thesis about education in the philippines

Overview of Education in the Philippines

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• First Online: 24 December 2021

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• Lorraine Pe Symaco 3 &
• Marie Therese A. P. Bustos 4  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

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The Philippines has embarked on significant education reforms for the past three decades to raise the quality of education at all levels and address inclusion and equity issues. The country’s AmBisyon Natin 2040 or the national vision for a prosperous and healthy society by 2040 is premised on education’s role in developing human capital through quality lifelong learning opportunities. Education governance is handled by three government agencies overseeing the broad education sector of the country. At the same time, regional initiatives relating to ASEAN commitments are also witnessed in the sector. However, despite the mentioned education reforms and initiatives, the education system remains beset by challenges. This chapter will give readers an overview of the education system of the Philippines through an account of its historical context and its main providers and programs. Key reforms and issues within the sector are also discussed.

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Useful Websites

Ambisyon Natin 2040 . http://2040.neda.gov.ph/

Commission on Higher Education (CHED) https://ched.gov.ph/

Department of Education (DepED). https://www.deped.gov.ph/

ECCD Council of the Philippines (ECCD Council). https://eccdcouncil.gov.ph/

National Council on Disability Affairs (NCDA). https://www.ncda.gov.ph/

Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) https://www.tesda.gov.ph/

UNESCO Institute for Statistics Philippines profile. http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/ph?theme=education-and-literacy

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Symaco, L.P., Bustos, M.T.A.P. (2022). Overview of Education in the Philippines. In: Symaco, L.P., Hayden, M. (eds) International Handbook on Education in South East Asia. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8136-3_1-1

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Home > Libraries and Archives > Rizal Library > Theses/Dissertations > SOSS > Education Dept.

Education Department

Theses/dissertations from 2021 2021.

Construction and Articulation of Quality in Philippine Higher Education Policy and in State Universities and Colleges , Kit DG Pabiona

Inclusive Education in Regular Private Education: An Exploratory Study , Jenica Renee See

Enhancing School Readiness of a Private Basic Education School in Metro Manila for Professional Learning Communities , Roldann Tabayoyong

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

A Description of the Dimensions of Work-based Learning and the Characteristics of a Connective Model of A Work Immersion Program in Senior High School , Ma. Theresa Carlos

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Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Relationship between teacher appraisal of classroom resources and demands and job satisfaction : implications for administrative support for early childhood educators , JAN ROCHELLE S. DEL CASTILLO

Exploring the use of artful thinking in teaching history : a case study , ALIANA GRACE GIMENA

Exploring the Use of Artful Thinking in Teaching History: A Case Study , Aliana Grace Gimena

Metacognition and Student Achievement in Mathematical Problem Solving , Arnold Janssen Ong

Reader Self-Efficacy in Relation to the Reading Comprehension of Students with Special Nedds in an Inclusive Education Setting , Diana France Quinto

Inclusive Education: Teaching Efficacy and Sentiments, Attitudes, and Concerns of Filipino Elementary School Teachers Towards Diverse Learners , Jean Carla Reyes

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Reading Engagement, Reading Motivation, and Use of Reading Strategies of Junior High School Students , Ma. Agnes Surop

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Worklife and burnout-engagement across the different career stages of elementary school teachers , DOMINIQUE FELIZE N. DE GUZMAN

Gender roles in young adult novels and implications for teaching practice , MIRASOL JADE GABOR

College choice factors and individual characteristics of Senior High School students and their implications for institutional policy and decision-making , LAURICE FAYE JUAREZ

Intrinsic motivation, academic engagement and academic achievement of senior high school students in a government funded university in Luzon SY 2017-2018 , SHIELA S. MARANAN

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Personality traits and vocational preferences of Junior High School students , MARIA JOANNA FRANCESCA CASTRO

The Psychometric properties of test items in a Junior High School mathematics entrance-placement examination : implications for test item banking , RIA BETH CUEVAS

