thesis flipped learning

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 20 July 2021

Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model on students’ self-reported motivation and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic

• José María Campillo-Ferrer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8570-3749 1   na1 &
• Pedro Miralles-Martínez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9143-2145 1   na1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  8 , Article number:  176 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

28k Accesses

50 Citations

4 Altmetric

Metrics details

This study investigates the effects of the flipped classroom on Education students’ perceptions of their learning and motivation during the current pandemic. The sample consisted of 179 student teachers from the Faculty of Education of the University of Murcia in the academic year 2020–2021, in which the flipped classroom model was implemented. Identical surveys were administered and examined through both descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests. Statistically significant differences were found between pre-tests and post-tests with experienced students scoring higher on average in the latter. Most students had a positive perception about the flipped classroom, noting the advantage of practical in-class activities, as well as increased self-autonomy in learning.

Similar content being viewed by others

Content validity of the Constructivist Learning in Higher Education Settings (CLHES) scale in the context of the flipped classroom in higher education

Turki Mesfer Alqahtani, Farrah Dina Yusop & Siti Hajar Halili

The implementation of a flipped classroom approach at a UK dental school

Rebecca S. L. Binnie & Stephen J. Bonsor

Nudge or not, university teachers have mixed feelings about online teaching

Sanchayan Banerjee, Beatriz Jambrina-Canseco, … Jenni Carr

Introduction

The increasing development of digital technologies and their application in education facilitates new learning ecologies that offer students new web-based learning opportunities and resources. This rapid spread of interactive technologies has facilitated the adoption of innovative approaches in higher education that help to promote collaborative learning, exploration, and research in online networked learning environments. It is in this context that alternative approaches to teacher-centered instruction have arisen and made a breakthrough in tertiary education.

In this line, the development of innovative student-centered approaches has encouraged teachers to rethink educational processes to shift the focus from them to the students, facilitate student participation, develop practical thinking, and improve digital skills (Wright, 2011 ).

Technology-driven models, such as the flipped classroom (FC), which provides students with direct access to video lectures, slides, and other teaching resources on online educational platforms, have gradually gained visibility and relevance (Bergmann and Sams, 2012 ). This discussion-oriented approach has accelerated well-structured independent learning, allowing teachers to provide feedback and assistance through innovative resources and learning management systems (LMS) in parallel with the implementation of collaborative problem-solving activities and group discussions in face-to-face lessons (López et al., 2016 ).

This is even more true at the present time due to the extreme circumstances. Undoubtedly, these technology-based approaches have become a greater priority during the COVID-19 pandemic as a consequence of the great disruption the virus is causing. In particular, the increasing restrictions recommended by the World Health Organization and other international institutions on disease control and prevention are profoundly affecting the ways in which we interact with each other, and the methods by which teachers teach and students learn and work (World Health Organization, 2020 ). Obviously, this completely changes the educational landscape, which includes not only teaching modes but also individual and collective practices on how to proceed (Dhawan, 2020 ; Fatani, 2020 ). This is particularly relevant for tertiary institutions such as universities or colleges, where a wide variety of classroom components, namely lectures, tutorials, or workshops, are being adapted to the global pandemic (Naw, 2020 ). In planning for the 2020-21 academic year, it was critical to consider certain constraints due to the evolution of the pandemic that has involved measures such as limiting classroom capacity and reducing face-to-face interactions. The restrictions introduced have even led to the suspension of classes and workshops in certain faculties or for specific groups of university students at some point during 2020 and 2021.

Regardless of the challenges, it is imperative that university programs continue to provide effective educational services (Tang et al., 2020 ). For this reason, a wide variety of mechanisms have been put in place to ensure that teaching is carried out on a regular basis. Academics in all areas of study have re-examined their teaching resources and found new options for engaging students in light of the current crisis. In these unfavorable conditions, innovative approaches based on distance conferencing technology and online tools play an important role at this time of great tension (Villa et al., 2020 ).

Several recent research papers have examined the intrinsic and extrinsic results of these teaching innovations, finding that these approaches can foster learning either in fully online or blended academic environments, even when it is mandatory to shift from one mode to another because of the present pandemic circumstances. Chick et al. ( 2020 ) offer several solutions to mitigate the risk of virus spread, including the FC model, teleconferencing, and online practice, with positive outcomes, as participants were satisfied with the format and were interested in continuing to learn without regularly attending face-to-face lectures. Comparative research was conducted by Latorre-Cosculluela et al. ( 2021 ), who concluded that participants were inclined to take a more active role in their own learning process by developing 21st-century skills (e.g., critical thinking or creativity) under the FC model rather than passively listening to direct instruction. In this regard, other studies highlighted the relevance of videos, recorded lectures, and group discussions, among other digital resources, to foster discussions, stimulate student learning and divert attention away from the current disruption caused by the pandemic (Agarwal and Kaushik, 2020 ; Guraya, 2020 ). As can be noted from the above-mentioned studies, the importance of increasing satisfaction and engagement during the unusual situation of COVID-19 is fundamental for educators to adopt strategic decisions to develop a culture of engagement among students. In this sense, Collado-Valero et al. ( 2021 ) identified a significant increase in the use of different online digital resources under the FC approach in a Spanish higher education context, mainly those related to video and audio resources, which provided a greater number of opportunities for students to share their learning experiences through a virtual space. Other research studies also confirm the distinctive rise of flipped learning, whereby students access information and have more opportunities to interact with each other, due to the wide range of possibilities for sharing opinions and ideas offered by these virtual scenarios. In particular, Colomo-Magaña et al. ( 2020 ) surveyed 123 trainee teachers who had been learning under the flipped-top classroom model during the 19/20 academic year. They concluded that the application of this flexible methodology promoted the development of oral skills and the improvement of learning abilities. They also highlighted time optimization as one of the benefits indicated by the participants in the survey. With the same purpose of contributing to the promotion of student learning achievement and engagement despite pandemic constraints, Smith and Boscak ( 2021 ) examined standard flipped classroom pedagogy, in which students were provided with self-learning educational resources, e.g., pre-class videos or case studies, together with interactive online lectures in which learning topics were revisited and discussed. They noted both the students’ satisfaction with the approach invested by the flexible and engaging material used and their subsequent confidence in the skills developed during the course. In parallel, Monzonís et al. ( 2020 ) examined the perceptions of pedagogy students who followed a flipped methodology during the COVID-19 crisis and found that most of them had improved their digital skills and increased their motivation thanks to this methodology. Despite these clear benefits for skills development and active participation of students, there are still some challenges that need to be addressed in more detail and that may be mainly related to teachers, students, or technological requirements. Authors such as Agung et al. ( 2020 ) highlighted some technology-based problems when they found that most students surveyed were not enthusiastic about online learning mainly due to lack of access to the internet and other technological resources, which may be revealing the problem of the digital divide. The abrupt shift towards e-learning since spring 2020 has had other tangible web-based limits, which have been indicated by similar studies, namely over-reliance on the proper functioning of technology or lack of personal contact in video conferences due to the marked contrast caused by the teaching-learning environment switch (Goksu and Duran, 2020 , Clark-Wilson et al., 2020 ). The challenges related to teachers may be related to their difficulties in dealing with emerging technology in such a short space of time. In this regard, ElSaheli-Elhage ( 2021 ) noted that some educators admitted that they are not digitally literate enough to cope with regular online teaching activities during the pandemic. In this respect, Cevikbas and Kaiser ( 2020 ) pointed out another drawback related to digital teaching, which is closely linked to the subject-specific content needed for effective flipped teaching. They highlighted the problems for teachers in identifying adapted learning materials that successfully meet the specific needs of their students or in creating their own lecture videos, slides, infographics, and other learning resources via online platforms. Regarding student-related challenges during the current crisis, some authors have identified students’ depressive symptoms and that signs of anxiety soar in online learning programs due to the perception of lagging behind academically under these unusual conditions (Islam et al., 2020 ). The influence of physical distance or the increase in response time when answering queries and providing academic assistance in asynchronous lessons may be other factors that cause these feelings of psychological unease (Ardan et al., 2020 ).

Therefore, further research and reflection are needed on the application of these innovative models and strategies in these new learning scenarios to improve understanding and adjust these web-based approaches according to the increasing and progressive demands and needs of the learners.

The aim of this research is to analyze the effect that the FC model had on the students’ perceptions of their learning process and progress and their levels of motivation. To achieve this aim, the following research objectives were defined:

RO1: To examine students’ views on the effects that the FC model had on their motivation levels at the beginning and end of the core unit during the pandemic period, and in particular:

To analyze their opinions on the impact this model had, as well as the variety of techniques and strategies used on their level of motivation according to the gender of the participants.

To examine their impressions of the effects of this model, as well as the variety of techniques and strategies used on their level of motivation according to their experience under this approach.

To analyze their impressions of the effects this model had, as well as the variety of techniques and strategies used on their level of motivation according to their level of digital competence under this approach.

RO2: To analyze their impressions of the learning achieved under a flipped methodology at the beginning and end of the core unit during the COVID-19 pandemic, and in particular:

To examine their impressions of the learning developed, as well as the variety of techniques and strategies used in the core unit according to the gender of the participants.

To analyze their impressions of the learning developed, as well as the variety of techniques and strategies used in the core unit according to their experience under this approach.

To analyze their perspectives on the learning developed, as well as the variety of techniques and strategies used in the core unit according to their level of digital competence under this approach.

A quasi-experimental design was adopted through pre-test and post-test questionnaires, which were prepared ad hoc to measure the extent to which the objectives set out in this research had been achieved.

A quantitative methodology was applied to examine university students’ perceptions of their learning process within this flipped model. Following the design of the pre-test and post-test, identical assessment measures were provided to participants before and after they had learned with this blended learning approach, to analyze comparative data, focusing on significant differences in learning perceptions at the end of the term.

Participants

The flipped experience was implemented in four groups in the core unit of Didactics of Social Sciences, which is compulsory for all second-year students of the Primary Education degree of the University of Murcia, Spain. In the study, the sample comprised 179 student teachers whose ages ranged from 19 to 39 years ( M  = 20.02 and SD = 3.32). Most of the participants were women, (43 men (24.02%) and 136 women (75.98%), and only one of them had repeated the year (0.56%). Informed consent was obtained from all participants to conduct this study.

The main objective of the core unit was for students to acquire relevant knowledge and mastery of the skills required to be effective social science teachers, with emphasis on cultivating meaningful learning and using accessible resources to encourage reflection on their own learning process.

Correspondingly, students had to plan, carry out and evaluate innovative proposals for the teaching of social science contents together with a rationale for the approach selected and a detailed description of how to assess this content in Primary Education.

The strategies used in the flipped approach were based on the learning management system as an effective technology that can support learning and make it trackable and motivating.

The core unit was taught for four months in the first term of the 2020/2021 academic year (September-December) using a blended teaching model that combined classroom experiences and online course delivery in both synchronous and asynchronous classes sessions.

Synchronous class sessions were held on Fridays using the Zoom video conferencing platform, in which students were asked to watch videos, visit educational sites or search for information on current social science issues. Each week, students were provided with a Zoom link that they could use by logging in beforehand with their university credentials, thus ensuring the most secure access to online learning. The instantaneous sharing capability of this type of video conferencing allowed educators to work on course content through real-time presentations or to record and store them on the e-learning campus, so making them available to students throughout the term.

Asynchronous learning was promoted using innovative and interactive learning materials such as prerecorded video lectures or multimedia activities. The contents were regularly uploaded after finishing the preceding teaching units. Despite the flexibility of time frames, students had weekly deadlines to access the previously uploaded content and they had to log into their accounts on the learning platform and check what they were regularly assigned via hyperlinks.

In-class sessions were held on Wednesdays and encompassed a wide variety of practical tasks aimed at promoting numerous and various interactions in which students cooperated together and accomplished shared goals to demonstrate competence in simulated skills practice. Groups were divided into three subgroups to avoid risks and maximize students’ learning.

Subsequently, groups of university students were monitored until they finished the term, and information on their perceptions of the flipped experience was collected before and after applying this methodological proposal to gauge the impact of this program at the end of the period.

Data collection tools

Participants’ views on the adoption of this flipped approach were collected through an ad hoc questionnaire, the main purpose of which is to report on the implementation of a flipped approach by collecting data at two points in time from a sample of university students. Several advantages have been identified in the use of this technique in terms of reliability, objectivity, and representativeness (Cohen et al., 2017 ). Questionnaires are particularly valuable for data collection, as their quantifying nature and easy administration allow researchers to collect information from a large number of people. They are also considered quite reliable, as researchers do not need to be present when respondents fill it out, which means that if administered by different researchers, they should provide similar results. However, some limitations have been observed due to their impersonal nature, given the researcher’s detachment, or differences in interpretation that may distort respondents’ answers and undermine the validity of the information provided (Beiske, 2002 ; Waidi, 2016 ). The questionnaire was composed of thirty-six items divided into four main sections: self-perceived motivation, self-perceived acquisition of digital competencies, the effectiveness of this approach on students’ learning processes, and reported views on students’ learning of democratic education. The items were rated on a Likert scale of one to five points, where one is “very poor” and five is “excellent”, to value the degree of respondents’ agreement with the statements presented.

Procedure and data analysis

The data collected during the research were analyzed in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) v.26.0. The degree of reliability and validity of the instrument was estimated prior to data analysis. The construct reliability was determined using Cronbach’s Alpha to estimate whether the instrument consisting of a multiple-question Likert scale was reliable. A Cronbach’s Alpha value equal to or higher than .70, which shows good internal consistency, is generally accepted in most social science research studies (González Alonso and Pazmiño Santacruz, 2015 ; Quansah, 2017 ). Regarding the questionnaire, positive results were obtained both overall ( α  = 0.89) and in each of the sections: motivation, α  = 0.86; learning processes, α  = 0.83. The validity of the instrument was also tested using Bartlett’s test of sphericity and a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for each section of the questionnaire. In all the sections a significance level of 0.000 in Bartlett’s test of sphericity was achieved. After running the PCA, we obtained distribution in the first block of 2 dimensions, explaining 58,47% of the total variance, with a KMO of 0.906. In the second block, we obtained 2 dimensions, explaining 53.24%, with a KMO of 0.861.

As for the first objective, Table 1 shows descriptive statistics, consisting of two categories of measures: measures of central tendency (mean) and measures of variability (standard deviation).

In general, male students’ extrinsic motivation is higher than intrinsic motivation, while female students scored similarly on both types of self-perceived motivation. When contrasting the results between the pre-tests and post-tests, it is observed that male students scored higher in the post-tests with respect to their intrinsic self-perceived motivation, while female students scored lower in the post-tests for both types of self-perceived motivation. No significant differences were identified between pretests and posttests in this section.

As we can see in Table 2 , participants with previous experience with the FC model indicated higher self-perceived motivation than those with no experience. Also, student teachers with a high level of digital competence were more motivated to excel in class than those with a lower competence level. However, students with a lower level of digital competence showed more self-perceived intrinsic motivation to improve their future teaching practice than the other subgroups. Non-parametric tests were conducted to examine whether participants’ perceptions of their self-perceived motivation in relation to Flipped-Classroom-based learning differed statistically. Wilcoxon tests showed no significant differences between pre-tests and post-tests. However, Mann–Whitney U tests revealed significant differences between participants with prior experience in this approach and those without, with the former feeling more motivated than the latter to learn new active methodologies, link them to their future teaching practice, improve their autonomy or interact socially more effectively.

As shown in Table 3 , female students were more motivated by the resources and strategies implemented in the core unit compared to male students. Mann–Whitney U tests revealed significant differences between males and females in relation to small group activities, with female students rating this item significantly higher than the other subgroup.

Most of the items have a median between 3 and 4, which means that with these scores the participants indicated sufficient self-perceived motivation for this approach. The group with the lowest e-competence is the only group that gives a similar or higher score on all items in the post-test compared to the scores of the pre-test and the other groups (Table 4 ).

Regarding the second objective, the results in Table 5 show descriptive statistics, consisting of two categories of measures: measures of central tendency (mean) and measures of variability (standard deviation), as well as non-parametric results according to the gender of the participants.

With respect to the second objective, results indicate positive perceptions of their learning processes both before and after the implementation of this approach. However, male students scored lower in pre-tests but higher in posttests, particularly, with respect to learning interactions and self-evaluation. No significant differences were found between males and females in this objective.

As we can see in Table 6 , participants with no prior experience assigned a lower score to the items related to planning, managing, and assessing processes. In fact, non-parametric tests revealed significant differences in these items between respondents with and without experience with this approach. No significant differences were found between subgroups with different levels of e-competence.

The table below indicates men’s and women’s perceptions of the learning strategies and resources used (Table 7 ).

The results indicate that both men’s and women’s views on their learning are lower in the post-tests, although male students rated the quizzes, points, prizes, and the student portal more positively after the core unit. No significant differences were identified between the two subgroups.

In terms of their participation and involvement in the strategies presented to support their learning in the core unit, respondents rated practical classroom activities, small group work, quizzes, and rewards higher than the other options, with medians around 4 or higher. Significant differences were identified between the subgroups with and without prior experience, with the former rating videos, practical activities, quizzes, and small group tasks significantly higher than the latter. Similar differences were found between subgroups with different levels of e-proficiency, with students with higher e-proficiency scoring higher on the small group activities and computer tools.

Discussion and conclusions

This article examines student teachers’ self-perceived motivation and learning under the FC model during the pandemic in the academic year 20/21. The data obtained in this study showed a positive evaluation of the approach, both in reported motivation and perception of learning.

According to the results, participants felt sufficiently motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically, throughout the core unit, to learn new active methodologies and to improve their future teaching practice. Thus, this new and unexpected situation did not especially affect their interest in the FC model, and they were willing to participate and collaborate to do better in the future. As the comparative research shows (Latorre-Cosculluela et al., 2021 ), respondents were more willing to actively participate in the FC model than to be passive recipients of the information.

In addition, as other studies show (Aşıksoy and Özdamlı, 2016 ; Wanner and Palmer, 2015 ), the impressions expressed by respondents on the relevance of various strategies and techniques on their self-perceived motivation were quite good, with the Kahoot! quizzes being one of the best-valued resources. In this sense, it should be noted that the effectiveness of gamification and some related ludic elements such as points, levels, or prizes can provide fun and interaction, and thus increase motivation and promote student participation. Furthermore, as Fontana ( 2020 ) and Park and Kim ( 2021 ) point out, gamification can enhance social relationships through which students can share information, learn from each other and entertain themselves through these online platforms, which are even more significant during the pandemic period associated with social distancing and the need to protect oneself and others. Notwithstanding, as suggested by Mekler et al. ( 2017 ) the underlying motivational mechanisms should be the subject of further empirical research.

Regarding student teachers’ perceptions of their own learning, the data show their positive impressions, which are in line with other studies on the implementation of this approach (Foldness, 2016 ; Love et al., 2014 ). It seems obvious that participants were interested in understanding effective methodological shifts that support more flexible and active ways of learning under the current pandemic situation. According to the data, students’ attitudes towards flipped education, which has shifted from prioritizing traditional lecture-based lessons to more student-centered and autonomous learning methods, were receptive to this technology-based active learning approach. Students valued most positively the use of a wider range of online resources, the development of more frequent interactions, not only teacher-student but also peer-to-peer, and new ways of managing knowledge and content. Other research studies also agreed on the appropriateness of these alternative approaches during coronavirus disease because of their great deal of flexibility, their free access to online academic resources, and their interactive learning environments, among other reasons (Chick et al., 2020 ; Lapitan et al., 2021 ). In this sense, the use of a full set of IT tools, such as a modern LMS with a user-friendly interface and effective collaboration tools, would allow for flexible resource management, which favors the search, sharing, and application of knowledge among students (Basilaia and Kvavadze, 2020 ; Zainuddin and Perera, 2018 ).

It is worth highlighting the statistically significant differences identified in the dimensions of the study, especially regarding previous experience and e-competence. In the first case, students with prior experience valued the effects of this approach in improving their future teaching practice more highly than the rest of their peers, which means that they saw this innovation as an opportunity to explore, expand their knowledge and update their potential as future teachers significantly more than those without prior experience. Therefore, these results encourage the further implementation of these actions, task-based initiatives in higher education, so that students can gain more experience of what an FC model consists of and thus improve their motivation and learn to manage cognitive knowledge more effectively (Abeysekera and Dawson, 2015 ).

Regarding the e-competence variable, results from non-parametric tests showed that students with a higher level of e-competence perceived active in-class tasks as more intrinsically motivating than the rest of their peers, while students with a lower e-competence found that taking an FC approach constituted a more motivating means of improving their future teaching practice. These different perceptions may give learners a more immediate sense of progress if they are sufficiently e-competent within this model or in the future once they intensify their acquisition of digital skills. In any case, the FC model has proved that it enables students to easily understand their progression in the learning and development of innovative methodological proposals (Blau and Shamir-Inbal, 2017 ).

However, despite the students’ positive opinions, their impressions are not as optimistic as in other similar pre-pandemic studies conducted in the same context. The results in research conducted a year earlier (Gómez-Carrasco et al., 2020 ), in which students expressed more significant positive views on their self-perceived motivation, one point higher on average, may demonstrate that the consequences of pandemic-related restrictions are causing some unease among university students.

Furthermore, the findings of this research cannot be representative of current teaching and learning processes that drive student motivation, as the results are drawn from a single experience and it would be advisable for the analysis to be compared with actual learning outcomes and in more core units to gain a more complete understanding of the current outcomes and impacts of this model.

Therefore, there is a need for further study of these newly emerging e-learning scenarios due to the restrictions or lockdowns, as well as the complex set of interrelated factors affecting their implementation. In addition, further research is required to analyze the lower value items within this approach to customize them according to learners’ specific interests and needs.

Data availability

The datasets generated during this study are not publicly available because the identities of some participants are visible, undermining privacy protection, but they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abeysekera L, Dawson P (2015) Motivation and cognitive load in the flipped classroom: definition, rationale and a call for research. High Educ Res Dev 34(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2014.934336

Article   Google Scholar  

Agarwal S, Kaushik JS (2020) Student’s perception of online learning during COVID pandemic. Indian J Pediatr 87:554–554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-020-03327-7

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Agung ASN, Surtikanti MW, Quinones CA (2020) Students’ perception of online learning during COVID-19 pandemic: a case study on the english students of STKIP Pamane Talino. SOSHUM 10(2):225–235. https://doi.org/10.31940/soshum.v10i2.1316

Ardan M, Rahman FF, Geroda GB (2020) The influence of physical distance to student anxiety on COVID-19, Indonesia. J Crit Rev 7(17):1126–1132

Google Scholar  

Aşıksoy G, Özdamlı F (2016) Flipped classroom adapted to the ARCS model of motivation and applied to a physics course. Eurasia J Math Sci 12(6):1589–1603. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1251a

Basilaia G, Kvavadze D (2020) Transition to online education in schools during a SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Georgia. Ped Res 5(4):1–9. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/7937

Beiske B (2002) Research methods: uses and limitations of questionnaires, interviews, and case studies. School of Management Generic Research Methods, Manchester

Bergmann J, Sams A (2012) Flip your classroom: reach every student in every class every day. International Society for Technology in Education, New York

Blau I, Shamir-Inbal T (2017) Re-designed flipped learning model in an academic course: the role of co-creation and co-regulation. Comput Educ 115:69–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.07.014

Cevikbas M, Kaiser G (2020) Flipped classroom as a reform-oriented approach to teaching mathematics. Zdm 52(7):1291–1305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-020-01191-5

Clark-Wilson A, Robutti O, Thomas M (2020) Teaching with digital technology. Zdm 52(7):1223–1242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-020-01196-0

Chick RC, Clifton GT, Peace KM, Propper BW, Hale DF, Alseidi AA, Vreeland TJ (2020) Using technology to maintain the education of residents during the Covid-19 pandemic. J Surg Educ 3:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2020.03.018

Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison K (2017) Research methods in education. Routledge, New York

Book   Google Scholar  

Collado-Valero J, Rodríguez-Infante G, Romero-González M, Gamboa-Ternero S, Navarro-Soria I, Lavigne-Cerván R (2021) Flipped classroom: active methodology for sustainable learning in higher education during social distancing due to COVID-19. Sustain 13(10):5336. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105336

Colomo-Magaña E, Soto-Varela R, Ruiz-Palmero J, Gómez-García M (2020) Percepción de estudiantes universitarios sobre la utilidad de la metodología del aula invertida. Educ Sci 10:275. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10100275

Dhawan S (2020) Online learning: a panacea in the time of COVID-19 crisis. J Educ Technol Syst 49(1):5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018

ElSaheli-Elhage R (2021) Access to students and parents and levels of preparedness of educators during the COVID-19 emergency transition to e-learning. Int J Stud Educ 3(2):61–69. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijonse.35

Fatani TH (2020) Student satisfaction with videoconferencing teaching quality during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Med Educ 20(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02310-2

Foldnes N (2016) The flipped classroom and cooperative learning: evidence from a randomised experiment. Act Learn High Educ 17(1):39–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787415616726

Fontana MT (2020) Gamification of ChemDraw during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Investigating How a Serious, Educational-Game Tournament (Molecule Madness) impacts student wellness and organic chemistry skills while distance learning. J Chem Educ 97(9):3358–3368. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00722

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Goksu DY, Duran V (2020) Flipped Clasroom Model in the Context of Distant Training. Res High Educ Sci 104–127. https://www.isres.org/books/chapters/Rhes2020-104-127_29-12-2020.pdf . Accessed 20 Feb 2021

Gómez-Carrasco CJ, Monteagudo-Fernández J, Moreno-Vera JR, Sainz-Gómez M (2020) Evaluation of a gamification and flipped-classroom program used in teacher training: Perception of learning and outcome. PLoS ONE 15(7):e0236083. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236083

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

González Alonso J, Pazmiño Santacruz M (2015) Cálculo e interpretación del Alfa de Cronbach para el caso de validación de la consistencia interna de un cuestionario, con dos posibles escalas tipo Likert. Rev Publ 2(1):62–67

Guraya S (2020) Combating the COVID-19 outbreak with a technology-driven e-flipped classroom model of educational transformation. J Taibah Univ Med Sci 15(4):253–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtumed.2020.07.006

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Islam MA, Barna SD, Raihan H, Khan MNA, Hossain MT (2020) Depression and anxiety among university students during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh: a web-based cross-sectional survey. PLoS ONE 15(8):e0238162. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238162

Lapitan LD, Tiangco CE, Sumalinog DAG, Sabarillo NS, Diaz JM (2021) An effective blended online teaching and learning strategy during the COVID-19 pandemic. Educ Chem Eng 35:116–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ece.2021.01.012

Latorre-Cosculluela C, Suárez C, Quiroga S, Sobradiel-Sierra N, Lozano-Blasco R, Rodríguez-Martínez A (2021) Flipped Classroom model before and during COVID-19: Using technology to develop 21st century skills. ITSE. ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-08-2020-0137

López D, García C, Bellot J, Formigós J, Maneau V (2016) Elaboración de material para la realización de experiencias de clase inversa (flipped classroom). In:Álvarez J, Grau S, Tortosa M (eds) Innovaciones metodológicas en docencia universitaria: resultados de investigación. Alicante, Spain, pp. 973–984

Love B, Hodge A, Grandgenett N, Swift AW (2014) Student learning and perceptions in a flipped linear algebra course. Int J Math Educ Sci Technol 45(3):317–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2013.822582

Mekler ED, Brühlmann F, Tuch AN, Opwis K (2017) Towards understanding the effects of individual gamification elements on intrinsic motivation and performance. Comput Hum Behav 71:525–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.048

Monzonís NC, Méndez VG, Ariza AC, Magaña EC (2020) Aula invertida en tiempos de COVID-19: una perspectiva transversal. IJERI 15:326–341. https://doi.org/10.46661/ijeri.5439

Naw N (2020) Designing a flipped classroom for Myanmar universities during COVID-19 crisis. Univ J ICT Multidiscip Iss Arts Sci Engineer Econ Educ 1:1–8

Park S, Kim S (2021) Is sustainable online learning possible with gamification?—The effect of gamified online learning on student learning. Sustain 13(8):4267

Quansah F (2017) The Use of cronbach alpha reliability estimate in research among students in public Universities In Ghana. Afr J Teach Educ 6(1):56–64. https://doi.org/10.21083/ajote.v6i1.3970

Smith E, Boscak A (2021) A virtual emergency: learning lessons from remote medical student education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Emerg Radiol 28(3):445–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10140-020-01874-2

Tang T, Abuhmaid AM, Olaimat M, Oudat DM, Aldhaeebi M, Bamanger E (2020) Efficiency of flipped classroom with online-based teaching under COVID-19. Interact Learn Environ 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1817761

Villa FG, Litago JDU, Sánchez-Fdez A (2020) Perceptions and expectations in the university students from adaptation to the virtual teaching triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic. Rev Lat Comun Soc 78:99–119

Waidi AA (2016) Employment of questionnaire as tool for effective business research outcome: problems and challenges. Glob Econ Observer 4(1):136

Wanner T, Palmer E (2015) Personalising learning: exploring student and teacher perceptions about flexible learning and assessment in a flipped university course. Comput Educ 88:354–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.07.008

World Health Organization (2020) Critical preparedness, readiness and response actions for COVID-19. In: World Health Organization. Publications. Overview. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/critical-preparedness-readiness-and-response-actions-for-covid-19 . Accessed 5 Feb 2021

Wright GB (2011) Student-centered learning in higher education. Int J Teach Learn Higher Educ 23(1):92–97

Zainuddin Z, Perera CJ (2018) Supporting students’ self-directed learning in the flipped classroom through the LMS TES Blend Space. Horiz 26(4):281–290

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the “Spanish Ministry for Science, Innovation, and Universities. Secretary of State for Universities, Research, Development and Innovation”, grant number PGC2018-094491-B-C33, and “Seneca Foundation. Regional Agency for Science and Technology”, grant number 20874/PI/18. We would like to thank Stephen Hasler for his proofreading work. It was a pleasure to work with him.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: José María Campillo-Ferrer, Pedro Miralles-Martínez.

Authors and Affiliations

Faculty of Education, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain

José María Campillo-Ferrer & Pedro Miralles-Martínez

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to José María Campillo-Ferrer .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Campillo-Ferrer, J.M., Miralles-Martínez, P. Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model on students’ self-reported motivation and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 8 , 176 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00860-4

Download citation

Received : 10 April 2021

Accepted : 05 July 2021

Published : 20 July 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00860-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Distance learning: studying the efficiency of implementing flipped classroom technology in the educational system.

• Khaleel Al-Said
• Irina Krapotkina
• Nadezhda Maslennikova

Education and Information Technologies (2023)

Flipped Learning 4.0. An extended flipped classroom model with Education 4.0 and organisational learning processes

• María Luisa Sein-Echaluce
• Ángel Fidalgo-Blanco
• Francisco José García-Peñalvo

Universal Access in the Information Society (2022)

Medical student education through flipped learning and virtual rotations in radiation oncology during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross sectional research

• Tae Hyung Kim
• Jin Sung Kim
• Jee Suk Chang

Radiation Oncology (2021)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 24 August 2016

The flipped classroom: for active, effective and increased learning – especially for low achievers

• Jalal Nouri 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  13 , Article number:  33 ( 2016 ) Cite this article

110k Accesses

154 Citations

43 Altmetric

Metrics details

Higher education has been pressured to shift towards more flexible, effective, active, and student-centered teaching strategies that mitigate the limitations of traditional transmittal models of education. Lately, the flipped classroom model has been suggested to support this transition. However, research on the use of flipped classroom in higher education is in its infancy and little is known about student’s perceptions of learning through flipped classroom. This study examined students’ perceptions of flipped classroom education in a last year university course in research methods. A questionnaire was administered measuring students’ ( n  = 240) perceptions of flipped classroom in general, video as a learning tool, and Moodle (Learning Management System) as a supporting tool within the frame of a flipped classroom model. The results revealed that a large majority of the students had a positive attitude towards flipped classroom, the use of video and Moodle, and that a positive attitude towards flipped classroom was strongly correlated to perceptions of increased motivation, engagement, increased learning, and effective learning. Low achievers significantly reported more positively as compared to high achievers with regards to attitudes towards the use of video as a learning tool, perceived increased learning, and perceived more effective learning.

