to his earliest writings.

Biographical

As you might guess, the biographical speech pattern is generally used when a speaker wants to describe a person’s life—either a speaker’s own life, the life of someone they know personally, or the life of a famous person. By the nature of this speech organizational pattern, these speeches tend to be informative or entertaining; they are usually not persuasive. Let’s look at an example.

In this example, we see how Brian Warner, through three major periods of his life, ultimately became the musician known as Marilyn Manson.

In this example, these three stages are presented in chronological order, but the biographical pattern does not have to be chronological. For example, it could compare and contrast different periods of the subject’s life, or it could focus topically on the subject’s different accomplishments.

The causal speech pattern is used to explain cause-and-effect relationships. When you use a causal speech pattern, your speech will have two basic main points: cause and effect. In the first main point, typically you will talk about the causes of a phenomenon, and in the second main point you will then show how the causes lead to either a specific effect or a small set of effects. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, the first main point is about the history and prevalence of drinking alcohol among Native Americans (the cause). The second point then examines the effects of Native American alcohol consumption and how it differs from other population groups.

However, a causal organizational pattern can also begin with an effect and then explore one or more causes. In the following example, the effect is the number of arrests for domestic violence.

In this example, the possible causes for the difference might include stricter law enforcement, greater likelihood of neighbors reporting an incident, and police training that emphasizes arrests as opposed to other outcomes. Examining these possible causes may suggest that despite the arrest statistic, the actual number of domestic violence incidents in your city may not be greater than in other cities of similar size.

Problem-Cause-Solution

Another format for organizing distinct main points in a clear manner is the problem-cause-solution speech pattern . In this format you describe a problem, identify what you believe is causing the problem, and then recommend a solution to correct the problem.

In this speech, the speaker wants to persuade people to pass a new curfew for people under eighteen. To help persuade the civic group members, the speaker first shows that vandalism and violence are problems in the community. Once the speaker has shown the problem, the speaker then explains to the audience that the cause of this problem is youth outside after 10:00 p.m. Lastly, the speaker provides the mandatory 10:00 p.m. curfew as a solution to the vandalism and violence problem within the community. The problem-cause-solution format for speeches generally lends itself to persuasive topics because the speaker is asking an audience to believe in and adopt a specific solution.

Psychological

A further way to organize your main ideas within a speech is through a psychological speech pattern in which “a” leads to “b” and “b” leads to “c.” This speech format is designed to follow a logical argument, so this format lends itself to persuasive speeches very easily. Let’s look at an example.

In this speech, the speaker starts by discussing how humor affects the body. If a patient is exposed to humor (a), then the patient’s body actually physiologically responds in ways that help healing (b—e.g., reduces stress, decreases blood pressure, bolsters one’s immune system, etc.). Because of these benefits, nurses should engage in humor use that helps with healing (c).

Selecting an Organizational Pattern

Each of the preceding organizational patterns is potentially useful for organizing the main points of your speech. However, not all organizational patterns work for all speeches. For example, as we mentioned earlier, the biographical pattern is useful when you are telling the story of someone’s life. Some other patterns, particularly comparison/contrast, problem-cause-solution, and psychological, are well suited for persuasive speaking. Your challenge is to choose the best pattern for the particular speech you are giving.

You will want to be aware that it is also possible to combine two or more organizational patterns to meet the goals of a specific speech. For example, you might wish to discuss a problem and then compare/contrast several different possible solutions for the audience. Such a speech would thus be combining elements of the comparison/contrast and problem-cause-solution patterns. When considering which organizational pattern to use, you need to keep in mind your specific purpose as well as your audience and the actual speech material itself to decide which pattern you think will work best.

Key Takeaway

• Speakers can use a variety of different organizational patterns, including categorical/topical, comparison/contrast, spatial, chronological, biographical, causal, problem-cause-solution, and psychological. Ultimately, speakers must really think about which organizational pattern best suits a specific speech topic.
• Imagine that you are giving an informative speech about your favorite book. Which organizational pattern do you think would be most useful? Why? Would your answer be different if your speech goal were persuasive? Why or why not?
• Working on your own or with a partner, develop three main points for a speech designed to persuade college students to attend your university. Work through the preceding organizational patterns and see which ones would be possible choices for your speech. Which organizational pattern seems to be the best choice? Why?
• Use one of the common organizational patterns to create three main points for your next speech.

Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Home » SEL Implementation » Exploring the Meaning Behind Everyday Speech Patterns

Exploring the Meaning Behind Everyday Speech Patterns

Key takeaways:.

• Understanding everyday speech patterns is crucial for effective communication and social-emotional learning.
• Speech patterns reflect emotions, thoughts, and beliefs, shaping how we express ourselves.
• Everyday speech patterns encompass tone of voice, volume, speed, pauses, word choice, metaphors, idioms, and cultural influences.

Introduction: Exploring the Meaning Behind Everyday Speech Patterns

Welcome to my blog! In today’s post, we will delve into the fascinating world of everyday speech patterns and uncover the hidden meanings behind them. Understanding these patterns is crucial for effective communication and social-emotional learning. So let’s dive in!

I. Introduction

A. Importance of understanding everyday speech patterns

Everyday speech patterns play a vital role in our daily interactions. They provide insights into our emotions, thoughts, and beliefs. By understanding these patterns, we can navigate social situations more effectively and build stronger connections with others.

B. How speech patterns reflect our emotions and thoughts

Our speech patterns are not just a string of words; they are a reflection of our inner world. The way we speak, the tone we use, and the words we choose all convey our emotions and thoughts. By paying attention to these patterns, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and others.

C. Overview of the blog post

In this blog post, we will explore what everyday speech patterns are, decipher their meanings, and understand their impact on social interactions. We will also discuss strategies for developing self-awareness of our own speech patterns and enhancing social-emotional learning through effective communication.

II. What are everyday speech patterns?

A. Definition and explanation

Everyday speech patterns refer to the way we speak in our daily lives. They encompass various aspects such as tone of voice, volume, speed of speech, use of pauses, hesitations, word choice, vocabulary, metaphors, idioms, and cultural influences. These patterns are deeply ingrained in our communication style and shape how we express ourselves.

B. Examples of common speech patterns

Common speech patterns include using phrases like “you know,” “um,” or “like” as fillers, speaking in a fast-paced manner when excited, or using specific idioms and metaphors to convey meaning. These patterns can vary across cultures and regions, adding richness and diversity to our conversations.

C. How speech patterns differ across cultures and regions

Speech patterns are influenced by cultural norms, regional dialects, and individual experiences. For example, in some cultures, direct communication is valued, while in others, indirect communication is preferred. Understanding these differences is essential for effective cross-cultural communication and building cultural competence.

III. The meaning behind speech patterns

A. How speech patterns convey emotions

1. Tone of voice and intonation

Our tone of voice and intonation can convey a wide range of emotions, such as anger, excitement, sadness, or sarcasm. For example, a high-pitched and fast-paced tone may indicate enthusiasm, while a monotone voice may suggest boredom or disinterest.

2. Volume and speed of speech

The volume and speed at which we speak can also reveal our emotional state. Speaking loudly and quickly may indicate excitement or urgency, while speaking softly and slowly may indicate calmness or sadness.

3. Use of pauses and hesitations

The use of pauses and hesitations can add depth and meaning to our speech. Pausing before a significant point can create suspense, while hesitations can indicate uncertainty or the need to gather one’s thoughts.

B. How speech patterns reflect thoughts and beliefs

1. Word choice and vocabulary

The words we choose and the vocabulary we use reflect our thoughts, beliefs, and level of education. For example, someone who frequently uses technical jargon may be knowledgeable in a specific field, while someone who uses simple language may prioritize clarity and accessibility.

2. Use of metaphors and idioms

Metaphors and idioms are powerful tools for conveying meaning and cultural understanding. They can add depth and richness to our speech, but they can also be misinterpreted if not understood within the appropriate cultural context.

3. Cultural and social influences on speech patterns

Our speech patterns are influenced by the culture and society we grow up in. They shape our communication style, values, and beliefs. Being aware of these influences can help us navigate intercultural communication and foster understanding and respect.

IV. Understanding the impact of speech patterns on social interactions

A. Importance of effective communication

Effective communication is the foundation of healthy relationships and successful interactions. By understanding the impact of speech patterns, we can enhance our communication skills and build stronger connections with others.

B. How speech patterns can enhance or hinder social connections

Speech patterns can either enhance or hinder social connections depending on how they are used. Clear and empathetic communication can foster trust and understanding, while miscommunication or the use of offensive language can damage relationships.

C. Strategies for improving communication through speech patterns

To improve communication through speech patterns, we can practice active listening, be mindful of our tone and body language, use clear and concise language, and adapt our communication style to the needs of others. It is also important to be open to feedback and continuously strive for self-improvement.

V. Developing self-awareness of speech patterns

A. Recognizing our own speech patterns

Developing self-awareness of our speech patterns begins with recognizing how we speak. Pay attention to the words, phrases, and patterns you frequently use in your conversations. This awareness can help you identify areas for improvement and growth.

B. Reflecting on the meaning behind our speech patterns

Once you recognize your speech patterns, take time to reflect on their meaning. Consider how your tone, choice of words, and cultural influences shape your communication style. This reflection can deepen your understanding of yourself and others.

C. Identifying areas for improvement and growth

Identify areas for improvement and growth in your speech patterns. Are there any patterns that may hinder effective communication or create misunderstandings? Set goals for yourself and actively work towards developing more effective and empathetic communication skills.

VI. Enhancing social emotional learning through speech patterns

A. How speech patterns contribute to self-awareness

By paying attention to our speech patterns, we can develop a greater sense of self-awareness. Understanding how our speech reflects our emotions and thoughts allows us to better understand ourselves and regulate our emotions.

B. Using speech patterns to express emotions effectively

Speech patterns provide us with a powerful tool for expressing our emotions effectively. By consciously choosing our words, tone, and body language, we can communicate our feelings in a clear and respectful manner, fostering healthy emotional expression.

C. Building empathy and understanding through speech patterns

Speech patterns also play a crucial role in building empathy and understanding. By listening attentively to others’ speech patterns and being open to different perspectives, we can develop a deeper understanding of their emotions, thoughts, and experiences.

VII. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points discussed

In this blog post, we explored the meaning behind everyday speech patterns. We discussed how speech patterns reflect our emotions and thoughts, the impact of speech patterns on social interactions, and strategies for developing self-awareness and enhancing social emotional learning through effective communication.

B. Encouragement to explore and reflect on everyday speech patterns

I encourage you to take the time to explore and reflect on your own everyday speech patterns. Pay attention to the meaning behind your words and how they impact your interactions with others. This self-reflection can lead to personal growth and improved communication skills.

C. Importance of incorporating social emotional learning in daily life

Social-emotional learning is a lifelong journey that can greatly enhance our personal and professional relationships. By incorporating social emotional learning into our daily lives, we can foster empathy, understanding, and effective communication.

Where Can I Find More Resources on Understanding Everyday Speech Patterns?

Start your Everyday Speech Free trial today and embark on a journey of self-discovery and growth through understanding everyday speech patterns.

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• Speech Crafting →

Topical Speech Patterns: Uncovering Their Power and How to Use Them Effectively

We’ve all been there. You’re in a meeting or speaking in front of a large group and you can feel the eyes on you. You know that the topic is important, your audience is listening intently, and then for a moment, your mind goes blank and your words fail you. Panic begins to take over, so you start speaking and your words come out jumbled and unfocused. The key to avoiding this situation is to unlock your topical speech patterns so you can speak with clarity and confidence . In this blog post, we’re going to look at how to develop a strong and fluid speech and identify general tips and tricks you can use to start speaking more confidently. First, we’ll look at how to find the right topics and determine which ones resonate the most with your audience. Then we’ll look at how to use logical arguments and related ideas to ensure a cohesive and fluid speech. Finally, we’ll discuss some helpful tools and techniques you can use to practice and hone your speech. By the end of this blog post, you should have a better understanding of how to unlock your topical speech patterns and become a better and more confident public speaker . Let’s get started!

Quick Insight

A topical speech pattern is a type of organizational structure used when preparing a speech . It involves arranging the ideas around a central topic or main point, which helps the speaker logically develop their points and keep the audience engaged.

Understanding Topical Speech Patterns

Understanding topical speech patterns helps to create clarity and confidence when speaking. A topical speech pattern is the way content is organized within a speech or presentation. In order to effectively communicate a message, understanding and incorporating effective topical patterns can be extremely beneficial. When structuring the content of a speech, it should follow a logical flow that will keep the audience engaged and attentive. This allows listeners to understand the message they are hearing, while also making it easier for the speaker to maintain clear thoughts. One of the most widely accepted topical speech patterns is called “ Abecedarian .” This topic structure begins by introducing a main idea or topic followed by sub-ideas or topics in alphabetical order. Additionally, this method can be used for large and small presentations and allows for easy navigation through a variety of topics. Another popular approach to organizing information into a topical pattern is called “ Chronological ”. This speaks for itself as it simply follows from one point in time to another—effectively allowing an audience to keep track of what has happened over time with respect to the particular topic. As its name implies, it has the power to fill up gaps in knowledge, especially when taking more complex considerations into account such as when discussing current events or historical landmarks. Overall, understanding how to organize topics into structured verbal forms while taking into consideration the context of certain conversations is key when speaking. It not only ensures the clarity and effectiveness of one’s words but allows them to develop confidence in their ability express themselves. Having now discussed different methods of understanding topical speech patterns, our next section describes how one can go about organizing ideas for a successful speech.

Most Important Summary Points

Topical speech patterns can help create clarity and confidence when speaking. Abecedarian is a popular pattern that involves introducing a main topic followed by sub-topics in alphabetical order. Chronological is another approach where topics are organized from one point in time to another. Organizing ideas into structured verbal forms and considering the context are key for successful speeches.

Organizing Ideas for a Speech

When preparing a speech, one of the most important steps is organizing the ideas in a logical way that conveys your point clearly and effectively. To do this you must familiarize yourself with the content of your speech, identify key points, develop supporting evidence , and choose an appropriate structure. Familiarizing Yourself with Content One of the first steps in organizing a speech is to become intimately familiar with the content. It starts with research and synthesis of the materials. As you are researching and reading, organize material into categories either through mental or physical notes. Break down complex topics or arguments so that it easier for your audience to comprehend them. Identifying Key Points Once you have done research and become well-acquainted with the content, move onto identifying key points that make up your argument. It is important to limit these key points to three to five points so they are easy to remember and follow. Prioritize these points according to strength; this allows you to focus resources where their effect will be greatest and ensure cohesiveness throughout your speech. Developing Supporting Evidence Developing supporting evidence builds credibility and enforces your argument’s relevance and power. Various pieces of evidence can be used such as quotes from authoritative sources, related statistics and facts, anecdotes, multimedia visuals and more. Utilize these pieces of evidence to explain, elaborate on and illustrate your argument’s importance without drastically changing the flow of an argument. Choosing an Appropriate Structure The structure or outline of a speech is paramount for effectively communicating one’s point(s). Choosing an appropriate structure ensures that each notion flows smoothly from one point to the next, outlines how all points contribute to an overall statement or argument, reinforces repetition for main points, clarifies any assumptions made mid-speech, adheres to a timeline, and so much more. Popular structures for speeches include chronological order, order of importance or spatial/geographical pecking order . Deciding which organization style works best depends on varying factors such as technicality of topic being discussed, time allotted for presentation, method(s) used for presentation (visuals), language proficiency among audience members as well as cultural considerations unique to each situation among many other factors. Cautious curation of these elements results in clear communication no matter the environment one finds oneself in when presenting said ideas; this subsequently provides ample opportunity for compelling presentations with vivid imagery and narrative drive whose impact resonates with both intellects and emotions alike. Now that we’ve discussed how to organize ideas within our speech let’s move onto identifying the main points – the backbone on which our argument stands firm – in the next section.