An Evaluation of services for Children with Special Needs (CSN) : towards the formation of enhanced Academic Behavior Assistance Program (ABAP) , ZIMRI MARIE ESPALDON

Teacher efficacy, sense of belongingness, commitment and motivation to lead across gender, Asian and Western cultural identities , MARIE AUDREY GELANO

Social learning factors that influence track decision-making of K-12 Technical-Vocational-Livelihood students : a mixed-method approach , JULIE ANNE LAROZA

Internationalization initiatives and secondary school students' global perspective , BRIAN LAWRENCE MARANA

Developmental spelling stages of Grade 4 pupils , ANGELICA ROSSINI MENDOZA

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Stress and coping strategies as predictors of academic achievement of university athlete-scholars , TIU ANGELICA FAE

The relationship between paternal involvement and the character strengths of senior high school students , LEE FRANCIS ANDRO

Implementation of the developmental-interaction approach in a progressive school : a case study , LOPA JOSE ANDRES FRANCISCO MARTIN

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

The Relationship between 21st century leadership zones and generational attitudes in the workplace of faculty members in a private basic education school , HIPOL ARGEL

Gender identity, learner typology, and academic self expectation as correlates of science achievement , DELA PAZ JOHANNA ROSE

Levels of satisfaction and service usage of a learning commons as correlates of mathematics achievement and mathematics attitude , LUCHICO LYZA MARIE

The Effect of image creation interventions on the vocabulary achievement of elementary public school students , BLASQUILLO MARICAR

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Paglaladlad : the self identification and disclosure of adolescents with alternative sexual orientation , MASILANG JUDY MARCIA

The weblogging activities of selected college students : a new literacy study , CLOSA KATHERINE

The relationship between school culture and cultural intelligence in an international school , ESTACIO MA. CLARISSA

Psychosocial work characteristics and demographic variables as predictors of burnout/engagement of basic education teachers , JOSE RAMONA ISABEL

A longitudinal study on the school culture of a private secondary school , AGDUMA SHARON JOHNNETTE

Epistemic responsibility in a constructivist learning environment as perceived by college students , GOH YU-MING STANLEY

Level of technology implementation in the classroom as a predictor of students' achievement in English, Math, and Science , BONGALOS YURI

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Relationship between online social networking activities and the 21st century skills of male and female adolescents , GIMENA ALELI CARISSA

Psychological ownership as a predictor of organizational commitment among the nonfamily personnel of a family-owned university , JUAREZ ANA MARIA CONCEPCION

Resilience of male and female pre-adolescent students , KUON JEANNIE

The implementation of concept-oriented reading instruction in a grade five public elementary class : a case study , LENTEJAS KEMBELL

Relationship between grammatical and discourse competence in English of High School English, Science, Mathematics teachers , DURANTE PRINCESS GERBIE

Comparison of the performance of supervision in two "sister schools" as perceived by the academic administrators and teachers , HARTMANN ROSALIE

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Internal-external locus of control as predictor of academic achievement in english and mathematics of elementary school pupils , LEUTERIO CHRISTINE JOY

Comparison of the perceptions of the leadership practices of the Academic and Personal Formation Council (APFC) and the school staff : implications for designing a leadership program , ALTONAGA ENRICO ARIEL

Relationship between the perceptions of teachers of the leadership style of the principals and their own job satisfaction in three selected national high schools in Rodriguez, Rizal in school year 2005-2006 : implications for the leadership style of , MARCELO ERICSON

The Angelicum system of education : a case study , BILOG JOHN GABRIEL

A comparison of the reading achievement profiles of shadow education and independent learners , JAVIER MARIE FRANCES

A comparison of the perceived social support of the Lingap Scholars and regular students of De La Salle Canlubang : implications for a social support program , CORTEZ ROMINA GRACIA

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Relationship between classroom social environment and motivation to learn in mathematics of high school students of Immaculate Conception School of Baliuag , CRUZ ALEXANDER

A comparison of the reading and math performance of Aral Kalinga (AK) and Non-Aral Kalinga students : implications for Aral Kalinga program improvement , ESGUERRA BARBARA