Introduction

Teaching at the university level has been performed in a relatively similar manner during a long historical time and across cultures. As a central pillar, we find the traditional lecture with the professor, or the “sage on the stage” as put by King ( 1993 ), transmitting knowledge to receiving students. Nevertheless, over the past 30 years, university education and traditional lectures in particular have been strongly criticized. The main criticism has cast light on the following: students are passive in traditional lectures due to the lack of mechanisms that ensure intellectual engagement with the material, student’s attention wanes quickly, the pace of the lectures is not adapted to all learners needs and traditional lectures are not suited for teaching higher order skills such such as application and analysis (Cashin, 1985 ; Bonwell, 1996 ; Huxham, 2005 ; Young, Robinson, & Alberts, 2009 ). Consequently, various researchers and educators have advocated forms of lecturing based on an active learning philosophy, some involving novel technology mediated interactions (Beekes, 2006 ; Rosie, 2000 ), others without an explicit focus on technology such as the enhanced lecture of Bonwell ( 1996 ). However, despite the comprehensive critique, the traditional lecture continues to prevail as the predominant didactic strategy in higher education (Roehl, Reddy, & Shannon, 2013 ).

It is against such a background, and to high extent because of advancements in educational technology, increasing pressures on higher education have been witnessed that have spawned a push to flexible blended student-centered learning strategies that mitigate the limitations of the transmittal model of education (Betihavas, Bridgman, Kornhaber, & Cross, 2015 ). Accompanied with the shift to provide student-centered learning we have seen a surge of researchers and educators advocating flipped classroom curricula in higher education. The advocacy of the flipped classroom model is justifiable. Judging by its underlying theory and the conducted empirical studies, the flipped classroom model appears to address several challenges with traditional ways of lecturing and pave way for active learning strategies and for using classroom time for engaging in higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002 ) such as application, analysis, and synthesis.

The flipped classroom model is based on the idea that traditional teaching is inverted in the sense that what is normally done in class is flipped or switched with that which is normally done by the students out of class. Thus, instead of students listening to a lecture in class and then going home to work on a set of assigned problems, they read course literature and assimilate lecture material through video at home and engage in teacher-guided problem-solving, analysis and discussions in class. Proponents of flipped classroom list numerous advantages of inverting teaching and learning in higher education according to the flipped classroom model: it allows students to learn in their own pace, it encourages students to actively engage with lecture material, it frees up actual class time for more effective, creative and active learning activities, teachers receive expanded opportunities to interact with and to assess students’ learning, and students take control and responsibility for their learning (Gilboy, Heinerichs, & Pazzaglia, 2015 ; Betihavas et al., 2015 ).

Despite that flipped classroom is a rather new phenomenon in higher education, some empirical research has been conducted. For instance, McLaughlin et al. ( 2013 ) and McLaughlin et al. ( 2014 ) analysis of pharmacy students’ experiences of flipped classroom courses revealed that students prefer learning content prior to class and using class time for applied learning, and that students who learned through a flipped classroom approach considered themselves more engaged than students attending traditional courses. Similar findings were obtained by Davies, Dean, and Ball ( 2013 ) who compared three different instructional strategies in an information systems spreadsheet course, and showed that students attending the flipped classroom course also were more satisfied with the learning environment compared to the other treatment groups. Several studies report that students enjoy being able to learn in their own pace and that they prefer flipped classroom over traditional approaches (Butt, 2014 ; Davies et al., 2013 ; Larson & Yamamoto, 2013 ; McLaughlin et al., 2014 ; Roach, 2014 ; Gilboy et al., 2015 ). In term of examinations of learning outcomes, Love, Hodge, Grandgenett, and Swift ( 2014 ) demonstrated higher exam grades for students using a flipped classroom approach as compared to students learning through traditional methods. Hung ( 2015 ) showed similar results for English language learners. Another study by Findlay-Thompson and Mombourquette ( 2014 ) comparing traditional teaching methods and the flipped classroom approach within the same business course showed no significant differences in academic outcomes.

However, empirical research on the flipped classroom model in higher education, and more detailed investigations of students’ perceptions of its use, is in its infancy and the need for further research is underlined by many (Bishop & Verleger, 2013 ; Uzunboylu & Karagozlu, 2015 ; Betihavas et al., 2015 ; Gilboy et al., 2015 ).

Research purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine how students perceive flipped classroom education in a university research methods course. Three particular aspects were considered, namely, (a) the student’s general experiences and attitudes of learning through flipped classroom, (b) the student’s experiences of using video lectures as a medium for learning, and (c) the student’s experiences of using a Learning Management System (LMS) in the frame of the flipped classroom model. Further, this study has also considered differences in experiences and attitudes of low and high achieving students.

This study is based on a quantitative analysis of a closed questionnaire addressing undergraduate students’ perceptions and experience of learning through flipped classroom in a course preparing students for the bachelor thesis with respect to scientific methodology and communication. The course was implemented during autumn 2015.

Participants

The participants were undergraduate students ( n  = 240) at Stockholm University in Sweden taking the last year course Research methods and communication during autumn semester 2015. All of the students were enrolled in 8 different bachelor level programs at the department of Computer and Systems Sciences. The students, 76 females and 164 males, ranged in age from 20 to 43 years, with a mean age of 25.12 years (SD = 4.09). Out of the 240 students only 23 had a previous experience of flipped classroom. The number of students passing the course was 218. Table  1 presents an overview of student demographics and background questions. Low and high achievers among the students were determined by the student’s average grade during their studies. Here high achievers were defined as having average grades A to B while low achievers were defined as having average grades C to F.

Materials and procedure

Course structure.

The course focused on in this study prepares students for the bachelor thesis with respect to scientific methodology and communication. The learning objectives are on the one hand to facilitate students understanding of the fundamentals of research strategies, data-collection methods, and analysis methods, and on the other hand to familiarize students with application of qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. Put differently, the course aimed at equipping students with conceptual knowledge (an understanding of scientific methods), and procedural knowledge (application of analysis methods and scientific writing). See Fig.  1 for the underlying pedagogical structure.

Pedagogical structure for students conceptual and procedural learning

The course was divided into three parts with three different examination tasks. The first part concerned gaining a theoretical understanding of the fundamentals of research strategies, data-collection methods, and analysis methods. The pedagogical structure for this part comprised of independent reading of course literature. Students reading of the course literature was supported by three longer video lectures (in average 60 min each), one traditional campus lecture (teacher presenting and summarizing the fundamentals of research strategies), and one interactive flipped classroom lecture in which the teacher presented examples of exam questions that students answered in real-time by using a digital response system (Socrative) via their own smart phones, tablets and computers. The response system provided an overview of the responses that allowed students to assess their knowledge and the teacher to provide formative feedback and elaborated explanations when needed. In addition, digital supervision was offered through a learning management system (Moodle). The examination for this part comprised of a multiple-choice digital exam in the learning management system.

The second part was a practical qualitative analysis project that students conducted in groups of two. The task of this project was to use a qualitative analysis method to analyze qualitative interview data and communicate the results in a report following scientific standards of qualitative data presentation. During this project the students were supported by five digital lectures (in average 35 min each), three flipped lectures on campus, and digital supervision through the learning management system. In the three flipped lectures on campus students worked with their projects and were scaffolded by several teachers that answered questions and provided feedback. When the teachers identified common misunderstandings or needs among the students, they provided elaborated explanations to the whole class. The examination of the second part comprised of a written group report.

The third part of the course was similar to the second part, comprising of a project with a focus on using quantitative methods to analyze a questionnaire and communicate the results according to scientific standards of quantitative result presentation. During this project the students were supported by seven video lectures (in average 30 min each), three flipped lectures in class with teachers scaffolding practical work, and digital supervision in the learning management system. The videos covered the theoretical fundamentals of descriptive and inferential statistics as well as how different statistical tests can be performed and interpreted in SPSS. The examination of the third part comprised of a written group report.

All video lectures made available to the students during the course were produced by teachers and researchers in a professional video studio at Stockholm University. The video lectures were specifically tailored for the course.

Survey measures and procedure

A questionnaire was developed consisting of 4 sections with 58 items to measure students’ perceptions of flipped classroom in general, video as a learning tool, and Moodle as a supporting system.

Section 1 (General information) consisted of 12 demographic and background items

Section 2 (Flipped Classroom Scale) consisted of 21 items measuring students’ experiences and attitudes of learning through flipped classroom

Section 3 (Video Scale) consisted of 16 items measuring students’ experiences of using video lectures as a medium for learning.

Section 4 (LMS scale) consisted of 9 items measuring students’ perceptions of the utility of Moodle in supporting their learning processes within the frame of flipped classroom pedagogy.

An exploratory factor analysis with principal component extraction was performed in an attempt to refine the instrument. After factor analysis, 8 items that did not load on any factors or highly cross-loaded on multiple factors were removed. Accordingly, the instrument used for the final analysis consisted of 17 items for the Flipped Classroom Scale, 13 items for the Video Scale, and 5 items for the LMS Scale. Overall, Cronbach’s alphas were .78 for the Flipped Classroom Scale, .82 for the Video Scale, and .84 for the LMS Scale. Students were asked to complete the questionnaire at the end of the course. The questionnaire was developed and administered through a web tool.

Students’ general perceptions of flipped classroom

The flipped classroom model proved to be appreciated by many students. Among the 240 respondents, 180 students expressed a positive attitude to flipped classroom after the course (75 %). The students most appreciated the use of video (M = 4.15, SD = 1.10), flexibility and mobility given by the flipped classroom model (M = 3.95, SD = 1.10), that learning can be done at own pace (M = 3.75, SD = 0.91), that learning processes are better supported (M = 3.54, SD = 1.13), and that non-traditional campus activities are meaningful (M = 3.40, SD = 1.13).

In terms of other characteristics of the learning process, to some extent the students appeared to agree that it is easier and more effective to learn with the flipped classroom approach (M = 3.17, SD = 1.03) and that they feel more motivated as learners (M = 2.95, SD = 1.13). Furthermore, many students perceived that they had to take more responsibility for their learning (M = 3.91, SD = 0.96) in a flipped classroom course.

Noteworthy, some students also felt themselves alone during their learning (M = 3.01, SD = 1.29). Table  2 shows the students’ experiences of flipped classroom after the course was completed.

The results of an analysis of the correlations between the measured variables, with a particular focus on attitudes towards flipped classroom and its effect on learning and motivation is presented in Table  3 . Students with positive attitudes towards flipped classroom more likely had positive attitudes towards video ( p  < 0.01), experienced increased motivation ( p  < 0.01), more effective learning ( p  < 0.01), and increased learning ( p  < 0.01). They also tended to agree that flipped classroom made them more active as learners ( p  < 0.01) and take more responsibility for their learning ( p  < 0.01).

The use of video as a learning tool

Using flipped classroom and in particular video as a tool for assimilating knowledge otherwise presented in traditional lectures proved to correlate strongly with perceived increased motivation, increased learning and effective learning. When analyzing the student’s experiences of using video as a learning tool in more detail a number of reasons for appreciating video stand out (see Table  4 for an overview). The students strongly agreed that it was useful for their learning to be able to pause (M = 4.52, SD = 0.85), rewind (M = 4.48, SD = 0.87) and fast-forward video (M = 4.04, SD = 1.36). They also agreed that the combination of video and non-traditional lectures was useful (M = 3.73, SD = 1.16) as well as being able to watch lectures in a mobile way (MD = 3.98, SD = 1.28).

The use of Moodle within the frame of flipped classroom

A learning management system (Moodle) was used during the course to support students’ learning processes within the frame of a flipped classroom model. As presented in Table  5 , the students appreciated this support (M = 4.22, SD = 0.86). In particular, they found it useful to be able to see other students’ questions posed in Moodle and the teachers answers to those questions (M = 4.39, SD = 0.94), and for general communication with teachers (M = 4.07, SD = 1.05). Interestingly, the LMS itself contributed to some student’s motivation to learn (M = 3.40, SD = 1.26).

Comparing low and high achievers

When comparing low and high achievers among the students in terms of attitudes towards flipped classroom, video and the effect on learning and motivation some interesting findings were obtained. The results of conducted independent sample t-tests showed no significant differences in positive attitudes to flipped classroom of low achievers (M = 3.37, SD = 0.74) and high achievers (M = 3.20, SD = 0.87), t(238) = 2.13, p  > 0.05. Significant differences were however revealed with regards to attitudes towards the use of video of low achievers (M = 3.10, SD = 0.72) and high achievers (M = 2.67, SD = 1.02), t(238) = 3.17, p  < 0.05.

Interestingly, the perception of increased learning also significantly differed between low achievers (M = 3.13, SD = 0.93) and high achievers (M = 2.71, SD = 1.23), t(238) = 2.40, p  < 0.05. The tests likewise showed significant differences in perceived more effective learning of low achievers (M = 3.25, SD = 0.95) and high achievers (M = 2.80, SD = 1.32), t(238) = 2.46, p  < 0.05. However, no significant differences could be identified between low achievers and high achievers in the other variables measured (see Table  6 ).

Conclusions

The calls for reforming traditional higher education teaching, and for transforming the sage on the stage into the guide on the side in order to pave way for student-centered active learning strategies have probably never been as loud as now. In this context, flipped classroom has been proposed to answer these calls. Several studies have demonstrated that flipped classroom as a teaching method may promote student engagement and a more active approach to learning in higher education. The findings from this study confirm the results of these studies and highlights additional advantages associated with the flipped classroom model.

The students in the study’s sample were found to generally appreciate the flipped classroom. The most commonly valued reasons for this was that the students appreciated learning through using video material, the opportunity to study in their own pace, flexibility and mobility brought about by accessible video lectures, and that learning is easier and more effective within the frame of the flipped classroom.

A correlation analysis further demonstrated significant strong correlations between students’ appreciation of the flipped classroom experience on the one hand, and attitudes towards video as a learning tool, increased motivation, increased learning, more effective learning and more active learning on the other hand.

Interestingly, independent sample t-tests showed significant differences between low and high achievers in that the low achievers tended to have more positive attitudes towards the use of video as a learning tool. Low achievers also to higher extent perceived increased and more effective learning through flipped classroom. A more detailed analysis of the students’ experiences of using video showed that the most valued aspects of video use was being able to pause and rewind the video lectures. Against this fact, it is not unreasonable to conclude that low achievers, who might find traditional lectures challenging and fast-paced (Young et al., 2009 ), experienced an empowerment using the flipped classroom model in terms of gaining more opportunities to reflect and learn in their own pace.

For all students in general, the results indicate that the reasons for students’ perceptions of increased and more effective learning are associated with: 1) the affordances of video lectures (the ability to reflect and learn in own pace); 2) more meaningful practice-oriented and teacher supervised classroom activities; and 3) more supported learning processes due to teacher and peer scaffolding in class and out of class through the use of Moodle.

Thus, as final remarks, considering the ineffectiveness of traditional lectures in retaining students’ attention and promoting active learning (Windschitl, 1999 ; Young et al., 2009 ) in higher education, the results of this study indicate that the flipped classroom model seem to offer promising ways to engage students in more effective, supportive, motivating and active learning, especially for low achievers and students that may struggle with traditional lectures. However, the results should be viewed in light of the limitations of this study. One such limitation is the non existence of a control group which limits the external validity of the results. Another limitation is connected to the fact that the majority of the student’s surveyed have not experienced flipped classroom before, thus the results may partly reflect the influence of a new approach of learning and teaching and not necessary the influence of the flipped classroom approach. It also should be noted that all results related to improved learning and effectiveness of learning is based on students self-declared perceptions and not on independent measures. Future studies on the effects of flipped classroom should address these limitations and in particular explore the extent to which the actual performance of students is or is not affected by the flipped classroom approach moving beyond just student perceptions.

Beekes, W. (2006). The “millionaire” method for encouraging participation. Active Learning in Higher Education, 7 (1), 25–36.

Article   Google Scholar  

Betihavas, V., Bridgman, H., Kornhaber, R., & Cross, M. (2015). The evidence for ‘flipping out’: A systematic review of the flipped classroom in nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 6 , 15–21.

Bishop, J. L., & Verleger, M. A. (2013). The flipped classroom: a survey of the research. In ASEE National Conference Proceedings, Atlanta, GA .

Google Scholar  

Bonwell, C. C. (1996). Enhancing the lecture: revitalizing a traditional format. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1996 (67), 31–44.

Butt, A. (2014). Student views on the use of a flipped classroom approach: evidence from Australia. Business Education & Accreditation, 6 (1), 33–43.

MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Cashin, W. E. (1985). Improving lectures. Idea paper no. 14 . Manhattan: Kansas State University, Center for Faculty Evaluation and Development.

Davies, R. S., Dean, D. L., & Ball, N. (2013). Flipping the classroom and instructional technology integration in a college-level information systems spreadsheet course. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61 (4), 563–580.

Findlay-Thompson, S., & Mombourquette, P. (2014). Evaluation of a flipped classroom in an undergraduate business course. Business Education & Accreditation, 6 (1), 63–71.

Gilboy, M. B., Heinerichs, S., & Pazzaglia, G. (2015). Enhancing student engagement using the flipped classroom. Journal of nutrition education and behavior, 47 (1), 109–114.

Hung, H. (2015). Flipping the classroom for English language learners to foster active learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28 (1), 81–96.

Huxham, M. (2005). Learning in lectures Do ‘interactive windows’ help? Active learning in higher education, 6 (1), 17–31.

King, A. (1993). From sage on the stage to guide on the side. College teaching, 41 (1), 30–35.

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: an overview. Theory into practice, 41 (4), 212–218.

Larson, S., & Yamamoto, J. (2013). Flipping the college spreadsheet skills classroom: initial empirical results. Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences, 4 (10), 751–758.

Love, B., Hodge, A., Grandgenett, N., & Swift, A. (2014). Student learning and perceptions in a flipped linear algebra course. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 45 (3), 317–324.

McLaughlin, J. E., Griffin, L. M., Esserman, D. A., Davidson, C. A., Glatt, D. M., Roth, M. T., …Mumper, R. J. (2013). Pharmacy student engagement, performance, and perception in a flipped satellite classroom. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education , 77 (9), 196.

McLaughlin, J. E., Roth, M. T., Glatt, D. M., Gharkholonarehe, N., Davidson, C. A., Griffin, L. M., …Mumper, R. J. (2014). The flipped classroom: a course redesign to foster learning and engagement in a health professions school. Academic Medicine , 89 (2), 236–243.

Roach, T. (2014). Student perceptions toward flipped learning: new methods to increase interaction and active learning in economics. International Review of Economics Education, 17 , 74–84.

Roehl, A., Reddy, S. L., & Shannon, G. J. (2013). The flipped classroom: an opportunity to engage millennial students through active learning strategies. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences, 105 (2), 44–49.

Rosie, A. (2000). “Deep learning”: a dialectical approach drawing on tutor-led web resources. Active Learning in Higher Education, 1 (1), 45–59.

Uzunboylu, H., & Karagozlu, D. (2015). Flipped classroom: a review of recent literature. World Journal on Educational Technology, 7 (2), 142–147.

Windschitl, M. (1999). Using small-group discussions in science lectures. College Teaching, 47 (1), 23–7.

Young, M. S., Robinson, S., & Alberts, P. (2009). Students pay attention! Combating the vigilance decrement to improve learning during lectures. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10 (1), 41–55.

Download references

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no competing interests.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Computer and Systems sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Jalal Nouri

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jalal Nouri .

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Nouri, J. The flipped classroom: for active, effective and increased learning – especially for low achievers. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 13 , 33 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-016-0032-z

Download citation

Received : 27 February 2016

Accepted : 14 July 2016

Published : 24 August 2016

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-016-0032-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Teaching/learning strategies
• Distributed learning environments
• Improving classroom teaching
• Interactive learning environments
• Post- secondary education

Flipped learning: What is it, and when is it effective?

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, patricia roehling and patricia roehling professor emeritus of psychology - hope college @proehling carrie bredow carrie bredow associate professor of psychology - hope college @drb_hopeful.

September 28, 2021

Instructors are constantly on the lookout for more effective and innovative ways to teach. Over the last 18 months, this quest has become even more salient, as COVID-19 has shaken up the academic landscape and pushed teachers to experiment with new strategies for engaging their students. One innovative teaching method that may be particularly amenable to teaching during the pandemic is flipped learning. But does it work?

In this post, we discuss our new report summarizing the lessons from over 300 published studies on flipped learning. The findings suggest that, for many of us who work with students, flipped learning might be worth a try.

What is flipped learning?

Flipped learning is an increasingly popular pedagogy in secondary and higher education. Students in the flipped classroom view digitized or online lectures as pre-class homework, then spend in-class time engaged in active learning experiences such as discussions, peer teaching, presentations, projects, problem solving, computations, and group activities. In other words, this strategy “flips” the typical presentation of content, where class time is used for lectures and example problems, and homework consists of problem sets or group project work. (See Roehling, 2018 , for information on how to construct and implement flipped learning.)

Flipped learning is not simply a fad. There is theoretical support that it should promote student learning. According to constructivist theory, active learning enables students to create their own knowledge by building upon pre-existing cognitive frameworks, resulting in a deeper level of learning than occurs in more passive learning settings. Another theoretical advantage of flipped learning is that it allows students to incorporate foundational information into their long-term memory prior to class. This lightens the cognitive load during class, so that students can form new and deeper connections and develop more complex ideas. Finally, classroom activities in the flipped model can be intentionally designed to teach students valuable intra- and interpersonal skills.

Since 2012, the research literature on the effectiveness of flipped learning has grown exponentially. However, because these studies were conducted in many different contexts and published across a wide range of disciplines, a clear picture of whether and when flipped classrooms outperform their traditional lecture-based counterparts has been difficult to assemble.

To address this issue, we conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of flipped pedagogies ; this review focused specifically on higher education contexts. For our meta-analysis, we combined data from 317 studies (51,437 participants) that compared the effectiveness of flipped and lecture-based courses taught by the same instructor.

We assembled all of these studies to examine the efficacy of flipped versus lecture-based learning for fostering a variety of outcomes in higher education. Specifically, we examined outcomes falling into three broad categories:

• Academics , including exams and assignments measuring foundational knowledge, higher-order thinking, and applied/professional skills;
• Intra-/interpersonal aptitudes , including student engagement and identification with the course or discipline, metacognitive skills, and interpersonal skills; and
• Satisfaction with the course and instruction as reported by students.

We also explored the extent to which factors related to educational context (e.g., discipline, geographic location) and course design (e.g., the use of quizzes to motivate pre-class preparation) may shape the effectiveness of flipped learning. Below, we outline some of the key takeaways of our meta-analytic synthesis.

Is flipped learning more effective than lecture-based learning?

Yes, it certainly can be. Students in flipped classrooms performed better than those in traditionally taught classes across all of the academic outcomes we examined. In addition to confirming that flipped learning has a positive impact on foundational knowledge (the most common outcome in prior reviews of the research), we found that flipped pedagogies had a modest positive effect on higher-order thinking. Flipped learning was particularly effective at helping students learn professional and academic skills.

Importantly, we also found that flipped learning is superior to lecture-based learning for fostering all intra-/interpersonal outcomes examined, including enhancing students’ interpersonal skills, improving their engagement with the content, and developing their metacognitive abilities like time management and learning strategies.

In which educational settings is flipped learning most effective?

Flipped learning was shown to be more effective than lecture-based learning across most disciplines. However, we found that flipped pedagogies produced the greatest academic and intra-/interpersonal benefits in language, technology, and health-science courses. Flipped learning may be a particularly good fit for these skills-based courses, because class time can be spent practicing and mastering these skills. Mathematics and engineering courses, on the other hand, demonstrated the smallest gains when implementing flipped pedagogies.

The relative benefits of flipped learning also vary based upon geographic location across the globe. Whereas flipped courses outperformed lecture courses in all of the regions that were adequately represented in our meta-analysis, flipped classes in Middle Eastern and Asian countries produced greater academic and intra-/interpersonal gains than flipped courses implemented in Europe, North America, or Australia. These findings suggest that flipped learning may have the greatest impact in courses that, in the absence of flipped learning, adhere more strictly to a lecture-format, as is often the case in the Middle East and Asia. However, we might expect benefits in any context where active learning is used less regularly.

How can you design an effective flipped course?

When designing a flipped course, the conventional wisdom has been that instructors should use pre-class quizzes and assignments to ensure that students are prepared to participate in and benefit from the flipped class period. Surprisingly, we found little support for this in our analysis. While using in-class quizzes did not affect learning outcomes, using pre-class quizzes and assignments to hold students accountable actually produced lower academic gains. It’s unclear why this is the case. It may be that pre-class assignments shift the focus of student preparation; rather than striving to understand the course material, students focus on doing well on the quiz. This suggests that, to hold students accountable for pre-class preparation, instructors should consider using in-class quizzes and assessments rather than pre-class assignments.

We also found that more isn’t always better. Compared to courses where all (or nearly all) class sessions followed the flipped model (“fully flipped”), courses that combined flipped and lecture-based approaches (“partially flipped”) tended to produce better academic outcomes. Given the time and skill required to design effective flipped class sessions, partially flipped courses may be easier for instructors to implement successfully, particularly when they are new to the pedagogy. Partially flipped courses also give instructors the flexibility to flip content that lends itself best to the model, while saving more complex or foundational topics for in-class instruction.

What about student satisfaction?

Another reason to consider flipped learning is student satisfaction. We found that students in flipped classrooms reported greater course satisfaction than those in lecture-based courses. The size of this overall effect was fairly small, so flipping the classroom is not a silver bullet for instantly boosting course evaluations. But in no context did flipping the classroom hurt course ratings, and in some settings, including mathematics courses and courses taught in Asia and Europe, we observed more pronounced increases in student satisfaction.

Adopting a new pedagogy can be daunting, and a significant barrier to converting a course to a flipped format is the substantial time commitment involved in creating digitized lectures. However, during the 2020-2021 pandemic surges, many instructors were encouraged (if not forced) to find new ways of teaching, leading many to record their lectures or create other supplementary digital content. For instructors who have now created such digital content, this could be a great time to experiment with flipped learning.

Related Content

Bruce Fuller

March 4, 2021

Stephanie Riegg Cellini

August 13, 2021

Education Technology Higher Education

Governance Studies

Brown Center on Education Policy

Phillip Levine

April 12, 2024

Hannah C. Kistler, Shaun M. Dougherty

April 9, 2024

Katharine Meyer, Rachel M. Perera, Michael Hansen

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

A conceptual review of the effectiveness of flipped learning in vocational learners’ cognitive skills and emotional states.

• College Students' Mental Health Education Center, Shandong Management University, Jinan, China

An inverted method of teaching is an instructional model where traditional classroom activities take place before class while class time is devoted to discussion, problem-solving, and interaction among students. Flipped learning is a learner-centered and technology-driven approach that benefits from the inverted method of teaching. Recently, instructors have begun to employ innovative pedagogies like flipped learning approach, to change the conventional practices in vocational education as flipped learning gives them a chance for professional development. In order to find out the reasons of the improvement of vocational education through the use of flipped learning approach, this review examined the effect of the flipped learning approach on vocational learners’ cognitive skills and emotional states in earlier studies. The earlier investigations showed the significant effect flipped learning approach on vocational learners’ emotions, such as engagement, motivation, self-efficacy, and their cognitive skills, including critical thinking, problem-solving, learning skill, learning strategies, and communicative competence. However, this review implicated that flipped learning, as a type of blended learning, may be beneficial for learners, instructors, and students’ parents to be aware of this valuable learner-centered approach in vocational education.

Introduction

In recent years, educators have used the technological developments in education to create a more effective learning environment in which learning does not seem to be limited to the classroom environment and teachers may not be obliged to spend most of the class time delivering lectures; instead, they can have tutorial roles while students can also take different roles and be more actively involved in the learning process ( Tan et al., 2017 ). One of the instructional models that follows this technology-related learning approach is flipped learning because it utilizes technological tools, including recorded lessons and videos, to create more engaging experiences for learners. The concept of flipped learning is that the teacher-student roles are changed in a way that the amount of direct instruction presented by the teacher during class time is minimized while the cooperative and collaborative contribution of students to the teaching process is maximized in class ( Sams and Bergmann, 2013 ). Flipped classroom involves assigning what is traditionally done in the classroom as homework, and the homework is then completed in class; Instead of listening to a lecture in the class and doing homework at home, students watch video lectures and complete what has traditionally been known as homework in class under the guidance of the instructor ( Baker, 2000 ). Flipped learning is a pedagogical approach that transforms direct instruction from the group learning space into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the teacher guides students while applying concepts and engaging in the subject matter ( MacKinnon, 2015 ; Teo et al., 2022 ). The goal of the flipped classroom is to maximize face-to-face time with students and instructional materials, which help increases students’ knowledge ( Bull et al., 2012 ). The need for integrating technology in education as an innovation, motivates instructors and institutions, in the last years, to search for new educational methods that fit the needs of the current student profile ( Al-Rahmi et al., 2021 ). A crucial stage of education is vocational education, which prepares some students for the labor market ( Pambudi and Harjanto, 2020 ). Flipped Learning is particularly relevant in vocational education, which focuses on learning by doing and applying knowledge in a real setting ( Hwang et al., 2015 ). In vocational learning, there is an even greater need for teachers and trainers to teach practice, rather than theory ( Antonietti et al., 2022 ). According to CEDEFOP (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training), vocational education is “the education and training which aims to equip people with knowledge, know-how, skills and/or competences required in particular occupations or more broadly on the labor market” ( European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), 2014 ). The flipped classroom approach, therefore, is favored in vocational education as it allows for valuable face-to-face time for practical applications and a more personalized experience for learners. Flipped learning can help educators by moving the theoretical content outside the classroom, and using class time for practical activities ( Marshall and Kostka, 2020 ). Innovative models such as flipped learning can help improve the quality of vocational education, motivate students, and thus reduce the number of dropouts ( Lai et al., 2020 ).

The flipped classroom approach offers the opportunity to move away from theory-based summative assessment methods to more practical activities and assessments based on developing students’ real-world skills ( Fleischmann, 2021 ). Since, in vocational education, students learn by doing, the flipped classroom approach could give teachers more face-to-face time with their students to focus on work-orientated scenarios ( Persky and McLaughlin, 2017 ).

Vocational education aims to cultivate students’ integrated ability to use English and to cultivate professional talents for society ( Li, 2021 ). With the development of information technology, many new types of teaching models appear in the reformation, one of which is flipped classroom. Based on constructivism theory and modern information technology, flipped classroom teaching has gained more and more attention. This paper has researched the application of flipped classrooms in vocational education in order to provide relatively novel insights for teachers. Exploration in this field can help educators in many aspects of the classrooms to find new approaches to become more effective teachers and accordingly make a practical learning setting for increasing learners’ achievement in vocational contexts.

Literature review

The concept of flipped learning approach.

Nowadays, technology is regarded as one of the most significant components of education. Based on von Lindeiner-Stráský et al. (2020) , perspective, the growth of technology has radically changed instruction and education. They stated that the integration of technology into educational contexts, makes teachers re-evaluate their use of methodology to attain their objectives and improve learning effectiveness. Aiming to enhance learners’ achievements in educational contexts, the method known as a flipped classroom has drawn the attention of many researchers (e.g., Cheng P. W. et al., 2019 ; Jang and Kim, 2020 ; Tsai and Wu, 2020 ; Zou, 2020 ; Yulian, 2021 ). Durak (2018) declared that flipped learning approach, as a prominent approach, is highly useful in the integration of technology into education to increase success. Sajid et al. (2016) considered flipped learning one of the blended learning approaches. They asserted that blended learning is the combination of two instruction modes, e-learning and didactic (face-to-face) teaching. However, they maintained that blended learning is more traditional, while flipped learning is more digital. Collaborative and cooperative learning as two distinct methods can also be integrated into flipped learning approaches ( Erbil, 2020 ). Utilization of the cooperative and collaborative learning methods in a flipped classroom environment is at a development stage, and there are no clear data regarding its results ( Munir et al., 2018 ). However, the existing research has concluded that utilizing cooperative learning methods in a flipped classroom environment has a positive impact on students’ academic success levels ( Zhang, 2018 ).

Flexible environment, learning culture, intentional content, and professional educator is regarded as the four pillars of flipped learning. Their purpose is to provide a practical roadmap for adopting the flipped learning approach ( Sailsman, 2021 ). Hamden and McKnight (2013) stated that flipped classrooms allow a variety of learning modes; educators often physically rearrange their learning space to accommodate the lesson or unit, which might involve group work, independent study, research, performance, and evaluation. Having a flexible environment, the students do not feel tense and nervous and do not need to rush to get every detail in a compact lecture, rather based on the flexibility, the students feel free to get help from their peers or consult the teacher whenever they want ( Demirel, 2016 ). Instead of being a passive object of teaching, the students are actively involved in their learning process and have the chance to participate in each step. Therefore, learners’ culture has been changed by the advent of flipped learning ( Chivata and Oviedo, 2018 ). Hamden and McKnight (2013) pointed out that “educators use intentional content to maximize classroom time in order to adopt various methods of instruction such as active learning strategies, peer instruction, problem-based learning, or mastery, or Socratic methods, depending on grade level and subject matter” (p. 15). Professional educators as another pillar of flipped learning decide on the content, adapt the materials, choose the strategies, and maximize classroom interaction time ( Bauer-Ramazani et al., 2016 ).