Identifying the Main Points

When preparing a speech , it is essential to identify the main points that should be comprised within the speech. The main points should be clear and concise, yet comprehensive enough to provide thorough information. A speech can typically include an introduction , body and conclusion. When identifying the main points for the introduction, think of what would be most pertinent for the audience to consider. Keep in mind what matters most to the specific audience being addressed. Be sure to include facts or relevant experiences that may attribute to the topic at hand. This will stimulate engagement from attendees and identify why the topic is important. For the body of a speech, each point should align with one another and emphasize on a unique portion of what’s being discussed. It’s important to remember to back up points with credible data and other testimonials. Providing evidence not only makes a speech more trustworthy, but allows it to be easily understood by all listeners. Additionally, leave room for any sort of discussion or questions that people may have during this portion of your presentation. Lastly, when summarizing conclusions with key takeaways, consider ways in which everyone who listened can translate what’s been shared into actionable advice or tasks. By including simple yet impactful tips or steps throughout your speech you can leave people with a lasting impression on your topic and further emphasize its significance. Overall, establishing those main points is a crucial aspect when creating an effective and successful topical speech that people witness and understand. Once you’ve identified the main points of your presentation, it’s time to connect ideas using appropriate transition phrases.

Connecting Ideas with Appropriate Transition Phrases

Transition phrases help to facilitate the flow of speech and provide listeners with a greater understanding of the speaker’s ideas. When crafting an effective speech, speakers should be mindful of their use of connecting words and phrases in order to maintain clarity and cohesion. Utilizing transition phrases can help to link the concepts discussed throughout a speech and form an organized, logical argument. Furthermore, choosing appropriate transition words allows the speaker to tailor their material to the size and complexity of the intended audience. Using appropriate connecting words is essential for providing clear and concise communication. Appropriate transition words indicate to the audience that the speaker understands how one topic relates to another. Additionally, certain types of transitions can add emphasis or emotion to a sentiment being expressed by the speaker; for example, phrases such as “in addition” or “moreover” follow up a statement whereas “for instance” provides further explanation and clarity. Whether directing debate between two sides or simply giving an individual presentation, using appropriate transition phrases is critical for speaking with clarity and confidence. Connecting with leading language helps put the listener at ease and confirms that speaker is both knowledgeable and prepared. This can assist with gaining respect from an audience, who will note an individual’s ability to eloquently string together ideas from thought-to-thought within a discussion or presentation. Finally, it important for speakers to be conscious of how they select their transitioning words within a longer timeframe as some phrases may become repetitive. Therefore, selecting different options when transitioning topics while addressing a longer timeframe can hold people’s attention more easily than returning to similar loanwords again and again throughout longer speeches or presentations. Moving onto the next section, this article will discuss adapting one’s speech for a longer timeframe.

Adapting Your Speech for a Longer Timeframe

Delivering a speech or presentation can be daunting, especially if it is going to last more than a few minutes . When speaking in front of an audience for an extended period of time, it is important to keep them engaged and make sure the energy level stays high. Here are some strategies that can help you a speaker successfully adapt their speech to a longer timeframe. First, long speeches can seem overwhelming, so consider breaking your presentation into multiple sections. This will allow you to focus on one topic at a time and make the overall structure easier for the audience to understand. Additionally, adding videos, photos, diagrams, or other visuals can enhance understanding without requiring too much additional effort from the speaker. Second, don’t forget to stay active throughout the entire presentation. Move around the stage or use gestures and facial expressions to emphasize key points. Ask questions of the audience and incorporate interactive activities when appropriate. Doing so will help keep everyone engaged and increase participation in the discussion. Third, vary your tone and delivery style as you talk about different topics. Use rich language to describe stories or anecdotes that illustrate your point. Show enthusiasm when sharing ideas or discussing statistics that may otherwise appear boring or mundane. By following these tips, speakers can ensure that their longer speeches remain engaging and interesting throughout every stage of their presentation. Finally, don’t forget to plan time for breaks between sections or even short pauses in mid-sentence to change topics or provide perspective changes. This will give both the speaker and audience a chance to rest and refocus before moving onto the next subject matter. With these strategies in hand, presenters can boost both their confidence and capabilities when giving longer speeches with more clarity and poise. Now that we have talked about adapting your speech for a longer timeframe let’s move on to the importance of keeping audiences engaged throughout these extended presentations – which will be discussed in the next section.

Keeping Audiences Engaged

When delivering a topical speech, it is important to keep your audience engaged . Engagement is key to ensure that the audience stays attentive and interested in the topic being discussed. To do this effectively, speakers can choose to engage their audience through various activities and techniques. One way to keep an audience engaged is to break up longer presentations with interactive activities. This can be done by involving the audience in a discussion, inviting them to participate in quizzes or games, or incorporating brief group exercises into your presentation. Incorporating interactive activities not only gives the audience something engaging to do, but it also helps break up the monotony of a long speech, allowing the speaker to reset their thoughts and continue on with a refreshed approach. Another way to keep an audience engaged is to use stories or anecdotes rather than simply presenting facts and figures. Storytelling allows speakers to gain their audience’s attention and provide another layer of depth and emotion to the topic being presented. Therefore, it can be especially useful when trying to convey certain emotions or feelings that are difficult for others to connect with. Finally, using multimedia elements such as videos and music can also be effective in keeping an audience engaged. These multimedia tools provide additional visuals for audiences to follow along with as well as providing a break from more traditional presentations styles. By incorporating one or more of these activities into a speech, speakers can keep their audiences engaged while ensuring they stay focused on the topic at hand. From here, they can then move onto the next section which will focus on “Sticking to Your Argument”

Sticking to Your Argument

When constructing an argument, it is important to stay focused on the point of the argument and avoid getting sidetracked. During a topical speech , speakers should strive to make logical and consistent arguments by staying on topic, avoiding conjecture or opinion. It is important to remember that while some debate or discussion can enhance a speech, making personal attacks or presenting information without a clear purpose can weaken a speaker’s argument. For those looking to debate or counter an opposing point of view, it is essential to acknowledge that there may be two sides to every argument. When presenting both sides of the story, speakers should acknowledge any points of agreement within each side but remain balanced in their presentation, so that they don’t inadvertently alienate members of either viewpoint. Ultimately, the goal should be to clearly lay out both sides of the argument objectively and logically and then defend the speaker’s point of view. In order for a speaker’s audience to follow their argument, it is crucial for them to stay on target throughout their presentation. To ensure that this remains the case, many speakers find it beneficial to form an outline with specific talking points in mind prior to delivering their speech. By having a plan in place before commencing the dialogue and periodically reminding themselves about their main arguments as they go along, speakers will better able able to maintain focus and clarity throughout their address. By utilizing these strategies for sticking to an argument throughout their presentation, topical speakers can feel more confident presenting their ideas with conviction and clarity. Now let’s take a look at tips for focusing on the topic at hand during a topical speech.

Tips for Focusing on the Topic

When it comes to speaking, it’s important to focus on the topic at hand. Focusing on the topic allows the speaker to stay on track, be concise and organized, and ensure that the presentation stays engaging and informative. There are several tips for focusing on topics during a speech or presentation. First, it is important to create an outline or roadmap of what will be discussed so as not to ramble off onto too many tangents. If there is a time limit for the presentation then, this is also important for ensuring that enough material is covered within the allotted timeframe. Second, it is essential to practice ahead of time. By practicing out loud, with others, and in front of a mirror if necessary, the speaker can become more comfortable speaking on the topic before presenting to an audience. Through preparation and repetition, the presenter can stay focused and organized. Third, when speaking in front of a large crowd it can be helpful to imagine having a conversation with one person instead of addressing a room full of people. This encourages eye contact , direct delivery, and being able to rely on natural pauses throughout the discussion instead of feeling pressured to fill silence in an uncomfortable way. Lastly, make sure to end with a strong conclusion that ties back into the main points from the beginning of the presentation or speech. This allows for closure on the topic but also ensures that all presented material was concisely covered. By following these tips for focusing on topics during speeches or presentations, speakers can keep their audiences engaged and well informed. For each section or paragraph it’s also useful for speakers to ask themselves if what they’re saying is in line with the overall message being addressed and if it’s absolutely necessary for clarification on what was presented prior. Ultimately this helps keep speakers grounded while they explore their subject matter without getting off track too often while still providing valuable information and entertainment value. To conclude this section, it’s essential that speakers focus on staying organized and knowledgeable no matter their skill level when presenting any material publicly — whether it’s a formal assembly or an informal meeting with peers. With clarity and confidence these tricks help maintain topically sound speeches that leave audiences satisfied with what was communicated. With effective topical speeches delivered effectively comes successful conclusions – which leads us into our next section: “Conclusion”.

Public speaking can be a nerve wracking endeavor, but it doesn’t have to be. Following the strategies outlined in this article can help unlock your topical speech patterns and enable you to better articulate your point of view . Clarity and confidence are key components of great public speaking, and understanding how to achieve them is essential. By focusing on the language you use, using storytelling techniques, having a clear structure, keeping your purpose at the forefront of your mind, and effectively dealing with objections, you’ll be well on your way to becoming an incredibly powerful speaker. Haivng clarity and confidence when it comes to public speaking can open up endless opportunities for you. You may find new job or educational opportunities coming your way as a result of gains in oratory ability . On the whole, it’s clear that putting effort into honing one’s public speaking abilities can have lasting positive effects. However, there is still benefit to be had from being more spontaneous when giving speeches—this can lead to more emotionally engaging talks from listeners’ perspectives. Additionally, depending on what type of presentation you’re doing, it may make sense to play off audience reactions in real-time and tailor your talk accordingly—something that a scripted speech likely won’t allow for. Ultimately, the best course of action will depend upon the nature of the event you’re presenting at and who your target audience is. In conclusion, no matter how nervous or uncomfortable with public speaking one might feel initially, honing their skillset in this area will bring far-reaching positive benefits if done consistently over time. With dedicated practice and by utilizing all the methods mentioned in this article, anyone can become an effective topical speaker capable of captivating their audience through both clarity and confidence in their delivery.

Common Questions and Answers

How is a topical speech pattern strategically employed in public speaking.

A topical speech pattern is a way of organizing information and ideas around a particular topic or idea. It is commonly used in public speaking to establish a clear structure and logic for a presentation. By setting up this structure, the speaker can better communicate their message to the audience, as well as emphasize key points. For example, one could use a topical speech pattern to discuss the various causes and effects of climate change, starting with broad causes and gradually moving towards more specific effects. This organized flow helps listeners understand the information presented and make informed decisions. Additionally, a topical speech pattern can be strategically employed in public speaking to appeal to certain audiences or support certain argumentative points; by choosing relevant topics and framing them within an organized structure, speakers can more easily make an impactful impression on their audience.

What techniques can be incorporated into a topical speech pattern?

Techniques that can be incorporated into a topical speech pattern include being well-prepared, knowing your audience , using strong body language, avoiding large volumes of text, and providing clear examples to support points. Being prepared is a key factor in delivering any speech. Before writing the speech, you should research the topic thoroughly so that your speeches have the potential to sound informed and professional. Knowing your audience is also important for delivering a successful presentation. Understanding who you are speaking to helps tailor the message to their interests and experiences and allows for more meaningful dialogue between the speaker and the audience. Using strong body language such as eye contact, appropriate gestures, posture, and facial expressions can also be beneficial for engaging with an audience. These tools help bring the speech alive and create an atmosphere of attentiveness from the audience. It is essential to avoid overwhelming your audience with too much text when giving a speech . Keep it succinct by focusing on key points and using visuals to support complex ideas, rather than relying too heavily on words. Finally, providing clear examples is an effective technique to guarantee the audience understands your point better. Providing examples gives them a better perspective of what your intended message is while helping you stay on track during the presentation.

Are there any specific examples of a topical speech pattern used in a successful speech?

Yes, there are several examples of topical speech patterns that have been used in successful speeches over the years. For example, former United States President John F. Kennedy’s iconic inaugural address focused on committing to public service and was an excellent example of how to effectively use a topical pattern. Kennedy began his speech by discussing the state of the world at the time and then proceeded to outline his personal commitment to “pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe” for the greater good of mankind. Opening with such a powerful statement set the tone for the rest of his speech which highlighted many different topical issues he wanted to discuss. Another exemplary example of a topical speech pattern is civil rights leader Martin Luther King’s famous ‘I Have A Dream’ speech. In this instance King started by reflecting on the country’s history and how far they had come while still acknowledging how much further they needed to go. He went on to introduce his vision for an equal future which was supported through poignant examples addressing various current issues including racism and segregation. This persuasive example of using a topical pattern inspired listeners across the world and greatly contributed towards social change during one of America’s most consequential moments. These two examples demonstrate how employing a topical approach in public speaking can be effective at conveying powerful ideas and inspiring others. The messages in both speeches still resonate today and remind us just how important it is to learn how to successfully use this method when crafting a meaningful presentation or dialogue.

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Chapter Nine – Organizing the Body of your Speech

Creating the Body of a Speech

In a series of important and ground-breaking studies conducted during the 1950s and 1960s, researchers started investigating how a speech’s organization was related to audience perceptions of those speeches. The first study, conducted by Raymond Smith in 1951, randomly organized the parts of a speech to see how audiences would react. Not surprisingly, when speeches were randomly organized, the audience perceived the speech more negatively than when audiences were presented with a speech with clear, intentional organization. Smith also found that audiences who listened to unorganized speeches were less interested in those speeches than audiences who listened to organized speeches (Smith, 1951). Thompson furthered this investigation and found that unorganized speeches were also harder for audiences to recall after the speech. Basically, people remember information from speeches that are clearly organized—and forget information from speeches that are poorly organized (Thompson, 1960). A third study by Baker found that when audiences were presented with a disorganized speaker, they were less likely to be persuaded, and saw the disorganized speaker as lacking credibility (Baker, 1965).

These three very important studies make the importance of organization very clear. When speakers are not organized they are not perceived as credible and their audiences view the speeches negatively, are less likely to be persuaded, and don’t remember specific information from the speeches after the fact.

We start this chapter discussing these studies because we want you to understand the importance of speech organization on real audiences. If you are not organized, your speech will never have its intended effect. In this chapter, we are going to discuss the basics of organizing the body of your speech.

Determining Your Main Ideas

Matt Wynn –  Lightbulb!  – CC BY 2.0.

When creating a speech, it’s important to remember that speeches have three clear parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The introduction establishes the topic and whets your audience’s appetite, and the conclusion wraps everything up at the end of your speech. The real “meat” of your speech happens in the body. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to think strategically about the body of your speech.

We like the word  strategic  because it refers to determining what is important or essential to the overall plan or purpose of your speech. Too often, new speakers just throw information together and stand up and start speaking. When that happens, audience members are left confused and the reason for the speech may get lost. To avoid being seen as disorganized, we want you to start thinking critically about the organization of your speech. In this section, we will discuss how to take your speech from a specific purpose to creating the main points of your speech.

What Is Your Specific Purpose?

Before we discuss how to determine the main points of your speech, we want to revisit your speech’s specific purpose. Recall that a speech can have one of three general purposes: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. The general purpose refers to the broad goal for creating and delivering the speech. The specific purpose, on the other hand, starts with one of those broad goals (inform, persuade, or entertain) and then further informs the listener about the  who ,  what ,  when ,  where ,  why , and  how  of the speech.

