Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.
- View all journals
- Explore content
- About the journal
- Publish with us
- Sign up for alerts
After fourteen years of writing for Nature Nanotechnology , Chris Toumey reflects on the role of experts in Science and Technology Studies in his last contribution to the journal.
- Chris Toumey
Social systems for technology
In reviewing a recent book, Chris Toumey reflects on the impact that social networks can have on the development of a number of technologies.
Nanoscale nights of COVID-19
As the spread of SARS-CoV-2 has triggered worldwide closures of research labs and facilities, Kostas Kostarelos shares his views on what may be going wrong in the fight against COVID-19 and how the nanoscience community could and should contribute.
- Kostas Kostarelos
Notes on environmental nanoscience
Although we seem to understand how nanoscience can impact the environment, we seem to be far off using nanotechnology for environmental remediation, says Chris Toumey.
Religious reactions to new technologies
Chris Toumey explores the way in which reactions to nanotechnology from different religious denominations can be translated to other emerging technologies.
Engineering students visit a nano centre
Visiting a research centre specialized in nanoscience and nanotechnology can be an inspiration for students in other disciplines, as Chris Toumey explains.
Later voices on ethics in nanotechnology
Chris Toumey continues his journey through ethics in nanotechnology by examining literature published in the past decade.
Early voices for ethics in nanotechnology
Chris Toumey reflects on the inhomogeneity of the concept of ethics applied to nanoscience and nanotechnology.
Tales of the structures of molecules
Through an overview of James Watson’s recounting of the discovery of the structure of DNA, Chris Toumey illustrates the value to be found in the stories of the interaction among scientists behind great scientific discoveries.
Let there be nano
Some scientific disciplines originate from a single event. This is not the case for nanotechnology, says Chris Toumey.
Chris Toumey explores the potential of sound as a way to investigate nature at the nanoscale.
Denominational interpretations of nanotech
Religious people tend to have a different view of nanotechnology than non-religious people. Chris Toumey explores whether there are also different views between different religious groups.
Reality, fantasy and civility in molecular assemblers
Chris Toumey revisits the 2003 exchange of opinions between Eric Drexler and Richard Smalley, which was one of the most colourful disagreements in the history of nanotechnology.
Science policy in the days of Trump
Chris Toumey explains why the actions on science policy taken so far by the current US administration are cause for concern.
Why do we see history so differently?
Chris Toumey illustrates how different groups of people involved with nanotechnology have different views on the history of the field and feel differently about its importance.
Playing and laughing among the molecules
Chris Toumey reflects on the fun, and not only, provided by nanotechnology in the digital world, as illustrated by Colin Milburn in Mondo Nano .
From nano machines to Nobel prizes
Chris Toumey ponders the nanotechnology behind the 2016 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
'Safe handling of nanotechnology' ten years on
In 2006, a group of scientists proposed five grand challenges to support the safe handling of nanotechnology. Ten years on, Andrew Maynard and Robert Aitken — two of the original authors — look at where we have come, and where we still need to go.
- Andrew D. Maynard
- Robert J. Aitken
The long way to the market
Nanotechnology is starting to play a role in a number of commercial products, though in an evolutionary, rather than revolutionary way, says Peter Dobson .
- Peter Dobson
Anniversary thoughts
Chris Toumey reflects on his contribution to Nature Nanotechnology since its launch.