Agustini et al. (2021) pointed out that flipped learning is an appropriate approach to learning. In flipped learning approach, learners voluntarily and actively study the materials pre-class, and then other learning activities such as discussions, corporation, problem-solving, and practices are carried out during class time ( Jung et al., 2018 ). Belmonte et al. (2019) stated that the pre-class self-learning phase brings the contents (previously prepared by the teachers) to learners’ private space, and learners can use web-based social media and technologies with the help of videos and related exercises out of the class. They pointed out that flipped learning approach encourages flexibility, both time (contents can be viewed as many times as necessary and at any occasion), and space (they can be viewed anywhere). They also asserted that in-class activities can be devoted to group activities during class time. Moreover, Rahman et al. (2020) pointed out that the flipped learning approach inverts teachers’ and students’ responsibilities in classrooms. Students are required to actively plan their learning process and interact with peers and teachers to acquire knowledge in the classroom.

Therefore, the shift of material consignment to the outside of the class and using the class time for higher-level activities like applying and examining the earlier learned materials are the primary components of flipped learning approach ( Yilmaz and Baydas, 2017 ). Villalba et al. (2018) asserted that flipped learning approach, with its blended learning nature, shifts tasks traditionally executed in classrooms to external environments. Park et al. (2018) also compared passive instruction in traditional classrooms with flipped classrooms and highlighted the active role of students in the flipped classrooms as a student-centered participatory context. They also compared flipped classrooms and flipped learning. They mentioned that flipped classrooms create courses, texts, or lectures that can be viewed or read at the student’s pace, and flipped learning refers to the combination of in-class or face-to-face education with online learning.

Hinojo et al. (2019) stated that flipped learning approach turns the learner into an autonomous agent, who can significantly outperform observational, cognitive, and higher-order tasks. Based on Bloom’s revised Taxonomy, flipped learning approach provides an opportunity for learners to use active learning strategies both in and outside classroom ( Jensen et al., 2015 ). Therefore, flipped learning approach is a pedagogical approach that encourages students’ active participation, promotes support from teachers, and peers to handle homework, and allows more free time in class ( Guo, 2019 ). Flipped learning approach has been useful for different stakeholders, including learners, teachers, and parents. The following table includes some studies leading support on this issue.

Flipped Learning is based on a number of theoretical foundations. The first foundation is blended learning which transforms the lecture from class into online delivery and uses face-to-face class time ( Abeysekera and Dawson, 2015 ). The second one is constructivism theory ( Bruner, 1960 ), which indicates that learning occurs when a student works either with a more skilled adult or peer to solve problems that are just beyond her/his actual abilities ( Jantakoon and Piriyasurawong, 2018 ). The core principles of constructivism are the followings: (1) learning is self-centered and self-directed; (2) learning is an active rather than passive endeavor; and (3) the instructor’s role is to foster critical reflection and facilitate the application and deeper understanding of new concepts ( Aljohani, 2017 ). In constructivism, “knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the outside. Learning is something done by the learner, not something that is imposed on the learner” ( Sjøberg, 2010 , p. 3). The flipped learning approach supported by the constructivist theory should enable learners to engage in communicating, imaginative, and collaborative activities during knowledge construction ( Kim and Bonk, 2006 ), and this approach requires learners to be active constructors of knowledge and use cooperative and collaborative learning, to reflect and, lastly, gain meaningful learning experiences in order to enhance their learning ( Erbil, 2020 ). Vygotsky’s theory of mediation in digital learning is another theoretical construct of this review. Based on this theory, technology can be related to psychological and cognitive states. According to Zidoun et al. (2019) , education programs should consider the role and impact of technological developments on learning. The concept of technological mediation, inspired by Vygotsky’s (1986) theory of tool mediation, aims to gain insight into the ways in which technology actively co-shapes the relation between people and the world through various mediating effects. De Boer et al. (2018) explain that this understanding of technological mediation emphasizes “the primacy of the relatedness between emotional states of people, technologies, and the world” (p. 300). And the last foundation is active learning ( Lemmer, 2013 ), which emphasizes student activity and engagement in the learning process ( Prince, 2004 ).

Recently, flipped learning has received a lot of attention in vocational and technical education. Flipped learning can help teachers and learners by moving the theoretical content outside the classroom, and using class time for practical activities. Innovative models such as flipped learning can help improve the quality of vocational education, motivate students, and thus reduce the number of dropouts.

The notion of vocational education

Vocational education, as a type of education that highlights mastering skills to work, is to promote professional training and practically improve the skills of employees ( Lai et al., 2020 ; Suharno et al., 2020 ). Vocational education is a combination of theory and practice in a balanced manner with an orientation to the readiness of its graduates. According to Papadakis et al. (2021) , vocational education differs from general education mainly in terms of the focus on the dimension of the practical application of the knowledge provided to students. Vocational education was established against the background of the industry’s need for a professional workforce ( Finlay et al., 1999 ). Billett (2011) stated that the aim of vocational education, from the traditional perspective, was to prepare learners for working. However, this aim becomes broader nowadays. He maintained that vocational education is one of the educational institutions that have a significant impact on the enhancement of human resources.

Djohar (2007) stated that from a school perspective, vocational education teaches people how to work effectively. An individual, learning how to work, will acquire vocational education, both at the secondary and post-secondary levels. As its ultimate goal, vocational education helps the students work in certain fields, and master their field competencies in the world of work following the education ( Daly and Lewis, 2020 ). Another objective of vocational education is to reduce unemployment by equipping the graduates so they can compete with the provision of hard skills and soft skills ( Tandirerung and Vitalocca, 2017 ). Higher vocational and technical teachers in vocational education are mainly to cultivate professional learners needed for vocational education ( Ye et al., 2022 ). Nonetheless, vocational high school learners are needed to attend internships before they graduate from school despite the fact that the learning progression through firms is characterized by uncertainties that can undermine goal pursuit and subsequent attainment ( Hong et al., 2021 ).

The need for the development of vocational learning concepts, in the era of the knowledge-based working world, is very urgent and essential ( Utami, 2018 ). Suharno et al. (2018) asserted that the proper implementation of vocational education results in industrial development in a country. According to him, vocational learning is to develop basic competencies, indicators of competency achievement, learning objectives, learning media, learning methods, and learning strategies. He also declared that establishing these schools can lead to the welfare of the local community. He declared that a country should pay more attention to the development of vocational education, and the stakeholders should realize the nature of this education. Therefore, it is accountable for the quality of training experts in numerous fields ( Belovitskay et al., 2021 ).

Based on Widiatna (2019) , the domain of the learning process, especially in vocational education, must include cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skills), and affective (attitude). Many vocational high school teachers currently use traditional approaches of instruction, in which the role of teachers is significant, and students are only good listeners in the classroom ( Basori, 2018 ). However, by the emergence of technologies, instruction has been positively affected ( Rabiman et al., 2020 ). In the current digital era, technology is very significant in the growth of vocational education ( Krismadinata et al., 2020 ). Teachers, involved in blended learning processes in vocational education, tend to adopt different approaches to teaching and learning designs ( Bliuc et al., 2012 ). The learning approach in the widely used blended learning environment is flipped learning ( Thai et al., 2017 ). In addition to accommodating in a blended learning environment, flipped classroom has an impact on better student learning outcomes ( Hao and Lee, 2016 ).

The role of flipped learning approach in vocational education

The flipped learning approach is a form of learning approach that can apply in vocational education. In order to examine the effect of flipped learning in job-based education terms of learners’ cognitive and emotional states, this conceptual review scrutinizes some recent studies on this issue. Some studies have been done on the effect of flipped learning on job-based learners’ cognitive skills and achievements. Bhagat et al. (2016) investigated higher vocational learners’ learning mathematics concepts in a flipped classroom. The quasi-experiment results indicated that learners who used the flipped classroom approach had higher mathematics achievements than the control group, which used a conventional teaching approach. In addition, low-achieving students in flipped classrooms had higher mathematics achievement scores than students in the control groups. They argued that flipped learning approach can engage in higher-order thinking activities. Singh et al. (2017) studied the effect of flipped learning on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) students. They found that flipped learning enriched learning environment with well-planned learning lesson plans. Park (2018) studied the effect of flipped classrooms on vocational learners in the field of radiology. They found that knowledge, skills, and attitudes in flipped classrooms improved. Moreover, they found that vocational learners improved their responsibility, problem-solving ability, creative thinking, cooperative ability, and communication ability through flipped learning approach. Dong (2018) , in his study, revealed that flipped learning approach enables economic and management learners in vocational education to advance in studying and practicing. He argued that integrating the project-type teaching of the flipped classroom requires learners to take proactive measures before class and actively devote themselves to the learning of new knowledge. If vocational learners have an incomprehensible problem in their course, flipped classrooms provide opportunities for learners to record their problem and discuss it with their classmates or teachers in class. He also found that flipped classrooms have special designs, in which deeply link between learners and the working process occurs, and flipped classrooms provide learners a context for applying theory to practice. Bahramnejad Jouryabi (2019) investigated the effectiveness of flipped classroom model on lower-level and higher-level groups of students’ academic achievement in a vocational high school. Their study indicated that higher-level learners outperformed compared to their lower level counterparts. They indicated that learners’ level of proficiency is considered an influencing factor in the successful implementing of EFL flipped classrooms. Chen and Hwang (2020) explored the influence of concept mapping-based flipped learning on vocational learners’ listening-speaking strategy, learning achievement, and their critical thinking awareness. They found that concept mapping-based flipped learning has a positive and significant influence on EFL learners’ English speaking performance and critical thinking awareness. Yorganci (2020) investigated the effect of E-learning, blended learning, and flipped learning approaches on mathematics achievement. He found that the mathematics achievement of students in flipped classroom was significantly higher than those of the students of E-learning and blended learning. Montaner-Villalba (2021) examined how students, in tertiary education, perceived ESP academic writing skills within the field of Business English in flipped classrooms. Using a questionnaire and a focus group interview, he proved that students’ perceptions towards academic ESP written competence, using Business English, within the Flipped Learning approach was positive.

Some studies have been done on the effect of flipped learning on vocational learners’ emotional states. Xin-yue (2016) explored the motivation of Chinese vocational learners in flipped classrooms. His study revealed that the flipped classroom approach does stimulate students to invest more time and effort prior to instruction and during class learners do participate in communicative language exercises more enthusiastically. He recommended the incorporation of periodic rotation within the class, addition of certain teacher-led instruction, and informal evaluation with group members to help further improve the teaching/learning outcome of the flipped classroom approach. States. Lai et al. (2020) examined the impact of team-based flipped learning classes on vocational high school learners’ learning achievement and motivation who majored in business management. They used team-based groups in flipped classrooms, which require collaboration, and they focus more on the time management and quality control throughout the learning task. Students were required to watch the 30-min videos on their own time before class. When the class began, students had 20 min to apply the knowledge learned in the lecture videos. However, in the control group, the didactic method with small group discussion was used. Both experimental and control groups took the achievement pre-test and the revised Motivational Strategies Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) 1 week before the experiment. Students were required to complete the post-test and the same MSLQ immediately after the experiment. The findings of the study showed that using flipped learning approach significantly affects vocational high school learners’ learning performance and motivation. The vocational high school learners in the flipped classes had better discussion quality than those in the traditional groups. In other words, vocational learners in the team-based flipped classrooms presented more from economics perspectives and analyzed the questions systematically. In terms of vocational learners’ performance, Cheng L. et al. (2019) undertook a literature review to evaluate the overall effect of the flipped classroom on student learning outcomes. This meta-analysis compared flipped classrooms with traditional classrooms, and they found the results were significantly in favor of the flipped classroom approach.

Yu et al. (2019) , studying nursing students, suggested that the flipped classroom is more effective for the nursing students’ skill competence than traditional teaching in China. Li et al. (2020) compared the effect of the flipped classroom using massive open online course (MOOC) and lecture-based learning on Chinese nursing students’ theoretical scores. In MOOC-based flipped classrooms, students were required to choose proper video for self-learning toward the predominant objective of developing their learning effectiveness. They found that nursing students outperformed in MOOC-based-flipped classroom. They justified their results by arguing that flipped classrooms stimulate active learning. Moreover, their study revealed that flipped classrooms provide learners the opportunities to understand content at their own pace while perusing online materials. They also asserted that classroom tasks are intended to allow students to focus on applying the content to better understand the materials being taught. These activities can be completed individually or in peer teams, thus shifting the teacher’s role from the source of knowledge to the promoter of student learning. Furthermore, they argued that in flipped approach, class time is allocated to students to use, analyze, and assess their knowledge. Therefore, the flipped classrooms can enhance students’ motivation, satisfaction, academic performance, and engagement in vocational education.

Yorganci (2020) compared the effect of flipped learning, E-learning, and blended learning approaches on the vocational learners’ performance, self-regulation, and self-efficacy majoring in mathematics. He employed Mathematics Achievement Test, Barnard et al.’s (2009) Online Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire, and Umay’s (2001) Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale in his study. His findings showed that flipped learning approach significantly increases learners’ self-regulation, performance, and self-efficacy. He argued that the increased sense of competence of students in flipped learning classes inspires them to solve more demanding problems, and it is an essential factor in math performance due to the convenience of online learning resources at any time for supplementary tasks. He also maintained that web-based courses in flipped learning settings give more opportunities to students to deal with high-level cognitive procedures and to process the information they acquired. Regarding the effect of flipped learning on self-efficacy, he stated that flipped learning approach increases learners’ self-efficacy, which boosts vocational learners’ effort in their actions. He stated that the development of self-efficacy, in flipped classrooms, can improve vocational learners’ behavior, since learners can better use cognitive strategies to have effective learning. He also justified the effect of flipped learning approach on vocational learners’ self-regulation by arguing that flipped learning approach activates learners in their vocational education, allows them to regulate their acquired experiences in multiple ways, and creates learning, and provides them an opportunity to obtain a strong learning mechanism in which they can put the acquired information into real life by reiterating and they can monitor their thinking process. His study implicated that the usage of flipped learning approach in mathematics courses has a positive effect on the learning process of students.

Lo et al. (2021) investigated the effect of flipped and traditional learning approaches on vocational high school students’ learning achievement and learning strategies. The participants of their study were learners majored in electrical engineering, and they employed learning strategy scale of students in vocational high schools as the instrument. Moreover, the students’ scores on the Testing Center for Technological and Vocational Education Test were used to evaluate their learning effectiveness. Their study showed the effectiveness of flipped learning approach in fostering learners’ learning achievement in the electronics course. They also indicated that flipped classrooms enable vocational high school learners to further improve their learning strategies, including learning motivations, self-evaluation, and problem solving. They argued that learners with lower scores in flipped classrooms can simply ask their peers for information on notions they did not comprehend, whereas, learners, with higher scores, found teaching peers helpful for their learning, and this help them review and elucidate their notions. Therefore, discussions in the flipped classrooms enhance learners’ problem-solving. Their study also showed that flipped learning approach can provide the foundation of learners’ self-regulation learning, which fosters learners’ motivation and allows learners to follow a better academic performance. They also found that flipped classrooms can improve learners’ achievement in their performance in long-term training.

Belovitskay et al. (2021) also declared that the application of the flipped learning approach can improve the forms and methodology of the educational activity to foster vocational education and develop future competitive professionals in the field of agriculture. Vocational learners may, either independently or through direct interaction with the teacher in the classroom, or with the use of e-learning and distance learning technologies, determine the topics to learn. They stated that flipped learning approach creates conditions for learners to use and manage the information effectively. Moreover, they pointed out that flipped learning approach offers professional identification by future specialists. However, the use of flipped learning approach in vocational education helps instructors to monitor the flipped classes and learners’ self-control, and to evaluate learning outcomes by establishing educational activities with face-to-face and e-learning technologies. They mentioned that flipped learning approach provides more interaction and more feedback in face-to-face sessions among learners. They also asserted that flipped classrooms provide opportunities for instructors to store the results of the educational process in electronic form. Their study also showed that flipped learning approach in vocational education provides educational conditions for the growth of learners’ critical and flexible thinking, and inspires them to seek knowledge and educational material. Papadakis et al. (2021) , in their action research, found that using the flipped approach as a blended learning model within the classroom with the use of technology, can solve some drawbacks of the traditional educational process to improve the quality of teaching and facilitate of learning in vocational education. Using LAMS as a platform in flipped classrooms, they found that integrating flipped learning in vocational education can provide diversity, skills, and abilities among vocational learners and can equip them with the necessary knowledge for their professional rehabilitation. They asserted that flipped classrooms offer reusable sequences of learning activities through LAMS, with an observed enhancement of their active involvement in the learning process. They also maintained that flipped classrooms strengthen the interaction and communication community between the students and teacher, and promote collaboration between team members. Flipped learning approach enables the operative management of teaching time within the classroom due to the reversal of the educational process. Jularlark et al. (2021) found that learning management in flipped educational contexts improves learner engagement and enhances learner knowledge in vocational education. Their study revealed that brainstorming and collaboration on creating a workpiece are the advantages of using the flipped approach in vocational education. Al Mamun et al. (2022) , in their study, revealed that flipped learning approach can deal the challenges of complex educational applications in different fields of engineering education.

To be able to keep up with the rapid advances in technology, the subsequent change in the instructional methodologies, and at the same time to hold the learners’ attention who are bored with the traditional book, and pencil classes, teachers have to update themselves, and use the latest accessible approaches. The flipped learning approach, as one of the pedagogical approaches, can be employed to advance learners’ performance. This review delved into the effect of flipped learning approach on vocational education. The earlier studies showed that flipped learning approach can enhance learners’ positive emotions such as motivation ( Yu et al., 2019 ; Lai et al., 2020 ). The studies revealed that learners are motivated to do in-class discussions in flipped classrooms. This upsurge in student motivation could be a result of student satisfaction with their experiences of flipped learning. Moreover, the previous literature indicated the significant and positive effect of flipped learning on learners’ level of self-efficacy and emotion regulation ( Yorganci, 2020 ; Fan and Wang, 2022 ). It can be concluded that flipped learning can provide the students with more than expected opportunities for success. The studies on self-efficacy and flipped classes highlighted positive attitudes because of the satisfaction derived from meeting basic cognitive needs such as a sense of competence, autonomy and social interaction ( Ha et al., 2019 ). This could result in an increase in self-efficacy, especially in technology-integrated classes where students are claimed to have become autonomous, self-regulated and self-confident through participation and interactions in a technology-enhanced learning environment ( Yang, 2017 ; Namaziandost et al., 2018 ; Han and Wang, 2021 ). Moreover, flipped learning can improve learner engagement ( Yu et al., 2019 ; Jularlark et al., 2021 ). Positive collaboration, as well as peer teaching and learning, were particularly encouraged through the flipped approach, as were increased enjoyment, participation, and improved student-teacher relationships ( Xie and Derakhshan, 2021 ). Moreover, vocational learners’ cognitive skills, including critical thinking ( Bhagat et al., 2016 ; Belovitskay et al., 2021 ), problem-solving ( Park, 2018 ; Lo et al., 2021 ), creative thinking ( Park, 2018 ), learning skill ( Cheng P. W. et al., 2019 ; Lai et al., 2020 ), learning strategies ( Lo et al., 2021 ), and communicative knowledge ( Park, 2018 ; Belovitskay et al., 2021 ) can be influenced by flipped learning. Earlier studies showed that flipped learning is a present and future learning that needs to be mastered by the teaching staff, therefore it is necessary to develop learning activities related to flipped classrooms.

Implications

This review has some pedagogical implications for learners, teachers, and students’ parents. Learners can take advantage of the current review in various ways. For example, they can identify their learning strategies, and act based on their strategies, in accordance with flipped classrooms. They can ask instructors to provide materials that they like and matches their learning strategies in flipped classrooms in order to increase engagement, creative thinking, motivation, and critical thinking. At the same time, they can practice extending their preferences to be able to take more advantage of the presented materials.

Vocational educators and teachers can develop new and customized ways to foster the flipped model effectiveness in their teaching context, and they can modify it based on teachers’ and students’ needs. A flipped classroom may bring many benefits for teachers. It helps them to quit the traditional ways of teaching, and effectively apply the new approaches to teaching. Technology can free up the teacher to move towards a non-synchronous student-centered learning environment where each student receives an individualized education program.

Vocational teachers are supposed to be aware of the rules and regulations of flipped learning approach. This awareness can help teachers to use effective strategies in order to use this teaching approach. They need to develop digital expertise to provide immediate feedback, adequate guidance, strong support throughout the flipped instruction, and to build interconnectivity between pre-class materials and in-class tasks, based on the flipped approach. Indeed, teachers who are not trained in constructivist approaches may not be interested in utilizing flipped learning approach in their teaching programs. Therefore, it is recommended that the administrators provide training courses for teachers to acknowledge the flipped classroom paradigms, and help them to use this approach with confidence. Moreover, teachers should be given ample opportunities to observe some experienced teachers who often flip their instruction. Also, administrators should be aware of educational needs, and try to support these needs in any way possible. Secondly, employing flipped learning approach requires time optimization, and it is best done gradually. For this purpose, teachers can flip a few lessons at first steps, and then try to cover a term or entire academic year. They should know how to optimize time to develop activities, especially student-centered activities, instead of spending their time lecturing. Teachers can help students to deal with various learning activities, so they will reach stability. It will be recommended for teachers to use flipped learning approach to help students become self-aware of how they deal with classroom activities, and understand the main target of the activity. The teachers should teach students to be self-aware in order to understand the difficulties they encounter.

In flipped classrooms, teachers can use remote collaborative learning activities to make a little more thought and preparation than in-person ones, but they are equally rewarding. Moreover, they can use classroom debates, and they can appoint learners to represent two sides of a timely or controversial issue, and have them present arguments defending their position. In addition, they can employ breakout discussions, and have students discuss a question, issue, or problem. At the end of the session, they can have each group report on their conclusions. They can also use jigsaw activities by breaking the class up into groups of four or five students. They can have each group member research a different issue or component of the broader subject. During class time, they can have them come together and share their findings. They are recommended to employ seminars in their flipped classrooms, and they can get students to take turns leading a class discussion on a topic they have researched. Moreover, to reduce learners’ workload, sufficient time should be given to learners in the pre-class phase, whereas learning strategies, and time-management training should be provided to maximize learners’ time use. Teachers can manage the class time and learner engagement regularly to arouse motivation. They are required to decrease learners’ anxiety and disengagement, and they need to increase learners’ motivation irrespective of educational problems in vocational contexts to enrich learner skills. They should talk to learners about their internal, and external motivation in online contexts to be aware of learners’ personality traits which help them to engage enthusiastically in flipped learning contexts.

Suggestions for further research

Further research could find how technological advances could make flipped classroom experiences more challenging and engaging in vocational education. Some positive emotional constructs, such as learner enjoyment, well-being, pedagogical love, resilience, and grit ( Wang et al., 2021 ), are suggested to be investigated among learners in vocational education. Moreover, the effect of flipped learning approach on these emotional construct is required to be examined in contexts like vocational education. Future research is also needed to find the effects of well-structured flipped classes versus ill-structured ones on learners’ learning, using various educational designs and strategies. Future research should be devoted to the effect of gender, socio-economic background, age on vocational learners’ academic achievement and emotional states in flipped classrooms. Furthermore, the effect of flipped learning approach on the proficiency level of vocational learners in different academic fields should be highlighted for the future. In addition, conducting case and phenomenological investigations, provides a good starting point for a discussion on the reasons behind the effectiveness of flipped learning in vocational learners’ cognitive skills and affective states. Finally, it is helpful to see more research on the teacher’s role in the classroom when the class is flipped. All of these ideas for further research would be good ways to extend our understanding of flip classrooms in vocational education.

Author contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Abeysekera, L., and Dawson, P. (2015). Motivation and cognitive load in the flipped classroom: definition, rationale and a call for research. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 34, 1–14. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2014.934336

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Agustini, K., Pratiwi, N. W. E., Mertayasa, I. N. E., Wahyuni, D. S., and Wedanthi, N. K. (2021). “Flipped learning for 21st century competence development.” in Proceedings of the 5th Asian education symposium 2020 (AES 2020), 566(AES 2020) . pp. 534–540.

Google Scholar

Al Mamun, M. A., Azad, M. A. K., and Boyle, M. (2022). Review of flipped learning in engineering education: scientific mapping and research horizon. Educ. Inf. Technol. 27, 1261–1286. doi: 10.1007/s10639-021-10630-z

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Aljohani, M. (2017). Principles of “constructivism” in foreign language teaching. J. Lit. Art Stud. 32, 261–293. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2018.1504083

Al-Rahmi, W. M., Yahaya, N., Alamri, M. M., Alyoussef, I. Y., Al-Rahmi, A. M., and Kamin, Y. B. (2021). Integrating innovation diffusion theory with technology acceptance model: supporting students’ attitude towards using a massive open online courses (MOOCs) systems. Interact. Learn. Environ. 29, 1380–1392. doi: 10.1080/10494820.2019.1629599

Antonietti, C., Cattaneo, A., and Amenduni, F. (2022). Can teachers’ digital competence influence technology acceptance in vocational education? Comput. Hum. Behav. 115, 105092–105021. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105092

Baker, J. W. (2000). “The “classroom flip”: Using web course management tools to become the guide by the side” in 11th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning (Jacksonville, Florida, United States).

Barnard, L., Lan, W. Y., To, Y. M., Paton, V. O., and Lai, S. L. (2009). Measuring self-regulation in online and blended learning environments. Internet High. Educ. 12, 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.10.005

Basori, B. (2018). Blended learning with flipped classroom type for enhancing quality of learning in vocational high school: a review. VANOS J. Mech. Eng. Educ. 3, 1–15. doi: 10.30870/vanos.v3i1.3225

Bauer-Ramazani, C., Graney, J. M., Marshall, H. W., and Sabieh, C. (2016). Flipped learning in TESOL: Definitions, approaches, and implementation. Tesol Journal 7, 429–437.

Belmonte, J. L., Sánchez, S. P., and del Pino Espejo, M. (2019). Projection of the flipped learning methodology in the teaching staff of cross-border contexts. J. New Approach. Educ. Res. 8, 184–200.

Belovitskay, S., Guseva, T., Demicheva, D., Shatokhina, I., and Shcherbina, E. (2021). Blended learning technology flipped class in the system of higher vocational education. EDP Sci. 273, 1–10. doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202127312003

Bezzazi, R. (2019). The effect of flipped learning on EFL learners’ public speaking in Taiwan. Journal on English as a Foreign Language 9, 1–19.

Bhagat, V., Mainul, H., Yasrul, I., Rohayah, H., and Che, M. K. (2016). Emotional maturity of medical students impacting their adult learning skills in a newly established public medical school at the east coast of Malaysian Peninsula. Advances in medical education and practice. 7, 1–15.

Billett, S. (2011). Vocational education: Purposes, traditions, and prospects . Canberra: Springer.

Bliuc, A. M., Casey, G., Bachfischer, A., Goodyear, P., and Ellis, R. A. (2012). Blended learning in vocational education: teachers’ conceptions of blended learning and their approaches to teaching and design. Aust. Educ. Res. 39, 237–257. doi: 10.1007/s13384-012-0053-0

Bond, M. (2019). Flipped learning and parent engagement in secondary schools: a south Australian case study. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 50, 1294–1319. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12765

Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bull, G., Fester, B., and Kjellstrom, W. (2012). Inventing the flipped class-room. Learn. Lead. Tech. 40, 10–11.

Chen, M. R. A., and Hwang, G. J. (2020). Effects of a concept mapping-based flipped learning approach on EFL students’ English speaking performance, critical thinking awareness and speaking anxiety. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 51, 817–834. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12887

Cheng, P. W., Liu, P. W., Huang, C. C., and Shyr, W. J. (2019). The effects of the flipped classroom on technical high school students with low self-esteem. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 35, 1518–1525.

Cheng, L., Ritzhaupt, A. D., and Antonenko, P. (2019). Effects of the flipped classroom instructional strategy on students’ learning outcomes: a meta-analysis. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 67, 793–824. doi: 10.1007/s11423-018-9633-7

Chivata, Y. P., and Oviedo, R. C. (2018). EFL students’ perceptions of activeness during the implementation of flipped learning approach at a Colombian University. Gist: Education and Learning Research Journal 17, 81–105.

Daly, A., and Lewis, P. (2020). The proposed job-ready graduate package: a misguided arrow missing its target. Aust. J. Labour Econ. 23, 231–251.

de Boer, B., Hoek, J., and Kudina, O. (2018). Can the technological mediation approach improve technology assessment? A critical view from ‘within’. J. Respon. Innov. 5, 299–315. doi: 10.1080/23299460.2018.1495029

Demirel, E. E. (2016). Basics and key principles of flipped learning: classes upside down. Int. J. Lang. Lit. Ling. 7, 429–437. doi: 10.1002/tesj.250

Djohar, A. (2007). Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan. Dalam Ilmu dan Aplikasi Pendidikan . Bandung: Pedagogiana Press. Hal.

Dong, X. (2018). “Study on flipped classroom applied in economy and management courses in higher vocational education.: in 2018 symposium on health and education (SOHE 2018) . pp. 270–273. Atlantis Press.

Doo, M. Y. (2021). Understanding flipped learners’ perceptions, perceived usefulness, registration intention, and learning engagement. Contemp. Educ. Technol. 14, 1–15. doi: 10.30935/cedtech/11368

Durak, H. Y. (2018). Flipped learning readiness in teaching programming in middle schools: modelling its relation to various variables. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 34, 939–959. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12302

Erbil, D. G. (2020). A review of flipped classroom and cooperative learning method within the context of Vygotsky theory. Front. Psychol. 11:1157. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01157

European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop). (2014). Navigating Difficult Waters: learning for career and labour market transitions . Background Material – description of country data. http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/24006.aspx

Fan, J., and Wang, Y. (2022). English as a foreign language teachers’ professional success in the Chinese context: the effects of well-being and emotion regulation. Front. Psychol. 13:952503. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.952503

Finlay, I., Niven, S., and Young, S. (1999). Changing vocational education and training: International comparative perspective . London: Routledge.

Fleischmann, K. (2021). Hands-on versus virtual: reshaping the design classroom with blended learning. Arts Human. Higher Educ. 20, 87–112. doi: 10.1177/1474022220906393

Guo, J. J. (2019). The use of an extended flipped classroom model in improving students’ learning in an undergraduate course. J. Comput. High. Educ. 31, 362–2390. doi: 10.1007/s12528-019-09224-z

Ha, A. S., O’Reilly, J., Ng, J. Y. Y., and Zhang, J. H. (2019). Evaluating the flipped classroom approach in Asian higher education: perspectives from students and teachers. Cogent Educ. 6, 215–235. doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2019.1638147

Haghighi, H., Jafarigohar, M., Khoshsima, H., and Vahdany, F. (2019). Impact of flipped classroom on EFL learners' appropriate use of refusal: achievement, participation, perception. Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 32, 261–293. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2018.1504083

Hamden, N., McKnight, P., McKnight, K., and Arfstrom, K. (2013). The flipped learning model: A white paper . Retrieved from www.flippedlearning.org/summary

Han, Y., and Wang, Y. (2021). Investigating the correlation among Chinese EFL teachers’ self-efficacy, reflection, and work engagement. Front. Psychol. 12:763234. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763234

Hao, Y., and Lee, K. S. (2016). Teaching in flipped classrooms: exploring pre-service teachers’ concerns. Comput. Hum. Behav. 57, 250–260. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.022

Hinojo, F. J., Aznar, I., Romero, J. M., and Marín, J. A. (2019). Influencia del aula invertida en el rendimiento académico. Una revisión sistemática. Campus Virtuales 8, 9–18.

Hong, J. C., Zhang, H. L., Ye, J. H., and Ye, J. N. (2021). The effects of academic self-efficacy on vocational students’ behavioral engagement at school and at firm internships: a model of engagement-value of achievement motivation. Educ. Sci. 11, 1–15. doi: 10.3390/educsci11080387

Hwang, G. J., Lai, C. L., and Wang, S. Y. (2015). Seamless flipped learning: a mobile technology-enhanced flipped classroom with effective learning strategies. J. Comput. Educ. 2, 449–473. doi: 10.1007/s40692-015-0043-0

Jang, H. Y., and Kim, H. J. (2020). A meta-analysis of the cognitive, affective, and interpersonal outcomes of flipped classrooms in higher education. Educ. Sci. 10:16. doi: 10.3390/educsci10040115

Jantakoon, T. H. A. D. A., and Piriyasurawong, P. A. L. L. O. P. (2018). Flipped classroom instructional model with mobile learning based on constructivist learning theory to enhance critical thinking (FCMOC model). J. Theor. Appl. Inf. Technol. 96, 5607–5614.