The specific purpose is stated as a sentence incorporating the general purpose, the specific audience for the speech, and a prepositional phrase that summarizes the topic. Suppose you are going to give a speech about using open-source software. Here are three examples (each with a different general purpose and a different audience):

In each of these three examples, you’ll notice that the general topic is the same—open-source software—but the specific purpose is different because the speech has a different general purpose and a different audience. Before you can think strategically about organizing the body of your speech, you need to know what your specific purpose is. If you have not yet written a specific purpose for your current speech, please go ahead and write one now.

From Specific Purpose to Main Points

Once you’ve written down your specific purpose, you can now start thinking about the best way to turn that specific purpose into a series of main points. Main points are the key ideas you present to enable your speech to accomplish its specific purpose. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to determine your main points and how to organize those main points into a coherent, strategic speech.

Narrowing Down Your Main Points

When you write your specific purpose and review the research you have done on your topic, you will probably find yourself thinking of quite a few points that you’d like to make in your speech. Whether that’s the case or not, we recommend taking a few minutes to brainstorm and develop a list of points. What information does your audience need to know to understand your topic? What information does your speech need to convey to accomplish its specific purpose? Consider the following example:

Now that you have brainstormed and developed a list of possible points, how do you go about narrowing them down to just two or three main ones? Remember, your main points are the key ideas that help build your speech. When you look over the preceding list, you can then start to see that many of the points are related to one another. Your goal in narrowing down your main points is to identify which individual, potentially minor points can be combined to make main points. This process is called chunking because it involves taking smaller chunks of information and putting them together with like chunks to create more fully developed chunks of information. Before reading our chunking of the preceding list, see if you can determine three large chunks out of the list (note that not all chunks are equal).

While there is no magic number for how many main points a speech should have, speech experts generally agree that the fewer the number of main points the better. First and foremost, experts on the subject of memory have consistently shown that people don’t tend to remember very much after they listen to a message or leave a conversation (Bostrom & Waldhart, 1988). While many different factors can affect a listener’s ability to retain information after a speech, how the speech is organized is an important part of that process (Dunham, 1964; Smith, 1951; Thompson, 1960). For the speeches you will be delivering in a typical public speaking class, you will usually have just two or three main points. If your speech is less than three minutes long, then two main points will probably work best. If your speech is between three and ten minutes in length, then it makes more sense to use three main points.

You may be wondering why we are recommending only two or three main points. The reason comes straight out of the research on listening. According to LeFrancois, people are more likely to remember information that is meaningful, useful, and of interest to them; different or unique; organized; visual; and simple (LeFrancois, 1999). Two or three main points are much easier for listeners to remember than ten or even five. In addition, if you have two or three main points, you’ll be able to develop each one with examples, statistics, or other forms of support. Including support for each point will make your speech more interesting and more memorable for your audience.

You may notice that in the preceding list, the number of subpoints under each of the three main points is a little disjointed or the topics don’t go together clearly. That’s all right. Remember that these are just general ideas at this point. It’s also important to remember that there is often more than one way to organize a speech. Some of these points could be left out and others developed more fully, depending on the purpose and audience. We’ll develop the preceding main points more fully in a moment.

Helpful Hints for Preparing Your Main Points

Now that we’ve discussed how to take a specific purpose and turn it into a series of main points, here are some helpful hints for creating your main points.

Uniting Your Main Points

Once you’ve generated a possible list of main points, you want to ask yourself this question: “When you look at your main points, do they fit together?” For example, if you look at the three preceding main points (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider), ask yourself, “Do these main points help my audience understand my specific purpose?”

Suppose you added a fourth main point about open-source software for musicians—would this fourth main point go with the other three? Probably not. While you may have a strong passion for open-source music software, that main point is extraneous information for the speech you are giving. It does not help accomplish your specific purpose, so you’d need to toss it out.

Keeping Your Main Points Separate

The next question to ask yourself about your main points is whether they overlap too much. While some overlap may happen naturally because of the singular nature of a specific topic, the information covered within each main point should be clearly distinct from the other main points. Imagine you’re giving a speech with the specific purpose “to inform my audience about the health reasons for eating apples and oranges.” You could then have three main points: that eating fruits is healthy, that eating apples is healthy, and that eating oranges is healthy. While the two points related to apples and oranges are clearly distinct, both of those main points would probably overlap too much with the first point “that eating fruits is healthy,” so you would probably decide to eliminate the first point and focus on the second and third. On the other hand, you could keep the first point and then develop two new points giving additional support to why people should eat fruit.

Balancing Main Points

One of the biggest mistakes some speakers make is to spend most of their time talking about one of their main points, completely neglecting their other main points. To avoid this mistake, organize your speech so as to spend roughly the same amount of time on each main point. If you find that one of your main points is simply too large, you may need to divide that main point into two main points and consolidate your other main points into a single main point.

Let’s see if our preceding example is balanced (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider). What do you think? Obviously, the answer depends on how much time a speaker will have to talk about each of these main points. If you have an hour to talk, then you may find that these three main points are balanced. However, you may also find them wildly unbalanced if you only have five minutes to speak because five minutes is not enough time to even explain what open-source software is. If that’s the case, then you probably need to rethink your specific purpose to ensure that you can cover the material in the allotted time.

Creating Parallel Structure for Main Points

Another major question to ask yourself about your main points is whether or not they have a parallel structure. By parallel structure, we mean that you should structure your main points so that they all sound similar. When all your main points sound similar, it’s simply easier for your audiences to remember your main points and retain them for later. Let’s look at our sample (school districts use software in their operations; what is open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider). Notice that the first and third main points are statements, but the second one is a question. Basically, we have an example here of main points that are not parallel in structure. You could fix this in one of two ways. You could make them all questions: what are some common school district software programs; what is open-source software; and what are some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Or you could turn them all into statements: school districts use software in their operations; define and describe open-source software; name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Either of these changes will make the grammatical structure of the main points parallel.

Maintaining Logical Flow of Main Points

The last question you want to ask yourself about your main points is whether the main points make sense in the order you’ve placed them. The next section goes into more detail of common organizational patterns for speeches, but for now we want you to just think logically about the flow of your main points. When you look at your main points, can you see them as progressive, or does it make sense to talk about one first, another one second, and the final one last? If you look at your order, and it doesn’t make sense to you, you probably need to think about the flow of your main points. Often, this process is an art and not a science. But let’s look at a couple of examples.

When you look at these two examples, what are your immediate impressions of the two examples? In the first example, does it make sense to talk about history, and then the problems, and finally how to eliminate school dress codes? Would it make sense to put history as your last main point? Probably not. In this case, the main points are in a logical sequential order. What about the second example? Does it make sense to talk about your solution, then your problem, and then define the solution? Not really! What order do you think these main points should be placed in for a logical flow? Maybe you should explain the problem (lack of rider laws), then define your solution (what is rider law legislation), and then argue for your solution (why states should have rider laws). Notice that in this example you don’t even need to know what “rider laws” are to see that the flow didn’t make sense.

Using Common Organizing Patterns

Twentyfour Students –  Organization makes you flow  – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Previously in this chapter we discussed how to make your main points flow logically. This section is going to provide you with a number of organizational patterns to help you create a logically organized speech. The first organizational pattern we’ll discuss is topical.

By far the most common pattern for organizing a speech is by categories or topics . The topical organizational pattern is a way to help the speaker arrange the message in a consistent fashion. The goal of a topical organization is to create categories (or chunks) of information that go together to help support your original specific purpose. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, we have a speaker trying to persuade a group of high school juniors to apply to attend Generic University. To persuade this group, the speaker has divided the information into three basic categories: what it’s like to live in the dorms, what classes are like, and what life is like on campus. Almost anyone could take this basic speech and specifically tailor the speech to fit their university or college. The main points in this example could be rearranged and the organizational pattern would still be effective because there is no inherent logic to the sequence of points. Let’s look at a second example.

In this speech, the speaker is talking about how to find others online and date them. Specifically, the speaker starts by explaining what Internet dating is; then the speaker talks about how to make Internet dating better for audience members; and finally, the speaker ends by discussing some negative aspects of Internet dating. Again, notice that the information is chunked into three topics and that the second and third could be reversed and still provide a logical structure for your speech

Comparison/Contrast

Another method for organizing main points is the comparison/contrast pattern. While this pattern clearly lends itself easily to two main points, you can also create a third point by giving basic information about what is being compared and what is being contrasted. Let’s look at two examples; the first one will be a two-point example and the second a three-point example.

If you were using the comparison/contrast pattern for persuasive purposes, in the preceding examples, you’d want to make sure that when you show how Drug X and Drug Y differ, you clearly state why Drug X is clearly the better choice for physicians to adopt. In essence, you’d want to make sure that when you compare the two drugs, you show that Drug X has all the benefits of Drug Y, but when you contrast the two drugs, you show how Drug X is superior to Drug Y in some way.

The spatial organizational pattern arranges information according to how things fit together in physical space. This pattern is best used when your main points are oriented to different locations that can exist independently. The basic reason to choose this format is to show that the main points have clear locations. We’ll look at two examples here, one involving physical geography and one involving a different spatial order.

If you look at a basic map of the United States, you’ll notice that these groupings of states were created because of their geographic location to one another. In essence, the states create three spatial territories to explain.

Now let’s look at a spatial speech unrelated to geography.

In this example, we still have three basic spatial areas. If you look at a model of the urinary system, the first step is the kidney, which then takes waste through the ureters to the bladder, which then relies on the sphincter muscle to excrete waste through the urethra. All we’ve done in this example is create a spatial speech order for discussing how waste is removed from the human body through the urinary system. It is spatial because the organization pattern is determined by the physical location of each body part in relation to the others discussed.

Chronological

The chronological pattern places the main idea in the time order in which items appear—whether backward or forward. Here’s a simple example.

In this example, we’re looking at the writings of Winston Churchill in relation to World War II (before, during, and after). By placing his writings into these three categories, we develop a system for understanding this material based on Churchill’s own life. Note that you could also use reverse chronological order and start with Churchill’s writings after World War II, progressing backward to his earliest writings.

Biographical

As you might guess, the biographical organizational pattern is generally used when a speaker wants to describe a person’s life—either a speaker’s own life, the life of someone they know personally, or the life of a famous person. By the nature of this speech organizational pattern, these speeches tend to be informative or entertaining; they are usually not persuasive. Let’s look at an example.

In this example, we see how Brian Warner, through three major periods of his life, ultimately became the musician known as Marilyn Manson.

In this example, these three stages are presented in chronological order, but the biographical pattern does not have to be chronological. For example, it could compare and contrast different periods of the subject’s life, or it could focus topically on the subject’s different accomplishments.

The causal pattern is used to explain cause-and-effect relationships. When you use a causal speech pattern, your speech will have two basic main points: cause and effect. In the first main point, typically you will talk about the causes of a phenomenon, and in the second main point you will then show how the causes lead to either a specific effect or a small set of effects. Let’s look at an example.

In this case, the first main point is about the history and prevalence of drinking alcohol among Native Americans (the cause). The second point then examines the effects of Native American alcohol consumption and how it differs from other population groups.

However, a causal organizational pattern can also begin with an effect and then explore one or more causes. In the following example, the effect is the number of arrests for domestic violence.

In this example, the possible causes for the difference might include stricter law enforcement, greater likelihood of neighbors reporting an incident, and police training that emphasizes arrests as opposed to other outcomes. Examining these possible causes may suggest that despite the arrest statistic, the actual number of domestic violence incidents in your city may not be greater than in other cities of similar size.

Problem-Cause-Solution

Another format for organizing distinct main points in a clear manner is the p roblem-cause-solution pattern. In this format you describe a problem, identify what you believe is causing the problem, and then recommend a solution to correct the problem.

In this speech, the speaker wants to persuade people to pass a new curfew for people under eighteen. To help persuade the civic group members, the speaker first shows that vandalism and violence are problems in the community. Once the speaker has shown the problem, the speaker then explains to the audience that the cause of this problem is youth outside after 10:00 p.m. Lastly, the speaker provides the mandatory 10:00 p.m. curfew as a solution to the vandalism and violence problem within the community. The problem-cause-solution format for speeches generally lends itself to persuasive topics because the speaker is asking an audience to believe in and adopt a specific solution.

Selecting an Organizational Pattern

Each of the preceding organizational patterns is potentially useful for organizing the main points of your speech. However, not all organizational patterns work for all speeches. For example, as we mentioned earlier, the biographical pattern is useful when you are telling the story of someone’s life. Some other patterns, particularly comparison/contrast and problem-cause-solution, are well suited for persuasive speaking. Your challenge is to choose the best pattern for the particular speech you are giving.

You should be aware that it is also possible to combine two or more organizational patterns to meet the goals of a specific speech. For example, you might wish to discuss a problem and then compare/contrast several different possible solutions for the audience. Such a speech would thus be combining elements of the comparison/contrast and problem-cause-solution patterns. When considering which organizational pattern to use, you need to keep in mind your specific purpose as well as your audience and the actual speech material itself to decide which pattern you think will work best.

Keeping Your Speech Moving

Chris Marquardt –  REWIND  – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Have you ever been listening to a speech or a lecture and found yourself thinking, “I am so lost!” or “Where the heck is this speaker going?” Chances are one of the reasons you weren’t sure what the speaker was talking about was that the speaker didn’t effectively keep the speech moving. When we are reading and encounter something we don’t understand, we have the ability to reread the paragraph and try to make sense of what we’re trying to read. Unfortunately, we are not that lucky when it comes to listening to a speaker. We cannot pick up our universal remote and rewind the person. For this reason, speakers need to really think about how they keep a speech moving so that audience members are easily able to keep up with the speech. In this section, we’re going to look at four specific techniques speakers can use that make following a speech much easier for an audience: transitions, internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Transitions between Main Points

A transition is a phrase or sentence that indicates that a speaker is moving from one main point to another main point in a speech. Basically, a transition is a sentence where the speaker summarizes what was said in one point and previews what is going to be discussed in the next point. Let’s look at some examples:

• Now that we’ve seen the problems caused by lack of adolescent curfew laws, let’s examine how curfew laws could benefit our community.
• Thus far we’ve examined the history and prevalence of alcohol abuse among Native Americans, but it is the impact that this abuse has on the health of Native Americans that is of the greatest concern.
• Now that we’ve thoroughly examined how these two medications are similar to one another, we can consider the many clear differences between the two medications.
• Although he was one of the most prolific writers in Great Britain prior to World War II, Winston Churchill continued to publish during the war years as well.

You’ll notice that in each of these transition examples, the beginning phrase of the sentence indicates the conclusion of a period of time (now that, thus far). The table below contains a variety of transition words that will be useful when keeping your speech moving.

Table 9.1  Transition Words

Beyond transitions, there are several other techniques that you can use to clarify your speech organization for your audience. The next sections address several of these techniques, including internal previews, internal summaries, and signposts.

Internal Previews

An internal preview is a phrase or sentence that gives an audience an idea of what is to come within a section of a speech. An internal preview works similarly to the preview that a speaker gives at the end of a speech introduction, quickly outlining what they will talk about (i.e., the speech’s three main body points). In an internal preview, speakers highlight what they are going to discuss within a specific main point during a speech.

Ausubel was the first person to examine the effect that internal previews had on retention of oral information (Ausubel, 1968). Essentially, when speakers clearly inform an audience what they will talk about in a clear and organized manner, the audience listens for those main points, which leads to higher retention of the speaker’s message. Let’s look at a sample internal preview:

To help us further understand why recycling is important, we will first explain the positive benefits of recycling and then explore how recycling can help our communi ty.

When an audience hears that you will be exploring two different ideas within this main point, they are ready to listen for those main points as you talk about them. In essence, you’re helping your audience keep up with your speech.