Volitional control strategies as correlates of procrastination among fine arts students , BUQUID MARIA AGNES

Relationship between the organizational health of a school and the work motivation of its teachers : implications for the administrative development program , MICHAEL MARIA CECILIA

Comparison of perceptions of the Canossian school system in three Canossian schools , DESAMERO MARIDEL

The perceived levels of stress and coping strategies of college students , BANZUELO REMILINDA

Relationship between school support of teacher leadership and organizational climate of a public secondary school : implications for designing a teacher leadership program , CACNIO RESURRECCION

Beliefs as predictors of burnout and work engagement among university faculty members , LU STEPHANIE ANNE

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Perceptions of the support staff of the International School Manila regarding Herzberg's motivation and hygiene factors , MAPUA LISA MICHELLE POSTE

The affective states and learning profiles of students when using an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) for algebra , LAGUD MARIA CARMINDA

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Home > ETD > DEP_ELMD > ETDM_ELMD

Educational Leadership and Management Master's Theses

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Fostering self, resiliency, and transformational leadership among middle leaders in basic education through the Lasallian Enrichment and Accompaniment Program (LEAP) , Abram Michael DeLeon

Understanding academic stress and its relationship with academic performance among senior secondary students in the district of Ujjain, India: An explanatory sequential mixed methods study , Saijumon George

Integration of UDL principles in online distance learning of LSNs in inclusive education , Ruslyn Joy D. Lazo

Leading amid a crisis: A multiple case study on how private school principals led K-12 schools through the COVID-19 pandemic , Patricia Mae U. Madrigal

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Comparing the use of physical manipulatives and virtual manipulatives in seesaw in improving low-performing incoming first-grade pupils’ achievement in addition , Marian Jo Veronica H. Santiago

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Understanding the impact of principals’ instructional leadership on teachers’ self-efficacy in kindergartens of the Congregation of the Daughters of Mary Immaculate (DMI), Vietnam , Tran Thi Sen -

A mixed method sequential explanatory study on factors affecting the experiences of Chinese language teachers teaching in Metro Manila, Philippines , Xin Yuan Zhang

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Needs-based social participation program proposal for children with exceptionalities in inclusive settings , Raechell Mae Perez Aberin

Token economy system in improving task completion among kindergarten students , Carole Louise C. Bernal

How school administrators can support early childhood educators from teacher burnout in the time of pandemic , Alexis R. de Guzman

Experiences of caregivers supporting their children with autism during distance learning amid COVID-19-school-closures , Jennifer J. Dugena

The distributed leadership practices of the priest-school directors of the Diocese of Imus Catholic Educational System , Dominador C. Duroy Jr.

Emotional regulation among children with autism: Narratives from home learning partners during COVID-19 , Donna C. Mandap

Understanding long-serving millennial early childhood teachers: what motivates them to stay in the teaching profession , Joanna Mary C. Ong

Integrating movement activities to improve preschool students gross motor skills through collaborative lesson planning , Rizza Joy Piccio

The friendship experiences of Filipino children with autism within Metro Manila during COVID-19 , Patricia Louise Mercado Remoquillo

Using visual schedule and prompting to teach laundry skills , April Joy M. Tancio

Exploring the relationship between perceived teacher professional development and teacher effectiveness among Vietnamese secondary school teachers , Tran Nu Thuan Luong -

Exploring the relationship between perceived teacher professional development and teacher effectiveness among Vietnamese secondary shool teachers , Tran Nu Thuan Luong -

Lived experiences deaf learners with hearing teachers , John Paulo Santos Trinidad

The effects of virtual behavior skills training (BST) in improving behavioral strategies of parents used in applied behavior analysis (ABA) sessions , Kimberly Ann C. Urbano

“Parenting to institutionalized children with special needs: Caregivers’ stress and coping strategies” , Lhynettskie C. Villanueva

Exploring Filipino preschool children’s career aspirations and gender stereotyping , Geneline Tan Villaseran