Quick links
- Explore articles by subject
- Guide to authors
- Editorial policies
Nanomaterials: a review of synthesis methods, properties, recent progress, and challenges
First published on 24th February 2021
Nanomaterials have emerged as an amazing class of materials that consists of a broad spectrum of examples with at least one dimension in the range of 1 to 100 nm. Exceptionally high surface areas can be achieved through the rational design of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials can be produced with outstanding magnetic, electrical, optical, mechanical, and catalytic properties that are substantially different from their bulk counterparts. The nanomaterial properties can be tuned as desired via precisely controlling the size, shape, synthesis conditions, and appropriate functionalization. This review discusses a brief history of nanomaterials and their use throughout history to trigger advances in nanotechnology development. In particular, we describe and define various terms relating to nanomaterials. Various nanomaterial synthesis methods, including top-down and bottom-up approaches, are discussed. The unique features of nanomaterials are highlighted throughout the review. This review describes advances in nanomaterials, specifically fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon quantum dots, nanodiamonds, carbon nanohorns, nanoporous materials, core–shell nanoparticles, silicene, antimonene, MXenes, 2D MOF nanosheets, boron nitride nanosheets, layered double hydroxides, and metal-based nanomaterials. Finally, we conclude by discussing challenges and future perspectives relating to nanomaterials.
1. Introduction
The term nanometer was first used in 1914 by Richard Adolf Zsigmondy. 5 The American physicist and Nobel Prize laureate Richard Feynman introduced the specific concept of nanotechnology in 1959 in his speech during the American Physical Society's annual meeting. This is considered to be the first academic talk about nanotechnology. 5 He presented a lecture that was entitled “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom”. During this meeting, the following concept was presented: “why can’t we write the entire 24 volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin?” The vision was to develop smaller machines, down to the molecular level. 6,7 In this talk, Feynman explained that the laws of nature do not limit our ability to work at the atomic and molecular levels, but rather it is a lack of appropriate equipment and techniques that limit this. 8 Through this, the concept of modern technology was seeded. Due to this, he is often considered the father of modern nanotechnology. Norio Taniguchi might be the first person who used the term nanotechnology, in 1974. Norio Taniguchi stated: “nano-technology mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule.” 5,9 Before the 1980s, nanotechnology remained only an area for discussion, but the concept of nanotechnology was seeded in the minds of researchers with the potential for future development.
The invention of various spectroscopic techniques sped up research and innovations in the field of nanotechnology. IBM researchers developed scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) in 1982, and with STM it became feasible to attain images of single atoms on “flat” ( i.e. , not a tip) surfaces. 10 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was invented in 1986, and it has become the most crucial scanning probe microscope technique. 11 The motivation to develop hard discs with high storage density stimulated the measurement of electrostatic and magnetic forces. This led to the development of Kelvin-probe-, electrostatic-, and magnetic-force microscopy. 12 Currently, nanotechnology is rapidly evolving and becoming part of almost every field related to materials chemistry. The field of nanotechnology is evolving every day, and now powerful characterization and synthesis tools are available for producing nanomaterials with better-controlled dimensions.
Nanotechnology is an excellent example of an emerging technology, offering engineered nanomaterials with the great potential for producing products with substantially improved performances. 13 Currently, nanomaterials find commercial roles in scratch-free paints, surface coatings, electronics, cosmetics, environmental remediation, sports equipment, sensors, and energy-storage devices. 14 This review attempts to provide information in a single platform about the basic concepts, advances, and trends relating to nanomaterials via covering the related information and discussing synthesis methods, properties, and possible opportunities relating to the broad and fascinating area of nanomaterials ( Scheme 1 ). It is not easy to cover all the literature related to nanomaterials, but important papers from history and the current literature are discussed in this review. This review provides fundamental insight for researchers, quickly capturing the advances in and properties of various classes of nanomaterials in one place.
2. Descriptions of terms associated with nanomaterials
3. approaches for the synthesis of nanomaterials, 3.1. top-down approaches.