Rather than being given alone, internal previews often come after a speaker has transitioned to that main topic area. Using the previous internal preview, let’s see it along with the transition to that main point.

Now that we’ve explored the effect that a lack of consistent recycling has on our community, let’s explore the importance of recycling for our community ( transition ). To help us further understand why recycling is important, we will first explain the positive benefits of recycling and then explore how recycling can help our community ( internal preview ).

While internal previews are definitely helpful, you do not need to include one for every main point of your speech. In fact, we recommend that you use internal previews sparingly to highlight only main points containing relatively complex information.

Internal Summaries

Whereas an internal preview helps an audience know what you are going to talk about within a main point at the beginning, an internal summary is delivered to remind an audience of what they just heard within the speech. In general, internal summaries are best used when the information within a specific main point of a speech was complicated. To write your own internal summaries, look at the summarizing transition words in Table 9.1. Let’s look at an example.

To sum up, school bullying is a definite problem. Bullying in schools has been shown to be detrimental to the victim’s grades, the victim’s scores on standardized tests, and the victim’s future educational outlook.

In this example, the speaker was probably talking about the impact that bullying has on an individual victim educationally. Of course, an internal summary can also be a great way to lead into a transition to the next point of a speech.

In this section, we have explored how bullying in schools has been shown to be detrimental to the victim’s grades, the victim’s scores on standardized tests, and the victim’s future educational outlook ( internal summary ). Therefore, schools need to implement campus-wide, comprehensive antibullying programs ( transition ).

While not sounding like the more traditional transition, this internal summary helps readers summarize the content of that main point. The sentence that follows then leads to the next major part of the speech, which is going to discuss the importance of antibullying programs.

Have you ever been on a road trip and watched the green rectangular mile signs pass you by? Fifty miles to go. Twenty-five miles to go. One mile to go. Signposts within a speech function the same way. Speakers use signposts to guide their audience through the content of a speech. If you look at Table 9.1 and look at the “common sequence patterns,” you’ll see a series of possible signpost options. In essence, we use these short phrases at the beginning of a piece of information to help our audience members keep up with what we’re discussing. For example, if you were giving a speech whose main point was about the three functions of credibility, you could use internal signposts like this:

• The first function of credibility is competence.
• The second function of credibility is trustworthiness.
• The final function of credibility is caring/goodwill.

Signposts are simply meant to help your audience keep up with your speech, so the more simplistic your signposts are, the easier it is for your audience to follow.

In addition to helping audience members keep up with a speech, signposts can also be used to highlight specific information the speaker thinks is important. Where the other signposts were designed to show the way (like highway markers), signposts that call attention to specific pieces of information are more like billboards. Words and phrases that are useful for highlighting information can be found in Table 9.1 under the category “emphasis.” All these words are designed to help you call attention to what you are saying so that the audience will also recognize the importance of the information.

Note from the author, Gruber: As we have previously stated, organization is integral to your audience understanding your message, and thus, being influenced by it. A clear organizational pattern with connectives, such as transitions and summaries, creates a clear and memorable message.

Finally, we sometimes get funny looks when we suggest you write the body of your speech  before  your Introduction & Conclusion. The natural thought may be “The introduction comes first, so I should write  it first.” However, consider the objectives of the Introduction, as described in the next chapter, and you’ll understand why you should always write the body first and then  the introduction and conclusion.

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• https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-woman-lying-on-bed-while-using-laptop-4066041/
• https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-led-signage-on-the-wall-942317/

Sections of this chapter were adapted from Stand up, Speak Out: The practice and ethics of public speaking. Stand up, Speak out  by University of Minnesota is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Principles of Public Speaking Copyright © 2022 by Katie Gruber is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Review Article
• Published: 06 May 2020

Speech rhythms and their neural foundations

• David Poeppel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0184-163X 1 , 2 &
• M. Florencia Assaneo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2793-7827 2 , 3  

Nature Reviews Neuroscience volume  21 ,  pages 322–334 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The recognition of spoken language has typically been studied by focusing on either words or their constituent elements (for example, low-level features or phonemes). More recently, the ‘temporal mesoscale’ of speech has been explored, specifically regularities in the envelope of the acoustic signal that correlate with syllabic information and that play a central role in production and perception processes. The temporal structure of speech at this scale is remarkably stable across languages, with a preferred range of rhythmicity of 2– 8 Hz. Importantly, this rhythmicity is required by the processes underlying the construction of intelligible speech. A lot of current work focuses on audio-motor interactions in speech, highlighting behavioural and neural evidence that demonstrates how properties of perceptual and motor systems, and their relation, can underlie the mesoscale speech rhythms. The data invite the hypothesis that the speech motor cortex is best modelled as a neural oscillator, a conjecture that aligns well with current proposals highlighting the fundamental role of neural oscillations in perception and cognition. The findings also show motor theories (of speech) in a different light, placing new mechanistic constraints on accounts of the action–perception interface.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank O. Ghitza and J. Orpella for valuable feedback. They acknowledge the support of the Max Planck Society and NIH R01DC05660.

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Stable auditory and/or articulatory patterns that distinguish phonemes, for example ‘voicing’ in /b/ versus /p/.

Brief segments of speech that have characteristic physical or perceptual attributes.

The speech elements of a language (vowels and consonants) that encode words.

The process of chunking the continuous acoustic stream of spoken language into units.

Mapping the segmented acoustic chunks into linguistic units (phonemes, syllables or words) stored in the mental dictionary.

The alignment or merging of information computed in the auditory and (speech) motor systems.

A visualization of how the frequency composition of a signal evolves over time.

Decomposing a signal into different frequency bands defined according to the frequency response of the relevant biophysical system.

The power spectrum of noise decreases with frequency, an attribute of many biological signals.

A representation of how much energy a signal carries in each frequency band.

The set of anatomical cavities above the larynx that shape the production of speech.

Part of the roof of the oral cavity comprising connective tissue and muscle, also called the soft palate.

A basic unit of spoken language, typically comprising a vowel (energy peak) with adjoining consonants (for example, /bar/), and thus a short sequence of speech sounds.

The synchronization of brain activity to the temporal structure of a stimulus or between the activity of neural elements.

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Poeppel, D., Assaneo, M.F. Speech rhythms and their neural foundations. Nat Rev Neurosci 21 , 322–334 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-020-0304-4

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Speechwriting

9 Structure and Organization

Writing a Speech That Audiences Can Grasp

In this chapter . . .

For a speech to be effective, the material must be presented in a way that makes it not only engaging but easy for the audience to follow. Having a clear structure and a well-organized speech makes this possible. In this chapter we cover the elements of a well-structured speech, using transitions to connect each element, and patterns for organizing the order of your main points.

Have you had this experience? You have an instructor who is easy to take notes from because they help you see the main ideas and give you cues as to what is most important to write down and study for the test. On the other hand, you might have an instructor who tells interesting stories, says provocative things, and leads engaging discussions, but you have a tough time following where the instruction is going. If you’ve experienced either of these, you already know that structure and the organized presentation of material makes a big difference for listening and learning. The structure is like a house, which has essential parts like a roof, walls, windows, and doors. Organization is like the placement of rooms within the house, arranged for a logical and easy flow.

This chapter will teach you about creating a speech through an outlining process that involves structure and organization. In the earlier chapter Ways of Delivering Speeches , you learned about several different modes of speech delivery: impromptu, extemporaneous, and manuscript. Each of these suggests a different kind of speech document. An impromptu speech will have a very minimal document or none at all. An extemporaneous delivery requires a very thorough outline, and a manuscript delivery requires a fully written speech text. Here’s a crucial point to understand: Whether you plan to deliver extemporaneously or from a fully written text. The process of outlining is crucial. A manuscript is simply a thorough outline into which all the words have been written.

Four Elements of a Structured Speech

A well-structured speech has four distinct elements: introduction, body, connective statements, and conclusion. While this sounds simple, each of these elements has sub-elements and nuances that are important to understand. Introductions and conclusions are complex enough to warrant their own chapter and will be discussed in depth further on.

Introduction and Conclusion

The importance of a good introduction cannot be overstated. The clearer and more thorough the introduction, the more likely your audience will listen to the rest of the speech and not “turn off.” An introduction, which typically occupies 10-15% of your entire speech, serves many functions including getting the audience’s attention, establishing your credibility, stating your thesis, and previewing your main points.

Like an introduction, speech conclusions are essential. They serve the function of reiterating the key points of your speech and leave the audience with something to remember.

The elements of introductions and conclusions will be discussed in the following chapter. The remainder of this chapter is devoted to the body of the speech and its connectors.

The Body of a Speech

The body of a speech is comprised of several distinct groups of related information or arguments. A proper group is one where a) the group can be described in a single clear sentence, and b) there’s a logical relationship between everything within it. We call that describing sentence a main point . Speeches typically have several main points, all logically related to the thesis/central idea of the speech. Main points are followed by explanation, elaboration, and supporting evidence that are called  sub-points .

Main Points

A main point in a speech is a complete sentence that states the topic for information that is logically grouped together. In a writing course, you may have learned about writing a paragraph topic sentence. This is typically the first sentence of a paragraph and states the topic of the paragraph. Speechwriting is similar. Whether you’re composing an essay with a paragraph topic sentences or a drafting a speech with main points, everything in the section attached to the main point should logically pertain to it. If not, then the information belongs under a different main point. Let’s look at an example of three main points:

General Purpose: To persuade

Specific Purpose: To motivate my classmates in English 101 to participate in a study abroad program.

Thesis: A semester-long study abroad experience produces lifelong benefits by teaching you about another culture, developing your language skills, and enhancing your future career prospects.

Main point #1: A study abroad experience allows you to acquire firsthand experience of another culture through classes, extra-curricular activities, and social connections.

Main point #2: You’ll turbocharge your acquisition of second language skills through an immersive experience living with a family.

Main point #3: A study abroad experience on your resume shows that you have acquired the kind of language and cultural skills that appeal to employers in many sectors.

Notice that each main point is expressed in a complete sentence, not merely #1 Culture; #2 Language; #3 Career. One-word signals are useless as a cue for speaking. Additionally, students are often tempted to write main points as directions to themselves, “Talk about the health department” or “Mention the solution.” This isn’t helpful for you, either. Better: “The health department provides many services for low-income residents” says something we can all understand.

Finally, the important thing to understand about speechwriting is that listeners have limits as to how many categories of information they can keep in mind. The number of main points that can be addressed in any speech is determined by the time allotted for a speech but is also affected by the fact that speeches are limited in their ability to convey substantial amounts of information. For a speech of five to seven minutes, three or four main points are usually enough. More than that would be difficult to manage—for both speaker and audience.

Obviously, creating your main points isn’t the end of the story. Each main point requires additional information or reinforcement. We call these sub-points. Sub-points provide explanation, detail, elaboration, and/or supporting evidence. Consider main point #1 in the previous example, now with sub-points:

Sub-point A: How a country thinks about education is a window into the life of that culture. While on a study abroad program, you’ll typically take 3-5 classes at foreign universities, usually with local professors. This not only provides new learning, but it opens your eyes to different modes of education.

Sub-point B: Learning about a culture isn’t limited to the classroom. Study abroad programs include many extra-curricular activities that introduce you to art, food, music, sports, and other everyday elements of a country’s culture. These vary depending on the program and there’s something for everyone! The website gooverseas.com provides information on hundreds of programs.

Sub-point C: The opportunity to socialize with peers in other countries is one of most attractive elements of studying abroad. You may form friendships that will last a lifetime. “I have made valuable connections in a country I hope to return to someday” according to a blog post by Rachel Smith, a student at the University of Kansas. [1]

Notice that each of these sub-points pertains to the main point. The sub-points contribute to the main point by providing explanation, detail, elaboration, and/or supporting evidence. Now imagine you had a fourth sub-point:

Sub-point D: And while doing all that socializing, you’ll really improve your language skills.

Does that sub-point belong to main point #1? Or should it be grouped with main point#2 or main point #3?

Connective Statements

Connectives or “connective statements” are broad terms that encompass several types of statements or phrases. They are designed to help “connect” parts of your speech to make it easier for audience members to follow. Connectives are tools that add to the planned redundancy, and they are methods for helping the audience listen, retain information, and follow your structure. In fact, it’s one thing to have a well-organized speech. It’s another for the audience to be able to “consume” or understand that organization.

Connectives in general perform several functions:

• Remind the audience of what has come before
• Remind the audience of the central focus or purpose of the speech
• Forecast what is coming next
• Help the audience have a sense of context in the speech—where are we?
• Explain the logical connection between the previous main idea(s) and next one or previous sub-points and the next one
• Explain your own mental processes in arranging the material as you have
• Keep the audience’s attention through repetition and a sense of movement

Connective statement can include “internal summaries,” “internal previews” “signposts” and “bridging or transition statements.” Each of these helps connect the main ideas of your speech for the audience, but they have different emphases and are useful for different types of speeches.

Types of connectives and examples

Internal summaries emphasize what has come before and remind the audience of what has been covered.

“So far I have shown how the designers of King Tut’s burial tomb used the antechamber to scare away intruders and the second chamber to prepare royal visitors for the experience of seeing the sarcophagus.”

Internal previews let your audience know what is coming up next in the speech and what to expect regarding the content of your speech.

“In this next part of the presentation I will share with you what the truly secret and valuable part of the King Tut’s pyramid: his burial chamber and the treasury.”

Signposts emphasize physical movement through the speech content and let the audience know exactly where they are. Signposting can be as simple as “First,” “Next,” “Lastly” or numbers such as “First,” “Second,” Third,” and “Fourth.” Signposting is meant to be a brief way to let your audience know where they are in the speech. It may help to think of these like the mile markers you see along interstates that tell you where you’re and how many more miles you will travel until you reach your destination.

“The second aspect of baking chocolate chip cookies is to combine your ingredients in the recommended way.”

Bridging or transition statements emphasize moving the audience psychologically to the next step.

“I have mentioned two huge disadvantages to students who don’t have extracurricular music programs. Let me ask: Is that what we want for our students? If not, what can we do about it?”

They can also serve to connect seemingly disconnected (but related) material, most commonly between your main points.

“After looking at how the Cherokee Indians of the North Georgia mountain region were politically important until the 1840s and the Trail of Tears, we can compare their experience with that of the Indians of Central Georgia who did not assimilate in the same way as the Cherokee.”

At a minimum, a bridge or transition statement is saying, “Now that we have looked at (talked about, etc.) X, let’s look at Y.”

There’s no standard format for connectives. However, there are a few pieces of advice to keep in mind about them:

First, connectives are for connecting main points. They are not for providing evidence, statistics, stories, examples, or new factual information for the supporting points of the main ideas of the speech.

Second, while connectives in essay writing can be relatively short—a word or phrase, in public speaking, connectives need to be a sentence or two. When you first start preparing and practicing connectives, you may feel that you’re being too obvious with them, and they are “clunky.” Some connectives may seem to be hitting the audience over the head with them like a hammer. While it’s possible to overdo connectives, it’s less likely than you would think. The audience will appreciate them, and as you listen to your classmates’ speeches, you’ll become aware of when they are present and when they are absent.

Lack of connectives results in hard-to-follow speeches where the information seems to come up unexpectedly or the speaker seems to jump to something new without warning or clarification.

Finally, you’ll also want to vary your connectives and not use the same one all the time. Remember that there are several types of connectives.

Patterns of Organization

At the beginning of this chapter, you read the analogy that a speech structure is like a house and organization is like the arrangement of the rooms. So far, we have talked about structure. The introduction, body, main point, sub-point, connectives—these are the house. But what about the arrangement of the rooms? How will you put your main points in a logical order?