Discovering the principals’ understanding of inclusion and inclusive practices: The case of Notre-Dame schools in Vietnam , Diem Chi VuQuang

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

TPACK-based individualized online reading intervention program for students-at-risk , Christian Kenneth L. Binayug

Early identification of preschool children: The case of Montessori system of education , Hanna Rachel E. Blas

Impact of caregiver-led intervention based on the PC-Talk model on language-learning outcomes of a Filipino toddler with delayed speech , Joanna Mangonon Cayton-Velante

Spirituality of students with special needs in the time of COVID-19 pandemic , Cherry L. Chan

Transitional challenges and proposed psychoeducational strategies for learners with special needs , Mitch D.R. Macalino

Transformative learning through Lasallian formation: A narrative inquiry on the lived experience of selected co-academic personnel of De La Salle University , Michael G. Millanes

An analysis of leisure motivation factors and leisure needs of primary education teachers during pandemic: Basis for a virtual cooperative recreation and wellness program , Sharon Pante

Relationship of digital media consumption with grittiness among Filipino children aged 7-8 years old , Rachel F. Tongson

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

The readiness of public schools for teacher leadership from the perspective of teachers and principals: An input to teacher leadership development program (TLDP) , Mariel Gia V. Gojo Cruz

Coping strategies of successful visually impaired student-athletes , Christian Mark G. Lorenzana

Proposed inclusive training program: Implications anchored on awareness and acceptance of teachers on legal mandates on inclusion in the Philippines , Joanne Clarisse J. Napicol

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The Welsh Hymn to the Virgin: contexts and reception

The Hymn to the Virgin is a poem attributed to the Welsh poet Ieuan ap Hywel Swrdwal, thought to have been written around 1470 while he was a student at the University of Oxford. It is reputedly the f...

Quantifying scribal behavior : a novel approach to digital paleography

We propose a novel approach for analyzing scribal behavior quantitatively using information about the handwriting of characters. To implement this approach, we develop a computational framework that r...

An examination of the characteristics of disguised and traced handwriting

There has recently been a lack of judicial confidence in the evidence provided by handwriting analysis which has highlighted the need for objective research to be conducted in this area. In response t...

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Puebla: the story of cinco de mayo.

1:00 p.m. - 12:30 p.m.

Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts, 3680 Walnut St.

Literature to Life

Alumni Weekend 2024

Various locations

268th Commencement

Franklin Field

Arts, Humanities, & Social Sciences

Uplifting Filipino communities abroad and at home

Fourth-year student vernon wells has been working with indigenous peoples in the philippines, research they will expand on through a fulbright award, while strengthening the southeast asian community at penn..

As many Penn students were finishing final exams or heading home for winter break last December, Vernon Wells was instead flying into Manila, then taking a 3-hour bus ride to the city of Olongapo, catching a cab to the municipality of Morong, and finally hitching a motorbike ride to the village of Sitio Kanawan, all to engage in fieldwork with the Ayta Magbukún tribe.

This was the fourth-year student’s third trip to the Philippines over the year. Wells visited for preliminary research the winter before and for their senior thesis last summer, residing for two weeks in Kanawan while conducting ethnographic fieldwork and interviews in the Tagalog language with Ayta elders. This is thanks to funding that Wells, an anthropology and sociology major in the College of Arts and Sciences , has received from the Mellon Foundation , the Center for the Study of Ethnicity, Race, and Immigration , and the Center for Undergraduate Research and Fellowships , where Wells also works as a research peer advisor .

Aware of how research with Indigenous communities can be exploitative and transactional, Wells has taken care to do the opposite, to “establish lasting relationships and not just extract data and leave and never return.” Wells, who is from Ocean Park, Maine, wants to keep working with Filipino communities long-term—starting with a Fulbright U.S. Student Award to conduct cultural anthropology research in the Philippines from August to next May.