The conditions under which arc discharge takes place play a significant role in achieving new forms of nanomaterials. The conditions under which different carbon-based nanomaterials are formed via the arc discharge method are explained in Fig. 6 . Various carbon-based nanomaterials are collected from different positions during the arc discharge method, as their growth mechanisms differ. 44 MWCNTs, high-purity polyhedral graphite particles, pyrolytic graphite, and nano-graphite particles can be collected from either anode or cathode deposits or deposits at both electrodes. 46–48 Apart from the electrodes, carbon-based nanomaterials can also be collected from the inner chamber. Different morphologies of single-wall carbon nanohorns (SWCNHs) can be obtained under different atmospheres. For example, ‘dahlia-like’ SWCNHs are produced under an ambient atmosphere, whereas ‘bud-like’ SWCNHs are generated under CO and CO 2 atmospheres. 49 The arc discharge method can be used to efficiently achieve graphene nanostructures. The conditions present during the synthesis of graphene can affect its properties. Graphene sheets prepared via a hydrogen arc discharge exfoliation method are found to be superior in terms of electrical conductivity and have good thermal stability compared to those obtained via argon arc discharge. 50
3.2. Bottom-up approaches
The hard template method is also called nano-casting. Well-designed solid materials are used as templates, and the solid template pores are filled with precursor molecules to achieve nanostructures for required applications ( Fig. 10 ). 78 The selection of the hard template is critical for developing well-ordered mesoporous materials. It is desirable that such hard templates should maintain a mesoporous structure during the precursor conversion process, and they should be easily removable without disrupting the produced nanostructure. A range of materials has been used as hard templates, not limited to carbon black, silica, carbon nanotubes, particles, colloidal crystals, and wood shells. 85 Three main steps are involved in the synthetic pathway for obtaining nanostructures via templating methods. In the first step, the appropriate original template is developed or selected. Then, a targeted precursor is filled into the template mesopores to convert them into an inorganic solid. In the final step, the original template is removed to achieve the mesoporous replica. 86 Via using mesoporous templates, unique nanostructured materials such as nanowires, nanorods, 3D nanostructured materials, nanostructured metal oxides, and many other nanoparticles can be produced. 87 From this brief discussion, it can be seen that a wide range of unique structured nanomaterials can be produced using soft and hard template methods.
4. Unique nanomaterial features
The electronic properties of semiconductors in the 1–10 nm range are controlled by quantum mechanical considerations. Thus, nanospheres with diameters in the range of 1–10 nm are known as quantum dots. The optical properties of nanomaterials such as quantum dots strongly depend upon their shape and size. 96 A photogenerated electron–hole pair has an exciton diameter on the scale of 1–10 nm. Thus, the absorption and emission of light by semiconductors could be controlled via tuning the nanoparticle size in this range. However, in the case of metals, the mean free path of electrons is ∼10–100 nm and, due to this, electronic and optical effects are expected to be observed in the range of ∼10–100 nm. The colors of aqueous solutions of metal nanoparticles can be changed via changing the aspect ratio. Aqueous solutions of Ag NPs show different colors at different aspect ratios. A red shift in the absorption band appears with an increase in the aspect ratio ( Fig. 12 ). 21
Among a range of unique properties, the following key properties can be obtained upon tuning the sizes and morphologies of nanomaterials.
4.1. Surface area
4.2. magnetism, 4.3. quantum effects, 4.4. high thermal and electrical conductivity, 4.5. excellent mechanical properties, 4.6. excellent support for catalysts, 4.7. antimicrobial activity.
Overall, these features have made nanoscale materials valuable for a wide range of applications, substantially boosting the performances of various devices and materials in a number of fields. Details of various nanomaterials, their properties, and applications in various fields will be discussed below.
5. Nanomaterials, characteristics, and applications
5.1. special carbon-based nanomaterials.
In the carbon-based nanomaterial family, fullerenes were the first symmetric material, and they provided new perspectives in the nanomaterials field. This led to the discovery of other carbon-based nanostructured materials, such as carbon nanotubes and graphene. 110 Fullerenes are present in nature and interstellar space. 111 Interestingly, fullerenes were the molecule of the year in 1991 and attracted the most research projects compared to other scientific subjects during that period. 112 Fullerenes possess several unique features that make them attractive for applications in different fields. Fullerenes display solubility to some extent in a range of solvents, and these characteristics make them unique compared to the other allotropes of carbon. 108
The chemical modification of fullerenes is an exciting subject, improving their effectiveness for applications. There are two main ways to modify fullerenes: 113 fullerene inner-space modification, and fullerene outer-surface modification.