There are some standard ways of organizing the body of a speech. These are called “patterns of organization.” In each of the examples below, you’ll see how the specific purpose gives shape to the organization of the speech and how each one exemplifies one of the six main organizational patterns.

Please note that these are simple, basic outlines for example purposes. The actual content of the speech outline or manuscript will be much further developed.

Chronological Pattern

Specific Purpose: To describe to my classmates the four stages of rehabilitation in addiction recovery.

Main Points:

• The first stage is acknowledging the problem and entering treatment.
• The second stage is early abstinence, a difficult period in the rehabilitation facility.
• The third stage is maintaining abstinence after release from the rehab facility.
• The fourth stage is advanced recovery after a period of several years.

The example above uses what is termed the chronological pattern of organization . Chronological always refers to time order. Organizing your main points chronologically is usually appropriate for process speeches (how-to speeches) or for informational speeches that emphasize how something developed from beginning to end. Since the specific purpose in the example above is about stages, it’s necessary to put the four stages in the right order. It would make no sense to put the fourth stage second and the third stage first.

Chronological time can be long or short. If you were giving a speech about the history of the Civil Rights Movement, that period would cover several decades; if you were giving a speech about the process of changing the oil in a car, that process takes less than an hour. Whether the time is long or short, it’s best to avoid a simple, chronological list of steps or facts. A better strategy is to put the information into three to five groups so that the audience has a framework. It would be easy in the case of the Civil Rights Movement to list the many events that happened over more than two decades, but that could be overwhelming for the audience. Instead, your chronological “grouping” might be:

• The movement saw African Americans struggling for legal recognition before the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision.
• The movement was galvanized and motivated by the 1955-1956 Montgomery Bus Boycott.
• The movement saw its goals met in the Civil Rights Act of 1965.

In this way, the chronological organization isn’t an overwhelming list of events. It focuses the audience on three events that pushed the Civil Rights movement forward.

Spatial Pattern

You can see that chronological is a highly-used organizational structure, since one of the ways our minds work is through time-orientation—past, present, future. Another common thought process is movement in space or direction, which is called the spatial pattern . For example:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the three regional cooking styles of Italy.

• In the mountainous region of the North, the food emphasizes cheese and meat.
• In the middle region of Tuscany, the cuisine emphasizes grains and olives.
• In the southern region and Sicily, the diet is based on fish and seafood.

In this example, the content is moving from northern to southern Italy, as the word “regional” would indicate. For a more localized example:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the layout of the White House.

• The East Wing includes the entrance ways and offices for the First Lady.
• The most well-known part of the White House is the West Wing.
• The residential part of the White House is on the second floor. (The emphasis here is the movement a tour would go through.)

For an even more localized example:

Specific Purpose: To describe to my Anatomy and Physiology class the three layers of the human skin.

• The outer layer is the epidermis, which is the outermost barrier of protection.
• The second layer beneath is the dermis.
• The third layer closest to the bone is the hypodermis, made of fat and connective tissue.

Topical / Parts of the Whole Pattern

The topical organizational pattern is probably the most all-purpose, in that many speech topics could use it. Many subjects will have main points that naturally divide into “types of,” “kinds of,” “sorts of,” or “categories of.” Other subjects naturally divide into “parts of the whole.” However, as mentioned previously, you want to keep your categories simple, clear, distinct, and at five or fewer.

Specific Purpose: To explain to my first-year students the concept of SMART goals.

• SMART goals are specific and clear.
• SMART goals are measurable.
• SMART goals are attainable or achievable.
• SMART goals are relevant and worth doing.
• SMART goals are time-bound and doable within a time period.

Specific Purpose: To explain the four characteristics of quality diamonds.

• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of cut.
• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of carat.
• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of color.
• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of clarity.

Specific Purpose: To describe to my audience the four main chambers of a human heart.

• The first chamber in the blood flow is the right atrium.
• The second chamber in the blood flow is the right ventricle.
• The third chamber in the blood flow is the left atrium.
• The fourth chamber in the blood flow and then out to the body is the left ventricle.

At this point in discussing organizational patterns and looking at these examples, two points should be made about them and about speech organization in general:

First, you might look at the example about the chambers of the heart and say, “But couldn’t that be chronological, too, since that’s the order of the blood flow procedure?” Yes, it could. There will be times when a specific purpose could work with two different organizational patterns. In this case, it’s just a matter of emphasis. This speech emphasizes the anatomy of the heart, and the organization is “parts of the whole.” If the speech’s specific purpose were “To explain to my classmates the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart,” the organizational pattern would emphasize chronological, altering the pattern.

Another principle of organization to think about when using topical organization is “climax” organization. That means putting your strongest argument or most important point last when applicable. For example:

Specific purpose: To defend before my classmates the proposition that capital punishment should be abolished in the United States.

• Capital punishment does not save money for the justice system.
• Capital punishment does not deter crime in the United States historically.
• Capital punishment has resulted in many unjust executions.

In most people’s minds, “unjust executions” is a bigger reason to end a practice than the cost, since an unjust execution means the loss of an innocent life and a violation of our principles. If you believe Main Point III is the strongest argument of the three, putting it last builds up to a climax.

Cause & Effect Pattern

If the specific purpose mentions words such as “causes,” “origins,” “roots of,” “foundations,” “basis,” “grounds,” or “source,” it’s a causal order; if it mentions words such as “effects,” “results,” “outcomes,” “consequences,” or “products,” it’s effect order. If it mentions both, it would of course be cause/effect order. This example shows a cause/effect pattern:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the causes and effects of schizophrenia.

• Schizophrenia has genetic, social, and environmental causes.
• Schizophrenia has educational, relational, and medical effects.

Problem-Solution Pattern

The principle behind the problem-solution pattern is that if you explain a problem to an audience, you shouldn’t leave them hanging without solutions. Problems are discussed for understanding and to do something about them. This is why the problem-solution pattern is often used for speeches that have the objective of persuading an audience to take action.

When you want to persuade someone to act, the first reason is usually that something needs fixing. Let’s say you want the members of the school board to provide more funds for music at the three local high schools in your county. What is missing because music or arts are not funded? What is the problem ?

Specific Purpose: To persuade the members of the school board to take action to support the music program at the school.

• Students who don’t have extracurricular music in their lives have lower SAT scores.
• Schools that don’t have extracurricular music programs have more gang violence and juvenile delinquency.
• $120,000 would go to bands.
• $80,000 would go to choral programs.

Of course, this is a simple outline, and you would need to provide evidence to support the arguments, but it shows how the problem-solution pattern works.

Psychologically, it makes more sense to use problem-solution rather than solution-problem. The audience will be more motivated to listen if you address needs, deficiencies, or problems in their lives rather than giving them solutions first.

Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

A variation of the problem-solution pattern, and one that sometimes requires more in-depth exploration of an issue, is the “problem-cause-solution” pattern. If you were giving a speech on the future extinction of certain animal species, it would be insufficient to just explain that numbers of species are about to become extinct. Your second point would logically have to explain the cause behind this happening. Is it due to climate change, some type of pollution, encroachment on habitats, disease, or some other reason? In many cases, you can’t really solve a problem without first identifying what caused the problem.

Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that the age to obtain a driver’s license in the state of Georgia should be raised to 18.

• There’s a problem in this country with young drivers getting into serious automobile accidents leading to many preventable deaths.
• One of the primary causes of this is younger drivers’ inability to remain focused and make good decisions due to incomplete brain development.
• One solution that will help reduce the number of young drivers involved in accidents would be to raise the age for obtaining a driver’s license to 18.

Some Additional Principles of Speech Organization

It’s possible that you may use more than one of these organizational patterns within a single speech. You should also note that in all the examples to this point (which have been kept simple for the purpose of explanation), each main point is relatively equal in emphasis; therefore, the time spent on each should be equal as well. You would not want your first main point to be 30 seconds long, the second one to be 90 seconds, and the third 3 minutes. For example:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the rules of baseball.

• Baseball has rules about equipment.
• Baseball has rules about the numbers of players.
• Baseball has rules about play.

Main Point #2 isn’t really equal in size to the other two. There’s a great deal you could say about equipment and even more about the rules of playing baseball, but the number of players would take you about ten seconds to say. If Main Point #2 were “Baseball has rules about the positions on the field,” that would make more sense and be closer in level of importance to the other two.

The organization of your speech may not be the most interesting part to think about, but without it, great ideas will seem jumbled and confusing to your audience. Even more, good connectives will ensure your audience can follow you and understand the logical connections you’re making with your main ideas. Finally, because your audience will understand you better and perceive you as organized, you’ll gain more credibility as a speaker if you’re organized. A side benefit to learning to be an organized public speaker is that your writing skills will improve, specifically your organization and sentence structure.

Roberto is thinking about giving an informative speech on the status of HIV-AIDS currently in the U.S. He has different ideas about how to approach the speech. Here are his four main thoughts:

• pharmaceutical companies making drugs available in the developing world
• changes in attitudes toward HIV-AIDS and HIV-AIDS patients over the last three decades
• how HIV affects the body of a patient
• major breakthroughs in HIV-AIDS treatment

Assuming all these subjects would be researchable and appropriate for the audience, write specific purpose statements for each. What organizational patterns would he probably use for each specific purpose?

Media Attributions

• Speech Structure Flow © Mechele Leon is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
• Connectives
• https://blog-college.ku.edu/tag/study-abroad-stories/ ↵

Public Speaking as Performance Copyright © 2023 by Mechele Leon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Module 6: Organizing and Outlining Your Speech

Chronological, step-by-step, and spatial organization, learning objectives.

Explain the chronological, step-by-step, and spatial patterns for speeches and identify which topics work best for these types.

We can think of speeches organized chronologically, step by step, or spatially as following a “natural” or self-evident structure. When you’re talking about a process, for instance, walking the audience through the process step by step seems like a logical or natural choice.

Remember, though, that even if your speech is structured in a “natural” sequence, you still need an introduction that helps the listener understand why they’re listening to this story. Imagine that a friend is going to tell you a story about something that happened to them that day. First, let’s imagine that they start the story with “Something really funny happened to me . . . .” What are you listening for in the story? Now imagine if they started the story with “I’m really upset because of something that happened today.” Or “I really need your advice. Here’s what happened . . . .” With each of these different beginnings, we listen in a different way. In the first case, we’re primed to laugh; in the second, we get ready to offer comfort and sympathy; in the third, we’re prepared to problem solve. The same is true of the beginning of your speech: by setting the stage with the introduction or the “hook,” you’re letting the listener know what they’re listening for and how they should listen.

Chronological

A persuasive speech about Climate Change might describe the predicted effects of global warming in chronological order.

A chronologically organized speech pattern organizes its main points following a sequence of events or occurrences according to the time they took place. This structure works particularly well for informative and introductory speeches. For example, an introductory speech about the life events that lead you to attend your college could be organized chronologically starting with the first meeting with your guidance counselor, which lead to filling out an application a few weeks later to then drafting an essay, going on a campus tour a few months after that, having an interview with the department, and then finally getting the acceptance letter. Another example of a chronological speech topic would be a speech about a historical event, such as the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, the Boxer Rebellion, or the Arab Spring, which covers the events that occurred in the order in which they happened.

The advantages of a chronological speech pattern are that it is very easy to follow and it creates a clean, clear order. The timeline does the organizational work for the speaker and makes it easy to use. The cons are that there may be many events that occurred, such as in a speech topic about women getting the right to vote, which may not fit into the speech delivery time limit. So, consider the time allotted in addition to whether the time sequence of events is the most effective way to present the material before selecting this pattern.

Step-by-Step

An informative speech about Salsa dancing might give step-by-step instructions.

This pattern presents the steps involved in doing something and is useful for “how-to” or demonstration speeches where you are teaching or showing how to do a task. It follows the order of a process. For example, the steps involved in baking a cake, a speech demonstrating the dance steps required to do the Macarena, or how to create a PowerPoint presentation would use a step-by-step structure.

The advantage of this organizational pattern is that it breaks the task into small pieces for the audience. It allows them to see the process of doing something so that they may be able to do it themselves. The disadvantage of this pattern is that it can be tedious or repetitious if listeners are already very familiar with some of the steps in the process. With this organizational pattern, it’s particularly important to know how much prior knowledge of the process your audience already has.

An informative speech about the International Space Station might use a spatial organization pattern, giving the listeners a tour of each part of the station as though they were moving through it.

A spatial pattern organizes each main point in a directional structure, connecting each main point to a whole. This structure is used for informative speeches where the topic is organized by location, geography, or moving through a space (“spatial” is the adjective form of “space”). For example, a speech about the parts of a resume might move in order from the top section to the bottom section. A speech about the regional cuisine of Germany might move from the Northwest region in a clockwise direction around the country. A speech about a building might start at the front doors and end on the roof. A speech about the pathway of Hurricane Sandy would include the geography showing the path moving from south to north east.

The spatial pattern is particularly useful if you want your listeners to be able to visualize an entire place or a complex object, since it moves between the part and the whole in a visual way. If you want your audience to visualize the Statue of Liberty, for instance, you might describe it spatially from top to bottom, rather than telling the story of its construction (chronological) or talking about the various things it has come to symbolize (topical).

To Watch: Beth Harris and Steven Zucker, “Diego Rivera, Man Controller of the Universe”

Spatial organizational patterns are often used to describe artworks and architecture. In this short video, art historians Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker discuss Diego Rivera’s 1934 fresco mural  Man, Controller of the Universe  in the Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City. The first part of the video is organized topically and chronologically, covering some of the major themes of the mural and the circumstances surrounding its creation. At around 3:25 in the video, Zucker says, “Let’s take a closer look at [the mural]”, and the two art historians discuss each part of the mural in sequence starting with the figure in the center. The spatial organization of their description is based on the visual structure of the painting; since the painting is largely symmetrical, Harris and Zucker describe the center, then the upper left and upper right, then the middle left and middle right, then the bottom left and bottom right.

You can view the transcript for “Diego Rivera, Man Controller of the Universe” here (opens in new window) .

What to watch for:

Note how Harris and Zucker end their tour of the artwork with broader thoughts about what we can learn from it: “We’re still very much at these crossroads. Technology is ever more important in our lives. What will technology bring us? A more egalitarian society, a world where everyone can be educated? Or will it bring greater inequality? These are still things debated today. We are still grappling with the increasing power of the tools that we have built, the power that technology has given us, and the choices that we make in terms of how we wield that power.” Whatever organizational pattern you use, it’s always crucial to bring the discussion around to something the audience can take away—a new insight, a new perspective, or a new way of framing a problem.

• ISS blueprint. Authored by : Daniel Molybdenum/NASA/Roscosmos, with the help of John Chryslar and others. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station#/media/File:ISS_blueprint.png . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• Salsa steps. Authored by : Florian Hoffmann. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salsa_(dance)#/media/File:Salsa_Basic_Steps,_LA-style.png . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Acqua alta in Piazza San Marco. Authored by : Wolfgang Moroder. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change#/media/File:Acqua_alta_in_Piazza_San_Marco-original.jpg . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Diego Rivera, Man Controller of the Universe. Authored by : Smarthistory. Located at : https://youtu.be/1mzQDfK3A5Q . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Chronological, Step by Step, and Spatial Organization. Authored by : Susan Bagley-Koyle with Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Chronological, Step by Step, and Spatial Organization. Authored by : Misti Wills with Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

Speech Patterns: Uptalking

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Uptalk is a  speech pattern in which phrases and sentences habitually end with a rising sound, as if the statement were a question . Also known as upspeak, high-rising terminal (HRT), high-rising tone, valley girl speech, Valspeak, talking in questions, rising intonation, upward inflection, interrogatory statement, and Australian Question Intonation (AQI).