Collaborating with Indigenous communities, local advocacy partners, and Filipino scholars, Wells will use archival sources and ethnographic methods to examine how Indigenous peoples negotiate pag-unlad , or development, in relation to tribal goals of economic self-sufficiency.

This work builds off Wells’ senior thesis research, analyzing how challenges of the 21st century have spurred the Kanawan Aytas to foster new collaborations. Since the enactment of the Indigenous People’s Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997, Indigenous communities like the Kanawan Aytas have been pressured to adapt to the state’s bureaucratic system. Wells explains that under the IPRA, the Aytas must show they have been on their land since time immemorial to negotiate land claims, but this is complicated.

“Not every Indigenous group has, for example, a chieftain and a tribal representative,” Wells says. “Not every community agrees on where they come from, and there’s a lot of different oral stories that might conflict with one another, and not every community wants to use the land in the same way.”

Wells is interested in how the Ayta Magbukún have interacted with stakeholders who have tried to weaponize the bureaucratic process to dispossess the Ayta of their ancestral land, and how communities and their advocates mobilize in response.

Wells has been dedicated not only to research in the Philippines but also to connecting and strengthening the Southeast Asian community at Penn. They served on the board of the Penn Philippine Association as community liaison for two years and started the now-annual Southeast Asian Mixer, bringing together different student groups for food, music, and games. Wells has also been particularly active in the Asian American Studies Program (ASAM).

“I’ve been able to have conversations that I never had when I was younger. I just didn’t have Asian people to talk to, period, so that was really great, and I took some of my favorite classes in ASAM,” says Wells, who is an ASAM minor. Wells is a member of the ASAM Undergraduate Advisory Board and was an ASAM Fellow in 2022-23 .

Fariha Khan , co-director of the Asian American Studies Program, says Wells joined the UAB as ASAM was celebrating its 25th anniversary and has been instrumental in thinking through programming. Having known Wells since their first year at Penn, Khan says she has seen them become a mentor to younger UAB students and seen them grow as a scholar, bringing dedication and fearlessness to their fieldwork.

“Vernon’s really building a relationship of trust, and it’s a reciprocal relationship,” Khan says. “I think this is what makes this project really special in terms of the knowledge it’s producing but also the relationships it’s building.”

Connecting with Filipino heritage

Wells had been wanting to do a senior thesis since their second year at Penn, and in December 2022, they traveled to the Philippines for 10 days to see what kind of research would be possible. It was their first time in the country in about a decade.

Wells says they had an impactful conversation with someone who had done research with Indigenous peoples as a graduate student, and she shared the barriers to that kind of work. Wells learned about the principle of obtaining Free and Prior Informed Consent when working with these communities, and they understood this would probably require working with a professor who had already established that kind of rapport.

Wells was starting to get worried about not having a topic fleshed out, but a Filipino language course last spring provided a fortuitous connection. Though their mother speaks Tagalog, Wells didn’t learn it growing up. Pleasantly surprised to learn of the Filipino language program at Penn, they took two years of the language and then audited a class last spring, in preparation for further research.

The first guest speaker of the semester was Borromeo Motin of Romblon State University; he and Filipino scientist Lourdes J. Cruz have long worked with the Ayta Magbukún community. Wells explains that the two advised the Ayta on their legal rights, helping them formally organize and finally get their land recognized through a Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title. An influential project now happening in Kanawan, Wells says, is a coffee plantation Cruz initiated, with the long-term goal of economic self-sufficiency for the community.

Wells connected with Motin and Cruz, who provided the necessary mentorship for Wells’ summer research. At an Indigenous people’s conference in the Philippines last summer, an Indigenous people’s advocate Wells reconnected with after their previous visit introduced them by saying, “This is Vernon. They’re doing research that is helping them connect with their Filipino heritage.” Wells recalls never telling her this was the motivation behind their research, but she wasn’t wrong. She could just tell.

Wells is half-Filipino; their mother is from the island of Mindanao and immigrated to the U.S. in the late 1990s. At Penn, they wrote a final paper on her story. “Even though I don’t come from an Indigenous Filipino background, I’ve learned so much about Indigenous history through tracing my mom’s and my family’s story,” Wells says.