Endohedral and exohedral doping examples are shown in Fig. 13 . 114 Fullerenes are hollow cages, and the interior acts as a robust nano-container for host target species when forming endohedral fullerene. 115 Endohedral fullerenes do not always follow the isolated pentagon rule (IPR). 116 To date, fullerene nanocages have received substantial consideration in the materials chemistry field due to their useful potential applications. Neutral and charged single atoms in free space are highly reactive and unstable. In the confined environment of fullerenes, these reactive species can be stabilized; for example, the LaC 60 + ion does not react with the NH 3 , O 2 , H 2 , or NO. Thus, reactive metals can be protected from the surrounding environment by trapping them inside fullerene cages. 117 Another emerging carbon nanomaterial is endohedral fullerene containing lithium (Li@C 60 ). 118 Lithium metal is very reactive, and extreme controlled environmental conditions are required to preserve or use it. In other words, secure structures are required for lithium storage. Li-Based endohedral fullerene shows unique solid-state properties. The encapsulation of lithium atoms in fullerene helps to protect lithium atoms from external agents. Li-Based endohedral fullerenes have the potential to open the door to nanoscale lithium batteries. 119 For the development of endohedral metallofullerenes, larger fullerenes are generally required, as they possess large cages to accommodate lanthanide and transition metal atoms more smoothly. 118 Fullerene nanocages are useful for the storage of gases. Fullerene is under consideration for hydrogen storage. 120,121
Exohedral fullerenes carry more potential for applications as outer surfaces can be more easily modified or functionalized. The exohedral doping of metals into fullerenes strongly affects the electronic properties via shifting electrons from the metal to the fullerene nanocage. 122 The practical application of fullerenes can be achieved with tailor-made fullerene derivatives via chemical functionalization. As fullerene chemistry has matured, a wide range of functionalized fullerenes has been realized through simple synthetic routes. 123 The combination of hydrogen-bonding motifs and fullerenes has allowed the modulation of 1D, 2D, and 3D fullerene-based architectures. 124 The excellent electron affinities of fullerenes have shown great potential for eliminating reactive oxygen species. The presence of excess reactive oxygen species can cause biological dysfunction or other health issues. The surfaces of fullerenes have been functionalized via mussel-inspired chemistry and Michael addition reactions for the fabrication of C 60 –PDA–GSH. The developed C 60 –PDA–GSH nanoparticles demonstrated excellent potential for scavenging reactive oxygen species. 125
Amphiphiles have great importance in industrial processes and daily life applications. Amphiphilic molecules consist of hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts, and they perform functions in water via forming two- and three-dimensional assemblies. Recently, conical fullerene amphiphiles 126 have emerged as a new class of amphiphiles, in which a nonpolar apex is supplied by fullerenes and a hydrophilic part is achieved through functionalization. The selective functionalization of the fullerene on one side helps to achieve a supramolecule due to unique interfacial behavior. The unique supramolecular structure formed via the spontaneous assembly of one-sided selectively functionalized fullerenes through strong hydrophobic interactions between the fullerene apexes and polar functionalized portions is soluble in water. Conical fullerene amphiphiles are mechanically robust. Via upholding the structural integrity, conical fullerene amphiphiles can be readily aggregated with nanomaterials and biomolecules to form multicomponent agglomerates with controllable structural features. 127 Fullerenes, after suitable surface modification, have excellent potential for use in drug delivery, but there have only been limited explorations of their drug delivery applications. 128,129 Fullerene-based nano-vesicles have been developed for the delayed release of drugs. 130 Water-soluble proteins have great potential in the field of nanomedicine. The water-soluble cationic fullerene, tetra(piperazino)[60] fullerene epoxide (TPFE), has been used for the targeted delivery of DNA and siRNA specifically to the lungs. 131 For diseases in lungs or any other organ, efficient treatment requires the targeted delivery of active agents to a targeted place in the organ. The accumulation of micrometer-sized carriers in the lung makes lung-selective delivery difficult, as this may induce embolization and inflammation in the lungs. Size-controlled blood vessel carrier vehicles have been developed using tetra(piperazino)fullerene epoxide (TPFE). TPFE and siRNA agglutinate in the bloodstream with plasma proteins and, as a result, micrometer-sized particles are formed. These particles clog the lung capillaries and release siRNA into lungs cells; after siRNA delivery, they are immediately cleared from the lungs ( Fig. 14 ). 132