The term uptalk was introduced by journalist James Gorman in an "On Language" column in The New York Times, August 15, 1993. However, the speech pattern itself was first recognized in Australia and the U.S. at least two decades earlier.

Examples and Observations

"'I've got the next run at that software thing. I thought you might like to have a look?' "Mark here was using upspeak, ending on an upward inclination, making what he said nearly a question but not quite." (John Lanchester, Capital . W.W. Norton, 2012)

"HRT stands for high-rise terminals. What did you think I meant? It's the technical term for 'uptalk' --the way kids speak so that every sentence ends with an interrogative tone so that it sounds like a question even when it's a statement? Like that, in fact. . . . "While we were on holiday in the US this summer, my kids spent two weeks at that great American childhood institution: camp. "'So what did you do today?' I'd ask my daughter at collection time. "'Well, we went canoeing on the lake? Which was, like, really really fun? And then we had storytelling in the barn? And we all had to tell a story about, like, where we're from or our family or something?' "Yep, she was uptalking." (Matt Seaton, The Guardian , Sep. 21, 2001)

Interpreting Uptalk (Politeness Strategies)

"[Penelope] Eckert and [Sally] McConnell-Ginet [in Language and Gender , 2003] discuss the use of questioning intonation on statements, often termed uptalk or upspeak. They suggest that the high-rise terminal, which characterises 'Valley Girl" speech, the speech style of young women primarily in California, is often analysed as a signal that those who use it do not know what they are talking about, since statements are transformed by this intonational pattern into what sound like questions. Rather than accepting this negative view of uptalk, Eckert and McConnell-Ginet suggest that questioning intonation may simply signal that the person is not giving the final word on the matter, that they are open to the topic continuing, or even that they are not yet ready to cede their turn." (Sara Mills and Louise Mullany, Language, Gender and Feminism: Theory, Methodology and Practice . Routledge, 2011)

Purposes of Uptalk

"Some speakers--especially women--deploy seemingly random question marks to hold the floor and fend off interruptions. Powerful people of both genders use it to coerce their underlings and build consensus. Penelope Eckert, a linguist at Stanford University, says one of her students observed Jamba Juice (JMBA) customers and found that fathers of undergraduates scored as the biggest uptalkers. 'They were being polite and trying to mitigate their male authoritativeness,' she says." (Caroline Winter, "Is It Useful to Sound Like an Idiot?" Bloomberg Businessweek , April 24-May 4, 2014) "One theory as to why simple declarative statements sound like questions is that in many cases, they actually are. English is a notoriously woolly language, full of ways to say one thing and mean another. The use of uptalk could be a way to subconsciously hint that a simple statement such as 'I think we should choose the left hand turn?' has a hidden meaning. Implicit within the sentence is a question: 'Do you also think we should choose the left hand turn?'" ("The Unstoppable March of the Upward Inflection?" BBC News , August 10, 2014)

Uptalk in Australian English

"Perhaps the most recognizable intonational feature in an accent is the occurrence of high-rising terminals (HRTs) associated with Australian English. Put simply, a high-rising terminal means that there is a noticeable high rise in pitch at the end (terminal) of an utterance . Such an intonation is typical of interrogative syntax (questions) in many English accents, but in Australian, these HRTs also occur in declarative sentences (statements). This is why Australians (and others who have taken up this way of talking) can sound (at least to non-HRT speakers) like they are either always asking questions or are in constant need of confirmation . . .."(Aileen Bloomer, Patrick Griffiths, and Andrew John Merrison, Introducing Language in Use . Routledge, 2005)

Uptalk Among Young People

"Negative attitudes to uptalk are not new. In 1975, the linguist Robin Lakoff drew attention to the pattern in her book Language and Women's Place , which argued that women were socialized to talk in ways that lacked power, authority, and confidence. Rising intonation on declarative sentences was one of the features Lakoff included in her description of 'women's language,' a gendered speech style which in her view both reflected and reproduced its users' subordinate social status. More than two decades later, the rising intonation pattern can be observed among younger speakers of both sexes . . .. "The US uptalk pattern differentiates younger from older speakers. In the British case it is debated whether the increasing use of rising intonation on declaratives is an innovation modeled on recent/current usage in the US or whether the model is Australian English, where the feature was well established even earlier." (Deborah Cameron, Working With Spoken Discourse . Sage, 2001)

• Intonation Contour in English Speech
• An Introduction to Declarative Questions
• Intonation Phrases in Phonetics
• What is a Question?
• Definition and Examples of Major and Minor Moods in English Grammar
• Intonation Definition and Examples in Speech
• 9 Very Important Russian Grammar Rules
• Understanding English Pronunciation Concepts
• Direct Question in Grammar
• Gender (Sociolinguistics)
• Social Dialect or Sociolect Definition and Examples
• Phonetic Prosody
• Echo Question in Language
• Style-shifting (language)
• Asking Questions in Spanish
• Suprasegmental Definition and Examples

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6.2: Patterns of Organization

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• Kris Barton & Barbara G. Tucker
• Florida State University & University of Georgia via GALILEO Open Learning Materials

At this point, then, you should see how much your audience needs organization. You also know that as you do research, you will group together similar pieces of information from different sources in your research. As you group your research information, you will want to make sure that your content is adhering to your specific purpose statement and will look for ways that your information can be grouped together into categories.

Interestingly, there are some standard ways of organizing these categories, which are called “patterns of organization.” In each of the examples below, you will see how the specific purpose gives shape to the organization of the speech and how each one exemplifies one of the six main organizational patterns. In each example, only the three to five main sections or “points” (Roman numerals) are given, without the other essential parts of the outline. Please note that these are simple, basic outlines for example purposes, and your instructor will of course expect much more content from the outline you submit for class.

Chronological

Specific Purpose: To describe to my classmates the four stages of rehabilitation in addiction recovery.

• The first stage is acknowledging the problem and entering treatment.
• The second stage is early abstinence, a difficult period in the rehabilitation facility.
• The third stage is maintaining abstinence after release from the rehab facility.
• The fourth stage is advanced recovery after a period of several years.

The example above uses what is termed the chronological pattern of organization . Chronological always refers to time order. Since the specific purpose is about stages, it is necessary to put the four stages in the right order. It would make no sense to put the fourth stage second and the third stage first. However, chronological time can be long or short. If you were giving a speech about the history of the Civil Rights Movement, that period would cover several decades; if you were giving a speech about the process to change the oil in your car, that process takes less than an hour. The process described in the speech example above would also be long term, that is, one taking several years. The commonality is the order of the information.

In addition, chronological speeches that refer to processes can be given for two reasons. First, they can be for understanding. The speech about recovery is to explain what happens in the addiction recovery process, but the actual process may never really happen to the audience members. That understanding may also lead them to more empathy for someone in recovery. Second, chronological or process speeches can be for action and instruction. For a speech about changing the oil in a car, your purpose is that the audience could actually change the oil in their cars after listening to the speech.

One of the problems with chronological speeches is, as mentioned before, that you would not want just a list of activities. It is important to chunk the information into three to five groups so that the audience has a framework. For example, in a speech about the history of the Civil Rights Movement, your “grouping” or “chunking” might be:

• The movement saw African-Americans struggling for legal recognition before the Brown v. Board of Education decision.
• The movement was galvanized and motivated by the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
• The movement saw its goals met in the Civil Rights Act of 1965.

It would be easy in the case of the Civil Rights Movement to list the many events that happened over more than two decades, but that could be overwhelming for the audience. In this outline, the audience is focused on the three events that pushed it forward, rather than the persons involved in the movement. You could give a speech with a focus on people, but it would be different and probably less chronological and more topical (see below).

We should say here that, realistically, the example given above is still too broad. It would be useful, perhaps, for an audience with almost no knowledge of the Civil Rights Movement, but too basic and not really informative for other audiences. One of the Roman numeral points would probably be a more specific focus.

You can see that chronological is a highly-used organizational structure, since one of the ways our minds work is through time-orientation—past, present, future. Another common thought process is movement in space or direction, which is called the spatial pattern . For example:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the three regional cooking styles of Italy.

• In the mountainous region of the North, the food emphasizes cheese and meat.
• In the middle region of Tuscany, the cuisine emphasizes grains and olives.
• In the southern region and Sicily, the diet is based on fish and seafood. In this example, the content is moving from northern to southern Italy, as the word “regional” would indicate. Here is a good place to note that grouping or “chunking” in a speech helps simplicity, and to meet the principle of KISS (Keep It Simple, Speaker). If you were to actually study Italian cooking in depth, sources will say there are twenty regions. But “covering” twenty regions in a speech is not practical, and while the regions would be distinct for a “foodie” or connoisseur of Italian cooking, for a beginner or general audience, three is a good place to start. You could at the end of the speech note that more in-depth study would show the twenty regions, but that in your speech you have used three regions to show the similarities of the twenty regions rather than the small differences.

For a more localized example:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the layout of King Tut’s pyramid.

• The first chamber of the tomb was antechamber.
• The second chamber of the tomb was the annex.
• The third chamber of the tomb was the burial chamber.
• The last chamber of the tomb was the treasury. (Lucas, 2012)

For an even more localized example:

Specific Purpose: To describe to my Anatomy and Physiology class the three layers of the human skin.

• The outer layer is the epidermis, which is the outermost barrier of protection.
• The second layer beneath is the dermis.
• The third layer closest to the bone is the hypodermis, made of fat and connective tissue.

The key to spatial organization is to be logical in progression rather than jumping around, as in this example:

• The Native Americans of Middle Georgia were primarily the Creek nation.
• The Native Americans of North Georgia were of the Cherokee tribe nation.
• The Native Americans of South Georgia were mostly of the Hitchiti and Oconee tribes.

It makes more sense to start at the top (north) of the state and move down (south) or start at the bottom and move up rather than randomly discuss unconnected areas.

Topical/Parts of the Whole

The topical organizational pattern is probably the most all-purpose in that many speech topics could use it. Many subjects will have main points that naturally divide into “types of,” “kinds of,” “sorts of,” or “categories of.” Other subjects naturally divide into “parts of the whole.” However, as mentioned previously, you want to keep your categories simple, clear, distinct, and at five or fewer.

Specific Purpose: To explain to my freshmen students the concept of SMART goals.

• SMART goals are specific and clear.
• SMART goals are measurable.
• SMART goals are attainable or achievable.
• SMART goals are relevant and worth doing.
• SMART goals are time-bound and doable within a time period.

Specific Purpose: To explain the four characteristics of quality diamonds.

• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of cut.
• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of carat.
• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of color.
• Valuable diamonds have the characteristic of clarity

Specific Purpose: To describe to my audience the four main chambers of a human heart.

• The first chamber in the blood flow is the right atrium.
• The second chamber in the blood flow is the right ventricle.
• The third chamber in the blood flow is the left atrium.
• The fourth chamber in the blood flow and then out to the body is the left ventricle.

At this point in discussing organizational patterns and looking at these examples, two points should be made about them and about speech organization in general.

First, you might look at the example about the chambers of the heart and say, “But couldn’t that be chronological, too, since that’s the order of the blood flow procedure?” Yes, it could. There will be times when a specific purpose could work with two different organizational patterns. In this case, it’s just a matter of emphasis. This speech is emphasizing the anatomy of the heart; if the speech’s specific purpose were “To explain to my classmates the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart,” the organizational pattern would be chronological but very similar (However, since the blood goes to the lungs to be oxygenated before coming back to the left atrium, that might alter the pattern some).

Another principle of organization to think about when using topical organization is “climax” organization. That means putting your strongest argument or most important point last when applicable. For example:

Specific purpose: To defend before my classmates the proposition that capital punishment should be abolished in the United States.

• Capital punishment does not save money for the justice system.
• Capital punishment does not deter crime in the United States historically.
• Capital punishment has resulted in many unjust executions.

In most people’s minds, “unjust executions” is a bigger reason to end a practice than the cost, since an unjust execution means the loss of an innocent life and a violation of our principals. If you believe Main Point 3 is the strongest argument of the three, putting it last builds up to a climax.

Cause/Effect Pattern

If the specific purpose mentions words such as “causes,” “origins,” “roots of,” “foundations,” “basis,” “grounds,” or “source,” it is a causal order; if it mentions words such as “effects,” “results,” “outcomes,” “consequences,” or “products,” it is effect order. If it mentions both, it would of course be cause/effect order. This example shows a cause/effect pattern:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the causes and effects of schizophrenia.

• Schizophrenia has genetic, social, and environmental causes.
• Schizophrenia has educational, relational, and medical effects.

It should be noted, however, that a specific purpose like this example is very broad and probably not practical for your class speeches; it would be better to focus on just causes or effects, or even just one type of cause (such as genetic causes of schizophrenia) or one type of effect (relational or social). These two examples show a speech that deals with causes only and effects only, respectively.

Specific Purpose: To explain to my fellow Biology 1107 students the origin of the West Nile Virus epidemic in the U.S.

• The West Nile Virus came from a strain in a certain part of Africa.
• The West Nile Virus resulted from mosquitoes being imported through fruits.
• The West Nile Virus became more prominent due to floods in the Southeast.

Specific Purpose: To describe to my classmates the effects of a diagnosis of autism on a child’s life.

• An autism diagnosis will affect the child’s educational plan.
• An autism diagnosis will affect the child’s social existence.
• An autism diagnosis will affect the child’s family relationships.

Problem-Solution Pattern

The problem-solution pattern will be explored in more depth in the chapter on Persuasive Speaking because that is where it is used the most. Then, we will see that there are variations on it. The principle behind problem-solution pattern is that if you explain a problem to an audience, you should not leave them hanging without solutions. Problems are discussed for understanding and to do something about them.

Additionally, when you want to persuade someone to act, the first reason is usually that something is wrong! Even if you wanted your friends to go out to get some dinner, and they have recently eaten, you will probably be less successful because there is no problem for them—they are not hungry. Then you would have to come up with a new problem, such as you will miss their presence, which they may or may not see as a problem for them.

In another real-life example, let’s say you want the members of the school board to provide more funds for music at the three local high schools in your county. What is missing because music or arts are not funded? What is the problem?

Specific Purpose: To persuade the members of the school board to take action to support the music program at the school.

A. Students who do not have extracurricular music in their lives have lower SAT scores.

B. Schools that do not have extracurricular music programs have more gang violence and juvenile delinquency.

A. $120,000 would go to bands.

B. $80,000 would go to choral programs.

Of course, this is a simple outline and you would need to provide evidence to support the arguments, but it shows how problem-solution works. Psychologically, it makes more sense to use problem-solution rather than solution-problem. The audience will be more motivated to listen if you address needs, deficiencies, or problems in their lives rather than giving them solutions first.

Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

A variation of the problem-solution pattern, and one that sometimes requires more in-depth exploration of an issue, is the “problem-cause-solution” pattern. If you were giving a speech on future extinction of certain animal species, it would be insufficient to just explain that numbers of species are about to become extinct. Your second point would logically have to explain the cause behind this happening. Is it due to climate change, some type of pollution, encroachment on habitats, disease, or some other reason? In many cases, you can’t really solve a problem without first identifying what caused the problem. This is similar to the organizational pattern called Monroe’s Motivated Sequence (German, Gronbeck, Ehninger & Monroe, 2012), which will be fully explained in Chapter 13. The Monroe’s Motivated Sequence requires a discussion of cause to create a logical speech.

Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that age to obtain a driver’s license in the state of Georgia should be raised to 18.