But this hasn’t been a lifelong interest. Wells says while it “felt very isolating” growing up a racial minority in a small public school in Maine, which is about 94% white , it wasn’t until the end of high school that they wanted to focus on their ethnic identity. Even then, Wells didn’t arrive at Penn knowing they wanted to do research on the Philippines.

But their first year, Wells took a Modern Southeast Asia course with Andrew Carruthers , assistant professor of anthropology. Wells started writing papers on the Philippines and became interested in Indigenous communities.

Wells later took Carruthers’ Globalization and its Historical Significance course and got involved in the Southeast Asia Working Group , of which Carruthers is faculty adviser, and the professor is now Wells’ senior thesis adviser.

“Vernon is an incredibly self-motivated individual who’s able to make the strange familiar and the familiar strange, while also thinking about how everyday village life links up to broader comparative dynamics of importance at an international and national level,” Carruthers says. “A major aim of theirs is to make this research maximally accessible, particularly to the people they lived among and worked with.”

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Penn celebrates operation and benefits of largest solar power project in Pennsylvania

Solar production has begun at the Great Cove I and II facilities in central Pennsylvania, the equivalent of powering 70% of the electricity demand from Penn’s academic campus and health system in the Philadelphia area.

Education, Business, & Law

Investing in future teachers and educational leaders

The Empowerment Through Education Scholarship Program at Penn’s Graduate School of Education is helping to prepare and retain teachers and educational leaders.

‘The Illuminated Body’ fuses color, light, and sound

A new Arthur Ross Gallery exhibition of work by artist Barbara Earl Thomas features cut-paper portraits reminiscent of stained glass and an immersive installation constructed with intricately cut material lit from behind.

25 years of ‘LOVE’

The iconic sculpture by pop artist Robert Indiana arrived on campus in 1999 and soon became a natural place to come together.

Philippine students suffer in wilting heat, thwarting education efforts

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Britain's oil and gas regulator on Friday awarded 31 new hydrocarbon exploration licences as part of efforts to extend production in the ageing basin.

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Hamas, CIA director to hold talks in Cairo on Gaza truce

Hamas said on Friday it was sending a delegation to Cairo to discuss a deal for a truce and the release of hostages in Gaza, hours after U.S. CIA Director William Burns arrived in the Egyptian capital, according to Egyptian sources.

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The Death of a Treaty Could Be a Lifesaver for Taiwan

Since pulling out of an arms-limitation agreement with Russia in 2019, the U.S. has quickly developed new weapons that could be used to stop a Chinese invasion force.

By John Ismay

Reporting from Washington

During a military exercise with the Philippines that began last month, the U.S. Army deployed a new type of covert weapon that is designed to be hidden in plain sight.

Called Typhon, it consists of a modified 40-foot shipping container that conceals up to four missiles that rotate upward to fire. It can be loaded with weapons including the Tomahawk — a cruise missile that can hit targets on land and ships at sea more than 1,150 miles away.

The weapon, and other small mobile launchers like it, would have been illegal just five years ago under the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty , which prohibited U.S. and Russian forces from having land-based cruise or ballistic missiles with ranges between about 300 miles and 3,400 miles.

In 2019, President Donald J. Trump abandoned the treaty, in part because the United States believed Russia had violated the terms of the pact for years. But U.S. officials said that China, with its growing long-range missile arsenal , was also a reason the Trump administration decided to withdraw.

The decision freed the Pentagon to build the weapons that are now poised to defend Taiwan from a Chinese invasion. It also coincided with a rethinking of modern war by U.S. Marine Corps leaders . They recommended retiring certain heavyweight and cumbersome weapons like 155-millimeter howitzers and tanks — which they thought would be of little use against Chinese forces in the Pacific — and replacing them with lighter and more flexible arms like truck-mounted anti-ship missiles.