Jensen, J. L., Kummer, T. A., and Godoy, P. D. D. M. (2015). Improvements from a flipped classroom may simply be the fruits of active learning. CBE—Life Sciences. Education 14, 1–15.

Jouryabi, A. B. (2019). FL flipped classrooms in a vocational high-school in China: Students’ achievements. International Conference on Education, Management, Business and Accounting 2, 1–16.

Jularlark, S., Songsangyos, P., and Soutthaboualy, T. (2021). Learning management of imagineering in flipped classroom for Lao PDR vocational students. Int. J. Educ. Commun. Tech. 1, 29–39.

Jung, H., An, J., and Park, K. H. (2018). Analysis of satisfaction and academic achievement of medical students in a flipped class. Korean J. Med. Educ. 30, 101–107. doi: 10.3946/kjme.2018.85

Kim, K. J., and Bonk, C. J. (2006). The future of online teaching and learning in higher education. Educ. Q. 29, 22–30.

Krismadinata, U. V., Jalinus, N., Rizal, F., Sukardi, P. S., Ramadhani, D., Lubis, A. L., et al. (2020). Blended learning as instructional model in vocational education: literature review. Univ. J. Educ. Res. 8, 5801–5815. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2020.082214

Lai, T. L., Lin, F. T., and Yueh, H. P. (2020). The effectiveness of team-based flipped learning on a vocational high school economics classroom. Interact. Learn. Environ. 28, 130–141. doi: 10.1080/10494820.2018.1528284

Lemmer, C. (2013). A view from the flip side: using the "inverted classroom" to enhance the legal information literacy of the international LL.M. student. Law Libr. J. 105, 461–491.

Li, Q. (2021). Analysis and practice on the training of key ability of students majoring in electronic information in higher vocational education. Procedia Computer Science 183, 791–793.

Li, B. Z., Cao, N. W., Ren, C. X., Chu, X. J., Zhou, H. Y., and Guo, B. (2020). Flipped classroom improves nursing students’ theoretical learning in China: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 15, e0237926–e0237915. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237926

Lo, C. C., Hsieh, M. H., Lin, H. H., and Hung, H. H. (2021). Influences of flipped teaching in electronics courses on students’ learning effectiveness and strategies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health , 18, 1–15. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189748

MacKinnon, G. (2015). Determining useful tools for the flipped science education classroom. Cont. Issue. Tech. Teach. Educ. 15, 44–55.

Marshall, H. W., and Kostka, I. (2020). Fostering teaching presence through the synchronous online flipped learning approach. Tesl-Ej 24, 1–15.

Montaner-Villalba, S. (2021). Students’ perceptions of ESP academic writing skills through flipped learning during Covid-19. J. Lang. Educ. 7, 107–116. doi: 10.17323/jle.2021.11901

Munir, M. T., Baroutian, S., Young, B. R., and Carter, S. (2018). Flipped classroom with cooperative learning as a cornerstone. Educ. Chem. Eng. 23, 25–33. doi: 10.1016/j.ece.2018.05.001

Namaziandost, E., Sabzevari, A., and Hashemifardnia, A. (2018). The effect of cultural materials on listening comprehension among Iranian upper-intermediate EFL learners: in reference to gender. Cogent Educ. 5, 1–27. doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2018.1560601

Pambudi, N. A., and Harjanto, B. (2020). Vocational education in Indonesia: history, development, opportunities, and challenges. Child Youth Serv. Rev. 115, 105092–105120. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105092

Papadakis, S., Xanthopoulou, P., and Baxevani, Κ. (2021). Α technologically supported differentiated flipped classroom (Fliperentiation) in vocational education. J. Mod. Educ. Rev. 11, 655–666. doi: 10.15341/jmer(2155-7993)/06.11.2021/006

Park, J. (2018). Application of professor learning model customized for flipped learning for enhancing basic ability of work-focused on freshman students in radiology department of specialized colleges. J. Korean Soc. Radiol. 12, 225–231. doi: 10.7742/jksr.2018.12.2.225

Park, K. H., Park, K. H., and Chae, S. J. (2018). Experiences of medical teachers in flipped learning for medical students: a phenomenological study. Korean J. Med. Educ. 30, 91–100. doi: 10.3946/kjme.2018.84

Persky, A. M., and McLaughlin, J. E. (2017). The flipped classroom–from theory to practice in health professional education. Am. J. Pharm. Educ. 81:118. doi: 10.5688/ajpe816118

Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. J. Eng. Educ. 93, 223–231. doi: 10.1002/j.2168-9830.2004.tb00809.x

Rabiman, R., Nurtanto, M., and Kholifah, N. (2020). Design and development E-learning system by learning management system (LMS) in vocational education. Online Sub. 9, 1059–1063.

Rahman, S. F. A., Yunus, M. M., and Hashim, H. (2020). The uniqueness of flipped learning approach. Int. J. Educ. Pract. 8, 394–404. doi: 10.18488/journal.61.2020.83.394.404

Sailsman, S. (2021). Using the four pillars of FLIP to implement flipped learning in an undergraduate nursing research and evidence-based practice course. Nurs. Educ. Perspect. 42, E165–E167. doi: 10.1097/01.NEP.0000000000000766

Sajid, M. R., Laheji, A. F., Abothenain, F., Salam, Y., AlJayar, D., and Obeidat, A. (2016). Can blended learning and the flipped classroom improve student learning and satisfaction in Saudi Arabia? International journal of medical education 7:281.

Sams, A., and Bergmann, J. (2013). Flip your students' learning. Educ. Leadersh. 70, 16–20.

Shraideh, T., Abdelrahman, B., and Ahmad, A. (2020). Parents’ perceptions of their children’s achievement in the reading class using a flipped classroom model: A case study of tenth grade female students in Zarqa. Directorate of Education Jordanian Educational Journal 5, 1–12.

Singh, H., Jaswant, S., Singh, C. K. S., Mohtar, T. M. T., and Mostafa, N. A. (2017). A review of research on flipped classroom approach for teaching communication skills in English. Int. J. Acad. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci. 7. doi: 10.6007/IJARBSS/v7-i10/3362

Sjøberg, S. (2010). “Constructivism and learning” in International encyclopedia of education . (Philadelphia: Elsevier), 485–490.

Suharno, A., Agung Pambudi, N., and Harjanto, B. (2020). Vocational education in Indonesia: history, development, opportunities, and challenges. Child Youth Serv. Rev. 115, 105092–105015. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105092

Suharno,, Harjanto, B., Handayani, N. M., and Sutanti, N. (2018). Evaluation of five-day school program implementation using the model of context, input, process, and product. J. Pendidikan Teknol. dan Kejuruan 24, 155–161. doi: 10.21831/jptk.v24i1.18342

Tan, C., Yue, W. G., and Fu, Y. (2017). Effectiveness of flipped classrooms in nursing education: systematic review and meta-analysis. Chin. Nurs. Res. 4, 192–200. doi: 10.1016/j.cnre.2017.10.006

Tandirerung, V. A., and Vitalocca, D. (2017). Pemetaan Kompetensi Lulusan Smk Bidang Keahlian Teknologi Informasi Dan Komunikasi Di Kota Makassar. Elinvo 2, 149–155. doi: 10.21831/elinvo.v2i2.17308

Teo, T., Khazaei, S., and Derakhshan, A. (2022). Exploring teacher immediacy-(non)dependency in the tutored augmented reality game-assisted flipped classrooms of English for medical purposes comprehension among the Asian students. Comp. Educ. 179:104406. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104406

Thai, N. T. T., De Wever, B., and Valcke, M. (2017). The impact of a flipped classroom design on learning performance in higher education: looking for the best “blend” of lectures and guiding questions with feedback. Comp. Educ. 107, 113–126. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2017.01.00

Tsai, H.-L., and Wu, J.-F. (2020). Bibliometric analysis of flipped classroom publications from the web of science Core collection published from 2000 to 2019. Science 7, 163–168. doi: 10.6087/kcse.212

Umay, A. (2001). The effect of the primary school mathematics teaching program on the mathematics self-efficacy of students. J. Qafqaz Univ. 2015, 173–184. doi: 10.5578/keg.9075

Utami, I. S. (2018). The effectiveness of blended learning as an instructional model in vocational high school. J. Educ. Sci. Tech. 4, 74–83. doi: 10.26858/est.v4i1.4977

Villalba, M. T., Castilla, G., and Redondo-Duarte, S. (2018). Factors with influence on the adoption of the flipped classroom model in technical and vocational education. J. Inform. Tech. Educ.: Res. 17, 441–469. doi: 10.28945/4121

von Lindeiner-Stráský, K., Stickler, U., and Winchester, S. (2020). Flipping the flipped: the concept of flipped learning in an online teaching environment. J. Open Dis. e-Learn. , 37, 288–304. doi: 10.1080/02680513.2020.1769584

Vygotsky, L.S. (1986) Thought and Language . Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.

Wang, Y. L., Derakhshan, A., and Zhang, L. J. (2021). Researching and practicing positive psychology in second/foreign language learning and teaching: the past, current status and future directions. Front. Psychol. 12:731721. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731721

Widiatna, A. D. (2019). “Four pillar teaching factory: a teaching and learning management model in technical and vocational senior high school.” in Padang international conference on educational management and administration (PICEMA 2018) . pp. 61–66. Atlantis Press.

Xie, F., and Derakhshan, A. (2021). A conceptual review of positive teacher interpersonal communication behaviors in the instructional context. Front. Psychol. 12:708490. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.708490

Xin-yue, Z. U. O. (2016). Motivation in a flipped classroom, a case study of teaching oral English in a vocational college in mainland China. Sino-US Engl. Teach. 13, 460–467. doi: 10.17265/1539-8072/2016.06.004

Yang, P.-L. (2017). “English journal writing on Moodle for EFL college learners: An investigation of English self-efficacy and writing performance” in Multiculturalism and technology-enhanced language learning . eds. D. Tafazoli and M. Romero (Hersley, PA: IGI Global), 13–32.

Ye, J.-H., Lee, Y.-S., and He, Z. (2022). The relationship among expectancy belief, course satisfaction, learning effectiveness, and continuance intention in online courses of vocational-technical teachers college students. Front. Psychol. 13:904319. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.904319

Yilmaz, R. M., and Baydas, O. (2017). An examination of undergraduates’ metacognitive strategies in pre-class asynchronous activity in a flipped classroom. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 65, 1547–1567. doi: 10.1007/s11423-017-9534-1

Yorganci, S. (2020). Implementing flipped learning approach based on ‘first principles of instruction’ in mathematics courses. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 36, 763–779. doi: 10.1111/jcal.12448

Yu, S., Zhou, N., Zheng, Y., Zhang, L., Cao, H., and Li, X. (2019). Evaluating student motivation and engagement in the Chinese EFL writing context. Studies in Educational Evaluation 62, 129–141.

Yulian, R. (2021). The flipped classroom: improving critical thinking for critical reading of EFL learners in higher education. Stud. Engl. Lang. Educ. 8, 508–522. doi: 10.24815/siele.v8i2.18366

Zhang, L. (2018). English flipped classroom teaching model based on cooperative learning. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice 18, 1–15.

Zidoun, Y., Dehbi, R., Talea, M., and El Arroum, F. Z. (2019). Designing a Theoretical Integration Framework for Mobile Learning . International Association of Online Engineering Retrieved November 29, 2022 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/216407/

Zou, D. (2020). Gamified flipped EFL classroom for primary education: student and teacher perceptions. J. Comput. Educ. 7, 213–228. doi: 10.1007/s40692-020-00153-w

Keywords: flipped learning, technology, vocational education, learner-centered approach, communicative competence

Citation: Zhou X (2023) A conceptual review of the effectiveness of flipped learning in vocational learners’ cognitive skills and emotional states. Front. Psychol . 13:1039025. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1039025

Received: 07 September 2022; Accepted: 22 November 2022; Published: 13 January 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Zhou. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Xiuqin Zhou, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Accredited by Ministry of Research and Technology/ National Research  and  Innovation  Agency  of Indonesia

2007 2010 2014 2018   2022

Nur Asmawati Lawahid Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) Datokarama Palu Indonesia

• Other Journals
• Editorial Board
• Peer-Reviewers
• Publication Ethics
• Focus & Scope
• Author Guidelines
• Publishing System
• Journal Indexing & Title Listing
• Scopus Citation Analysis
• Author Fees

• » Journal Statistics
• » Visitors Statistics
• » Flag Counter
• Announcements
• Online Submission

Developing the flipped learning instrument in an ESL context: The experts’ perspective

Akçayır, G., & Akçayır, M. (2018). The flipped classroom: A review of its advantages and challenges. Computers & Education, 126, 334–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.07.021

Aw-Yong, J., Anderson, N., & Chigeza, P. (2013). Developing culturally-responsive lessons on the iPAD for teaching English as Second Language to Chinese learners. 2013 IEEE 63rd Annual Conference International Council for Education Media (ICEM), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1109/CICEM.2013.6820186

Azman, H., & Dollsaid, N. F. (2018). Applying massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) in EFL teaching. Arab World English Journal, 9(4), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol9no4.1

Baepler, P., Walker, J. D., & Driessen, M. (2014). It’s not about seat time: Blending, flipping, and efficiency in active learning classrooms. Computers & Education, 78, 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.06.006

Balan, P., Clark, M., & Restall, G. (2015). Preparing students for flipped or team-based learning methods. Education + Training, 57(6), 639–657. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-07-2014-0088

Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day. International Society for Technology in Education.

Bishop, J. L., & Verleger, M. A. (2013). The flipped classroom: A survey of the research. 120th ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, 6219. https://peer.asee.org/the-flipped-classroom-a-survey-of-the-research

Bodomo, A. (2016). Afriphone literature as a prototypical form of African literature: Insights from prototype theory. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 7(5), 262–267. http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/alls/article/view/2748

Bouzon, M., Govindan, K., Rodriguez, C. M. T., & Campos, L. M. S. (2016). Identification and analysis of reverse logistics barriers using Fuzzy Delphi method and AHP. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 108, 182–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.05.021

Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Kinshuk, & Chen, N.-S. (2014). Is FLIP enough? Or should we use the FLIPPED model instead? Computers & Education, 79, 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.07.004

Coufal, K. (2014). Flipped learning instructional model: Perceptions of video delivery to support engagement in eighth grade math. Doctoral thesis, Lamar University, Beaumont, TX.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE Publication.

Davies, R. S., Dean, D. L., & Ball, N. (2013). Flipping the classroom and instructional technology integration in a college-level information systems spreadsheet course. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61(4), 563–580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-013-9305-6

Embi, M. A., Hussin, S., & Panah, E. (2014). Flipped learning readiness amongst graduate and postgraduate students in UKM. In M. A. Embi (Ed.), Blended and flipped learning: Case studies in Malaysia HEIs (pp. 209–223). Centre for Teaching and Learning Technologies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Embi, M. A. (2014). Blended & flipped learning: Case studies in Malaysian HEIs (M. A. Embi (ed.); 1st ed.). Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Enfield, J. (2013). Looking at the impact of the flipped classroom model of instruction on undergraduate multimedia students at CSUN. TechTrends, 57(6), 14–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-013-0698-1

Hamdan, N., McKnight, P., McKnight, K., & Arfstrom, K. (2013). A review of flipped learning: Flipped learning network. Flipped Learning Network. https://flippedlearning.org/cms/lib07/VA01923112/Centricity/Domain/41/LitReview_FlippedLearning.pdf

Hao, Y. (2016). Exploring undergraduates’ perspectives and flipped learning readiness in their flipped classrooms. Computers in Human Behavior, 59, 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.032

Hidayat, W. (2018). Developing and validating an inventory of a national character (IKB) for secondary school students. Doctoral thesis, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor.

Hidayat, W., & Lawahid, N. A. (2020). Metode Fuzzy Delphi untuk penelitian sosial. Alfabeta.

Ishikawa, A., Amagasa, M., Shiga, T., Tomizawa, G., Tatsuta, R., & Mieno, H. (1993). The max-min Delphi method and Fuzzy Delphi method via fuzzy integration. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 55(3), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-0114(93)90251-C

Jamaludin, R., & Osman, S. Z. M. (2014). The use of a flipped classroom to enhance engagement and promote active learning. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(2), 124–131. https://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/10648

Juhary, J., & Amir, A. F. (2018). Flipped classroom at the Defence University. 4th International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd’18), 827–835. https://doi.org/10.4995/HEAD18.2018.8093

Kafi, Z., & Motallebzadeh, K. (2014). A flipped classroom: Project-based instruction and 21st century skills. International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW), 6(4), 35–46.

Kenna, D. C. (2014). A study of the effect the flipped classroom model on student self-efficacy. Master thesis, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota.

Lage, M. J., Platt, G. J., & Treglia, M. (2000). Inverting the classroom: A gateway to creating an inclusive learning environment. The Journal of Economic Education, 31(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220480009596759

McLaughlin, J. E., Griffin, L. M., Esserman, D. A., Davidson, C. A., Glatt, D. M., Roth, M. T., Gharkholonarehe, N., & Mumper, R. J. (2013). Pharmacy student engagement, performance, and perception in a flipped satellite classroom. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 77(9), 196. https://doi.org/10.5688/ajpe779196

Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2015). Malaysia education blueprint 2015-2025 (higher education). Ministry of Education Malaysia. https://www.um.edu.my/docs/um-magazine/4-executive-summary-pppm-2015-2025.pdf

Nederveld, A., & Berge, Z. L. (2015). Flipped learning in the workplace. Journal of Workplace Learning, 27(2), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWL-06-2014-0044

O’Flaherty, J., & Phillips, C. (2015). The use of flipped classrooms in higher education: A scoping review. The Internet and Higher Education, 25, 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.02.002

Osman, S. Z. M., Jamaludin, R., & Mokhtar, N. E. (2014). Flipped classroom and traditional classroom: Lecturer and student perceptions between two learning cultures, a case study at Malaysian polytechnic. International Education Research, 2(4), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.12735/ier.v2i4p16

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). SAGE Publication.

Sanchez-Lezama, A. P., Cavazos-Arroyo, J., & Albavera-Hernandez, C. (2014). Applying the Fuzzy Delphi Method for determining socio-ecological factors that influence adherence to mammography screening in rural areas of Mexico. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 30(2), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00025113

Tongco, M. D. C. (2007). Purposive sampling as a tool for informant selection. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 5, 147–158. https://ethnobotanyjournal.org/index.php/era/article/view/126

Tsay, C. H.-H., Kofinas, A., & Luo, J. (2018). Enhancing student learning experience with technology-mediated gamification: An empirical study. Computers & Education, 121, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.009

Wiginton, B. L. (2013). Flipped instruction: An investigation into the effect of learning environment on student self-efficacy, learning style, and academic achievement in an Algebra I classroom. Doctoral thesis, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL.

Yemma, D. M. (2015). Impacting learning for 21st century students: A phenomenological study of higher education faculty utilizing a flipped learning approach. Doctoral thesis, Robert Morris University, Moon Twp, PA.

• There are currently no refbacks.

Find Jurnal Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan on :

ISSN 2338-6061 (online)     ||    ISSN  2685-7111 (print)

View Journal Penelitian dan Evaluasi Pendidikan Visitor Statistics

• Open access
• Published: 18 January 2024

Impact of flipped classroom on EFL learners’ self- regulated learning and higher-order thinking skills during the Covid19 pandemic

• Fatemeh Samadi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8972-5259 1 ,
• Manoocher Jafarigohar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6892-3248 1 ,
• Masood Saeedi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4558-1366 1 ,
• Mansoor Ganji   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0352-8404 2 &
• Farzaneh Khodabandeh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2104-622X 1  

Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education volume  9 , Article number:  24 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

1304 Accesses

1 Altmetric

Metrics details

The advent of innovative online tools has ushered in new possibilities for enhancing the quality of language learning. This study delved into the influence of the flipped classroom approach on augmenting the cognitive and meta-cognitive competence of EFL learners. Two distinct participant groups were enlisted for the study's sequential phases, necessitating varying sample sizes to compare the effects of the flipped classroom against traditional instructional modes on the improvement of EFL learners' self-regulated learning strategies and higher-order thinking. Homogeneous groups of language learners were essential for addressing the research inquiries, and participants were selected from two private language institutes in Arak, Iran. Multiple data sources, including a language proficiency test, the Self-Regulation Questionnaire, a flipped classroom attitude questionnaire, and the Higher-Order Thinking Skills Test, were employed to gather the necessary data. The results demonstrated a significant impact of flipped classrooms on learners' utilization of cognitive self-regulated learning strategies, indicating that the flipped classroom approach fosters students' development as self-directed learners. Concerning the influence of the flipped classroom on enhancing EFL learners' higher-order thinking skills, it was deduced that the flipped classroom significantly affected the learners' engagement in evaluating, analyzing, and creating. The implications of these findings underscore the potential of the flipped classroom approach to positively shape EFL learners' self-regulated learning and higher-order thinking skills, advocating for its incorporation into language education practices.

Introduction

The global COVID-19 pandemic has compelled educational institutions worldwide to embrace online learning measures to mitigate the virus's spread. UNESCO reports that the pandemic has disrupted the learning of over 290.5 million students due to widespread school closures (Yulistiana,  2020 ). In response to these challenges, the flipped classroom (FC) emerges as an instructional technique, falling under blended learning, aiming to transform the conventional classroom model. This approach emphasizes optimizing class time effectively by leveraging technology to invert the traditional roles of classroom and home-based activities (Warden,  2016 ). Teachers, recognizing the potential of the FC model, have increasingly incorporated it into their instructional practices (Fraga & Harmon,  2015 ). In this model, activities traditionally conducted in the classroom, such as lectures, take place outside class, allowing in-class time for interactive learning experiences (Fraga et al.,   2015 ).

Despite the reported positive impacts of FC on learners' achievement, satisfaction, and participation, empirical evidence regarding its effectiveness in enhancing language learning remains scarce (Kim,  2014 ; Mehring,  2016 ). While FC benefits, such as increased higher-order thinking skills, have been discussed, there is a notable lack of empirical studies, particularly within the realms of self-regulated learning and higher-order thinking. As electronic learning gives way to traditional approaches, the continuity of the teaching and learning process is imperative (Holmes et al.,  2020 ). Given the limited exploration of FC in the context of self-regulated learning and higher-order thinking, there is a need for further research to comprehensively assess its impact on these variables.

The existing literature predominantly addresses general aspects of the flipped classroom, leaving a noticeable void in the exploration of its effects on specific variables, such as EFL learners' self-regulated learning and higher-order thinking. While previous studies have focused on related issues, there remains a distinct research gap in understanding the impact of FC on these critical dimensions. Consequently, this research aims to address this gap by investigating how FC, particularly implemented via Google Meet, influences students' self-regulated learning and perceptions, particularly in the post-COVID-19 pandemic context, as compared to traditional classroom settings. This study seeks to contribute valuable insights into the effectiveness of FC in enhancing cognitive and meta-cognitive competencies, filling an existing research gap and offering practical implications for EFL education in Iranian tertiary settings.

Literature review

Numerous researchers have highlighted the efficacy of the flipped classroom in facilitating students' academic achievement (Bergmann & Sams,  2012 ; Hung,  2015 ; Lockwood & Folse,  2014 ). The integration of pre-class and in-class activities empowers students to take greater responsibility for their learning, fostering more interactive and communicative participation in class activities (Namik et al.,  2014 ). The educational landscape has shifted from a teacher-centered approach to one centered around student learning (Lai & Hwang, (Lai et al. 2016 )). The flipped learning model represents a pedagogical approach emphasizing active learner participation in collaborative activities, with the teacher adopting a facilitator role rather than that of a traditional instructor (Green,  2015 ; Sankey & Hunt,  2014 ). Also known as the inverted classroom model, it redefines the traditional teaching paradigm (Bergmann & Sams,  2012 ).

Flipped classroom model and self-regulated learning

The year 2020 witnessed substantial changes in people's lives and educational practices due to the global COVID-19 pandemic, prompting universities worldwide to transition to online teaching (Vilkova & Shcheglova,  2021 ). Consequently, distance education gained popularity, necessitating students to assume responsibility for their learning, marking a shift toward self-regulated learning (SRL) (Jansen et al.,  2017 ).

Self-regulated learning has gained prominence in second language acquisition, with Zimmerman pioneering the exploration of its sub-processes (1986, 1989, 2000, 2009). Notably, students employ diverse strategies to regulate their learning, with variations in both the strategies chosen and their frequency of use (Barnard-Brak et al., 2010; Dörrenbächer & Perels,  2016 ). Importantly, self-regulation is context-specific, requiring separate examination in online foreign language education due to differences from traditional in-class learning environments (Wang & Zhan,  2020 ).

A review of the literature classifies SRL strategies into three categories: cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management (Pintrich et al.,  1991 ). Meta-analyses by Richardson et al. ( 2012 ) reveal that SRL strategies, including effort regulation, time management, metacognition, elaboration, critical thinking, help-seeking, and concentration, significantly predict students' grades. Notably, effort regulation, time management, elaboration, and metacognition consistently exhibit the highest correlation with GPA across studies.

Puzziferro ( 2008 ) discovered, among 815 online liberal arts students, that someone who scored higher on the subscales of effort regulation and time management can gain higher final grades although none of the other SRL strategies (rehearsal, elaboration, organization, critical thinking, metacognition, peer learning, or help seeking) were found to be meaningfully related to grade. Similar to aforementioned study, Carson’s ( 2011 ) huge study of 4909 first year online students also indicated that effort regulation and time management and metacognition had a small positive correlation with grade. Their weighted mean correlations (ranged from 0.05 to 0.14), were lower than those found by Richardson et al. (  2012 ).

The flipped classroom model and higher- order thinking

The term "flipped classroom" is often associated with e-learning due to its heavy reliance on technology, wherein students engage in independent computer-based learning outside the classroom and collaborate with peers in small groups during class time (Bishop & Verleger,  2013 ). Despite criticisms of the buzzword nature of "flipped classroom," proponents argue that it enhances flexibility in learning, fosters student achievement, and enables creative teaching (Couch,  2014 ; Herreid & Schiller,  2013 ). Chua and Lateef ( 2014 ) further note the widespread acceptance of the model among university students in Asia.

Higher-order thinking involves critical and creative thinking to solve complex problems, a central goal in modern curriculum reform (Leung,  2013 ; Yeung,  2012 ). Smith ( 2007 ) emphasizes the use of open-ended questions to stimulate comparisons, justifications, and searches based on prior knowledge, contributing to the development of higher-order thinking skills. Leung ( 2013 ) advocates for active learning strategies to enhance higher-order thinking, and research suggests that the flipped classroom supports this by allowing students to pause videos for content comprehension (Hamdan et al., 2013 ; Herreid & Schiller,  2013 ).

Lankford ( 2013 ) underscores that the flipped classroom model empowers facilitators to allocate classroom time to the top layers of Bloom's taxonomy, focusing on application, synthesis, evaluation, and analysis. Nederveld and Berge ( 2015 ) argue that flipped learning enables instructors to dedicate classroom time to application and higher-level learning rather than traditional lecturing and lower-level thinking tasks. Zainuddin and Halili ( 2016 ) highlight the use of classroom tools in flipped learning, such as group discussions, which afford students more time for higher-level learning. This study aims to address the following research questions:

Is there a significant difference between FCIM and conventional modes of instruction in enhancing EFL learners' self-regulated learning strategies?

Is there a significant difference between FCIM and conventional modes of instruction in enhancing EFL learners’ higher-order thinking using the flipped classroom approach?

Are there any significant relationships between students' higher-order thinking skills and self-regulated learning in the flipped classroom?

Methodology

Design and participants.

In the two distinct phases of the study, two cohorts of participants were carefully chosen. The quantitative phase, which sought to compare the impact of Flipped Classroom Instructional Mode (FCIM) and conventional instructional modes on enhancing EFL learners' self-regulated learning strategies, necessitated two disparate sample sizes. Specifically addressing research questions 1 and 2, two groups of homogeneous language learners were required. To meet the minimum requirement for ensuring normal distribution of the data, each group required 30 participants. Consequently, the researcher identified and selected four intact classes, each comprising 15 language learners. Two of these intact classes, totaling 40 language learners, were designated for FCIM, while the remaining two intact classes, also comprising 40 language learners, were allocated to the conventional instruction mode. For the third research question, which aimed to explore the relationships between students' higher-order thinking skills and self-regulated learning in a flipped classroom, a total of 40 freshman English students, including 18 females and 22 males, were selected. The participants were drawn from two private language institutes, specifically Is Iran and Milan, located in Arak.

Diverse research methodologies were deployed to address the research questions. For research questions 1 and 2, a quasi-experimental research method was employed, whereby intact groups were assigned to two distinct treatment conditions: Flipped instruction and conventional teaching. The research design utilized pretest/posttest control and experimental groups. In addressing the third research question, a correlational research design, a subtype of ex-post facto research designs, was adopted. The study variables, measured on an interval scale, encompassed the sub-components of Self-Regulated Learning Strategies (SRLS) and the sub-components of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS).

Instruments

In this study, three distinct instruments were utilized for comprehensive data collection, each meticulously outlined below.

Language Proficiency Test To ensure the homogeneity of language learners, a language proficiency test was administered. The test encompassed multiple sections:

Reading: Comprising three parts with various question formats, including multiple-choice items, matching exercises, and a cloze test.

Writing: Involving the reading of a short story and responding to related questions.

Listening: Consisting of participants listening to a recorded text and answering associated questions.

Speaking: Comprising two parts, with each participant undergoing this section concurrently with another candidate.

The reliability of the test was estimated using KR-21, and the reliability was found to exceed 0.82 for all modules, which seemed to be acceptable.

Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) Test Developed by Alsowat ( 2016 ), this questionnaire aimed to evaluate students' thinking skills, specifically analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The content covered in both experimental and control groups spanned units 1–10 over a 13-week period (26 h). Aligned with the revised Bloom's taxonomy, only higher-order thinking skills were incorporated into the test. A meticulous content analysis, employing a table of specifications, ensured comprehensive coverage of all lessons and higher-order thinking skills. The reliability of the test was affirmed through administration to a pilot group (30 students), yielding an acceptable internal consistency score of 0.73 as assessed by the KR-21 formula.

The Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) Originating from the work of Pintrich and De Groot (1990) and subsequently translated and validated by Mousavinejad ( 1998 ), the SRQ consisted of 47 statements categorized into two principal components: motivational beliefs and self-regulation learning strategies, encompassing cognitive and metacognitive strategies. The self-regulated learning strategies subscale included 22 items, measuring three facets of academic self-regulation: cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and resource management.

The study was conducted through a systematic procedure involving multiple stages. Initially, four intact groups were designated to distinct treatment conditions. Both control and experimental classes underwent placement tests, Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) assessments, and evaluations of self-regulated learning strategies at the commencement of the study. Two intact groups received flipped classroom instruction, while the remaining two received conventional instruction. Following the completion of the prescribed treatment, HOTS and self-regulated learning strategy (SRLS) scales were administered to both control and experimental groups. Subsequently, their scores, along with their respective components, were subjected to comparative analysis using appropriate data analysis techniques.

To assess the impact of the Flipped Classroom Instructional Model (FCIM) on students' higher-order thinking skills (HOTS), self-regulated learning, and attitude, specific units from the general English Language course were selected. The control group adhered to traditional teaching methods, while the experimental group experienced FCIM. Both groups were instructed by the researcher, and the treatment spanned ten weeks, with two lectures (100 min each) per week. Before each session, the treatment group received instructional content via the Google Meet platform four days in advance. Students were required to review the content, respond to provided questions related to evaluation, comprehension, and analysis, and submit their answers two days before the class for assessment. The class sessions were organized into three segments:

The first part (20 min) focused on reviewing students' answers and providing corrective feedback.

The second part (60 min) constituted the core of the class, with planned activities targeting higher-order thinking skills and self-regulated learning strategies. Students collaborated in pairs or groups to discuss assigned ideas or problems, and feedback was provided after each activity.

The third part (20 min) was dedicated to revisiting the entire learning outcome, summarizing key points, and allowing students to raise questions and write a brief lesson summary.

Data analysis

Data collected from this study underwent a rigorous analysis process to derive meaningful insights and draw valid conclusions. The analysis encompassed several key steps, including descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and thematic analysis. Descriptive statistics were employed to provide a comprehensive summary of the main features of the dataset. This involved calculating measures such as mean, median, standard deviation, and range for each variable under investigation. Various statistical tests, including t-tests were conducted to examine the significance of differences between groups. Additionally, correlation analyses were performed to explore relationships between different variables.

The quantitative data underwent various analytical procedures. Initially, independent sample t-tests were employed to compare the scores of the control and experimental groups across all constructs measured by the two scales for research questions 1 and 2. Additionally, the researcher computed the mean, standard deviation, and variances of the group scores. Regarding research question two, a Pearson Correlation Coefficient was computed to explore the correlation between the groups' scores on Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and Self-Regulated Learning Strategies (SRLS).