• There is a problem in this country with young drivers getting into serious automobile accidents leading to many preventable deaths.
• One of the primary causes of this is younger drivers’ inability to remain focused and make good decisions due to incomplete brain development.
• One solution that will help reduce the number of young drivers involved in accidents would be to raise the age for obtaining a diver’s license to 18.

Some Additional Principles of Organization

It is possible that you may use more than one of these organizational patterns within a single speech. For example, the main points of your speech could be one organizational pattern and the subpoints a different one. In the spatial example above about the Native American nations of Georgia, the subpoints might be chronological (emphasizing their development over time), or they could be topical (explaining aspects of their culture).

You should also note that in all of the examples to this point (which have been kept simple for the purpose of explanation), each main point is relatively equal in emphasis; therefore, the time spent on each should be equal as well. While you are not obliged to spend exactly the same amount of time on each main point, the time spent (and the importance of the main point) should be about the same. You would not want your first Main Point to be 30 seconds long, the second one to be 90 seconds, and the third 3 minutes. For example:

Specific Purpose: To explain to my classmates the rules of baseball.

• Baseball has rules about equipment.
• Baseball has rules about numbers of players.
• Baseball has rules about play.

Main Point 2 is not really equal in importance to the other two. There is a great deal you could say about the equipment and even more about the rules of play, but the number of players would take you about ten seconds to say. If Main Point 2 were “Baseball has rules about the positions on the field,” that would make more sense and be closer in level of importance to the other two.

To give another example, let’s say you want to give a commemorative (or tribute) speech about a local veteran whom you admire.

• James Owens is an admirable person because he earned the Silver Star in the Korean War.
• James Owens is an admirable person because he served our community as a councilman for 25 years.
• James Owens is an admirable person because he rescued five puppies who were abandoned in his backyard.

Although Main Point 3 is a good thing to do, it’s really not equal to Main Points 1 and 2 in importance or in the amount of time you would need to spend on it.

Earlier in the chapter, we said that organizing a speech involves grouping, labeling, and ordering. Let’s address labeling here. You will also notice that in most of the examples so far, the main points are phrased using a similar sentence structure. For example, “The first chamber in the blood flow is…” “The second chamber in the blood flow is…” This simple repetition of sentence structure is called parallelism , a technique useful for speakers and helpful for the audience in remembering information. It is not absolutely necessary to use it and will not always be relevant, but parallelism should be used when appropriate and effective.

In relation to the way each main point is written, notice that they are full grammatical sentences, although sometimes short and simple. For purposes of preparation, this is a good habit, and your instructor will probably require you to write your main points in full sentences. Your instructor may also expect you to write your subpoints in complete sentences as well, but he or she will discuss that with you. There are examples of the different versions of full sentence outlines provided at the ends of some chapters.

Finally, in the way you phrase the main points, be sure they are adequate labeled and clearly explain your content. Students are often tempted to write main points as directions to themselves, “Talking about the health department” or “Mention the solution.” This is not helpful for you, nor will your instructor be able to tell what you mean by those phrases. “The health department provides many services for low-income residents” says something we can all understand.

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How Disorganized Speech Patterns Can Occur with Schizophrenia

Your words are often a reflection of your thoughts, which is why language changes can sometimes be a hallmark of mental health conditions, like schizophrenia.

It’s natural to have moments where you can’t put what you’re feeling into words. Stress, frustration, fatigue — and many other factors — can all make thoughts feel unclear from time to time.

It’s OK to be unable to express yourself clearly once in a while.

But when you live with certain mental health disorders, what you say and how it comes out can be an important indicator of where your thoughts are.

Speech patterns can be clues to issues and deficits in thought process, such as those found in schizophrenia, and may offer insight into the development of the disorder and its progression.

What is disorganized speech?

Disorganized speech is known clinically as “formal thought disorder” or “disorganized thinking.” These phrases describe atypical language patterns that can make communication and comprehension difficult.

In a diagnostic setting, disorganized speech is considered a representation of disorganized thoughts, which is why this symptom is related specifically to cognition and not language.

You can experience thought disorder in a number of ways. Disorganized speech may be subtle or hard to notice at first or may be a more extreme expression of mixed, incoherent sounds and sentences referred to as “word salad.”

Thought disorder is often seen as schizophrenia speech patterns, but it can also be a symptom of other mental health disorders and degenerative brain conditions, like neurocognitive disorder (dementia).

How schizophrenia can affect speech patterns

Schizophrenia can affect speech patterns on several levels, including:

• the conversation level
• the sentence level
• the singular word level

Schizophrenia speech patterns can manifest in a number of ways and may look different for everyone experiencing this symptom.

Alogia is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition and indicates a “poverty of speech.” This means having difficulty speaking spontaneously without encouragement and giving short replies to questions.

You may also have a tendency to talk excessively with alogia, but experience challenges with communicating information clearly, which is sometimes called “poverty of content.”

Question: “Would you like to buy hair conditioner?”

Alogia response: “Hair’s dry.”

Derailment is often a steady progression of “getting off track” during conversation.

Your thoughts may be loosely connected, eventually getting further away from one another as discourse continues.

“I had to go to the market today to get milk. You know they don’t process milk like they used to. People are too caught up in technology now. Computers are going to take us over one day. I had a camera once so advanced I never used it. I do like to have photos on my wall to remind me of the places I’ve been.”

Derailment can have additional forms, including:

• Flight of ideas. You lose your train of thought under pressured speech.
• Circumstantiality. The details of your expressions are excessive and loosely related to the overall idea conversation goal, which does eventually get reached.
• Tangentiality. You lose your train of thought in immediate response to a question.
• Blocking. You pause for extended periods of time during conversation and then change topics.

When your word choice is dependent on an associated sound or rhyme rather than the actual word meaning, this is known as clanging .

“I enjoy learning to bake to cake to make.”

‘Word salad,’ or incoherence

Word salad is often any speech pattern that is beyond comprehension. It can occur alongside other speech disorders, like derailment, but can also happen on its own.

Word salad can contain semblances of direction toward a goal, but the words and sentences are often fragmented or misplaced to a point where the response is unintelligible.

“Trees summer… green… I gardening… water hard sun summer set… best time.”

A schizophrenia speech pattern where new words or phrases are invented is called a neologism.

“I would have done that but the flugehimetz got in the scharn .”

Word approximations

Word approximations are the use of traditional words in untraditional ways, often with an obvious meaning.

Referring to a hammer as a “nail pounder.”

When you experience echolalia as a schizophrenia speech pattern, you’re more likely to repeat words and sounds from another person, rather than communicating your own thoughts.

Question: “Have you heard the train whistle lately?”

Echolalia response: “Train whistle lately?”

Signs and symptoms of disorganized speech

Disorganized speech is not a condition, but rather a symptom. It’s a part of formal thought disorder, which can also manifest as disorganized behaviors.

Signs and symptoms may include:

• atypical communication patterns
• responding externally to internal thoughts (laughing to yourself, speaking to yourself)
• purposeless movements
• inappropriate behaviors
• disheveled appearance
• decreased reactivity and engagement with the environment
• unpredictable or repetitive movements
• poor concentration

The exact causes of thought disorder are still unclear.

As a symptom seen across multiple disorders, experts believe disorganized speech has a complex origin, and what contributes to it in one condition may not be what leads to it in another.

Neurological changes

Research from 2020 suggests that schizophrenia speech patterns may be part of larger cognitive decline involving structural changes in the brain as well as disturbances in neural network function and communication.

These changes may impact the brain regions associated with language, but on a larger scale could impact:

• processing speed
• memory recall
• association

If you’re unable to retrieve the memory of a word, for example, it might manifest as long pauses in your speech pattern. Or, you might find yourself jumping from one topic to another, perhaps not completing thoughts or sentences before switching gears.

In addition to changes in the brain, some experts believe schizophrenia speech patterns may be linked to the disorder genetically.

In a 2016 study looking at the genetic foundations of brain rhythmicity, researchers noted genes knowingly associated with schizophrenia were overrepresented among the same genes linked to language faculty.

Helping a loved one with disorganized speech

No matter the cause for disorganized speech, there are ways you may be able to improve communication with your loved one.

Leading with empathy

Remember, schizophrenia speech patterns and thought disorders aren’t deliberate acts of defiance. Your loved one isn’t being stubborn or difficult.

In many cases, people living with schizophrenia want to communicate but are unable to do so clearly. Arguing, correcting, and expressing your anger or frustration won’t improve their ability to hold a conversation.

Communication tips

Consider these tips for communicating with someone experiencing a cognitive impairment condition:

• Foster empathy. Approach communication with a focus on empathy and understanding, and offer your loved one gentle word assistance if needed.
• Have patience. Try to be patient and encouraging when communicating, and give your loved one as much time as they need to respond.
• Communicate clearly and slowly. If necessary, speak clearly and slowly, and offer clear, step-by-step directions. Rephrase your questions to get additional details on a topic.
• Keep it simple. Try to ask yes or no questions while asking only one question at a time. Avoid arguing or correcting.
• Try active listening. Show signs you’re engaged and listening, like making eye contact and nodding.
• Get creative. Offer alternative methods of communication, such as writing out responses and using gestures or images.
• Engage emotions. Focus on the emotion in the words, rather than the words themselves, such as sensing anger, sadness, or happiness.

Treatment options

Thought disorder is a symptom, not a condition on its own.

Treating thought disorder and disorganized speech often starts with managing underlying conditions, like schizophrenia.

The type of treatment you receive will depend on why you’re experiencing disorganized speech. Treatment for neurocognitive disorder (dementia), for example, will typically vary from schizophrenia treatment .

In many cases, thought disorder treatment means a combination of medication and psychotherapy approaches.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is one form of psychotherapy commonly used to treat schizophrenia and its symptoms, including disorganized speech.

Being unable to communicate can be frustrating. Language is often the first way people express themselves, and when you’re unable to use that skill as intended, you and those around you can feel the impact.

If you or a loved one have been experiencing language changes recently, speaking with your healthcare team can help identify underlying causes.

In many cases, managing what’s at the core of thought disorder — such as mental health conditions, like schizophrenia — can help.

While schizophrenia is a life-long condition, schizophrenia speech patterns and other symptoms can be managed with the right treatment plan. Consider contacting your family doctor or therapist to discuss your symptoms and options for treatment.

Like all mental health conditions, it may take time plus trial and error to find the best course of treatment for you.

Last medically reviewed on March 31, 2022

9 sources collapsed

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
• Communication and Alzheimer’s. (n.d.). https://www.alz.org/help-support/caregiving/daily-care/communications
• De Boer JN, et al. (2020). Language in schizophrenia: Relation with diagnosis, symptomology and white matter tracts. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-020-0099-3#:~:text=Schizophrenia%20is%20characterized%20by%20broad,clear%20associations%20with%20language%20tracts
• Disorganized symptoms of psychosis. (n.d.). https://www.thenationalcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Disorganized-Symptoms-of-Psychosis-Slides.pdf?daf=375ateTbd56
• Murphy E, et al. (2016). Bridging the gap between genes and language deficits in schizophrenia: An oscillopathic approach. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00422/full
• Patra KP, et al. (2021). Echolalia. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565908/
• Thought disorder. (2018). https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-advances/article/thought-disorder/75A8224525EEBA15860C1303E89444CC
• Tips for communicating with a confused patient. (2017). https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/tips-communicating-confused-patient
• What is schizophrenia? (2020). https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/schizophrenia/what-is-schizophrenia

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More From Forbes

Mapping the mind: advances in understanding speech production.

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Profile woman with open head pulling at string

This story is part of a series on the current progression in Regenerative Medicine. This piece discusses advances in neuroscience.

In 1999, I defined regenerative medicine as the collection of interventions that restore normal function to tissues and organs damaged by disease, injured by trauma, or worn by time. I include a full spectrum of chemical, gene, and protein-based medicines, cell-based therapies, and biomechanical interventions that achieve that goal.

Recent investigations of speech-related brain stimulation may point to how we plan what we say before we say it. The study by Kabakoff and colleagues in Brain Communications analyzes the regions of the brain that affect speech patterns and errors when electronically simulated. This knowledge could lead to more advanced speech therapies in the very near future.

The workings of the human mind have always been a subject of intrigue and fascination, and one of its most captivating functions is speech. Through speech, we convey our innermost thoughts, feelings, and concepts to others, and it serves as a medium of connection between ourselves and the world around us. However, the relationship between the mind and speech is complicated, and continues to be a subject of study and exploration.

For years, scientists have analyzed the complexities of speech production. While it is widely acknowledged that the cerebral cortex is a crucial component in speech, particularly in initiating the physical act of speaking, the planning phase of speech remained relatively unresearched. However, new data may lead to a better understanding of how we plan what we say.

A recent NYU Grossman School of Medicine study analyzed hundreds of brain-mapping recordings from 16 patients preparing for epilepsy surgery.

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Before the operation, surgeons conducted a safety procedure to ensure that no vital brain regions were removed during surgery that could affect speaking ability. This procedure involved electrically stimulating specific parts of the brain while patients performed simple speaking tasks.

During these procedures, researchers observed the impact of stimulation on the speech production of a particular brain region, particularly the time it took for the stimulation to affect speech.

For instance, the surgeon may ask the individual to recite the Pledge of Allegiance, during which different areas of the brain would be stimulated, and the speech would be impacted, whether by slurring or total loss of speech.

Stimulation would result in either motor-based arrest, which involves speech cessation due to vocal tract impairment, or speech arrest, which the researchers define as speech cessation that cannot be explained by motor interruption.

FIGURE 1: Cortical locations and distributions of latencies for all motor and speech arrest hits, ... [+] controlling for trials with afterdischarges.

Stimulating the sensorimotor cortex caused most motor-based arrests (87.5%), whereas many different brain regions resulted in speech arrest.

Different brain regions also responded differently to stimulation. While some areas responded quickly, others took almost twice as long to impact the speech production process.

FIGURE 2: Map of the density of speech arrest hits across cortex in four time bins of adjusted ... [+] latency.

Two adjacent regions of the cerebral cortex, namely the ventral sensorimotor cortex and the inferior frontal gyrus, have been found to exhibit longer latencies, between 0.5s and 1s, during speech planning. The ventral sensorimotor cortex is involved in the muscle movements necessary for speech production. In contrast, the inferior frontal gyrus involves various aspects of language processing, including grammar and syntax. Together, these two regions of the brain work in tandem to facilitate the complex process of speech production.

Conversely, smaller latencies of less than 0.5s were observed in other parts of the motor cortex and other gyrus, indicating that these regions play a more critical role in the physical mechanics of speaking.

FIGURE 3: Smoothed distributions of adjusted latencies, including speech arrest hits depicted with ... [+] peaks in ascending order: supramarginal gyrus, STG, MTG, sensorimotor cortex, and IFG, and as a comparison, the motor hits in sensorimotor cortex.

These results are fascinating and may have profound implications in the near future. Brain mapping efforts work to plot the qualities and properties of brain function spatially.

Brain mapping is often used to diagnose neural impediments related to speech, vision, and movement. A more robust understanding of the human brain could improve techniques for diagnosing and treating neurological disorders and pave the way for more advanced neuroprosthetics to assist individuals with speech, vision, and movement impairments.

Understanding the neural mechanisms underlying speech production and language processing enables future scientists and engineers to develop more powerful AI-powered speech recognition and natural language processing technologies.

The future of neurological understanding and the cascade of effects that this understanding will entail, such as in neuroscience and neurotechnology, is bright. We live at the cusp of a new renaissance of regenerative medicine, bioelectronics, and medical devices—future advances that could aid the lives of thousands if not millions.

To read more of this series, please visit www.williamhaseltine.com

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Screen Rant

How yoda's speech patterns once saved a planet (& the entire jedi council).