At the time, the Pentagon had no land-based anti-ship weapons. Other militaries, however, already did. Then in April 2022, Ukrainian ground troops used a similar weapon, Neptune anti-ship cruise missiles launched from trucks, to sink the Russian cruiser Moskva in the Black Sea.

Despite the success of the Moskva attack, a group of retired Marine generals publicly criticized the Corps’ plans to prioritize similar weapons at the expense of more traditional arms. They said the service was focusing on China to the detriment of other potential threats, and that getting rid of tanks and some heavy artillery would leave Marines unprepared for a major conflict in other parts of the world.

At a meeting of the Defense Writers Group in December 2022 , Gen. David H. Berger, then the Marines’ top general, acknowledged that he had been criticized by former colleagues but said his decisions were informed by intelligence reports the retirees could not obtain.

U.S. military and civilian leaders believed that President Xi Jinping of China planned to follow through on his many pledges to reunite Taiwan with Beijing by diplomatic means, or by force if necessary. And the Moskva’s hull rusting on the seafloor pointed to a possible way to dissuade Beijing from military action.

Pentagon officials believed that deterring China would not require a missile like the newest Tomahawk, which can attack ships with the equivalent of about a half-ton of TNT, nor even one like Ukraine’s Neptune, which carries a warhead about a third of that size.

Instead, positioning even smaller missiles to disable Chinese frigates, destroyers and amphibious craft could be enough, U.S. officials came to think, given their belief that Mr. Xi would try to invade only if he believed he would succeed in a relatively bloodless operation before American troops responded.

Targeting officers selected a Navy missile called SM-6 , for Standard Missile 6, that seemed right for the job.

With a warhead about half the size as the one carried by the Neptune, the SM-6 could evade a Chinese warship’s defenses and, on impact, change the crew’s mission from invasion to survival.

Setting squadrons of Chinese amphibious ships packed with troops ablaze in the Taiwan Strait, Pentagon officials believed, would not only protect the de facto independent island but may also make Mr. Xi’s own grip on power within the Communist Party untenable.

Without the legal restrictions of the I.N.F. Treaty, the Pentagon began experimenting with existing assets.

Sealed canisters containing Tomahawk and SM-6 missiles were mounted onto small trucks and hidden in shipping containers.

Publicly, the Navy says the missile has a maximum range of about 115 miles. But the SM-6 can in fact reach targets at ranges of 290 miles, officials confirmed to The New York Times, speaking on the condition of anonymity to discuss sensitive weapons capabilities.

In the event of hostilities with China, the Philippines could invoke its longstanding mutual defense pact with Washington, inviting U.S. forces to deploy mobile missile launchers to any of the nine Philippine military bases that the Pentagon has secured access to in the past decade.

Some of those partner bases are clustered on Luzon Island, where SM-6 missiles could threaten Chinese ships in the waterway between the northernmost reaches of the Philippines and Taiwan.

Last year the Pentagon gained access to a base on Balabac Island in southwestern Philippines. From there, the same weapon could reach China’s collection of militarized reefs in the Spratly Islands , which have become a major base of operations for Beijing’s efforts to control the South China Sea.

A new security agreement signed in August between Washington and Tokyo could offer a third strategic location for Taiwan’s defense in case of war — military bases in Japan’s far western Ryukyu chain. From one such facility on Yonaguni Island, where U.S. forces train with their Japanese counterparts, an SM-6 could hit any target surrounding Taiwan and threaten bases on the Chinese mainland right across the strait.

With the longer-range Tomahawk, truck-based launchers and Typhons secreted on small islands within a thousand miles of the Chinese mainland could largely obviate one of Beijing’s greatest perceived strengths : missiles developed in China that its military leaders claim could sink an American aircraft carrier sent to defend Taiwan.

A New Pacific Arsenal to Counter China

With missiles, submarines and alliances, the Biden administration has built a presence in the region to rein in Beijing’s expansionist goals.

John Ismay is a reporter covering the Pentagon for The Times. He served as an explosive ordnance disposal officer in the U.S. Navy. More about John Ismay