The research question sought to examine whether the Flipped Classroom Instructional Model (FCIM) and conventional modes of instruction exhibited significant differences in enhancing EFL learners' self-regulated learning strategies. Independent sample t-tests were conducted on the group scores from the pre-test and post-test, and the outcomes are detailed in the subsequent sections.

Question 1: comparing the groups’ self-regulated learning skills before the treatment

The mean scores of the FCIM and conventional groups on the SRLS and its components were submitted to independent samples-t-tests. Results are shown in.

As is seen in Table  1 , there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups mean scores on the self-regulated learning skills at the onset of the treatment ( p  > 0.05), suggesting that both groups used the self-regulated learning strategies equally.

As is seen in Table  2 , the treatment significantly affected the sub-categories of cognitive self-regulated learning strategies (summarizing, rehearsal, organization, and comprehension). Detailed analysis shows that the differences between the groups' means on summarizing (t = 7.3, df = 78, p  = 0.001), rehearsal (t = 4.42, df = 78, p  = 0.001), organization (t = 5.2, df = 78, p  = 0.001), and comprehension (t = 6.1, df = 78, p  = 0.001) were statistically significantly, favoring the group exposed to flipped learning condition.

Concerning the second category, meta-cognitive strategies (planning, ordering, and monitoring), results show that the two groups’ mean scores were statistically significant ( p  > 0.05). Further detailed analysis shows that the control group's mean scores on planning, ordering, and monitoring were 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, respectively. However, the experimental group obtained mean scores of 3.8, 3.9, and 4.1, respectively, suggesting that the experimental group outperformed the control group.

However, it can be seen that the flipped learning approach affected two sub-categories of motivational self-regulated learning strategies but did not affect the other two sub-categories. Further analysis indicates that the difference between the two groups' scores on self-efficacy (t = 4.3, df = 78, p  = 0.001) and orientation (t = 10.11, df = 78, p  = 0.001) was statistically significant. In contrast, the two groups mean scores on the test anxiety and intrinsic values were not statistically different ( p  > 0.05).

Research question 2

The second research question aimed at investigating whether FCIM and conventional modes of instruction are significantly different in enhancing EFL learners’ higher-order thinking using the flipped classroom approach or not. The group's mean scores on pre-test and post-test were submitted to independent samples-t-tests. The two groups’ mean scores on HOTS were submitted to three independent samples-t-tests. Results are presented in Table  3

As is seen in Table  3 , the two groups' scores on HOTS ( p  = 0.46), analyzing ( p  = 0.70), evaluating ( p  = 0.44), and creating ( p  = 0.26) were not statistically significant, suggesting that the two groups were homogenous in using higher order thinking strategies at the onset of the study. The t-tests for comparing the groups' use of HOTS after the treatment was over are presented in Table  4 .

As seen in Table  4 , the difference between the conventional group’s mean score (M = 3.59, SD = 1.06) and experimental group (M = 4.92, SD = 0.66) on analyzing was statistically significant (t = 6.76, df = 78, p  = 0.001). It can also be seen that while the conventional group obtained the mean score of 3.86 on evaluating (SD = 0.97), the experimental group obtained the mean score of 4.75 (SD = 0.72), and the mean difference between the two groups was statistically significant (t = 3.72, p  = 0.001). It can also be seen that the difference between the conventional group's mean (M = 3.87, SD = 0.97) and that of the experimental group (M = 4.64, SD = 0.75) in the creating was statistically significant (t = 4.31, p  = 0.001). Finally, the groups’ means on HOTS were statistically significant (t = 7.16, p  = 0.001), suggesting that flipped learning conditions significantly contributed to the language learners' higher-order thinking skills. The mean and SD of the groups' scores on the HOTS administered after the treatment are presented in Table  5 .

Research question 3

The third research question aimed at exploring the relationship between the participants’ scores on HOTS and self-regulated learning strategies. The participant's scores on self-regulated learning strategies and higher order thinking skills were submitted to Pearson Product correlation. Results are presented in Table  6 .

As seen in Table  6 , there is a significant correlation between cognitive SRLS and Evaluating (r = 0.65, p  = 0.001), creating (r = 0.42, p  = 0.05), analyzing (r = 048, p  = 0.05), and HOTS (r = 0.46, p  = 0.5). It is also seen that the correlation between summarizing strategy and HOTS and its components is statistically significant ( p  = 0.001), suggesting the higher scores on summarizing strategy, the higher use of HOTS. Findings also reveal that the relationship between rehearsal and analyzing is statistically significant (r = 0.46, p  = 0.05), but the other sub-categories of HOTS are not correlated with rehearsal. However, the correlation between the other two sub-categories of cognitive skills (organization & comprehension) and all sub-categories of HOTS is statistically significant.

Concerning the correlation between metacognitive strategies and the sub-categories of HOTS, it could be seen that except for evaluating (r = 46, p  = 0.05), the correlation between this self-regulated strategy and HOTS and its components is not statistically significant ( p  < 0.05). It is also seen that while the correlation between planning and HOTS and its sub-categories is statistically significant ( p  = 0.05), the correlation between monitoring and organization and HOTS (evaluation, analyzing, and creating) is not statistically significant. Furthermore, it is seen that, except for orientation ( p  = 0.001), the correlation between the other motivational strategies (intrinsic values, self-efficacy, and text anxiety) and HOTS (creating, evaluating, and analyzing) is not statistically significant ( p  > 0.05).

Discussion and conclusion

Based on the findings of this study several conclusions can be made. First, with regard to the first question, it could be concluded that flipped classrooms significantly affect the learners' use of the subcategories of cognitive self-regulated learning strategies including summarizing, rehearsal, organization, and comprehension. It can also be concluded that three components of meta-cognitive strategies: planning, ordering, and monitoring, were significantly affected by flipped learning conditions. More specifically, it can be concluded that through attending flipped learning classes, students can summarize, rehearse, organize, and comprehend the assigned tasks before attending the classes. Through attending flipped learning classes, language learners learn to plan, order, and monitor the tasks before attending the EFL teachers’ lectures and discussions.

It can also be postulated that the students exposed to flipped classes try to summarize, rehearse, organize, and comprehend the assigned tasks as pre-class activities. Students need to use self-regulated learning strategies because FC is thoroughly defined as a pedagogical strategy that leverages class time for active learning. FC deepens students` conceptual comprehension by giving them homework assignments to perform outside of class.

As Blau and Shamir-Inbal ( 2017 ) believe, it can be concluded that the students must constantly review, revise, and check their learning strategies as they advance through the curriculum according to the learning process. In general, flipped learning presents obstacles for students with low self-regulation (Ahmad Uzir, et al.,  2020 ). According to claims made by the authors, students can be in charge of their education by using self-regulated learning (SRL) techniques (Wang & Zhan,  2020 ). This exposed the lack of a thorough examination of SRL in FC, which highlights the necessity of such a review given that FC needs SRL to flourish.

In line with the results of the study by Rasheed et al. ( 2020 ), it can be concluded that students are responsible for determining their own learning needs and applying micro-level task execution strategies to meet their learning goals. So, it can be inferred that for the students, the first step to learning how to manage to learn is to develop their SRL skills. Similarly, Schunk and Zimmerman (  2007 ) concluded that self-regulatory strategies are essential for distance learning. This issue is significant since students have a high degree of autonomy due to the lack of physical presence during online instruction, as also suggested by Thomson et al. ( 2002 ). Self-regulation is the skill that students require o be successful in the electronic environment. Self-regulatory strategies are effective for learners in all learning situations but seem to be more important in e-learning settings.

With regard to the impact of FCIM on enhancing EFL learners’ higher-order thinking skills, it could be inferred that DCIM significantly affects the EFL learners’ use of evaluating, analyzing, and creating. In line with Rodrigues et al. ( 2019 ), it can also be inferred that flipped classrooms contribute to better learning outcomes and positively affect critical thinking, creativity, and student satisfaction. It is also inferred that the tasks which students do in the flipped classes help students to apply different higher order thinking skills to more effectively do the assigned tasks. Therefore, teachers and learners. Another reason for the effectiveness of flipped learning in enhancing the use of HOTS is Van Alten et al. ( 2019 ). Metanalysis has argued that implementing flipped classrooms requires careful attention to its design, maximizing face-to-face time, and appropriate assessments of the class learning. According to Amanisa and Maftuh ( 2021 ), flipped classrooms provide more learning opportunities to the students in both F2F and online mode, which helps enhance higher-order thinking skills. Liu and Zhang (2022) also reported that flipped classroom student achievements and higher order thinking skills were significantly better than their peers who had been taught in a traditional classroom environment. They also provided empirical evidence that higher education achievement and higher order thinking skills can be improved using a WeChat-based flipped classroom approach and is a valuable reference for both instructors and educators on the use of social software.

Concerning the findings of the third research question, which aimed at exploring the relationship between the participants’ scores on HOTS and self-regulated learning strategies, it can be concluded that the correlation between cognitive SRLS and higher order thinking strategies is significant, suggesting that the learners who use cognitive strategies tend to more frequently evaluate, create, and analyze tasks. It is also seen that the correlation between summarizing strategy and HOTS and its components is statistically significant suggesting the higher scores on summarizing strategy, the higher use of HOTS. Findings also reveal that the relationship between rehearsal and analyzing is statistically significant, but the other subcategories of HOTS are not correlated with rehearsal. However, the correlation between the other two subcategories of cognitive skills (organization & comprehension) and all subcategories of HOTS is statistically significant.

With regard to the correlation between metacognitive strategies and the subcategories of HOTS, it could be seen that, except for evaluating, the correlation between this self-regulated strategy and HOTS and its components is not statistically significant. It is also seen that while the correlation between planning and HOTS and its subcategories is statistically significant, the correlation between monitoring and organization and HOTS (evaluation, analyzing, and creating) is not statistically significant. Furthermore, it is seen that the correlation between the other motivational strategies (intrinsic values, self-efficacy, and text anxiety) and HOTS (creating, evaluating, and analyzing) is not statistically significant except for orientation.

Suggestions for Further Studies

In this study, because of the limitations, the researcher was not able to investigate some variables. Therefore, the researchers are recommended to undertake future studies and integrate FC effectively into learning using metrics that highlight key features of the flipped learning environment. The researchers are also required to focus on different models of flipped learning and see how each model might affect the learners’ use of SRL strategies. In addition, future studies should consider validating other SRL models used in flipped learning environments. Further research needs to examine different aspects that can contribute to the success of flipped teaching in language learning. Examples that might require further investigation include student aptitudes, learning styles, and cognitive and metacognitive strategies.

Availability of data and materials

The authors declare that the data will be available at the editors’ request.

Abbreviations

English as a foreign language

• Flipped classroom

Flipped language instruction method

Higher order thinking

Self-regulated learning

Self-regulation questionnaire

Higher-order thinking skills test

Abuhmaid, A., & Mohammad, A. (2020). The impact of flipped learning on procrastination and students’ attitudes toward It. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8 (2), 566–573.

Article   Google Scholar  

Ahmad Uzir, N. A., Gašević, D., Matcha, W., Jovanović, J., & Pardo, A. (2020). Analytics of time management strategies in a flipped classroom. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 36 (1), 70–88.

AlJaser, A. (2017). Effectiveness of using flipped classroom strategy in academic achievement and self-efficacy among education students of Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University. Canadian Center of Science and Education, 10 (14), 67–77.

Google Scholar  

Alsowat, H. H. (2016). Foreign language anxiety in higher education: A practical framework for reducing FLA. European Scientific Journal, ESJ , 12 (7), 193. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2016.v12n7p193

Al-Zahrani, A. (2015). From passive to active: The impact of the flipped classroom through social learning platforms on higher education students’ creative thinking. British Journal of Educational Technology, 46 (6), 1133–1148.

Amanisa, H. Z., & Maftuh, B. (2021). A literature review: Flipped classroom model to developing students’ higher order thinking skills. International Conference on Elementary Education, 3 (1), 105–111.

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P., Cruikshank, K., Mayer, R., Pintrich, P., & Wittrock, M. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy . Longman Publishing.

Baker, J. P., Goodboy, A. K., Bowman, N. D., & Wright, A. A. (2018). Does teaching with powerpoint increase students’ learning? A Meta-Analysis. Computer. Educ., 126 , 376–387.

Barnard-Brak, L., Paton, V., & Lan, W. (2010). Profiles in self-regulated learning in the online learning environment. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 11 (1), 61–80.

Basal, A. (2015). The implementation of a flipped classroom in foreign language teaching. Turkish Education Online Journal of Distance-TOJDE, 16 (4), 28–37.

Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day . International Society for Technology. in Education.

Bishop, J.L., & Verleger, M.A. (2013). The flipped classroom: a survey of the research. In Paper presented at the 120th American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference and Exposition, Atlanta, GA .

Blau, I., & Shamir-Inbal, T. (2017). Re-designed flipped learning model in an academic course: The role of co-creation and co-regulation. Computers & Education, 115 , 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.07.014

Broadbent, J., & Poon, W. (2015). Self-regulated learning strategies & academic achievement in online higher education learning environments: A systematic review. The Internet and Higher Education, 27 , 1–13.

Çakıroğlu, Ü., & Öztürk, M. (2017). Flipped classroom with problem based activities: Exploring self-regulated learning in a programming language course. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 20 (1), 337–349.

Carson, A. D. (2011). Predicting student success from the LASSI for learning online (LLO). Journal of Educational Computing Research, 45 (4), 399–414.

Chua, J. S. M., & Lateef, F. A. (2014). The flipped classroom: Viewpoints in Asian universities. Education in Medicine Journal, 6 (4), 20–26.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge.

Couch, A.C. (2014).  Comparison of teaching approaches and strategies: how do the use of traditional teaching and flipped classroom teaching techniques affect the attitudes and attainment of science students in an international school in Hong Kong?  University of Hong Kong: Master’s thesis. https://doi.org/10.5353/th_b5396412

Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. (1989). User acceptance of computer technology: A comparison of two theoretical models. Management Science, 35 (8), 982–1003.

Dörrenbächer, L., & Perels, F. (2016). Self-regulated learning profiles in college students: Their relationship to achievement, personality, and the effectiveness of an intervention to foster self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 51 , 229–241.

Elian, Sh., & Hamaidi, D. (2018). The effect of using flipped classroom strategy on the academic achievement of fourth grade students in Jordan. IJET, 13 (2), 110–125.

Evseeva, A., & Solozhenko, A. (2015). Use of flipped classroom teaching in language learning. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 206 , 205–209.

Fraga, G., Žarić, G., Tijms, J., Bonte, M., Blomert, L., & Molen, M. W. (2015). Brain-potential analysis of visual word recognition in dyslexics and typically reading children. Front Hum Neuroscience, 8 , 1–14.

Green, T. (2015). Flipped classrooms: An agenda for innovative marketing education in the digital era. Marketing Education Review, 25 (3), 179–191.

Hamdan, N., McKnight, P., McKnight, K., Arfstrom, K. (2013). A review of flipped learning. Flipped Learning Network. Retrieved from: http://www.flippedlearning.org/cms/lib07/VA01923112/Centricity/Domain/41/LitReview_FlippedLearning.pdf

Harig, C.R. (2015). Transition to a blended learning environment for joint special o operations education (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University).

Herreid, C. F., & Schiller, N. A. (2013). Case studies and the flipped classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42 (5), 62–66.

Holmes, E. A., O’Connor, R. C., Perry, V. H., Tracey, I., Wessely, S., Arseneault, L., & Bullmore, E. (2020). Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: A call for action for mental health science. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7 (6), 547–560. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30168-1

Hung, H. T. (2015). Flipping the classroom for English language learners to foster active learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28 (1), 81–96.

Jansen, R. S., Van Leeuwen, A., Janssen, J., Kester, L., & Kalz, M. (2017). Validation of the self-regulated online learning questionnaire. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 29 (1), 6–27.

Johnson, L., Adams Becker, S., Estrada, V., & Freeman, A. (2014). NMC horizon report: 2014 higher (education). The New Media Consortium.

Kim, B. (2014). Development of flipped classroom model for teaching profession courses. Education General Research, 12 (2), 25–56.

Kim, B., & Kim, B. (2014). Korean language culture and discussion class: Role-exchange discussion class based on flipped learning. Woorimal Research, 37 (1), 141–166.

Kim, N., Jeon, B., & Choi, J. (2014). A case study of flipped learning at college: Focused on effects of motivation and self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Technology, 30 (3), 467–492.

Lai, C., & Hwang, G. (2016). A Self-regulated flipped classroom approach to improving students’ learning performance in a mathematics course. Computers and Education, 100 , 126–140.

Lankford, A. (2013). A comparative analysis of suicide terrorists and rampage, workplace, and school shooters in the United States from 1990 to 2010. Homicide Studies: An Interdisciplinary & International Journal , 17 (3), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088767912462033

Leung, L. L. (2013). An inquiry of teachers’ perception on the relationship between higher-order thinking nurturing and liberal studies public assessment in Hong Kong. Teachers’ Centre Journal, 12 , 183–215.

Liu, C., Sands-Meyer, S., & Audran, J. (2019). The effectiveness of the student response system (SRS) in English grammar learning in a flipped English as a foreign language (EFL) class. Interactive Learning Environments, 27 (8), 1178–1191.

Lockwood, R. B., & Folse, K. S. (2014). Flip It! Strategies for the ESL classroom . University of Michigan Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

McLaughlin, J. E., White, P. J., Khanova, J., & Yuriev, E. (2016). Flipped classroom implementation: A case report of two higher education institutions in the United States and Australia. Computers in the Schools, 33 (1), 24–37.

Mehring, J. (2016). Present research on the flipped classroom and potential tools for the EFL Classroom. Computers in the Schools, 33 (1), 1–10.

Mousavinejad, A. (1998). The relationship between motivational believes and self-regulated Learning strategies and school achievement in 3th grade middle-school students. (M. A.). Allameh Tabatabaei University, Tehran.

Namik, K., Boae, C., & Jeong-Im, C. (2014). A case study of flipped learning at college: Focused on effects of motivation and self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Technology., 30 (3), 467–492.

Nederveld, A., & Berge, Z. L. (2015). Flipped learning in the workplace. Journal of Workplace Learning, 27 (2), 162–172.

Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED338122.pdf

Pintrich, P. R., & DeGroot, E. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 , 33–40.

Puzziferro, M. (2008). Online technologies self-efficacy and self-regulated learning as predictors of final grade and satisfaction in college-level online courses. American Journal of Distance Education, 22 (2), 72–89.

Rasheed, R. A., Kamsin, A., & Abdu, A. N. (2020). Challenges in the online component of blended learning: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 144 , 103701.

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138 (2), 353.

Rodrigues, H., Almeida, F., Figueiredo, V. & Lopes, S.L. (2019). Tracking e-learning through published papers: A systematic review. Computers & Education , 136 (1), 87–98. Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved December 27, 2023 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/208392/ .

Sankey, M., & Hunt, L. (2014). Flipped University Classrooms: Using Technology to Enable Sound Pedagogy. Journal of Cases on Information Technology, 16 (2), 26–38.

Schunk, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 23 (1), 7–25.

See, S., & Conry, J. M. (2014). Flip my class! A faculty development demonstration of a flipped-classroom. Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning, 6 (2014), 585–588.

Sirakaya, D., & Ozdemir, S. (2018). The effect of flipped classroom model on academic achievement, self-directed learning readiness, motivation and retention. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology- MOJEST, 6 (1), 76–86.

Smith, I. (2007).  How to ask better questions . http://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/sch-admin/sch-qualityassurance/professional-support-online-resources/seminar/assessment_for_learning_info2.pdf

Song, Y., & Kapur, M. (2017). How to flip the classroom–“productive failure or traditional flipped classroom” pedagogical design? Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 20 (1), 292–305.

Thomson, I. (2002) Thomson Job Impact Study: The Next Generation of Corporate Learning. http://www.netg.com/DemosAndDownloads/Downloads/JobImpact.pdf

Unakorn, P., & Klongkratoke, U. (2015). Effectiveness of flipped classroom to mathematics learning of grade 11 students. A Paper presented at the 21st & 22nd International Conference on Language, Education, and Humanities & Innovation. Retrieved from https://icsai.org/procarch/1iclehi/1iclehi-44.pdf

Van Alten, D. C. D., Phielix, C., Janssen, J., & Kester, L. (2019). Effects of flipping the classroom on learning outcomes and satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 28 , 100281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.05.003

Vilkova, K., & Shcheglova, I. (2021). Deconstructing self-regulated learning in MOOCs: In search of help-seeking mechanisms. Education and Information Technologies, 26 , 17–33.

Wang, W., & Zhan, J. (2020). The relationship between English language learner characteristics and online self-regulation: A structural equation modeling approach. Sustainability, 12 (7), 3009.

Warden, A. (2016). Investigating the use of a flipped approach to Grammar input in an English as a foreign language classroom, (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis) The University of Chichester

Witten, H. (2013). World languages. In J. Bretzman (Ed.), Flipping 2.0: Practical strategies for flipping your class (pp. 265–280). The Bretzman Group.

Yeung, S. Y. (2012). Conceptualizing higher-order thinking for reforming school curriculum and teaching. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 11 , 131–144. in Chinese.

Yulistiana, F. (2020). Imbas pandemi virus Corona bagi dunia pendidikan Indonesia dan global. Kumparan.Com . https://kumparan.com/kumparansains/imbas-pandemi-viruscorona-bagi-dunia-pendidikan-indonesia-dan-global-1t5YVXRYAbo/full

Zainuddin, Z., & Halili, S. (2016). Flipped classroom research and trends from different fields of study. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning . https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i3.2274

Zhang, Y., McAreavey, K., & Liu, W. (2022). Developing and experimenting on approaches to explainability in AI systems. In A. P. Rocha, L. Steels, & J. van den Herik (Eds.), Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Agents and Artificial Intelligence (ICAART'22) (Vol. 2, pp. 518–527). https://doi.org/10.5220/0010900300003116

Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41 (2), 64–70.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45 (1), 166–183.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all of the respondents who attempted the questionnaire and attended the workshops.

Funding is not applicable.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of TEFL, Payame Noor University, Tehran, Iran

Fatemeh Samadi, Manoocher Jafarigohar, Masood Saeedi & Farzaneh Khodabandeh

Chabahar Maritime University, Chabahar, Iran

Mansoor Ganji

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

FS and MJ:  wrote the main manuscript text and, MS and MG: prepared data collection and, FK: did analyzing and statistics. All authors reviewed the manuscript."

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Manoocher Jafarigohar .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

The authors declare that all authors filled in the consent form and willingly participated in the study.

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Samadi, F., Jafarigohar, M., Saeedi, M. et al. Impact of flipped classroom on EFL learners’ self- regulated learning and higher-order thinking skills during the Covid19 pandemic. Asian. J. Second. Foreign. Lang. Educ. 9 , 24 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-023-00246-w

Download citation

Received : 13 September 2023

Accepted : 22 December 2023

Published : 18 January 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-023-00246-w

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Self- regulated learning
• Higher-order thinking skills
• Cognitive and metacognitive strategies

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

The role of web-based flipped learning in EFL learners’ critical thinking and learner engagement

The flipped learning approach with the use of social media as an emerging technology has changed the quality of learning in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) educational contexts. This review probed the effect of the web-based flipped learning approach on learners’ engagement and critical thinking. The earlier studies revealed the significance of social media in developing learner engagement and critical thinking. Studies indicated that the provision of opportunities for more cooperative and collaborative learning activities, and high-quality interaction through the use of social media can be influential in developing learners’ engagement. Moreover, social media platforms can provide a context for feedback, and various types of challenging tasks that can improve EFL learners’ critical thinking. However, this review implicated that social media in flipped learning approach may be beneficial for instructors, learners, teacher educators, curriculum designers, educational policy-makers, and advisors to be aware of this valuable learner-centered approach.

Introduction

In recent years, educators have used the technological developments in education to create a more effective learning environment in which learning does not seem to be limited to the classroom environment and teachers may not be obliged to spend most of the class time delivering lectures and instead, they can have tutorial roles while students can also take different roles and be more actively involved in the learning process ( Tan et al., 2017 ). One of the instructional approaches that follows this technology-related learning approach is flipped learning because it utilizes technological tools, including recorded lessons and videos, to create more engaging experiences for learners. The concept of flipped learning is that the teacher-student roles are changed in a way that the amount of direct instruction presented by the teacher during class time is minimized while the cooperative and collaborative contribution of students to the teaching process is maximized in class ( Bergmann and Sams, 2012 ). The flipped learning is an educational approach that inverts the operation of the conventional classroom by presenting the educational substances typically online, involving the students in cooperative group learning or potentially basic critical thinking exercises completed under the educator’s direction amid class.

Researchers have further revealed that with an effective design of learning activities, teachers can instruct students to comprehend, analyze, and even solve problems through discussion with classmates and teachers in flipped learning ( Lin et al., 2021 ). From the perspective of social constructivism, interaction with peers implies better opportunities for sharing and constructing knowledge ( Al-Qaysi et al., 2021 ). This implies that guiding students to interact with peers with proper support will enable them to perceive things from diverse perspectives and make reflections, which is beneficial for them to develop higher-order thinking capabilities, including problem-solving and critical thinking ( Saputri et al., 2019 ). Students’ interactions with course content in all flipped learning environments can scale the top of Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy, breaking away from mere memorization and application to the more demanding steps of analysis, evaluation, and creation, the cornerstones of critical thinking ( Jensen, 2019 ). Ferrett (1997) contends that critical thinking is the ability to think reasonably, reflectively, responsibly, and skillfully of and about whatever is around. It differs from the shallow naïve thinking in which the person does not deepen into the reasons for the events around. Critical thinking, according to Benesch (1993) , can be employed and taught to second language learners of English as a crucial, preliminary strategy that not only heightens the concept of democracy among and within learners, it can help enhance learners’ awareness in learning language skills. Teachers ought to be aware of the capabilities in order to match technology with their instructional goals and they should know how to increase learners’ critical thinking, which in turn enhances learning outcomes ( Jensen, 2019 ).

Another major issue for educators is related to how students can become more engaged before, during, and after the flipped class period. Different factors affect students’ engagement in the learning process, including teacher support, quality of instruction, peer connections, and classroom structure and management. By taking advantage of integrated technology by using it as a tool, the flipped classroom presents information prior to the classroom and, as a result, makes students more engaged with the course contents before attending the class. This review considers the studies on the effect of the web-based flipped learning approach on learners’ critical thinking and engagement. This conceptual review tries to specify important perceptions about web-based flipped learning approach and give some suggestions for future research. The result of this conceptual review can improve, reconceptualize, or even replaces current views of flipped learning approach. The findings and implications of the present review will provide relatively novel insights for teachers. Exploration in this field can help educators in many aspects of the classrooms to find new approaches to become more effective teachers and accordingly make a practical learning setting for increasing learners’ critical thinking and engagement in the educational context.

Review of literature

Flipped learning.

Technology has become an integral part of educational environments today. As Lindeiner-Stráský, Lindeiner-Stráský et al. (2020) have suggested, the development of technology has significantly changed the ways instructors teach, and students learn. They mentioned that the teachers are willing to integrate technology into their approaches. This willingness causes a re-evaluation of teachers’ instructional styles. Indeed, they incorporate technology into their teaching in order to achieve their pedagogical goals better. Amongst the numerous ways of technological-based pedagogy practices in English language learning is the flipped learning approach ( Yulian, 2021 ). According to Guo (2019) , the flipped learning approach is a pedagogical approach that encourages students’ active participation, promotes support from teachers, and peers to handle homework, and allows more free time in class. Zainuddin (2017) mentioned that in a flipped classroom, learners acquire the knowledge before the class, and the class time is dedicated to practicing the knowledge through active learning and problem-based learning without spending time on presenting the content. Hung (2018) defined pre-class self-learning as the bringing of linguistic knowledge to learners’ private space and time with the help of videos and related exercises. He also described the in-class activities as pair or group activities during class time. Therefore, the shift of material consignment to the outside of the class and using the class time for higher-level activities like applying and examining the earlier learned materials are the primary components of flipped learning approach ( Yilmaz and Baydas, 2017 ). A flipped classroom enhanced by Bloom’s revised Taxonomy and Cognitive Apprenticeship, gives EFL students more exposure, time, and opportunity to learn both in and outside the L2 classroom. It shifts teacher-driven instruction to student-centered learning through active learning strategies.

The theoretical foundations including constructivism ( Aljohani, 2017 ) and cognitive load theory ( Li, 2022 ) can justify the role of flipped learning approach by the instructors. The constructivist philosophical view of constructivism is knowledge created through communications with one another involving the society and setting ( Rob and Rob, 2018 ). Based on constructivism theory, learning occurs when a student works either with a more skilled adult or peer to solve problems that are just beyond her/his actual abilities ( Jantakoon and Piriyasurawong, 2018 ). Core principles of constructivism include the following: (1) learning is self-centered and self-directed; (2) learning is an active rather than passive endeavor; and (3) the instructor’s role is to foster critical reflection and facilitate the application and deeper understanding of new concepts ( Aljohani, 2017 ). Student-centered instructional approaches, like flipped learning approach, are grounded in the constructivist theory of learning in which the learner is an active constructor of knowledge based on previous experience, perceptions and knowledge ( Lewis et al., 2018 ). The constructivist approach in flipped learning should be an active practice, where learners must build their knowledge and make use of cooperative and collaborative learning, be given power in the learning procedure, be given chances to reflect and, lastly, gain meaningful learning experiences in order to enhance their learning based on this particular approach ( Erbil, 2020 ). Flipped learning can contribute to the decrease of the cognitive load levels of learners. (e.g., de Leng and Pawelka, 2021 ; Li, 2022 ). Cognitive load means the resources used by an individual’s working memory at a certain time ( Kirschner et al., 2018 ). Based on the cognitive load theory, efficient instruction should have a small extraneous load and an optimized germane load ( Wang et al., 2020 ). Kirschner et al. (2018) stated that efficient instruction increases learning outcomes and decreases cognitive load. The flipped classroom approaches provide additional opportunities to manage cognitive load by allowing the learners to have knowledge about the subject before the lesson which improves learning. Some of these are implicit in the flipped classroom approach; however, others will require educators to make certain choices when designing learning activities.

The use of social media in flipped classrooms has drawn the attention of many investigators. Pathiraja and Little (2015) , generally defined social media as a “set of interactive technology tools designed to encourage social networking and dialogic communication in virtual communities and networks” (p. 585). They mentioned that social media platforms include online forums, networking sites, online professional networks, content posting sites, and research forums. Bryer and Zavattaro (2011) also described social media as “technologies that facilitate social interaction, make possible collaboration, and enable deliberation across stakeholders” (p. 4). Veletsianos and Navarrete (2012) indicated that social media platforms can bridge the gap between technology and pedagogy in flipped classrooms. This review will discuss the role of social media platforms in EFL learners’ critical thinking and engagement in flipped educational contexts.

Vygotsky’s theory of mediation in digital learning is a theoretical construct of this review. Based on this theory, technology can be related to psychological and cognitive states. According to Zidoun et al. (2019) , education programs should consider the role and impact of technological developments on learning. The concept of technological mediation, inspired by Vygotsky’s (1986) theory of tool mediation, aims to gain insight in the ways in which technology actively co-shapes the relation between people and the world through various mediating effects. de Boer et al. (2018) explain that this understanding of technological mediation emphasizes “the primacy of the relatedness between emotional states of people, technologies, and the world” (p. 300).

The concept of critical thinking

Critical thinking is considered a fundamental component of educational activities ( Thorndahl and Stentoft, 2020 ; Oktaviah et al., 2021 ). Many investigators have provided numerous definitions for Critical thinking. According to McPeck (1981) , critical thinking is defined as “the propensity and skill to engage in an activity with reflective skepticism” (p. 8). Sternberg (1986) also considered critical thinking as a cognitive psychological component and defined it as “the mental processes, strategies, and representations people use to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts” (p. 3). Gavrysh and Dotsenko (2021) declared that critical thinking is described as an individual’s ability to self-assess the surrounding, reality, information, knowledge, opinions and statements of others, and the ability to find effective solutions considering existing stereotypes and criteria. Yulian (2021) also regarded critical thinking skills as the main cognitive process dimension in Bloom’s taxonomy. According to this taxonomy, critical thinking includes remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating Shubina and Kulakli (2020) asserted that critical thinking is viewed as the most common way of assessing thoughts, evaluating contentions, managing issues, making decisions, collecting and appraising different data, and concluding about particular principles to give the best solution. Tong et al. (2020) mentioned that critical thinkers reflect, relate and appraise all features of circumstances or problematic issues. They maintained that this level of thinking incorporates abilities like concentrating on components of a problem or an adverse situation, gathering and coordinating data about the problem, and recalling the understood information.