The supramolecular organization of fullerene (C 60 ) is a unique approach for producing shape-controlled moieties on the nano-, micro-, and macro-scale. Nano-, micro-, and macro-scale supramolecular assemblies can be controlled via manipulating the preparation conditions to achieve unique optoelectronic properties. 133 The development of well-ordered and organized 1D, 2D, and 3D fullerene assemblies is essential for achieving advanced optical and organic-based electronic devices. 134 Fullerene-based nanostructured materials with new dimensions are being developed from zero-dimensional fullerene and tuned to achieve the desired characteristics. 1D C 60 fullerene nanowires have received substantial attention over other crystalline forms due to their excellent features of potential quantum confinement effects, low dimensionality, and large surface areas. 135
Carbon nanomaterials are also used as supports for catalysts, and the main reasons to use them are their high surface areas and electrical conductivities. Carbon supports strongly influence the properties of metal nanoparticles. In fuel cells, the carbon support strongly affects the stability, electronic conductivity, mass transport properties, and electroactive surface area of the supported catalyst. 136 In fuel cells, the degradation of some catalysts, such as platinum-based examples, and carbon is correlated and reinforced as a result of both being present. Carbon support oxidation is catalyzed by platinum and the oxidation of carbon accelerates platinum-catalyst release. Overall, this results in a loss of catalytically active surface area. 137 Fullerenes are considered suitable support materials due to their excellent electrochemical activities and stability during electrochemical reactions. 138 Due to their high stability and good conductivity, fullerenes can replace conventional carbon as catalyst support materials. Fullerenes are also used for the development of efficient solar cells. 139
Apart from the applications mentioned above, fullerenes have a broader spectrum of applications where they can be used to improve outcomes considerably. Fullerenes have the potential to be used in the development of superconductors. 140 The strong covalent bonds in fullerenes make them useful nanomaterials for improving the mechanical properties of composites. 141 The combination of fullerenes with polymers can result in good flame-retardant and thermal properties. 142 Fullerenes and their derivatives are used for the development of advanced lubricants. They are used as modifiers for greases and individual solid lubricants. 138 Fullerenes have tremendous medicinal importance due to their anticancer, antioxidant, anti-bacterial, and anti-viral activities. 104
Fullerenes are vital members of the carbon-based nanomaterial family and they certainly possess exceptional properties. This discussion further emphasizes their importance for advanced applications. However, the discovery of other carbon-based nanomaterials has put fullerenes in the shade, and the pace of their exploration has been reduced. As fullerenes are highly symmetrical molecules with unique properties, they can act as performance boosters, but more attention is needed from researchers for their practical expansion. 110
Single-walled carbon nanotubes consist of a seamless one-atom-thick graphitic layer, in which carbon atoms are connected through strong covalent bonds. 146 Double-walled carbon nanotubes consist of two single-walled carbon nanotubes. One carbon nanotube is nested in another nanotube to construct a double-walled carbon nanotube. 147 In multi-walled carbon nanotubes, multiple sheets of single-layer carbon atom are rolled up. In other words, many single-walled carbon nanotubes are nested within each other. From different types of nanotubes, it can be concluded that the nanotubes may consist of one, tens, or hundreds of concentric carbon shells, and these shells are separated from each other with a distance of ∼0.34 nm. 148 Carbon nanotubes can be synthesized via chemical vapor deposition, 149 laser ablation, 150 arc-discharge, 143 and gas-phase catalytic growth. 151
Single-walled carbon nanotubes display a diameter of 0.4 to 2 nm. The inner wall distance between double-walled carbon nanotubes was found to be in the range of 0.33 to 0.42 nm. MWCNT diameters are usually in the range of 2–100 nm, and the inner wall distance is about 0.34 nm. 147,152 However, it is essential to note that the diameters and lengths of carbon nanotubes are not well defined, and they depend on the synthesis route and many other factors. The electrical conductivities of SWCNTs and MWCNTs are about 10 2 –10 6 S cm −1 and 10 3 –10 5 S cm −1 , respectively. SWCNTs and MWCNTs also display excellent thermal conductivities of ∼6000 W m −1 K −1 and ∼2000 W m −1 K −1 , respectively. CNTs remain stable in air at temperatures higher than 600 °C. 153 These properties indicate that CNTs have obvious advantages over graphite.