Yoda is well-known for his unusual way of speaking - but, incredibly, Star Wars has revealed one occasion where his speech pattern saved a planet!

• Yoda's unique speech patterns were actually a result of his immense age in the Star Wars canon.
• Yoda's eccentricity and cleverness saved an entire planet from destruction in "The Living Force."
• "The Living Force" is filled with rich humor and showcases Yoda's unforgettable contribution to the Star Wars universe.

Star Wars has revealed one staggering occasion when Yoda's unusual speech patterns saved an entire planet - and the Jedi Council to boot. Since Yoda made his debut in The Empire Strikes Back , viewers have been delighted at his strange speech patterns. According to Star Wars canon, there's a reason Yoda speaks in this strange way ; it's because of his immense age. He actually speaks a common form of Galactic Basic from his childhood, but language has changed over the centuries, and he's been unable to move with the times.

To be fair, Yoda probably had good reasons for refusing to adapt. He quite liked portraying himself as an eccentric figure, because it would lead people to underestimate him; he famously played this trick on Luke Skywalker himself in The Empire Strikes Back . Yoda also loved training younglings, and they would surely be charmed and entertained at the way he spoke. But, hilariously, John Jackson Miller's The Living Force has just revealed Yoda's speech patterns once saved the day .

How Yoda Defeated One Enemy Of The Jedi... With Six Words

In The Living Force , the Jedi Council depart on a mission to Kwenn - one that places both themselves, and the entire planet, in the crosshair of a group of pirates. The Jedi plan to stage a formal ceremony, promising to tell the people of Kwenn that the Jedi stand with them, and the pirates smartly plant explosives around the site of the ceremony. As soon as someone utters those promised words, the bombs will go off, killing everybody there - and leaving the Jedi Council itself vulnerable to attack.

"Stand with you, the Jedi will," Yoda declares to the crowd

Learning of the plan, the Jedi Council come up with the smartest possible way to sow discord in their enemies' ranks: they invite Yoda on to the stage. " Stand with you, the Jedi will, " Yoda declares to the crowd - and, because the exact phrase hasn't been uttered, the bombs don't go off. Some of the pirates attack, others don't; the chaos is exquisite, and it's all just as the Jedi Council planned.

The Living Force Is Absolutely Packed With Rich Humor

This is only one example of the rich humor in The Living Force , one of the most enjoyable Star Wars books in years. Miller is a skilled author - well-known for previous contributions to Star Wars - and he knows just how to balance light and dark. Somehow he manages to find time for every single character in the Jedi Council, giving each one a distinctive voice and an opportunity to shine. Still, Yoda's contribution alone makes this an unforgettable Star Wars novel.

Buy Star Wars: The Living Force from Amazon

Star Wars Movies In Order: How To Watch Release Order, Chronologically & With The TV Shows

The aged Jedi Master had trained Jedi for 800 years by the time he met Luke Skywalker on the planet Dagobah. One of the most famed and revered Jedi, Yoda served as Grand Master of the Jedi Order for centuries; he was powerful enough to duel Darth Sidious himself, although he was defeated. Yoda exiled himself to Dagobah, where he learned how to become a Force Ghost and offered guidance to Luke Skywalker.

The Method Behind Trump’s Mistruths

A close examination of every public word from the former president during a crucial week of his campaign.

By Angelo Fichera

Since the beginning of his political career, Donald J. Trump has misled, mischaracterized, dissembled, exaggerated and, at times, flatly lied. His flawed statements about the border, the economy, the coronavirus pandemic and the 2020 election have formed the bedrock of his 2024 campaign.

Though his penchant for bending the truth, sometimes to the breaking point, has been well documented , a close study of how he does so reveals a kind of technique to his dishonesty: a set of recurring rhetorical moves with which Mr. Trump fuels his popularity among his supporters.

In the week starting with Mr. Trump’s victory speech in Iowa through his win in the New Hampshire primary — the contests that put him on the path to becoming his party’s nominee for the third consecutive time — The New York Times analyzed all of his public statements, including speeches, interviews and social media posts.

His words focused heavily on attacking his political rivals, self-aggrandizing and stoking fear to make his case for 2024. In doing so, Mr. Trump often relied on repeated falsehoods and half-truths. He has yet to deviate from this approach in the general election.

Here’s a look at how he does it.

He grossly distorts his opponents’ records and proposals to make them sound unreasonable.

Trump Presidential Campaign via C-span

Atkinson, N.H., rally, Jan. 16, 2024

While Joe Biden is pushing the largest tax hike in American history – you know, he wants to quadruple your taxes .

President Biden has not proposed quadrupling taxes. In fact, he has consistently vowed not to raise taxes on anyone earning less than $400,000.

Sean Hannity interview, Jan. 22, 2024

I mean, what he’s doing with energy with an all-electric mandate, where you won’t be able to buy any other form of car in a very short period of time .

Mr. Biden has not implemented an electric car mandate. The administration has announced rules that would limit tailpipe emissions from cars and light trucks, effectively requiring automakers to sell more electric vehicles and hybrids. It doesn’t ban gas cars.

Truth Social, Jan. 16, 2024

Nikki Haley, who hung in against Mr. Trump until Super Tuesday, did not raise the issue of the gas tax in South Carolina and rebuffed calls to do so as a stand-alone measure. She said in 2015 that she would support raising the gas tax — by 10 cents, over three years — only if lawmakers agreed to reduce the income tax rate to 5 percent, from 7 percent, and made changes to the state’s Department of Transportation.

He exaggerates and twists the facts to make his record sound better than it is.

Newsmax via Youtube

Newsmax interview, Jan. 21, 2024

And think of it, for four years we had no terror problem .

There were in fact terrorist attacks in the United States during the Trump administration. In 2017, to name one, a native of Uzbekistan plowed a pickup truck down a bike path in Manhattan, killing eight people. The Justice Department said the driver, Sayfullo Saipov, carried out the terrorist attack in the name of ISIS.

We had the best economy. We had no inflation .

The economy wasn’t the “best” under Mr. Trump. Even setting aside Covid, the average growth rate was lower under Mr. Trump than under former Presidents Bill Clinton and Ronald Reagan. And inflation was low , but it wasn’t nonexistent.

Hannity interview, Jan. 18, 2024

We had gasoline at $1. 87 .

The national average price of a gallon of gasoline dropped to that price during one week amid the Covid lockdown in 2020, when demand was extraordinarily low. But when Mr. Trump left office in January 2021, the national average was $2.42.

He relies on both well-worn and fresh claims of election rigging to suggest he can lose only if his opponents cheat.

RSBN via Youtube

Portsmouth, N.H., rally, Jan. 17, 2024

The radical-left Democrats rigged the presidential election of 2020, and we’re not going to allow them to rig the presidential election of 2024 .

The 2020 election was not rigged. Mr. Trump has uttered hundreds of inaccurate claims to support the false claim that it was — mischaracterizing voting processes, citing baseless cases of supposed fraud and sharing conspiracy theories about voting machines.

As you know, Nikki Haley in particular is counting on the Democrats and liberals to infiltrate your Republican primary .

Registered Democrats were not able to vote in the New Hampshire Republican primary. The contest was open to registered Republicans and independents. Any Democrats who switched parties or re-registered as independents to vote in the Republican primary — and some did — had to do so before an October 2023 deadline, months before the contest.

Laconia, N.H., rally, Jan. 22, 2024

The Republicans went up to vote and none of the machines were working. This was not good. But of course, they said, Well, this was just the way it goes. You know, thousands of people were not allowed to vote. But she, uh, she’s a great person, and she’s going to be a U.S. senator very soon. Kari Lake .

The claim that “thousands” of voters were blocked from casting their ballots in Arizona’s 2022 gubernatorial election — at the expense of Mr. Trump’s preferred candidate, Ms. Lake — is false. There were some glitches in Maricopa County , but voters were largely able to cast their votes.

He has turned his criminal cases into a rallying cry, baselessly asserting that he is being persecuted by his successor.

Fox interview with Bret Baier, Jan. 20, 2024

These are all Biden indictments .

Mr. Trump has not offered any evidence for his contention that Mr. Biden has orchestrated the criminal charges against him. Two of his four cases were brought at the state level. At the federal level, Mr. Trump’s criminal charges — in relation to his effort to remain in power after losing the 2020 election and, separately, over his retention of classified documents after leaving office — are handled by a special counsel and were put before grand juries.

I’ve been indicted more than Alphonse Capone .

Mr. Trump has been indicted four times. Mr. Capone was indicted at least six times, according to A. Brad Schwartz, a historian and biographer of the infamous gangster.

He makes unverifiable claims about what the world would have been like had he secured a second term.

Concord, N.H., rally, Jan. 19, 2024

We wouldn’t have Russia attacking Ukraine. We wouldn’t have inflation. We wouldn’t have the attack on Israel .

There is no evidence that these events wouldn’t or couldn’t have occurred had the 2020 election outcome been different — and it’s impossible to prove. But experts say the context surrounding those events render his claims highly questionable .

China had a crash yesterday in their stock market. You know why? Because I won Iowa .

There is no proof that China’s stock market woes were related to Mr. Trump’s victory in the Iowa caucuses.

He describes the United States as a nation in ruins.

We are a nation that screens its citizens viciously at all ports. But if you are an illegal alien, you’re allowed to flow through our country with no check whatsoever .

Undocumented immigrants caught crossing the border are processed, whether they are returned to other countries or later released into the country awaiting future proceedings.

Manchester, N.H., rally, Jan. 20, 2024

And now we are a nation that wants to make our revered and very powerful Army tanks – the best anywhere in the world – all electric .

There are no plans to make Army tanks all electric.

We are a third-world nation .

This is, of course, false.

We are no longer energy independent or energy dominant as we were just a few short years ago .

Energy production — including oil and gas — has boomed under President Biden. Under both administrations, the United States has been a net exporter of petroleum and natural gas, but it still relies on imports.

I don’t know what it is with Catholics, but the F.B.I. is going after Catholics .

Mr. Trump’s claim is most likely based on an F.B.I. field office memo that warned of the potential for extremism among adherents of a “radical-traditionalist Catholic” ideology. But the memo was withdrawn and repeatedly condemned by the nation’s top law enforcement officials.

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Biden's bogus college claim is just latest in decades-long pattern of embellishment

President Biden  falsely claimed earlier this week that he was the "first" person in his family to "go to college," continuing a decades-long habit of making false or embellished claims about his life.

Biden has been scrutinized several times over the years for fabricating tales, including  claiming to have been arrested  in apartheid-era South Africa, being in a helicopter that was "forced down" by Al-Qaeda insurgents in Afghanistan, and even trivial events involving an Amtrak conductor who had passed away before his alleged story took place.

Biden continued the trend on Monday while speaking in the battleground state of Wisconsin as he outlined his plan to provide "life-changing" relief to student loan debt. 

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"I, like an awful lot of people in this audience, was the first in my family to go to college and watched by dad struggled to help me get there," Biden told the crowd.

However, less than two years ago, during a speech in Pennsylvania, Biden told an audience that his grandfather played college football.

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"My grandfather Finnegan from Scranton would really be proud of me right now,' Biden said in Pittsburgh in October 2022. "No, I'm not joking. He would. By the way, he was an All-American football player [inaudible] in Santa Clara."

When asked about his recent comments and his embellishments throughout the years, White House deputy press secretary Andrew Bates told Fox News Digital that President Biden "is proud to have restored honesty, integrity, and respect for the rule of law to the Oval Office."

He added that Biden is also proud "to be the first Biden to graduate college." 

Biden's exaggerations regarding colleges also  extend to a previous claim  that he taught "political theory" at the University of Pennsylvania, which he mentioned in Maryland in September 2023.

"Democracy is at stake, folks. Our democracy is under attack. And we gotta fight for it," Biden said. "I taught at the University of Pennsylvania for four years. And I used to teach political theory. And folks, you always hear every generation has to fight for democracy. And I found myself – it's automatic, we didn't have to believe it – but we do. We do."

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There is little to no evidence that Biden ever taught "political theory" at the University of Pennsylvania. While the university's website notes that the president was the Benjamin Franklin Presidential Professor of Practice from 2017 to 2021,  a Snopes.com fact-check  on his previous but similar claim – that he was a "full professor at the University of Pennsylvania" for four years – found that "he did not teach a semester's worth of courses" while in this role. 

Snopes noted that this "role was honorary" and that he "gave lectures and talks to students on campus but did not teach a full semester's course load during that time."

Years before, when he ran for president in 1987,  Biden exaggerated  his academic record by bragging that he graduated "in the top half" of his class while berating a reporter on the campaign trail. 

"I think I have a much higher I.Q. than you do, I suspect," Biden told the reporter in New Hampshire at the time. "I went to law school on a full academic scholarship, the only one in my class to have a full academic scholarship."

"In the first year of law school, I decided I didn't want to be in law school and ended up in the bottom two-thirds of my class," he said. "And then I decided to stay, went back to law school, and in fact ended up in the top half of my class."

He later admitted that he graduated 76th in a class of 85. 

"I did not graduate in the top half of my class at law school, and my recollection of this was inaccurate," he told the New York Times.

"I graduated from the University of Delaware with a double major in history and political science," he said. "My reference to degrees at the Claremont event was intended to refer to these majors -—I said 'three' and should have said 'two.'" 

The outlet pointed out that Biden received a single B.A. degree in history and political science.

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Since then, Biden has told numerous stories that have also been deemed exaggerations. Mainstream outlets, including the Washington Post, have even called him out on them, including the publication's top fact-checker Glenn Kessler. 

In September 2023, Kessler  penned an article  about how "Biden loves to retell certain stories" and how some lack credibility. His report assembled several of Biden's accounts, including one about an Amtrak conductor he claimed hailed him on having traveled more than two million miles on the railroad, exceeding the 1.2 million miles traveled on Air Force planes as vice president as of 2016. 

However, the conductor retired in 1993 and passed away two years before Biden reached that milestone in the air. 

Other stories Kessler addressed include Biden's claim that he and his father saw two men in suits kissing each other in public when he was a teenager, that he was arrested for trying to see Nelson Mandela in South Africa, and how, as vice president, he arranged for his uncle to be presented a Purple Heart that he was owed and never received, except the uncle died in 1999, long before Biden was vice president. 

Biden has also been repeatedly called out for his claims of being very close with Somali cab drivers in Wilmington, Delaware.

"Somalis have made my city of Wilmington, Del. (their home) on a smaller scale. There is a very identifiable Somali community," then-Vice President Biden said. "I might add if you come to the train station with me you’ll notice I have great relationships with them because there’s an awful lot driving cabs and are friends of mine. For real. I’m not being solicitous. I’m being serious." 

Politifact, a liberal fact checking website, rated the statement as "Pants on fire" and said the statement "set eyerolls rolling." Other outlets also covered the claim and dismissed it as "strange" and "insensitive."

Biden also repeated a false claim last year about his house burning down to try to relate to those who lost their houses from the wildfires ravaging Maui.

"I don’t want to compare difficulties, but we have a little sense, Jill and I, of what it was like to lose a home," Biden said. "Years ago, now, 15 years, I was in Washington doing ‘Meet the Press’… Lightning struck at home on a little lake outside the home, not a lake a big pond. It hit the wire and came up underneath our home, into the… air condition ducts.

"To make a long story short, I almost lost my wife, my '67 Corvette, and my cat," the president added.

A 2004 report from the Associated Press, archived by LexisNexis, said lightning struck the Bidens’ home and started a "small fire that was contained to the kitchen." The report said firefighters got the blaze under control in 20 minutes and that they were able to keep the flames from spreading beyond the kitchen.

Original article source: Biden's bogus college claim is just latest in decades-long pattern of embellishment