Bağ and Gürsoy (2021) stated that critical thinking skill is significantly correlated with foreign language learning achievement in which the learners are directed to determine their own motives to learn the language, set their goals consistent with their educational requirements, control their learning practice competently, and to employ proper skills of the era during the whole process. They also asserted that active cooperation, which is a vital issue in today’s world, needs competent thinkers, who can interact with others in a common language to critically analyze the messages, make reasoning, and inferences and create the meaning to express their own opinions. Itmeizeh and Hassan (2020) stated some of the features of critical thinkers, include “purposeful, self-regulatory, self-rectifying, habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking precise results” (p. 2). Etemadfar et al. (2020) emphasized that good critical thinking is not an innate or natural ability for most L2 students, but it can be taught through effective pedagogical methods.

The role of web-based flipped learning in developing learners’ critical thinking skills

The introduction of the flipped teaching method and digital technologies has the potential to encourage and promote active learning, learner-centeredness, and critical thinking skills of language learners in EFL classrooms ( Pasaribu and Iswandari, 2019 ). Flipped learning with the help of technologies attracts students to their learning procedure through supportive and problem-based educational tasks to develop their basic reasoning and critical thinking skills ( Prahani et al., 2020 ; Lin et al., 2021 ). van Vliet et al. (2015) stated that learners, involved in flipped educational contexts, tend to use critical thinking strategies, such as planning, monitoring, and evaluation strategies. Using Bloom’s taxonomy, Eppard and Rochdi (2017) justified the significant effect of flipped learning approach on learners’ critical thinking. They argued that, in flipped learning classrooms, the independent transmission of information by the learners outside the classroom and assimilation of information entails critical thinking, analysis, synthesis and reasoning. Likewise, Ebadi and Rahimi (2018) examined the effect of flipped and traditional educational contexts on Iranian EFL learners’ critical thinking. They used WebQuest, video clips and e-learning materials. Moreover, California Critical Thinking Skills Test Form B was used in order to evaluate learners’ critical thinking skills. Their study indicated that flipped classrooms, compared to non-flipped ones, foster learners’ critical thinking skills. Munir et al. (2018) , in another study on the operation of a technology-based flipped classroom with the employment of cooperative learning, indicated that flipped classroom improves learners’ critical analysis skills, problem-solving skills, and communication skills. Cheng et al. (2019) also mentioned that flipped classrooms develop a student-friendly educational context that encourages learners to engage in a classroom making teachers assign and educational time for interaction by engaging learners in numerous interactive learning tasks, such as discussions, problem-solving, critical thinking, and hands-on activities. Zou and Xie (2019) investigated the impact of two technology-based flipped learning approaches, including just-in-time teaching and peer instruction in flipped classrooms and conventional flipped classrooms on EFL students’ critical thinking. Their study demonstrated that the technology-based just-in-time teaching and peer instruction flipped approaches are significant in developing learners’ inclination towards critical thinking. Kawinkoonlasate (2019) stated that the technology-based flipped learning approach is a reliable way for teachers to assign classroom time to foster critical thinking, self-directed learning, communication skills, and cooperation among the learners. He mentioned that technology-based flipped classrooms can obviate the academic weaknesses of some learners and ensure the development of their thinking skills. Afzali and Izadpanah (2021) also found a significant difference between technology-based flipped learning and traditional classrooms in developing learners’ critical thinking and performance. They argued that flipped instructional approach offers more communication, involvement, contribution, feedback, and various types of tasks inside the classroom context, which can foster learners’ critical thinking through integrating technology in the classroom by focusing on student-centered education.

Critical thinking strategies can enhance flipped learning. Kurnianto et al. (2019) underscored the role of motivation as a mediating variable in the relationship between critical thinking skills and learning in flipped classrooms. They mentioned that the increased motivation can significantly affect critical thinking and learning outcome in flipped classrooms. Self-regulation is also another component that develops learners’ critical thinking and learning in flipped classrooms. For instance, guiding learners to set their learning goals, and supporting them in monitoring their learning status in five stages, namely, goal setting, flipped learning (including pre-class video-based instruction and in-class discussion), task sharing, self-evaluation, and self-regulation feedback are influential in developing critical thinking and learning achievement ( Chang et al., 2022 ).

Hamid et al. (2015) emphasized the importance of using social media as a platform in flipped learning, which makes increases interaction among learners. They stated that social media promotes learners’ engagement, self-monitoring, autonomy, and critical thinking. Van Den Beemt et al. (2020) focused on the importance of internet-based applications, like social media, in developing learners’ engagement and critical thinking. Puentes (2022) indicated that using social media develops environmental awareness, which generates a socially cooperative learning context and improves learners’ basic ecological critical thinking. Ariantini et al. (2021) found the significant roles of social media, such as YouTube, WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram, in learners’ language skills, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, spelling, motivation, as well as their creative, and critical thinking.

Andrini et al. (2019) indicate that the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the form of Moodle, simulation, distance learning, and utilizing social media (e.g., WhatsApp, telegram, line, etc.) in flipped classrooms, increases particular features of learners’ critical thinking skill, including elementary clarification, basic support, inference, and advance clarification. Moreover, they mentioned that the integration of social media into the combination of the flipped classroom and project-based learning, as a learning approach, enhances the communication and teamwork, and encourages the learners to use critical thinking to solve their project. He and Darmawan (2018) also emphasized the role of WhatsApp in flipped classrooms in developing learners’ higher-order thinking skills. They mentioned that digital-based flipped learning makes learners well prepared, more independent, and more active, which leads them to be critical thinkers. Listiqowati et al. (2022) investigated the effect of the project-based flipped learning approach on learners’ critical thinking skills. They used Zoom meetings and WhatsApp as platforms used in flipped classrooms. Their study revealed that the project-based flipped learning approach with the use of social media is influential in the enhancement of critical thinking abilities. Having used Zoom meetings and Facebook, El-Glil and Mohamed (2021) emphasized the role of social media in developing adults’ EFL critical thinking.

Regarding the importance of Facebook and Instagram in educational contexts, Al Arif (2019) asserted that the production of captions, pictures, and videos to be uploaded to the students’ Instagram and Facebook accounts are argued to have triggered creative thinking, along with critical captioning and commenting. He mentioned that creative and critical thinking is one of the most important benefits of Instagram’s and Facebook for EFL students. He also stated that the uses of Instagram and Facebook in flipped classrooms urge the teachers to shift their teaching styles to be more active, flexible, effective, and student-centered in order to sharpen their critical thinking skills. Atwa et al. (2022) used Facebook as a platform for showing the videos and preparing learners in flipped learning classrooms to investigate the effect of digital-based flipped classrooms on EFL learners’ critical thinking and academic achievement in four different subjects, including Science, Math, IT, and English. They found that flipped learning approach increased all learners’ critical thinking skills, and Math achievement was evident in flipped learning classrooms. They argued that digital-based flipped classrooms help learners to comprehend deeply, retain knowledge and to use their higher critical thinking skills, rather than lower skills such as memorization and repetitions. Dewi (2022) used Instagram as a social media in flipped classroom in order to examine its effect on learners’ critical thinking and writing performance. His study revealed that Instagram can pave the way for critical thinking by providing learners opportunities for commenting and uploading photos and videos. Moreover, he found that writing skill can improve by using Instagram. He argued that teachers, by using Instagram, are not required to handle the whole learning process meanwhile, they can take responsibility as a facilitator and guidance. It means students must be given an opportunity to think critically and increase their creativity about the issues which trend online. Tencent QQ is also proven as one of the social media tool which can improve critical thinking. Luo et al. (2021) indicated that the interaction between student-teacher, teachers’ feedback, class hour, and communications on Tencent QQ are necessary to keep students on the right track of developing thinking skills. He maintained that students, with various opportunities of communicating with the teacher, would not feel powerless or frustrated when facing difficult tasks, thus ensuring the achievement of the learning objectives.

The concept of learner engagement

Learner engagement is described as learners’ “psychological effort and investment toward learning, understanding, or mastering the skills, crafts, or knowledge that the coursework is intended to promote”. Christenson et al. (2012) defined learner engagement “as effortful learning through interaction with the teacher and the classroom learning opportunities” (p. 1). Jung and Lee (2018) also defined learner engagement as learners’ use of mental energy and effort to achieve the desired performance. Learner engagement has a positive and significant relationship with academic achievement ( Lei et al., 2018 ; Miller et al., 2021 ). Learner engagement is regarded as a construct of positive psychology ( Derakhshan, 2021 ; Greenier et al., 2021 ; Wang et al., 2021 ; Derakhshan et al., 2022 ). Philp and Duchesne (2016) conceived engagement as a multi-dimensional construct: behavior, cognitive, emotional, and social. They mentioned that behavioral engagement has been measured with items about attention, participation, concentration, and homework completion; emotional engagement is conceptualized as the presence of positive emotional reactions to teachers, peers, learning content, and classroom activities; cognitive engagement is defined in terms of using deep learning strategies, persistence, and self-regulated learning. A fourth dimension, social engagement, was proposed to stress the importance of social interactions in learning. Reeve and Tseng (2011) also presented agentic engagement as another component of learner engagement. They defined it as learners’ contributions to the flow of teaching instruction. In other words, students with higher agentic engagement are active in giving instructors their suggestions regarding various aspects of teaching in order to improve their own learning experiences. Engagement offers a more practical approach to involving students in their language learning, especially in today’s digital age, where too many distractions might interfere with learners’ efforts even if they are motivated ( Mercer and Dörnyei, 2020 ).

The role of web-based flipped learning in developing learners’ engagement

Earlier investigations have indicated that learner engagement is a fundamental component of enhancing the quality of education. Numerous investigations have proved the significant correlation between learner engagement and flipped learning approach (e.g., Afzali and Izadpanah, 2021 ; Li, 2021 ; Lee et al., 2022 ; Teo et al., 2022 ). In flipped learning, two modes of learning, pre-class and in-class, are based on a distinctly different approaches to knowledge and learning. In the pre-class portion of flipped learning, learners are required to autonomously engage in learning online lectures and materials in their own time and pace before engaging in the in-class learning activities. In the in-class learning portion of flipped learning, learners are required to actively participate in learner-centered activities designed to help them construct their own meaning through a deeper process of inquiry and investigation. Studies on FL have proposed ways to engage learners both in individualized pre-class learning and collaborative in-class activities ( Ng, 2016 ). Diemer et al. (2013) have noted that pre-class engagement and in-class engagement have different learning requirements and outcomes. In addition to the potential differences in learner pre-class and in-class engagement, differences in engagement may occur at behavioral, cognitive, and affective levels. These levels are a multidimensional construct encompassing behavioral, cognitive, affective dimensions ( Fredricks and McColskey, 2012 ). The study of Jamaludin and Osman (2014) revealed that learners’ behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and social engagement tend to be high in flipped classrooms, since they have more opportunities to work with peers, share and understand each other’s ideas through group activities in flipped educational contexts. They showed that the flipped classroom allowed learners to regularly alter their ideas of English learning and accept the significance of improving their English communicative skills through collaborating with peers. Evseeva and Solozhenko (2015) also found that flipped classrooms foster learners’ engagements through various technological tools. They mentioned that in flipped learning approach, learners have already been familiar with the subject, and the main notions, and have had some preparation for the subject matter, which make them more engaged in classrooms. Subramaniam and Muniandy (2019) compared learners’ engagement in flipped and didactic educational contexts. Learners in the flipped classrooms were asked to watch a micro-lecture before coming to class and were involved in engaging activities in the classroom. Moreover, they used a Likert scale questionnaire, which consisted of four engagement constructs, namely behavioral, agentic, cognitive and emotional engagement constructs. They found out that learners in flipped classrooms are more engaged in terms of these constructs. Salimi and Karimabadi (2020) also indicated that learners’ level of academic engagement in flipped classrooms tends to be more than of learners in traditional classrooms. They argued that learners’ academic engagement as a positive emotional state is related to the innovation and distinctiveness of the flipped learning approach. They asserted that learners are uninterested in repetitive and traditional instructional aproaches, and the features of flipped classrooms, such as active learning, learner-centeredness, collaboration, and communication with peers and teachers, were all the notions that increase learner engagement. Fisher et al. (2021) also found that flipped learning positively affects learners’ engagement, performance, and satisfaction. They mentioned that involvement stirred by flipped classrooms is integrally satisfying to learners. They also mentioned that intensive and strategic engagement with electronic materials before class is the feature of learners who outperform in flipped classrooms. Lee et al. (2022) investigated the role of belief and academic capability in increasing learner engagement in the EFL context. They found that learners’ epistemological beliefs influenced neither pre-class nor in-class engagement, but that academic capability affected both pre-class and in-class engagement. Doo (2021) , in his study, showed that flipped learning approach provides learners with flexible learning in their study, time to create individual learning, and to engage more in classrooms. However, the factors affecting learner engagement in pre-class and in-class flipped learning are not widely studied. Nevertheless, more research is needed on the relationships between each dimension of engagement and different types of flipped learning outcomes, as well as on the path by which each engagement predicts flipped learning outcomes. Moreover, more studies are required to investigate learner engagement after flipped classrooms.

Flipped learning approach enables learners to be more engaged in the educational context to achieve all levels of Bloom’s taxonomy ( Gilboy et al., 2015 ). In flipped classrooms, student-centered goals are set and active learning strategies such as pair-and-share activities are employed in flipped classrooms. Moreover, student presentations and discussions, and individual or paired quizzes empower students to reach higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy ( DeLozier and Rhodes, 2017 ). Creating ideas as the highest tier of thinking engages students to show their professionalized skills ( Jaenudin et al., 2020 ). Applied to social media, Bloom’s Taxonomy can be used to design exercises that facilitate specific objectives. For example, the act of searching for and retweeting course-related content engages students with course material outside of class on a platform that is already of interest. This bridges formal-informal learning and may also increase student engagement by providing an innovative assignment. Furthermore, studies show that personalizing the online learning experience is crucial to improve adult learner engagement and reducing their attrition rates.

The use of social media in flipped learning approach plays an important role in learners’ engagement. For instance, Schindler et al. (2017) indicated that Facebook and Twitter affect learners’ behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement. They argued that Facebook and Twitter are practical tools for increasing specific behavioral and emotional engagement indicators, such as interactions with others and a sense of belonging within a learning community. They also mentioned that the mandatory use of Twitter, increasing faculty involvement in Twitter, and integrating Twitter into assignments may help to increase learner engagement. In light of the pedagogical potentials of social technologies such as Telegram in designing a variety of collaborative and cooperative tasks Amiryousefi (2019) set out to examine the effects of two types of flipped learning conditions with the use of Telegram on EFL students’ speaking and listening abilities and their participation and engagement with the materials and activities. His study revealed that flipped learning can help EFL learners improve their L2 speaking and listening and be more engaged with materials and activities outside of class. He argued that social technologies such as Telegram can create a less threatening learning environment compared with conventional settings, provide opportunities for more cooperative and collaborative learning activities, stretch the limits of input and output, and hence increase opportunities for high-quality interaction. Through Telegram, as the online platform of the flipped learning conditions in his study, the learners collaboratively elaborated on the learning materials during the pre-class phase of flipped learning and were hence engaged in collective scaffolding. He maintained that learners, through collaborative and scaffolding learning, can achieve beyond what they can do individually with the help of their peers and/or teachers and hence, according to Vygotsky’s ZPD theory, can learn beyond their abilities. Regarding the importance of social media on learner engagement Liu and Moeller (2019) highlighted the significance of WeChat as a social media in flipped learning classrooms. They mentioned that WeChat provides asynchronous, semi-synchronous, and synchronous online interaction, and its messaging function allows for interaction in different modalities (e.g., text, audio, and video messages). They argued that its user-friendly grouping function enables language instructors to group learners in the way that is most appropriate for achieving the intended learning objectives. This flexible grouping approach promotes engagement in online interpersonal communication either in pairs or in groups at any time, any place. Yu et al. (2022) also proved the effectiveness of WeChat on developing learners’ behavioral, social, cognitive and emotional engagements compared with traditional classrooms. Some studies also proved the effectiveness of Tencent QQ, as a social media, on the enhancement of learner engagement. Luo et al. (2021) found the role of an online-based environment in promoting learners’ sense of belonging and engagement. They used Tencent QQ as a professional online education platform in China. Using Tencent, learners could communicate with peers and instructors in the group, and even add instructors as friends to realize one-to-one online learning guidance. Their study revealed that the harmonious relationships by Tencent improved learners’ sense of belonging and engagement in online learning. They argued that online learning environment through Tencent can provide an opportunity for learners to have learner- teacher and peer relationship, which in turn, increase learners’ affective engagement. Teng and Wang (2021) also verified the importance of Tencent QQ and Wechat as the most convenient social networking system since it can enable learners to communicate academically or non-academically, and it promotes learner engagement. Piki (2020) considered the importance of Messenger, Viber, and Facebook in developing learners’ language learning and nurturing learner engagement. He also asserted that the interaction on social media contributed to re-establish learner engagement which was challenged during the unforeseen circumstances caused due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Zen et al. (2019) , in another study, found a significant relationship between flipped classroom method using WhatsApp and learner engagement in activities. In line with Zen et al. (2019) , Badshah et al. (2021) revealed the role of WhatsApp as asocial media in learners’ engagement by making a productive relationship among the parents, teachers and principal in underdeveloped countries’ schools. They showed that improvements in the parental engagement and teachers’ engagement result in a productive learners’ engagement. They argued that interaction with parents and teachers through WhatsApp has remarkably enhanced the parents’ and teachers’ involvement in children’ education, resulting in productive learners’ engagement inside and outside the classroom. However, Reflianto et al. (2021) investigated the influence of online-based flipped classroom learning between using Microsoft Team and WhatsApp, and learner engagement on reading comprehension skills. They found out that Microsoft Team was better than WhatsApp in improving learner engagement and reading comprehension skills. They argued that great, online learning methods with complete learning media features presented by teachers have proved to improve active learner behavior during online learning. Lee et al. (2022) investigated the effect of Zoom in flipped learning classrooms on learner engagement. They found that a synchronous online flipped learning application, such as Zoom, can encourage learners to involve in numerous cooperative activities. In general, studies showed that social media can predict learner engagement, and it can account for learners’ involvement in educational contexts.

Conclusion, implication, and suggestions for further research

This conceptual review aimed to extend past research in a particular domain in a meaningful, conceptual way. The results of this conceptual review revitalized of existing theories and explored the novel conceptual insights. This review probed the role of flipped learning approach in learners’ critical thinking and engagement in academic contexts. Erlier studies have shown that web-based flipped classrooms have the capability to increase EFL learners’ critical thinking (e.g., Munir et al., 2018 ; Cheng et al., 2019 ; Pasaribu and Iswandari, 2019 ; Prahani et al., 2020 ; Lin et al., 2021 ). Previous investigations indicated that social media can draw the attention of learners by having supportive and problem-based educational tasks to foster higher-order thinking and critical thinking skill ( Cheng et al., 2019 ). Moreover, it was also concluded that social media, such as YouTube, WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, Telegram, Tencent QQ, and Zoom provide the context for cooperative learning, which fosters learners’ critical thinking skill. Using these types of social media platforms can develop learners’ ecological awareness, which in turn ldeas to the development of socially cooperative learning, and critical thinking. This review also concluded that social media platforms enhance learners’ critical thinking by engaging learners in numerous interactive learning tasks and they increase learners’ inference and clarification. Social media platforms make learning more independent and active which increase higher-order thinking among learners. Earlier studies have also indicated that social media platforms, such as Facebook, Twitter Telegram, WeChat, Tencent QQ, Messenger, Viber, and Zoom can develop learner engagement by activating learners in numerous cooperative activities, raising parents and teachers’ attention to learners’ engagement ( Badshah et al., 2021 ), enabling learners to communicate ( Teng and Wang, 2021 ), improving teacher-learner relationship ( Luo et al., 2021 ) and providing the features for making user-friendly groups ( Liu and Moeller, 2019 ). This review also concluded that social media platforms can develop collaborative and scaffolding learning, which improve learner engagement.

This review comprises some pedagogical implications for instructors, learners, teacher educators, curriculum designers, educational policy-makers, and advisors. Based on related literature, instructors should have an awareness of flipped instructional approach in their classes to increase learners’ critical thinking and engagement. As one of the major findings of the studies was the outperformance of the learners in the flipped classrooms, the ground must be provided for expanding and appropriate use of flipped learning approach in our educational system at both institutes and schools. Moreover, web-based technologies should be used in classes in order to improve the quality of learning and teaching.

Teachers can simplify the problem of learners in flipped classes by using appropriate social media in order to help learners become more proficient in different context. Because class time is just for practicing and problem-solving in flipped classes. However, when EFL learners know why they learn a language, they are more cautious about the ways that facilitate this process. Language teachers can employ social media networks extensively to compensate for the shortage of time and to share a variety of contents including pictures, texts, audio, and videos, using these platforms to provide learners with authentic materials for different language skills. Furthermore, using the flipped classroom in language teaching can benefit language teachers in various ways, as teachers can monitor learners’ communication and the way they use target language outside the classroom in those networks to find out difficult and challenging aspects of their language use, and focus language teaching in classroom on these features.

Flipped classrooms increase student engagement. This can be done through providing learners with some opportunities to do lower-order learning activities at their own time, and to perform higher-level tasks through collaboration during class time. That way, instructors can guide the students through exercises and get better insight into who understands the materials and who is struggling. Students have more opportunities to ask questions and get personalized help as they work through the material using higher-order thinking skills. To keep the learners’ attention going, educators can add quizzes, puzzles and creating an appealing experience for students. They should devote time to active, collaborative learning activities that help learners evaluate, analyze, and synthesize materials. In flipped classrooms, they can use remote collaborative learning activities to make a little more thought and preparation than in-person ones, but they are equally rewarding. Moreover, they can use classroom debates, and they can appoint learners to represent two sides of a timely or controversial issue, and have them present arguments defending their position. In addition, they can employ breakout discussions, and they can employ the class in smaller breakout rooms, and have students discuss a question, issue, or problem. At the end of the session, they can have each group report on their conclusions. They can also use jigsaw activities by breaking the class up into groups of four or five students. They can have each individual in the group research a different issue or component of the broader subject. During class time, they can have them come together and share their findings. They are recommended to employ seminars in their flipped classrooms, and they can get students to take turns leading a class discussion on a topic they have researched. In addition, instructors need to develop digital expertise to provide immediate feedback, adequate guidance, and strong support throughout the flipped instruction and to build inter-connectivity between pre-class materials and in-class tasks, based on the flipped approach. Moreover, to reduce learners’ workload, sufficient time should be given to learners in the pre-class phase, whereas learning strategies and time-management training should be provided to maximize learners’ time use. Teachers can manage the time in classrooms regularly, and learner engagement to arouse motivation. They are required to decrease learners’ foreign language anxiety and disengagement, and they need to increase learners’ motivation irrespective of educational problems in language learning environments to enrich L2 learning experiences. They should talk to learners about their internal and external motivation in online contexts to be aware of learners’ personality traits which help them to engage enthusiastically in flipped learning contexts. They can make their class interactive and motivated by asking challenging questions throughout the class. Through asking and answering questions, learners can be more engaged during the course and learn information efficiently. Collaboration is another way for teachers to increase learner engagement. Learners tend to engage in classrooms when they cooperate on class projects.

Critical thinking can be explicitly taught in the English class, as an accelerator of the thinking ability as well as the speaking ability of the learners. The explicit instruction of critical thinking in English classes, according to the review, can develop higher order thinking in the process of language learning. It is the teachers’ responsibility to encourage learners to use their thinking ability and learn to express themselves critically and creatively. He believes that teachers need to be more flexible in their teaching and try to pay more attention to learners’ attitudes, interests, and abilities. Moreover, this review recommends language teachers include appropriate tasks, and activities in reading courses to promote critical thinking skills, which then can result in reading comprehension improvement. Teachers’ positive attitude toward critical thinking and providing learners with explicit explanations of the importance of critical thinking in education and every aspect of their life are the factors that can enhance learners’ critical thinking.

Learners can also improve their critical thinking skills by applying some practical ways. If learners think about the major objectives of the course, their critical thinking skills can develop. The type of activities used in assessing language learners determines the goals of learning. Learners should engage in doing those activities which promote critical thinking skills and require them to think, cooperate, ask questions from themselves and others, etc. learners should ask question in flipped classrooms since asking questions enhances your critical thinking in learning. One question may lead to another, and that will further help in clearing learners’ concepts. Moreover, critical thinking skills for learners in flipped classrooms can be developed through social experiences. If a learner gets opportunities to participate in discussions, both online and offline, S/he must go ahead with it. This will help learners come across different perspectives, and introduce one new information to analyze and develop better communication skills. Learners should also practice active learning through understanding and not just by reciting it innumerable times. It is a method of learning that is based on an experiential approach. Active learning can be achieved through group learning, case studies, demonstrations, visual learning, etc. It is easy to remember information through examples and stories as they reflect the practical implications. Real-life examples, anecdotes, analogies, and facts help develop critical thinking skills.

In order to increase teachers’ abilities in doing so, critical thinking issues and training on how to use different methods and techniques of teaching critical thinking should be an essential part of any teachers’ training program. On the other hand, training instructors in asking appropriate higher-level questions to promote critical thinking is of great importance. Teachers’ effective use of questions and involving EFL learners in class discussions over challenging and appealing topics could engage them in critical thinking processes. Moreover, a teaching and learning environment that considers different and sometimes competing views are crucial in promoting students’ critical thinking skills. Tracher educators can hold workshops in pre-service and in-service teacher courses to talk about the importance of learner engagement in language learning. It is also suggested that teacher educators should highlight interaction tools, like mobile applications, which promote engagement based on the subject matter. This review recommends that teacher educators should have a positive view toward teachers and learners, and they should provide well-organized and inspiring teaching methodologies, which can construct a positive context for language learning, and increase learners’ engagement in the classroom.

This review can attract curriculum designers’ attention to consider critical thinking, as an effective element, in their program. Improving learners thinking ability through appropriate techniques and methods of teaching should be taken into account in designing learning curricula since these skills are teachable and learnable. In an EFL setting, curriculum must be redesigned in which critical thinking skills and techniques be implemented to all courses possible. In other words, the focus should be on critical questioning, critical reading, critical and creative writing and critical listening in all curriculum areas. In addition, the goal of an ideal language curriculum should go toward developing the art of critical thinking.

Educational policy-makers should hire experienced teachers, as the instructive experience can be an important issue for increasing critical thinking and learner engagement among learners. They can ask teachers to do their best within varied educational contexts. They should also provide critical thinking, creativeness, and motivation into the education in classrooms, which enhances language learning. They can hold academic workshops to help teachers increase learner engagement and critical thinking. They can provide internet-based facilities and positive learning contexts for increasing positive behaviors among learners. The importance of learner engagement can motivate advisors to expand their horizons to identify learners’ sources of engagement, and to suggest some strategies to engage more in classrooms.

Given the considerable findings regarding the benefits of FL pedagogy and the growing interest in their factors, it is necessary to investigate how pre-class/in-class and behavioral/cognitive/affective engagement is influenced by learner factors like academic capabilities, learner style, personality traits, epistemological beliefs, positive psychological constructs, and negative emotional states, such as foreign language anxiety, apprehension, boredom, and burnout. More studies are required to investigate whether flipped classrooms can sustain learner engagement after flipped classrooms or not. Theoretical underpinnings like dynamic motivation systems theory ( Mercer and Dörnyei, 2020 ) can be suggested for further research, in order to illuminate the way multiple internal and external factors affect EFL learners’ engagement the flipped classrooms. There are some concerns about the asseesment of flipped learning. Some studies have been done the effect of using e-portfolios on the assessment of EFL learners’ speaking proficiency ( Yastibas and Cepik, 2015 ; Khodi et al., 2022 ). Moreover, it is recommended to have students conduct self-evaluations and to apply peer evaluations to foster changes in students’ attitudes toward learning in flipped learning contexts ( Kim, 2018 ). Future studies can be done on the reliability and validity of e-portfolios, self-evaluations, and peer evaluations in flipped contexts. Finally, the comparison of different social networks on learners’ critical thinking and engagement in a foreign language can be studied in the future.

Author contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

This study was supported by the “Research on the Reform of Foreign Language Specialty Training Mode in Local Normal Universities under the Background of New Liberal Arts,” a new liberal arts research and reform practice project of the Ministry of Education in China, 2021 (grant no. 2021110080), and by Hainan Normal University – “Research on Project-based Teaching Based on Flipped Classroom – A Case Study of Comprehensive English (grant no. hsjg2021-23).”