Single-walled carbon nanotubes can display metallic or semiconducting behavior. Whether carbon nanotubes show metallic or semiconducting behavior depends on the diameter and helicity of the graphitic rings. 154 The rolling of graphene sheets leads to three different types of CNTs: chiral, armchair, and zigzag ( Fig. 15 ). 155
Carbon nanotubes demonstrate some amazing characteristics that make them valuable nanomaterials for possible practical applications. Theoretical and experimental studies of carbon nanotubes have revealed their extraordinary tensile properties. J. R. Xiao et al. used an analytical molecular structural mechanics model to predict SWCNT tensile strengths of 94.5 (zigzag nanotubes) and 126.2 (armchair nanotubes) GPa. 156 In another study, the Young's modulus and average tensile strength of millimeter-long multi-walled carbon nanotubes were analyzed and found to be 34.65 GPa and 0.85 GPa, respectively. 157 Carbon nanotubes possess a high aspect ratio. Due to their high tensile strength, carbon nanotubes are used to enhance the mechanical properties of composites.
Carbon nanotubes have become an important industrial material and hundreds of tonnes are produced for applications. 158 Their high tensile strength and high aspect ratio have made carbon nanotubes an ideal reinforcing agent. 159 Carbon nanotubes are lightweight in nature and are used to produce lightweight and biodegradable nanocomposite foams. 160 The structural parameters of carbon nanotubes define whether they will be semiconducting or metallic in nature. This property of carbon nanotubes is considered to be effective for their use as a central element in the design of electronic devices such as rectifying diodes, 161 single-electron transistors, 162 and field-effect transistors. 163 The chemical stability, nano-size, high electrical conductivity, and amazing structural perfection of carbon nanotubes make them suitable for electron field emitter applications. 164 The unique set of mechanical and electrochemical properties make CNTs a valuable smart candidate for use in lithium-ion batteries. 165 CNTs have the full potential to be used as a binderless free-standing electrode for active lithium-ion storage. CNT-based anodes can have reversible lithium-ion capacities exceeding 1000 mA h g −1 , and this is a substantial improvement compared with conventional graphite anodes. In short, the following factors play a role in controlling and optimizing the performances of CNT-based composites: 166 (i) the volume fraction of carbon nanotubes; (ii) the CNT orientation; (iii) the CNT matrix adhesion; (iv) the CNT aspect ratio; and (iv) the composite homogeneity.
For some applications, a proper stable aqueous dispersion of CNTs at a high concentration is pivotal to allow the system to perform its function efficiently and effectively. 167 One of the major issues associated with carbon nanotubes is their poor dispersion in aqueous media due to their hydrophobic nature. Clusters of CNTs are formed due to van der Waals attraction, π–π stacking, and hydrophobicity. The CNT clusters, due to their strong interactions, hinder solubility or dispersion in water or even organic-solvent-based systems. 168 This challenging dispersion associated with CNTs has limited their use for promising applications, such as in biomedical devices, drug delivery, cell biology, and drug delivery. 167 Carbon nanotube applications and inherent characteristics can be further tuned via suitable functionalization. The functionalization of carbon nanotubes helps scientists to manipulate the properties of carbon nanotubes and, without functionalization, some properties are not attainable. 169 The functionalization of nanotubes can be divided into two main categories: covalent functionalization and non-covalent functionalization.