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• Afzali Z., Izadpanah S. (2021). The effect of the flipped classroom model on Iranian English foreign language learners: engagement and motivation in English language grammar . Cogent Educ. 8 , 1–15. doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2020.1870801 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Al Arif T. Z. (2019). The use of social media for English language learning: an exploratory study of EFL university students . Metathesis 3 , 224–233. doi: 10.31002/metathesis.v3i2.1921 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Aljohani M. (2017). Principles of “constructivism” in foreign language teaching . J. Lit. Art Stud. 32 , 261–293. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2018.1504083 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Al-Qaysi N., Mohamad-Nordin N., Al-Emran M. (2021). “ Developing an educational framework for using whatsapp based on social constructivism theory ” in Recent Advances in Intelligent Systems and Smart Applications (Cham: Springer; ), 243–252. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-47411-9_14 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Amiryousefi M. (2019). The incorporation of flipped learning into conventional classes to enhance EFL learners’ L2 speaking, L2 listening, and engagement . Innov. Lang. Learn. Teach. 13 , 147–161. doi: 10.1080/17501229.2017.1394307 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Andrini V. S., Pratama H., Maduretno T. W. (2019). The effect of flipped classroom and project based learning model on student’s critical thinking ability . J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1171 , 1–012015, 012010, doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1171/1/012010 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ariantini K. P., Suwastini N. K. A., Adnyani N. L. P. S., Dantes G. R., Jayantini I. G. A. S. R. (2021). Integrating social media into English language learning: how and to what benefits according to recent studies . NOBEL 12 , 91–111. doi: 10.15642/NOBEL.2021.12.1.91-111 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Atwa Z., Sulayeh Y., Abdelhadi A., Jazar H. A., Erigat S. (2022). Flipped classroom effects on grade 9 students’ critical thinking skills, psychological stress, and academic achievement . Int. J. Instr. 15 , 737–750. doi: 10.29333/iji.2022.15240a [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Badshah A., Jalal A., Rehman G. U., Zubair M., Umar M. M. (2021). Academic use of social networking sites in learners’ engagement in underdeveloped countries’ schools . Educ. Inf. Technol. 26 , 6319–6336. doi: 10.1007/s10639-021-10619-8, PMID: [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bağ H. K., Gürsoy E. (2021). The effect of critical thinking embedded English course design to the improvement of critical thinking skills of secondary school learners . Think. Skills Creat. 41 , 100910–100913. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100910 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Benesch S. (1993). ESL, ideology, and the politics of pragmatism . TESOL Q. 27 , 705–717. doi: 10.2307/3587403 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bergmann J., Sams A. (2012). Flip Your Classroom: Reach Every Student in Every Class Every Day . Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education [ Google Scholar ]
• Bryer T. A., Zavattaro S. M. (2011). Social media and public administration . Adm. Theory Prax. 33 , 325–340. doi: 10.2753/ATP1084-1806330301 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chang C. Y., Panjaburee P., Lin H. C., Lai C. L., Hwang G. H. (2022). Effects of online strategies on students’ learning performance, self-efficacy, self-regulation and critical thinking in university online courses . Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 70 , 185–204. doi: 10.1007/s11423-021-10071-y [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cheng L., Ritzhaupt A. D., Antonenko P. (2019). Effects of the flipped classroom instructional strategy on students’ learning outcomes: a meta-analysis . Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 67 , 793–824. doi: 10.1007/s11423-018-9633-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Christenson S., Reschly A. L., Wylie C. (2012). Handbook of Research on Student Engagement . New York: Springer, doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• de Boer B., Hoek J., Kudina O. (2018). Can the technological mediation approach improve technology assessment? A critical view from ‘within’ . J. Responsible innovation 5 , 299–315. [ Google Scholar ]
• de Leng B., Pawelka F. (2021). The cognitive load of the in-class phase of a flipped classroom course on radiology: could computer support be of help? Med. Teach. 43 , 216–222. doi: 10.1080/0142159X.2020.1841890, PMID: [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• DeLozier S. J., Rhodes M. G. (2017). Flipped classrooms: a review of key ideas and recommendations for practice . Educ. Psychol. Rev. 29 , 141–151. doi: 10.1007/s10648-015-9356-9 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Derakhshan A. (2021). The predictability of Turkman students’ academic engagement through Persian language teachers’ nonverbal immediacy and credibility . J. Teach. Persian Speakers Other Lang. 10 , 3–26. doi: 10.30479/JTPSOL.2021.14654.1506 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Derakhshan A., Doliński D., Zhaleh K., Janebi Enayat M., Fathi J. (2022). Predictability of polish and Iranian student engagement in terms of teacher care and teacher-student rapport . System , 106 doi: 10.1016/j.system.2022.102790:102790 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dewi N. K. A. S. (2022). Play with social media “Instagram” in EFL writing and critical thinking skill: how can? J. Penelit. Mahasiswa Ind. 2 , 144–151. [ Google Scholar ]
• Diemer T. T., Fernandez E., Streepey J. W. (2013). Student perceptions of classroom engagement and learning using iPads . J. Teach. Learn. Technol. 1 , 13–25. [ Google Scholar ]
• Doo M. Y. (2021). Understanding flipped learners’ perceptions, perceived usefulness, registration intention, and learning engagement . Contemp. Educ. Technol. 14 , 1–14. doi: 10.30935/cedtech/11368 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ebadi S., Rahimi M. (2018). An exploration into the impact of WebQuest-based classroom on EFL learners’ critical thinking and academic writing skills: a mixed-methods study . Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. 31 , 617–651. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2018.1449757 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• El-Glil A., Mohamed A. G. (2021). Developing EFL adult learners’ critical thinking through a program based on an E-community context . Online Submission 2 , 10–22. [ Google Scholar ]
• Eppard J., Rochdi A. (2017). A framework for flipped learning. International Association for Development of the Information Society (IADIS), 13th International Conference Mobile Learning 2017 . Available at: https://tinyurl.com/5m7mb4ma .
• Erbil D. G. (2020). A review of flipped classroom and cooperative learning method within the context of Vygotsky theory . Front. Psychol. 11 , 1–15. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01157 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Etemadfar P., Soozandehfar S. M. A., Namaziandost E. (2020). An account of EFL learners’ listening comprehension and critical thinking in the flipped classroom model . Cogent Educ. , 7 , 1–23. doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2020.1835150 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Evseeva A., Solozhenko A. (2015). Use of flipped classroom technology in language learning . Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 206 , 205–209. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.10.006 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ferrett S. (1997). Peak performance: Success in college and beyond . New York: Glencoe Mcgraw-Hill [ Google Scholar ]
• Fisher R., Perényi A., Birdthistle N. (2021). The positive relationship between flipped and blended learning and student engagement, performance and satisfaction . Act. Learn. High. Educ. 22 , 97–113. doi: 10.1177/1469787418801702 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fredricks J. A., McColskey W. (2012). “ The measurement of student engagement: a comparative analysis of various methods and student self-report instruments ” in Handbook of research on student engagement . eds. Christenson S. L., Reschly A. L., Wylie C. (Boston, MA: Springer, US; ), 763–782. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_37 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gavrysh I., Dotsenko S. (2021). Critical thinking development of primary school pupils by means of inventive problems . Educ. Challen. 26 , 28–40. doi: 10.34142/2709-7986.2021.26.1.03 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gilboy M. B., Heinerichs S., Pazzaglia G. (2015). Enhancing student engagement using the flipped classroom . J. Nutr. Educ. Behav. 47 , 109–114. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2014.08.008, PMID: [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Greenier V., Derakhshan A., Fathi J. (2021). Emotion regulation and psychological well-being in teacher work engagement: a case of British and Iranian English language teachers . System , 97 , 102446–102415. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2020.102446 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Guo J. J. (2019). The use of an extended flipped classroom model in improving students’ learning in an undergraduate course . J. Comput. High. Educ. , 31 , 362–2390. doi: 10.1007/s12528-019-09224-z [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hamid S., Waycott J., Kurnia S., Chang S. (2015). Understanding students’ perceptions of the benefits of online social networking use for teaching and learning . The Internet and Higher Education 26 , 1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.02.004 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• He F. W., Darmawan A. (2018). Students’ perception towards the use of virtual classroom of Rumah Belajar and WhatsApp for promoting higher order thinking skills? In flipped math class . Int. Sym. Open Dist. E-Learn. 1 , 72–92. doi: 10.32550/pi.v1i1.27 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hung H. T. (2018). Gamifying the flipped classroom using game-based learning materials . ELT J. 72 , 296–308. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccx055 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Itmeizeh M., Hassan A. (2020). New approaches to teaching critical thinking skills through a new EFL curriculum . Int. J. Psychosoc. Rehabil. 24 , 8864–8880. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jaenudin R., Chotimah U., Farida F., Syarifuddin S. (2020). Student development zone: higher order thinking skills (hots) in critical thinking orientation . Int. J. Multicult. Multirelig. Understand. 7 , 11–19. doi: 10.18415/ijmmu.v7i9.1884 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jamaludin R., Osman S. Z. M. (2014). The use of a flipped classroom to enhance engagement and promote active learning . J. Education and Practice 5 , 124–131. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jantakoon T. H. A. D. A., Piriyasurawong P. A. L. L. O. P. (2018). Flipped classroom instructional model with mobile learning based on constructivist learning theory to enhance critical thinking (FCMOC model) . J. Theor. Appl. Inf. Technol. 96 , 5607–5614. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jensen B. A. (2019). Using flipped learning to facilitate cross-cultural critical thinking in the L2 classroom . Die Unterrichts praxis/Teaching German , 52 , 50–68. doi: 10.1111/tger.12084 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jung Y., Lee J. (2018). Learning engagement and persistence in massive open online courses (MOOCS) . Comput. Educ. 122 , 9–22. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.02.013 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kawinkoonlasate P. (2019). Integration in flipped classroom technology approach to develop English language skills of Thai EFL learners . Engl. Lang. Teach. 12 , 23–34. doi: 10.5539/elt.v12n11p23 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Khodi A., Khezerlou H., Sahraei H. (2022). Dependability and utility of using e-portfolios in assessing EFL learners’ speaking proficiency . Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn. , 1–23. doi: 10.1080/09588221.2022.2093379 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim S. (2018). How to evaluate learning in a flipped classroom . J. Educ. Eval. Health Prof. 15 :21. doi: 10.3352/jeehp.2018.15.21, PMID: [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kirschner P. A., Sweller J., Kirschner F., Zambrano R. J. (2018). From cognitive load theory to collaborative cognitive load theory . Int. J. Comput. Support. Collab. Learn. 13 , 213–233. doi: 10.1007/s11412-018-9277-y, PMID: [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kurnianto B., Wiyanto W., Haryani S. (2019). Critical thinking skills and learning outcomes by improving motivation in the model of flipped classroom . J. Prim. Educ. 8 , 282–291. Retrieved from https://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/jpe/article/view/27783 [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee Y. J., Davis R., Li Y. (2022). Implementing synchronous online flipped learning for pre-service teachers during COVID-19 . Eurasian J. Educ. Res. 11 , 653–661. doi: 10.12973/eu-jer.11.2.653 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee J., Park T., Davis R. O. (2022). What affects learner engagement in flipped learning and what predicts its outcomes? . Br. J. Educ. Technol. , 53 , 211–228. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12717 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lei H., Cui Y., Zhou W. (2018). Relationships between student engagement and academic achievement: a meta-analysis . Soc. Behav. Personal. Int. J. 46 , 517–528. doi: 10.2224/sbp.7054 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lewis C. E., Chen D. C., Relan A. (2018). Implementation of a flipped classroom approach to promote active learning in the third-year surgery clerkship . Am. J. Surg. , 215 , 298–303. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2017.08.050, PMID: [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li R. (2021). The role of teacher-student interpersonal relations in flipped learning on student engagement . Front. Psychol. , 12 , 1–10. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.741810, PMID: [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Li C. (2022). Application of flipped classroom in second language teaching from the perspective of cognitive load theory . Adv. Educ. Technol. Psychol. 6 , 11–20. doi: 10.23977/aetp.2022.060303 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lin H. C., Hwang G. J., Chang S. C., Hsu Y. D. (2021). Facilitating critical thinking in decision making-based professional training: an online interactive peer-review approach in a flipped learning context . Comput. Educ. , 173 , 104266–104211. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104266 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lindeiner-Stráský K. von, Stickler U., Winchester S. (2020). Flipping the flipped: the concept of flipped learning in an online teaching environment . Dist. e-Learn. , 37 , 288–304. doi: 10.1080/02680513.2020.1769584 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Listiqowati I., Budijanto B., Sumarmi R., Ruja I. N. (2022). The impact of project-based flipped classroom (PjBFC) on critical thinking skills . Int. J. Instr. 15 , 853–868. doi: 10.29333/iji.2022.15346a [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu X, Moeller A. J. (2019). Promoting learner engagement through interactive digital tools . Faculty Publications: Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education, 310–331. Available at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/teachlearnfacpub/310 (accessed September 21, 2022).
• Luo N., Li H., Zhao L., Wu Z., Zhang J. (2021). Promoting student engagement in online learning through harmonious classroom environment . Asia Pac. Educ. Res. , 31 , 541–551. doi: 10.1007/s40299-021-00606-5 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• McPeck J. E. (1981). Critical thinking and education . Oxford: Martin Robertson. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mercer S., Dörnyei Z. (2020). Engaging language learners in contemporary classrooms . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi: 10.1017/9781009024563 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Miller A. L., Fassett K. T., Palmer D. L. (2021). Achievement goal orientation: a predictor of student engagement in higher education . Motiv. Emot. , 45 , 327–344. doi: 10.1007/s11031-021-09881-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Munir M. T., Baroutian S., Young B. R., Carter S. (2018). Flipped classroom with cooperative learning as a cornerstone . Educ. Chem. Eng. 23 , 25–33. doi: 10.1016/j.ece.2018.05.001 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ng E. M. W. (2016). The flipped classroom: two learning modes that foster two learning outcomes . Issues Inf. Sci. Inform. Technol. 13 , 015–023. doi: 10.28945/3462 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Oktaviah R., Rokhman N. M., Maulana A. R. (2021). Inquiry-based teaching to develop efl students’ critical thinking in reading comprehension EDUCAFL , 4 , 49–56. doi: 10.21776/ub.educafl.2021.004.01.05 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pasaribu T. A., Iswandari Y. A. (2019). A reader response approach in collaborative reading projects to foster critical thinking skills . LLT J. 22 , 231–245. doi: 10.24071/llt.v22i2.1960 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pathiraja F., Little D. (2015). Social media: the next frontier inradiology . Clinical Radiology 70 , 585–570. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Philp J., Duchesne S. (2016). Exploring engagement in tasks in the language classroom . Annu. Rev. Appl. Linguist. 36 , 50–72. doi: 10.1017/S0267190515000094 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Piki A. (2020). An exploration of student experiences with social media and mobile technologies during emergency transition to remote education. In World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (pp. 10–17). Available at: https://www.learntechlib.org/p/218249/ (Accessed July 25, 2022).
• Prahani B., Jatmiko B., Hariadi B., Sunarto D., Sagirani T., Amelia T., et al.. (2020). Blended web Mobile learning (BWML) model to improve students’ higher order thinking skills . Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. 15 , 42–55. doi: 10.3991/ijet.v15i11.12853 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Puentes N. A. (2022). Social media in environmental education: towards collaborative learning and initial critical thinking. Recuperado de. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12209/17420 (Accessed September 21, 2022).
• Reeve J., Tseng C. M. (2011). Agency as a fourth aspect of students’ engagement during learning activities . Contemporary Educational Psychology 36 , 257–267. doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2011.05.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reflianto M., Setyosari P., Kuswandi D., Widiati U. (2021). Reading comprehension skills: the effect of online flipped classroom learning and student engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic . Eurasian J. Educ. Res. 10 , 1613–1624. doi: 10.12973/eu-jer.10.4.1613 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rob M., Rob F. (2018). Dilemma between constructivism and constructionism: leading to the development of a teaching-learning framework for student engagement and learning . J. Int. Educ. Bus. 11 , 273–290. doi: 10.1108/JIEB-01-2018-0002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Salimi E. A., Karimabadi M. (2020). The efficacy of classroom flipping on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ engagement and their perception of the flipped classroom model . Teach. Eng. Second Lang. 39 , 143–180. doi: 10.22099/jtls.2021.38824.2901 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Saputri A. C., Rinanto Y., Prasetyanti N. M. (2019). Improving students' critical thinking skills in cell-metabolism learning using stimulating higher order thinking skills model . Int. J. Instr. 12 , 327–342. doi: 10.29333/iji.2019.12122a [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schindler L. A., Burkholder G. J., Morad O. A., Marsh C. (2017). Computer-based technology and student engagement: a critical review of the literature . Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. , 14 , 1–28. doi: 10.1186/s41239-017-0063-0 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shubina I., Kulakli A. (2020). The research patterns of creativity and innovation: the period of 2010-2019 . Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Learn. 15 , 89–102. doi: 10.3991/ijet.v15i21.16101 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sternberg R. J. (1986). Critical thinking: Its nature, measurement, and improvement . New Haven, CT: Yale University. [ Google Scholar ]
• Subramaniam S. R., Muniandy B. (2019). The effect of flipped classroom on students’ engagement . Technol. Knowl. Learn. 24 , 355–372. doi: 10.1007/s10758-017-9343-y [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tan C., Yue W. G., Fu Y. (2017). Effectiveness of flipped classrooms in nursing education: systematic review and meta-analysis . Chin. Nurs. Res. 4 , 192–200. doi: 10.1016/j.cnre.2017.10.006 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Teng Y., Wang X. (2021). The effect of two educational technology tools on student engagement in Chinese EFL courses . International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education 18 , 1–15. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Teo T., Khazaei S., Derakhshan A. (2022). Exploring teacher immediacy-(non)dependency in the tutored augmented reality game-assisted flipped classrooms of English for medical purposes comprehension among the Asian students . Comput. Educ. 179 :104406. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104406 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Thorndahl K. L., Stentoft D. (2020). Thinking critically about critical thinking and problem-based learning in higher education: a scoping review . Interdiscip. J. Probl.-Based Learn. 14 , 1–15. doi: 10.14434/ijpbl.v14i1.28773 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tong D. H., Loc N. P., Uyen B. P., Son T. H. (2020). Enhancing creative and critical thinking skills of students in mathematics classrooms: an experimental study of teaching the inequality in high schools . Univ. J. Educ. Res. 8 , 477–489. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2020.080219 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Van Den Beemt A., Thurlings M., Willems M. (2020). Towards an understanding of social media use in the classroom: a literature review . Technology, Pedagogy and Education 29 , 35–55. [ Google Scholar ]
• van Vliet E. A., Winnips J. C., Brouwer N. (2015). Flipped-class pedagogy enhances student metacognition and collaborative-learning strategies in higher education but effect does not persist. CBE—Life Sciences . Education 14 , 1–26. doi: 10.1187/cbe.14-09-0141 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Veletsianos G., Navarrete C. (2012). Online social networks as formal learning environments: learner experiences and activities . The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning 13 , 144–166. doi: 10.19173/irrodl.v13i1.1078 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Vygotsky L. (1986). Thought and language . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang J., Antonenko P., Keil A., Dawson K. (2020). Converging subjective and psychophysiological measures of cognitive load to study the effects of instructor-present video . Mind Brain Educ. 14 , 279–291. doi: 10.1111/mbe.12239 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang Y.L., Derakhshan A., Zhang L. J. (2021). Researching and practicing positive psychology in second/foreign language learning and teaching: the past, current status and future directions . Front. Psychol. 12 , 1–10. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731721, PMID: [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yastibas A. E., Cepik S. (2015). Teachers’ attitudes toward the use of e-portfolios in speaking classes in English language teaching and learning . Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci. 176 , 514–525. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.505 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yilmaz R. M., Baydas O. (2017). An examination of undergraduates’ metacognitive strategies in pre-class asynchronous activity in a flipped classroom . Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 65 , 1547–1567. doi: 10.1007/s11423-017-9534-1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yu Z., Yu L., Xu Q., Xu W., Wu P. (2022). Effects of mobile learning technologies and social media tools on student engagement and learning outcomes of English learning . Technol. Pedagog. Educ. 31 , 381–398. doi: 10.1080/1475939X.2022.2045215 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yulian R. (2021). The flipped classroom: improving critical thinking for critical reading of EFL learners in higher education . Stud. Engl. Lang. Educ. 8 , 508–522. doi: 10.24815/siele.v8i2.18366 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zainuddin Z. (2017). First-year college students' experiences in the EFL flipped classroom: a case study in Indonesia . Int. J. Instr. 10 , 133–150. doi: 10.12973/iji.2017.1019a [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zen Z. Z., Zen Z., Reflianto R. (2019). “ Influence of flipped classroom and social engagement on vocational students’ speaking performance ” in Proceeding of Research, Reorientation of Education in the Era of Industrial Revolution 4.0 in Nation Development, 5th International Conference on Education and Technology (ICET 2019) . eds. Sunarto, Rahman A. Z., Widiatanto (Universitas Negeri Malang; ), 743–748. doi: 10.2991/icet-19.2019.178 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zidoun Y., Dehbi R., Talea M., El Arroum F. Z. (2019). Designing a theoretical integration framework for mobile learning . International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies 13 , 152–170. doi: 10.3991/ijim.v13i12.10841 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zou D., Xie H. (2019). Flipping an English writing class with technology-enhanced just-in-time teaching and peer instruction . Interact. Learn. Environ. 27 , 1127–1142. doi: 10.1080/10494820.2018.1495654 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Advertisement

Flipped learning effect on classroom engagement and outcomes in university information systems class

• Published: 24 September 2021
• Volume 27 , pages 3341–3359, ( 2022 )

Cite this article

• Meyliana   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4142-4312 1 ,
• Bruno Sablan 2 ,
• Surjandy 1 &
• Achmad Nizar Hidayanto 3  

977 Accesses

9 Citations

19 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

How to improve student engagement and educational learning outcomes in the classroom have always been high on a teacher’s priority list. Unfortunately, it seems these challenges have become more pronounced in teaching Generation Z. To address these challenges educators are exploring new teaching methodologies such as flipped learning. The authors examined the effect of flipped learning on student motivation and educational outcomes on sophomore students from a private university in Indonesia majoring in Information Systems. The survey was taken from two groups, a control group which was not taught using flipped learning (60 respondents), and an experimental group which was taught using flipped learning (60 respondents). Results showed that flipped learning increased student motivation and improved educational outcomes compared to a group that was not exposed to flipped learning. The results can help guide teachers and administrators on potential implementation of flipped learning at their universities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Student views on the use of flipped learning in higher education: A pilot study

Abdullah Yasin Gündüz & Buket Akkoyunlu

Students’ perceptions of their learning outcomes in a flipped classroom environment

M. Carmen Ruiz-Jiménez, Rocío Martínez-Jiménez & Ana Licerán-Gutiérrez

The flipped classroom: for active, effective and increased learning – especially for low achievers

Jalal Nouri

Adams, C., & Dove, A. (2018). Calculus students flipped out: The impact of flipped learning on Calculus Students' achievement and perceptions of learning. PRIMUS, 28 (6), 600–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511970.2017.1332701

Article   Google Scholar  

Aliu, R. (2013). Bill gates talks flipped learning. Edu on Go . https://eduongo.com/blog/2013/10/29/bill-gates-talks-about-flipped-learning/

Alsowat, H. (2016). An EFL flipped classroom teaching model: Effects on English language higher-order thinking skills, student engagement and satisfaction. Journal of Education and Practice, 7 (9), 108–121.

Google Scholar  

Alvarado, M., Basinger, K., Lahijanian, B., & Alvarado, D. (2020). Teaching simulation to generation Z engineering students: Lessons learned from a flipped classroom pilot study, proceedings of 2020 winter simulation conference (WSC) (pp. 3248-3259). https://doi.org/10.1109/wsc48552.2020.9383950 .

Archambault, I., Janosz, M., Fallu, J. S., & Pagani, L. S. (2009). Student engagement and its relationship with early high school dropout. Journal of Adolescence, 32 (3), 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.06.007

Armstrong, P. (2020). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved 3 September 2020, from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/

Barnes & Noble College. (2016). Getting to know Gen Z: Exploring middle and high schoolers’ expectations for higher education. Retrieved 6/27/2021 from https://www.bncollege.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Gen-Z-Report.pdf

Bates, D., & Ludwig, G. (2020). Flipped classroom in a therapeutic modality course: Students’ perspective. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 15 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-020-00139-3 .

Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day. International Society for Technology in Education. ASCD.

Biju, S. M., Salau, A. O., Eneh, J. N., Sochima, V. E., & Ozue, I. T. G. (2020). A novel pre-class learning content approach for the implementation of flipped classrooms. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 11 (7), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.14569/IJACSA.2020.0110718

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Kratwol, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals handbook 1 cognitive domain . Longmans green and col LTD. Longmands, green and co LTD. https://doi.org/10.1300/J104v03n01_03

Book   Google Scholar  

Bodovski, K., & Farkas, G. (2007). Mathematics growth in early elementary school: The roles of beginning knowledge, student engagement, and instruction. Elementary School Journal, 108 (2), 115–130. https://doi.org/10.1086/525550

Brame, C. J. (2020). Flipping the classroom. Vanderbilt University. Retrieved 3 September 2020 from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/flipping-the-classroom/

Brewer, R., & Movahedazarhouligh, S. (2018). Successful stories and conflicts: A literature review on the effectiveness of flipped learning in higher education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34 (4), 409–416. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12250

Cao, L. T. T., & Swada, J. G. (2021). Effects of implementing flipped classroom elements and dynamic in-class discussion on student performance. Journal of Food Science Education, 20 (1), 48–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4329.12211

Carini, R., Kuh, G., & Klein, S. P. (2006). Student engagement and student learning: Testing the linkages student engagement and student learning: How can we characterize the linkages? Background. Research in Higher Education, 47 (1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-005-8150-9

Cheng, S.-C., Hwang, G.-J., & Lai, C.-L. (2020). Critical research advancements of flipped learning: A review of the top 100 highly cited papers. Interactive learning environments , 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1765395 .

Chicca, J., & Shellenbarger, T. (2018). Connecting with generation Z: Approaches in nursing education. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 13 (3), 180–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2018.03.008

Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., & Staker, H. (2013). Is K-12 Blended Learning Disruptive?: An Introduction of the Theory of Hybrids - Aurora Institute. Retrieved 3 September 2020, from https://aurora-institute.org/resource/is-k-12-blended-learning-disruptive-an-introduction-of-the-theory-of-hybrids/

Cross, K. P. (1999). What do we know about Students' learning and how do we know it? Innovative Higher Education, 23 (4), 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022930922969

Dimock, M. (2019). Defining generations: Where Millenials end and generation Z begins. Pew research center . Retrieved 6/27/2021 from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/

Deloitte. (2019). Welcome to Generation Z. Retrieved 6/27/2021 from https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/consumer-business/welcome-to-gen-z.pdf

Deslauriers, L., Schelew, E., & Wieman, C. (2011). Physics class. Science, 862 (May), 862–864. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201783

Edutopia. (2011). Salman khan on liberating the classroom for creativity (big thinkers series). Edutopia George Lucas Educational Foundation . https://www.edutopia.org/video/salman-khan-liberating-classroom-creativity-big-thinkers-series

Eison, J. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement creating excitement in the classroom . Univeristy of South Florida.

Fink, L. D. (2007). The power of course design to increase student engagement and learning. Peer Review, 9 (1), 13–17.

Fisher, R., Perényi, Á., & Birdthistle, N. (2018). The positive relationship between flipped and blended learning and student engagement, performance and satisfaction. Active learning in higher education , 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787418801702 .

Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , (pp 8410–8415). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111 .

Frydenberg, M. (2013). Flipping excel. Information systems education journal (ISEDJ) , 11 (February)(1), 63–73.

Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 7 (2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.02.001

Garrison, D. R., & Vaughan, N. D. (2008). Blended learning in higher education. Tomsk state pedagogical university bulletin . https://doi.org/10.23951/1609-624X-2020-1-86-93

Gilboy, M. B., Heinerichs, S., & Pazzaglia, G. (2015). Enhancing student engagement using the flipped classroom. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 47 (1), 109–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2014.08.008

Halasa, S., Abusalim, N., Rayyan, M., Constantino, R. E., Nassar, O., Amre, H., Sharab, M., & Qadri, I. (2020). Comparing student achievement in traditional learning with a combination of blended and flipped learning. Nursing Open, 7 (4), 1129–1138. https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.492

Hamdan, N., McKnight, P., McKnight, K., & Arfstrom, K. M. (2013). The flipped learning model: A white paper based on the literature review titled a review of flipped learning. Flipped learning network , (c), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.07.008 .

Hu, S., & Kuh, G. D. (2001). Being (dis)engaged in educationally purposeful activities: The influences of student and institutional characteristics. ERIC , 30. Retrieved 3 September 2020 from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED452776

Hung, H. T. (2015). Flipping the classroom for English language learners to foster active learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28 (1), 81–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2014.967701

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Karabulut-Ilgu, A., Cherrez, N. J., & Jahren, C. T. (2018). A systematic review of research on the flipped learning method in engineering education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49 (3), 398–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12548

Kozinsky, S. (2017). How Generation Z Is Shaping the Change in Education. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/sievakozinsky/2017/07/24/how-generation-z-is-shaping-the-change-in-education/?sh=1d2377b26520

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. American Journal of Psychology, 41 (4), 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4104

Mazur, E. (2013). The Flipped Classroom will redefine the role of educators. The Evolllution. https://evolllution.com/revenue-streams/distance_online_learning/audio-flipped-classroom-redefine-role-educators-10-years/

McDonald, P. L. (2013). Variation in Adult Learners’ Experiences in Blended Learning . (G. C, D. C, & P. AG, Eds.). Tayor and Francis. Retrieved 3 September 2020 from https://expert.gwu.edu/display/doc-43e7af7b521f5c897b2169ee37df715d

Meyliana. (2020). Flipped Data. Retrieved 5 October 2020, from https://b33research.blogspot.com/2020/10/flipped-data.html

Mendoza, K. R. (2018). Engaging generation Z: A case study on motivating the post-millennial traditional college student in the classroom (Doctoral dissertation, Johnson University).

Mohr, K. A. J., & Mohr, E. S. (2017). Understanding generation Z students to promote a contemporary learning environment. Journal on empowering teaching excellence, 1 (1), 9. https://doi.org/10.15142/T3M05T

Moore, K., Jones, C., & Frazier, R. S. (2017). Engineering education for generation Z. American Journal of Engineering Education (AJEE), 8 (2), 111–126. https://doi.org/10.19030/ajee.v8i2.10067

Pearson (2018). “What Do Generation Z and Millennials Expect from Technology in Education?”,

Pearson Blog (2021). Retrieved on June, 26, 2021 from https://www.pearson.com/ped-blogs/blogs/2018/05/generation-z-millennials-expect-technology-education.html

Peterson, D. J. (2016). The flipped classroom improves student achievement and course satisfaction in a statistics course: A quasi-experimental study. Teaching of Psychology, 43 (1), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628315620063

Petillion, R. J., & McNeil, W. S. (2020). Johnstone’s triangle as a pedagogical framework for flipped-class instructional videos in introductory chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 97 (6), 1536–1542. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b01105

Polly, Drew. Allman, Bohdana. R. Castro, Amanda. & Norwood, Jessica. (2018). Sociocultural perspectives of learning in west, R. E. foundations of learning and instructional design technology (1st ed.). EdTech Books. https://edtechbooks.org/lidtfoundations

Provitera, A. (2008). Millennials in college: How do we Mothfate them? From the Hispanic outlook in higher education. Retrieved 3 September 2020 from http://web20kmg.pbworks.com/f/Millennials+in+College+how+do+we+motivate+them.pdf

Rajabion, L. (2018). Generation Z students: Will they change our computer science and IT classrooms. Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, 16 (4), 8–12.

Roehl, A., Reddy, S. L., & Shannon, G. J. (2013). The flipped classroom: An opportunity to engage millennial students through active learning strategies. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences, 105 (2), 44–49.

Sánchez, S. P., Belmonte, J. L., Guerrero, A. J. M., & Núñez, J. A. L. (2019). Impact of educational stage in the application of flipped learning: A contrasting analysis with traditional teaching. Sustainability, 11 (21), 5968. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11215968

Sargent, J., & Casey, A. (2020). Flipped learning, pedagogy and digital technology: Establishing consistent practice to optimise lesson time. European Physical Education Review, 26 (1), 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X19826603

Savory, P., Goodburn, A., & Koenig Kellas, J. (2012). Measuring classroom engagement by comparing instructor expectations with students’ perceptions. Mountain Rise, 1–21. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/commstudiespapers / http://0-mountainrise.wcu.edu.wncln.wncln.org/index.php/MtnRise/article/view/162

Seemiller, C., & Grace, M. (2017). Generation Z: Educating and engaging the next generation of students. About Campus: Enriching the Student Learning Experience, 22 (3), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/abc.21293

Shibukawa, S., & Taguchi, M. (2019). Exploring the difficulty on students ’ preparation and the effective instruction in the flipped classroom. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 31 , 311–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-019-09220-3

Soliman, N. A. (2016). Teaching English for academic purposes via the flipped learning approach. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232 (April), 122–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.036

Steyn, Adriana & de Villiers, Carina & Jordaan, J. C. & Pitso, Tshegofatso. (2020). Connecting Generation Z Information Systems Students to Technology Through the Task-Technology Fit Theory. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35629-3_13

Talbert, R.. (2017). flipped learning a guide for higher education faculty. stylus publishing, LLC. Published, 9, 1689–1699.

The Economist. (2017). Generation Z is stressed, depressed, and exam-obsessed. Retrieved 6/27/2021 from https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2019/02/27/generation-z-is-stressed-depressed-and-exam-obsessed

Turner, A. (2015). Generation Z: Technology and social interest. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 71 (2), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1353/jip.2015.0021

Wang, K., & Zhu, C. (2019). MOOC-based flipped learning in higher education: Students’ participation, experience and learning performance. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16 (33), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0163-0

Zainuddin, Z., & Halili, S. H. (2016). Flipped classroom research and trends from different fields of study. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 17 (3), 313–340 https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i3.2274

Zainuddin, Z., Haruna, H., Li, X., Zhang, Y., & Chu, S. K. W. (2019). A systematic review of flipped classroom empirical evidence from different fields: What are the gaps and future trends? On the Horizon, 27 (2), 72–86. https://doi.org/10.1108/OTH-09-2018-0027

Zorn, R. L. (2017). Coming in 2017: A new generation of graduate students-the Z generation. College and University, 92 (1), 61.

Zuber, W. J. (2016). The flipped classroom, a review of the literature. Industrial and Commercial Training, 48 (2), 97–103. https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-05-2015-0039

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Information Systems Department, School of Information Systems, Bina Nusantara University, Jl. K. H. Syahdan No. 9, Kemanggisan/Palmerah, Jakarta, 11480, Indonesia

Meyliana &  Surjandy

Education Technology Program, University of Florida, Florida, USA

Bruno Sablan

Faculty of Computer Science, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, 16424, Indonesia

Achmad Nizar Hidayanto

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Meyliana .

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Meyliana, Sablan, B., Surjandy et al. Flipped learning effect on classroom engagement and outcomes in university information systems class. Educ Inf Technol 27 , 3341–3359 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10723-9

Download citation

Received : 29 December 2020

Accepted : 18 August 2021

Published : 24 September 2021

Issue Date : April 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10723-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Flipped learning
• Generation Z
• Student motivation
• Learning outcomes
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Open access
• Published: 09 April 2024

Flipped online teaching of histology and embryology with design thinking: design, practice and reflection

• Yan Guo 1 ,
• Xiaomei Wang 1 ,
• Yang Gao 1 ,
• Haiyan Yin 1 ,
• Qun Ma 1 &
• Ting Chen 2  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  388 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

77 Accesses

Metrics details

Flexible hybrid teaching has become the new normal of basic medical education in the postepidemic era. Identifying ways to improve the quality of curriculum teaching and achieve high-level talent training is a complex problem that urgently needs to be solved. Over the course of the past several semesters, the research team has integrated design thinking (DT) into undergraduate teaching to identify, redesign and solve complex problems in achieving curriculum teaching and professional talent training objectives.

This study is an observational research. A total of 156 undergraduate stomatology students from Jining Medical University in 2021 were selected to participate in two rounds of online flipped teaching using the design thinking EDIPT (empathy, definition, idea, prototype, and test) method. This approach was applied specifically to the chapters on the respiratory system and female reproductive system. Data collection included student questionnaires, teacher-student interviews, and exam scores. GraphPad Prism software was used for data analysis, and the statistical method was conducted by multiple or unpaired t test.

According to the questionnaire results, the flipped classroom teaching design developed using design thinking methods received strong support from the majority of students, with nearly 80% of students providing feedback that they developed multiple abilities during the study process. The interview results indicated that teachers generally believed that using design thinking methods to understand students' real needs, define teaching problems, and devise instructional design solutions, along with testing and promptly adjusting the effectiveness through teaching practices, played a highly positive role in improving teaching and student learning outcomes. A comparison of exam scores showed a significant improvement in the exam scores of the class of 2021 stomatology students in the flipped teaching chapters compared to the class of 2020 stomatology students, and this difference was statistically significant. However, due to the limitation of the experimental chapter scope, there was no significant difference in the overall course grades.

The study explores the application of design thinking in histology and embryology teaching, revealing its positive impact on innovative teaching strategies and students' learning experience in medical education. Online flipped teaching, developed through design thinking, proves to be an effective and flexible method that enhances student engagement and fosters autonomous learning abilities.

Peer Review reports

Research background and motivation

Histology is the study of the microstructure and related functions of the human body [ 1 ], while embryology studies the laws and mechanisms of ontogenesis and development; these two sciences are interrelated and self-contained [ 2 ]. As one of the important professional core programs of most medical specialties, Histology and Embryology (HE) has been an indispensable curriculum bridge between normal microstructure and pathological changes in tissue and organs.

The teaching targets of HE are mainly first-year undergraduate students in clinical medicine, psychiatry, stomatology, nursing, etc. The importance of fostering the development of empathy in undergraduate students is continuously emphasized in international recommendations for medical education [ 3 ]. Freshmen have a certain ability to think logically and analyse problems, but this ability is limited, and they have a yet to develop familiarity with scientific research hotspots. Moreover, they are often unaware of their creative potential, and this phenomenon often causes them to passively accept knowledge, and their autonomous learning ability and student participation in class are less than that of upperclassmen. These first year students face the need to develop scientific literacy and the ability to integrate theory with practice [ 4 ]. However, traditional teaching methods may have failed to fully meet students' need for a profound understanding of these abstract concepts, leading to challenges such as low interest in learning and inadequate knowledge absorption. Consequently, educators urgently need to seek innovative teaching strategies to enhance students' learning experience and academic performance.

In the information age, teacher teaching is no longer a simple superposition of knowledge and teaching methods but a fusion innovation of technology and teaching oriented to a more complex learning environment. The Teacher Standards issued by the American Educational Technology International Association note that the important role of future teachers is that of a "designer" [ 5 ]. DT combines a creative and innovative approach to dealing with complex problems, which serves as a valuable tool for those seeking to improve the challenging issues in medical education [ 6 ]. DT is a process of analysis that relies on the deconstruction of ideas and a creative process that relies on the construction of ideas. There are no judgements in DT. This eliminates the fear of failure and encourages maximum input and participation. Wild ideas are welcome since they often lead to the most creative solutions. Everyone is a designer, and DT is a way to apply design methodologies to any situation [ 5 ].

In the field of education, DT has been advocated as a means to promote the cultivation of innovative talent through innovative teaching methods. With the help of DT, and adhering learning as the concept in teaching, the transformation of teaching allows learners to explore real needs in real life scenes, to propose innovative solutions to meet those needs through teamwork, and to test the effectiveness of those solutions through prototype production. This process facilitates the further application of constructivism [ 7 ].

In the process of both conventional teaching and teaching innovation, the research team utilizes the “EDIPT” (Empathy, Define, Ideate, Prototype and TEST) DT theory [ 8 ] which originating in the Stanford University Design School to design teacher activities and student activities and select technical tools [ 9 ]. The basic process is shown in Fig.  1 . The team is very accustomed to consciously applying DT methodology when facing difficulties and challenges to consistently obtain the desired results [ 10 ]. This study sets the teaching objectives and plans of a large cycle (one semester) to guide the teaching implementation of a small cycle (one section or one chapter); Then, small-cycle teaching feedback and achievement accumulation promote the progress of large-cycle teaching to ensure the coherence, effectiveness and improvement of teaching reform. For example, the difficult problem in the process of cardiovascular system embryogenesis is atrial separation; the team uses cardboard and plastic film to construct room partition "products" [ 11 ] to provide vivid explanations and body movements for clearer explication. In another example, they integrate scattered knowledge points including cleavage, blastocyst formation and implantation into a unified narrative called "the initial journey." It solves the pain point that the dynamic abstraction of embryology knowledge is difficult to intuitively understand. The above are two examples of using EDIPT steps of design thinking to solve teaching pain points.

Problem solving steps incorporating DT

Research objectives and significance

In the 2021 Horizon Report: Teaching and Learning Edition, blended learning was once again selected as the key technology affecting the future development and practice of higher education [ 12 ], demonstrating great application potential. In this format, the teaching team adheres to the following practical principles to promote more blended learning courses to ensure high-quality outcomes [ 13 ]. In the recent period of epidemic prevention and control, effective online teaching combines asynchronous and synchronous delivery modes, addresses knowledge learning and ability development, and highlights interaction in teaching activities to improve the online teaching experience for both teachers and students and enhance the overall quality of online teaching. Online teaching is not simply an emergency measure taken during the epidemic but rather represents the future trend of education.

The aim of this study is to explore the application of design thinking in the teaching of histology and embryology courses. By investigating the impact of design thinking in the teaching process, we aim to gain a deeper understanding of the effects of this innovative teaching strategy on students' learning experience and academic performance, as well as its potential applications in medical education.

The significance of this research lies in its contribution to medical education with novel teaching methods and strategies. By incorporating design thinking, educators can better cater to students' learning needs and enhance their comprehension and mastery of the subject matter. Furthermore, this study contributes to the expansion of teaching research in the field of medical education, providing valuable insights for educational reform and improvements in teaching quality.

The analysis of the correlation between design thinking and this study

Design thinking plays a crucial role in formulating the educational reform. During the empathize phase, an in-depth understanding of teachers' and students' needs and challenges is achieved. This includes considering teachers' expectations and pedagogical beliefs, as well as students' learning styles and feedback, leading to a clear definition of the problem and setting specific objectives for the educational reform. In the define phase, the importance of improving teachers' pedagogical approaches and methods, and cultivating students' creative learning and competencies is underscored. This serves as the foundation for selecting appropriate teaching strategies and establishes the specific direction for incorporating design thinking in the flipped classroom model. During the ideate phase, innovative thinking is employed to explore diverse teaching strategies. For enhancing teachers' pedagogical approaches, approaches such as case-based teaching and collaborative learning are recommended to stimulate students' intrinsic motivation for active learning. For promoting students' creative learning and overall competencies, methods like project-based learning and critical thinking cultivation are considered to facilitate holistic student development. In the prototype phase, the devised teaching strategies are implemented in the flipped classroom setting. Continuous prototyping and rapid experimentation facilitate the collection of valuable feedback and data from students and teachers, enabling further optimization of the teaching strategies to align with the original intent of design thinking. Finally, in the test phase, a comprehensive evaluation of the teaching implementation is conducted. By collecting and analyzing data, the study delves deep into the impact of the educational reform on teachers' pedagogical beliefs and students' creative learning and overall competencies. This process provides crucial feedback and evidence for the ongoing improvement of the educational reform.

In conclusion, the selection of flipped classroom as a pedagogical strategy is closely guided by design thinking principles. Through the application of design thinking, this observational study aims to enhance teachers' pedagogical approaches and methods while fostering students' creative learning and overall competencies, thus promoting the successful implementation of the educational reform.”

Flipped classroom sessions can also allow learners to gain competence through their educational endeavours [ 14 ]. As Bransford writes, “To develop competence in an area, students must: a) have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application” [ 15 ]. Flipped classrooms can lead to competence in factual knowledge by fostering mastery of content through content understanding and application, as in traditional classrooms [ 16 ].

“O-PIRAS” Flipped classroom

The flipped classroom teaching model used in this study was formed and adjusted on the basis of Professor Jianpeng Guo's “O-PIRTAS” model. The flipped teaching mode can enable both teachers and students to acquire further abilities through teaching activities [ 17 ].

The first step(O: Objective) in flipped classroom teaching design is to formulate two types of teaching objectives: low level and high level. The lower level teaching objectives include two cognitive objectives from Bloom's classification of teaching objectives: the memory and understanding of knowledge, while the higher level teaching objectives include four cognitive objectives from Bloom's classification: application, analysis, evaluation and creation, as well as objectives pertaining to movement skills and emotion [ 18 ]. The second step is to design a preparation activity (P: Preparation) for students to complete before class, which helps students form necessary prior knowledge and stimulates their learning motivation by exploring relevant issues prior to the class [ 19 ]. The third step is for teachers to send teaching materials (I: Instructional video) to their students for pre-class learning to facilitate their early acquisition of knowledge [ 19 ]. Fourth, teaching is transferred from online classes to offline classes. The teacher briefly reviews (R: Review) the video content before class to help students quickly focus on and prepare for the next stage of learning both cognitively and psychologically. Fifth, teachers should design classroom activities (A: Activity) appropriate to high-level teaching objectives to promote in-depth learning and successfully achieve high-level objectives. Sixth, teachers should conduct classroom summaries (S: Summary), reflection and improvement to help students form integrated structured knowledge. The six steps of flipping the classroom link form a closed loop, which can be summarized as in Fig.  2 .

Process of “O-PIRAS” flipped teaching

Research method and data collection

Conveniently selecting 156 undergraduate students majoring in Dentistry from the 2021 cohort of Jining Medical University, we designated classes 1 to 3 as the class of 2021 stomatology students. As the class of 2020 stomatology students, we chose 155 undergraduate students majoring in Dentistry from the 2020 cohort, also from classes 1 to 3. Prior to the start of the study, we conducted communication sessions with both teachers and students, ensuring that all students were well-informed about the study and provided their consent. The two groups of students had the same course hours, faculty resources, learning materials, and learning spaces. The only difference was the application of design thinking methods in course and teaching design, including the implementation of flipped classroom teaching, specifically tailored for the 2021 cohort of students.

Data collection was conducted through various methods, including distributing questionnaires, conducting pre-, mid-, and post-research interviews, and recording course and corresponding chapter test scores. The implementation chapter selected the respiratory system, which plays a bridging role within histology, and the female reproductive system, which plays a transitional role between histology and embryology.

Before studying "Respiratory System", students have already mastered the basic methods of using design thinking to learn histology, and have a deep understanding of the four basic tissues and two types of organs (hollow and substantial organs). The main organs of the respiratory system—the trachea and lungs—belong to two types, respectively. The female reproductive system, as the concluding chapter of histology, is separated from the flipped classroom of the respiratory system by two weeks, leaving appropriate time for teachers to iteratively design and students to adapt to new methods. Four surveys were administered during the research process: Pre-flipped classroom survey for Chapter 16 "Respiratory System", Post-flipped classroom survey for Chapter 16 "Respiratory System", Pre-flipped classroom survey for Chapter 19 "Female Reproductive System", and Post-flipped classroom survey for Chapter 19 "Female Reproductive System", to gather student feedback and opinions on the teaching methods. The questionnaires were designed based on the research objectives and questions, and were refined through pre-testing to ensure clarity, accuracy, and appropriateness of the questions and options. The questionnaire mainly includes the following dimensions: ⑴Basic information of students, Q 1–3; ⑵ Learning and satisfaction: Q 4, What is the division of labor in your group in this cooperation? Q 7, About flipping class, how long will you spend studying before class? Q 6 Compared with the last flip class, are you satisfied with the teacher's teaching time in this flip class? Q 12, What are you most satisfied with this flip class? (3) Learning experience and ability improvement: Q 5, What kind of class learning form do you like best in flip class? Q 8, What are your learning pain points or difficulties after this flip class? Q 9, What abilities have you improved in this flip class? ⑷ Classroom Improvement and Feedback: Q 11, What are the advantages of this flip class compared with the last flip class? Q 10, In the course of embryo formation, do you like to use flip class for multiple course contents? Q13, What suggestions do you have for improving the embryo flipping class? Interviews were conducted at various stages, including before the study to understand teaching pain points, during the research process to gauge teachers' and students' attitudes and perspectives on the teaching activities, and after the study to obtain overall feedback. Additionally, we conducted both stage-specific and overall tests, and promptly collected relevant data for comparative analysis with the class of 2020 stomatology students. These data provided comprehensive insights into the performance and experiences of students in both the experimental and class of 2020 stomatology studentss.

Application of design thinking in course design

In course design, we employed design thinking methods to redesign the histology and embryology curriculum. Firstly, we gained a deep understanding of students' learning needs and interests to define course objectives and content. Secondly, we innovatively designed online materials and videos to enhance the appeal and practicality of the learning experience. We encouraged students to actively participate in discussions and problem-solving during class to unleash their creative potential. Additionally, we continuously optimized the teaching content and methods through iteration and feedback to ensure a sustained improvement in teaching effectiveness. Through the application of design thinking in course design, we expected to optimize the teaching process, enhance students' learning experiences, and improve their academic performance.

Design and implementation of flipped teaching

The HE course covers 22 chapters, totaling 60 h, including 44 h of theoretical classes and 16 h of practical classes. The theoretical teaching is roughly divided into three stages: the first stage consists of 12 h, focusing on introducing the four basic human tissues; the second stage comprises 18 h, covering the structure of human organs and systems; and the third stage spans 14 h, elucidating the process of human embryonic development. To facilitate a deep understanding and mastery of human tissue structures, four practical classes, each lasting 4 h, are incorporated to complement the theoretical content.

The entire course relies on a blended teaching approach, combining online and offline instruction, leveraging the resources of Shandong's top undergraduate course in HE, and utilizing the "Zhidao" flipped classroom tool. At the beginning of the course, the teachers introduce the purpose, teaching process, weekly plan, grading components, and assessment methods of incorporating design thinking into the blended HE teaching. The flipped classroom teaching for the class of 2021 stomatology students is set between two stage tests to investigate whether this innovative teaching method has an impact on students' test scores.

The teaching team consists of 4 associate professors and 3 lecturers, with an average teaching experience of 11.4 years in teaching nursing major foundation courses and possessing rich teaching experience. In addition, the project leader and team teachers have undergone multiple training sessions in design thinking innovation and systematic training in domestic and on-campus blended teaching theories.

At the beginning of the semester, the curriculum teaching plan should be formulated, and chapters suitable for flipped teaching should be selected according to the teaching plan” and content characteristics [ 20 ]. Teaching and research team members should jointly analyse the teaching content and formulate the flipped classroom syllabus [ 21 ], clarify teaching objectives (knowledge objectives, ability objectives and emotional objectives, i.e., low-order objectives and high-order objectives), develop chapter teaching plans and teaching courseware (traditional classrooms are obviously different from flipped classrooms) [ 22 ], record pre-class video (design the course content in a fragmented way and systematically present it in accordance with the teaching plan) [ 23 ], divide students into groups and engage with all students through “zhidao” teaching software and the QQ class committee. The specific design and implementation plan for the preparation of the above teaching materials for a flipped classroom course on the respiratory system. The teaching team seminar is held three weeks before the class.

While completing the preparation of teaching materials in accordance with the teaching plan, the team clarified what methods and tasks teachers and students should complete before and during the implementation of the flipped classroom so that everyone can understand the design intent of these teaching activities to facilitate more satisfactory teaching results.

Practice processes and instructional evaluation

The teaching design was discussed and approved by all members of the research team and used in the classroom teaching of respiratory system conversion with slightly modified specific content. One week before class, it was distributed through the zhizhuishu teaching platform to all the students [ 24 ] participating in flipped classroom teaching. The resources provided to students include preview materials, textbook chapters, courseware, videos, etc.; Preview questions, some questions related to preview materials, guide students to think and explore, stimulate learning interest and initiative; Learning objectives, clarify the knowledge objectives, ability objectives, and literacy objectives for pre class learning. In addition, there are also learning platforms (Wisdom Tree Online Course- https://coursehome.zhihuishu.com/courseHome/1000007885/199185/20#onlineCourse ),WeChat class group chat, learning community. In flipping the method of respiratory system class delivery, the team first tried to perform a complete flip of the class. At the beginning of the class, the teacher clarified six themes, and then the group spokespersons demonstrated their understanding of all the knowledge points, including key points and difficulties, in class by drawing lots. The teams provided feedback for each other. The teacher only played a guiding role in the activities involving the entirety of the class. After summarizing the classroom content, the teacher assigned homework, such as creating mind maps and engaging in thematic discussions on the learning platform, and distributed the questionnaire regarding the group pre-class preparations, classroom activities and learning experiences for the respiratory system flipped classroom. The questionnaire mainly consists of the following questions. How was the work divided among your team for this activity? What kind of in-class learning style do you like best in the flipped classroom? Compared with the last flipped classroom, are you satisfied with the length of teaching in this flipped classroom? How long do you spend on pre-class learning for a flipped class? What are your learning pain points or difficulties after this flipped lesson? What abilities have you improved in this flipped classroom? Are you satisfied with the length of lectures in this class compared with that in the last flipped class? What percentage of the course content do you prefer to be delivered by the flipped classroom model? Compared with the last flipped classroom, what are the advantages of this flipped classroom? What you are most satisfied with in this flipped lesson? Please offer suggestions for the improvement of your flipped class on embryos.

According to the steps and links involved in DT, when the “product” (teaching plan) is tested and problems are found, the design team should complete the iteration as soon as possible to better meet the needs of “customers” (students)[ 25 , 26 ]. Three days after the questionnaires, the teaching team adjusted the flipped classroom teaching design scheme for the Female Reproductive System course according to the questionnaire results, and arranged the pre-class tasks one week prior to the class, which differed from the previous class. Explanations of key points and difficult points were appropriately added to the teaching design, which did not depend on students as thoroughly as it had the last time, reducing the difficulty of the flipped classroom to a certain extent, improving students' level in participation, and improving the learning effect and teaching quality of the class.

A total of four questionnaires were distributed before and after the two flipped classes, and video recordings were made of the flipped classroom teaching process for a nursing and a stomatology class. Tencent conference recording instructions were issued by teachers. HE course scores consisted of three parts, including the usual score (30%), experimental score (10%) and final score (60%). The course scores of the 2021 nursing class and stomatology class were derived from the education management system of Jining Medical College, and the course scores of the nursing and stomatology majors who did not classes that had implemented online flipped classroom teaching in 2020 were derived as a control. Comparing the proportion of students in each of two grades, the total correct response rate of test questions, and the correct response rate of respiratory system and female reproductive system course test questions delivered through flipped classroom teaching were analysed using GraphPad Prism software through the statistical method of multiple or unpaired t tests.

Teaching strategies developed using design thinking methods improves multiple student abilities

According to the results of the questionnaire distributed before the beginning of the first flipped class, 51.2% of the students reported not understanding the new learning method and that they could not check the data, 21.6% of the students were not interested in flipped lessons and preferred traditional passive learning methods, 25.6% of the students said that they did not have strong self-control and were unwilling to take the initiative to learn, 56.8% of the students said that they had a great fear of speaking in front of their classmates and that their public speaking skills were not strong, and 46.4% of the students did not know how make suitable PowerPoint Presentation (PPT). After two sessions of flipped classroom learning, the majority of students felt that their pain points had been effectively solved and various abilities had been developed. The results of the question after the flipped classroom teaching of the female reproductive system are shown in Table  1 .

Positive feedback and growth experience of students in teaching strategies developed using design thinking methods

The informal discussion following the flipped lesson on the female reproductive system shows that compared with the "Teacher almost let go" response in the previous respiratory system flipping class, the students are more inclined to respond with "The teacher will solve the problems left in our preview," "Feedback is provided between groups, and the groups are complementary," "The teacher emphasizes the key points, explains the process in detail, and plays videos to consolidate knowledge," and " the teacher commented on the performance of the group speaker". The students thought that after two sessions of participation in a flipped classroom, "We are more active in learning and the classroom design is more live," and "The students are more involved and confident." "By applying design thinking to study the course of organizational design, I have found new learning methods and approaches, and successfully applied these learning methods to other courses, which has benefited me greatly."

The comparison results of grades

Under the premise that there is no significant difference in the difficulty of test questions and other criteria between the flipped and traditional classrooms, the class of 2021 stomatology students' course scores showed a slight improvement. However, there was no significant difference in the distribution of the number of students in each score segment compared to the class of 2020 stomatology students. In contrast, for the chapters that implemented flipped classroom teaching, specifically the respiratory system and female reproductive system chapters, the class of 2021 stomatology students' test scores showed a significant increase. The difference between the two groups was statistically significant. The details are depicted in Fig.  3 .

Distribution of final exam scores for the two graduating classes. A The proportion of students in different grades, no significant difference Statistical method: Multiple t tests. B Total accuracy, no significant difference. Statistical method: Unpaired test. C The accuracy of flipped classroom chapters, unpaired test, P  < 0.05. Mean ± SEM of column A 0.7075 ± 0.009587 N  = 3, Mean ± SEM of column B 0.7913 ± 0.02872 N  = 3

Firstly, significant achievements have been made in enhancing students' overall abilities through the application of design thinking methods in formulating flipped classroom teaching strategies. Preliminary surveys revealed various challenges faced by students before the commencement of the flipped classes, including difficulties in understanding new learning methods, lack of interest in flipped classes, low self-discipline, and fear of public speaking. However, after two sessions of flipped classroom learning, the majority of students believe that their pain points have been effectively addressed, and various skills have been developed. This aligns with the findings of previous research by Awan OA [ 15 ], indicating that the application of design thinking methods in teaching strategies can significantly enhance students' subject engagement and skill development.

Secondly, regarding the positive feedback and students' growth experiences in applying design thinking methods to formulate teaching strategies, there is a positive trend observed in informal discussions following the flipped classroom on the female reproductive system. Students tend to perceive a more proactive role played by teachers in the flipped classroom, addressing the issues they encountered during previewing. Students also highlighted the complementary feedback provided among groups, emphasizing the importance of teamwork. Additionally, students positively acknowledged the efforts of teachers in emphasizing key points, providing detailed explanations of processes, and reinforcing knowledge through video presentations. They believe that this teaching approach stimulates their interest in learning and enhances their motivation. This aligns with the findings of research by Scheer A [ 7 ] and Deitte LA [ 11 ], supporting the positive impact of design thinking methods in education.

Finally, the results of the performance comparison indicate that there is no significant difference between flipped classroom and traditional classroom based on criteria such as question difficulty. However, the overall grades of the 2021 cohort of dental medicine students have shown a slight improvement. Specifically, in the chapters on the respiratory and female reproductive systems within the flipped courses, the exam scores of the 2021 cohort students have significantly increased, and this difference is statistically significant. This suggests that the flipped classroom teaching formulated through design thinking methods has a significant positive impact on the development of subject-specific skills in specific chapters. This aligns with the relevant findings of Cheng X [ 1 ], further emphasizing the instructional advantages of design thinking methods in specific topics.

Main finding

The team used DT to reveal the pain point that flexible mixed teaching can not guarantee students' participation and the realization of teaching objectives, and the application of online flip classroom teaching solved this problem well Students play a leading role in this kind of teaching, so they need to devote more time and energy to preview textbooks and consult relevant materials before class to improve their autonomous learning ability It is helpful to cultivate team spirit in flip teaching in the form of group, which is helpful to cultivate team leadership and management ability. The main requirements of mixed teaching are to integrate pre-recorded videos into the course as a whole and provide online learning resources to supplement face-to-face teaching in an organized and selective way [ 27 ] As assessment expert Mag says, if you are teaching something that cannot be assessed, you are already in an awkward position-that is, you can't explain the teaching content clearly [ 28 ] Therefore, reasonable teaching objectives in mixed teaching can make teachers and students reach a common understanding and consensus on learning results, enhance emotional communication and resonance between teachers and students, and jointly promote the implementation of curriculum teaching. The successful implementation of online flip class needs certain network and students' enthusiasm and cooperation At the same time, teachers need to be particularly familiar with the curriculum to design lectures and targeted comments [ 29 ].

Limitations and future research

In this study, the respiratory system and female reproductive system in HE were selected as subjects for conducting flipped classroom teaching. The examination results shoe that although the overall course performance has not significantly improved, the accuracy of the chapter test questions in flipped classrooms significantly improved, which demonstrates that this teaching method can improve students' learning performance while cultivating their various abilities. It is worth expanding the scope of implementation to more chapters. However, not all chapters are suitable for flipped classroom teaching. Because the two chapters involved in this paper belong to the "organs and systems" module, it does not fully reflect the applicability of this research in this course. Some chapters of the basic tissue module and embryogenesis module are also the scope of our future teaching research In addition, what is the highest proportion of total course hours converted to flip teaching? All these problems need further study in the future. What is the most appropriate ratio of total course hours to convert into flipped teaching? These issues need to be further studied in the future.

When DT is introduced into education, evaluating students' learning and development becomes more important than evaluating students' design products or knowledge and ability. Changes in consciousness and attitude include whether they can fully participate in current cognitive activities, learn independently, communicate and cooperate, and continuously monitor and adjust themselves. By clarifying this guidance, we can formulate or select appropriate evaluation criteria through a literature review during the implementation of the project and adjust the subsequent research conditions in a timely manner according to the evaluation results.

Online flipped teaching is an effective way to integrate DT into the flexible and mixed teaching of HE, which can effectively enhance students' learning input and cultivate students' autonomous learning ability. This research aims to reshape the method of classroom teaching through the deep integration of modern information technology into pedagogical design. Future work should appropriately expand the scope of flipped teaching content and explore the appropriate proportion of course content. In the course design, various forms of cross-professional cooperation with clinical doctors should be increased as much as possible, and the contents of flipped classroom should be expanded from basic knowledge to clinical skills.

Through the application of design thinking in the teaching of histology and embryology courses, we have gained a deeper understanding of its positive impact on innovative teaching strategies, improvement of students' learning experience and academic performance, and the potential value it holds in medical education. We have discovered that the "product" developed through design thinking, namely online flipped teaching, serves as an effective and flexible blended teaching method. It not only enhances students' engagement in learning and fosters their autonomous learning abilities but also encourages both teachers and students to cultivate their innovative capabilities and reshape classroom teaching approaches. Moving forward, further exploration should be undertaken to determine the optimal balance for expanding the content of flipped teaching, to continually uncover its potential in medical education.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

Histology and Embryology

Design Thinking

Cheng X, Ka Ho Lee K, Chang EY, Yang X. The “flipped classroom” approach: Stimulating positive learning attitudes and improving mastery of histology among medical students. Anat Sci Educ. 2017;10(4):317–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1664 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Cheng X, Chan LK, Li H, Yang X. Histology and Embryology Education in China: The Current Situation and Changes Over the Past 20 Years. Anat Sci Educ. 2020;13(6):759–68. https://doi.org/10.1002/ase.1956 .

Magalhaes E, Salgueira AP, Costa P, Costa MJ. Empathy in senior year and first year medical students: a cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ. 2011;11:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6920-11-52 .

Boyd VA, Whitehead CR, Thille P, Ginsburg S, Brydges R, Kuper A. Competency-based medical education: the discourse of infallibility. Med Educ. 2018;52(1):45–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13467 .

Roberts JP, Fisher TR, Trowbridge MJ, Bent C. A design thinking framework for healthcare management and innovation. Healthc (Amst). 2016;4(1):11–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hjdsi.2015.12.002 .

Madson MJ. Making sense of design thinking: A primer for medical teachers. Med Teach. 2021;43(10):1115–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2021.1874327 .

Scheer A, Noweski C, Meinel C: Transforming Constructivist Learning into Action: Design Thinking in education. Design and Technology Education 2012, 17 3; https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332343908 Transforming Constructivist Learning into Action Design Thinking in education

Gottlieb M, Wagner E, Wagner A, Chan T. Applying Design Thinking Principles to Curricular Development in Medical Education. AEM Educ Train. 2017;1(1):21–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/aet2.10003 .

IDEO: Design Thinking for Educators Toolkit. https://www.ideo.com/work/toolkit-for-educators .

Badwan B, Bothara R, Latijnhouwers M, Smithies A, Sandars J. The importance of design thinking in medical education. Med Teach. 2018;40(4):425–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2017.1399203 .

Deitte LA, Omary RA. The Power of Design Thinking in Medical Education. Acad Radiol. 2019;26(10):1417–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2019.02.012 .

2021 EDUCAUSE Horizon Report® _ Teaching and Learning Edition

Chen M, Ye L, Weng Y. Blended teaching of medical ethics during COVID-19: practice and reflection. BMC Med Educ. 2022;22(1):361. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03431-6 .

Ge L, Chen Y, Yan C, Chen Z, Liu J. Effectiveness of flipped classroom vs traditional lectures in radiology education: A meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020;99(40):e22430. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000022430 .

Awan OA. The Flipped Classroom: How to Do it in Radiology Education. Acad Radiol. 2021;28(12):1820–1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2021.02.015 .

Sertic M, Alshafai L, Guimaraes L, Probyn L, Jaffer N. Flipping the Classroom: An Alternative Approach to Radiology Resident Education. Acad Radiol. 2020;27(6):882–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acra.2019.08.013 .

Guo J. The use of an extended flipped classroom model in improving students’ learning in an undergraduate course. J Comput High Educ. 2019;31(2):362–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-019-09224-z .

Adams NE. Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives. J Med Libr Assoc. 2015;103(3):152–3. https://doi.org/10.3163/1536-5050.103.3.010 .

Wagner KC, Byrd GD. Evaluating the effectiveness of clinical medical librarian programs: a systematic review of the literature. J Med Libr Assoc. 2004;92(1):14–33.

Google Scholar  

Vanka A, Vanka S, Wali O. Flipped classroom in dental education: A scoping review. Eur J Dent Educ. 2020;24(2):213–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/eje.12487 .

Eaton M. The flipped classroom. Clin Teach. 2017;14(4):301–2. https://doi.org/10.1111/tct.12685 .

Tang F, Chen C, Zhu Y, Zuo C, Zhong Y, Wang N, Zhou L, Zou Y, Liang D. Comparison between flipped classroom and lecture-based classroom in ophthalmology clerkship. Med Educ Online. 2017;22(1):1395679. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2017.1395679 .

Erbil DG. A Review of Flipped Classroom and Cooperative Learning Method Within the Context of Vygotsky Theory. Front Psychol. 2020;11:1157. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01157 .

Singh K, Mahajan R, Gupta P, Singh T. Flipped Classroom: A Concept for Engaging Medical Students in Learning. Indian Pediatr. 2018;55(6):507–12.

Gomez FC Jr, Trespalacios J, Hsu YC, Yang D. Exploring Teachers’ Technology Integration Self-Efficacy through the 2017 ISTE Standards. TechTrends. 2022;66(2):159–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-021-00639-z .

Wolcott MD, McLaughlin JE, Hubbard DK, Rider TR, Umstead K. Twelve tips to stimulate creative problem-solving with design thinking. Med Teach. 2021;43(5):501–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159X.2020.1807483 .

Bliuc A-M, Goodyear P, Ellis RA. Research focus and methodological choices in studies into students’ experiences of blended learning in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education. 2007;10(4):231–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2007.08.001 .

de Jong N, van Rosmalen P, Brancaccio MT, Bleijlevens MHC, Verbeek H, Peeters IGP. Flipped Classroom Formats in a Problem-Based Learning Course: Experiences of First-Year Bachelor European Public Health Students. Public Health Rev. 2022;43:1604795. https://doi.org/10.3389/phrs.2022.1604795 .

Qureshi SS, Larson AH, Vishnumolakala VR. Factors influencing medical students’ approaches to learning in Qatar. BMC Med Educ. 2022;22(1):446. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03501-9 .

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Jining Medical College and Shandong Provincial Education Department for support.

Undergraduate Teaching Reform Research Project of Shandong Provincial Education Department No. M2021364, M2022159. Research on classroom teaching reform key program in Jining Medical College [2022] No. 2022KT001.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

College of Basic Medicine, Jining Medical University, 133 Hehua Road, Jining, 272067, China

Yan Guo, Xiaomei Wang, Yang Gao, Haiyan Yin & Qun Ma

Academic Affair Office, Jining Medical University, 133 Hehua Road, Jining, 272067, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Yan G, Ting C: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing-original draft preparation. Xiaomei W, Yang G: Interview, Data curation, Formal Analysis. Haiyan Y, Qun M: Formal analysis, Writing-reviewing and editing. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ting Chen .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Research involving human participants, human material, or human data was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. All experimental protocols were approved by the Ethics Review Committee of Jining Medical University (No. JNMC-2020-JC-013). Informed consent was obtained from all subjects and/or their legal guardians. The consent was obtained in written form.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Guo, Y., Wang, X., Gao, Y. et al. Flipped online teaching of histology and embryology with design thinking: design, practice and reflection. BMC Med Educ 24 , 388 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05373-7

Download citation

Received : 23 February 2023

Accepted : 29 March 2024

Published : 09 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05373-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Flexible hybrid teaching
• Design thinking
• Flipped teaching
• Histology and embryology
• Basic Medical Education

BMC Medical Education

ISSN: 1472-6920

• Submission enquiries: [email protected]
• General enquiries: [email protected]