The heating of CNTs under strongly acidic and oxidative conditions results in the formation of oxygen-containing functionalities. These functional groups, such as carboxylic acid, react further with other functional groups, such as amines or alcohols, to produce amide or ester linkages on the carbon nanotubes. 172 One of the main issues preventing the utilization of CNTs for biomedical applications is their toxicity. The cytotoxicity of pristine carbon nanotubes can be reduced via introducing carbonyl, –COOH, and –OH functional groups. Apart from functionalization through oxidized CNTs, the direct functionalization of CNTs is also possible. However, direct functionalization requires more reactive species to directly react with the CNTs, such as free radicals. Addition reactions to CNTs can cause a transformation from sp 2 hybridization to sp 3 hybridization at the point of addition. At the point where functionalization has taken place, the local bond geometry is changed from trigonal planar to tetrahedral geometry. Some addition reactions to the sidewalls of CNTs are shown in Fig. 16 . 155
It is important to discuss how the covalent functionalization of carbon nanotubes comes at the price of the degradation of the carbon sp 2 network. This substantially affects the electronic, thermal, and optoelectronic properties of the carbon nanotubes. 169 Efforts are being made to introduce a new method of covalent functionalization that can keep the π network of CNTs intact. Antonio Setaro et al. introduced a new [2+1] cycloaddition reaction for the non-destructive, covalent, gram-scale functionalization of single-walled carbon nanotubes. The reaction rebuilds the extended π-network, and the carbon nanotubes retained their outstanding quantum optoelectronic properties ( Fig. 17 ). 173
Polymers are frequently combined with CNTs to enhance their dispersion capabilities. Polymers interact with CNTs through CH–π and π–π interactions. 174 Hexanes and cycloalkanes are poor CNT solvents but the good solubility or dispersion of CNTs in these solvents is required for surface coating applications. Poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) macromer-grafted polymers have been prepared using PDMS macromers and pyrene-containing monomers that strongly adsorb on CNTs, thus improved the solubility of CNTs in chloroform and hexane. 176 The use of head–tail surfactants is another attractive way to achieve a fine dispersion of CNTs in an aqueous medium. In head–tail surfactants, the tail is hydrophobic and interacts with the CNT sidewalls, and the hydrophilic head groups interact with the aqueous environment to provide a fine dispersion. 177
For electrical applications, non-covalently functionalized CNTs are more preferred because the electrical properties of the CNTs are not compromised. CNTs have been non-covalently functionalized with a variety of biomolecules for the fabrication of electrochemical biosensors. 175 Non-covalently functionalized SWCNTs are used for energy applications. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have been non-covalently functionalized with 3d transition metal( II ) phthalocyanines, lowering the potential of the oxygen evolution reaction by approximately 120 mV compared with unmodified SWCNTs. 178 The toxicity of pristine CNTs toward living organisms can be lessened via using surfactant-functionalized CNTs. 170 However, in some cases, during polymer non-covalent functionalization, the polymer may wrap CNT bundles and make it difficult to separate the CNTs from each other. Polymers can develop into insulating wrapping that affects the CNT conductivity.
In the literature, several graphene-related materials have been reported, such as graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide. 187 Among graphenoids, graphene oxide is a more reported and explored graphene-related material as a precursor for chemically modified graphene. The synthetic route to graphene oxide is straightforward, and it is synthesized from inexpensive graphite powder that is readily available. 188 Graphene oxide has many oxygen-containing functional groups, such as epoxy, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and carbonyl groups. The basal plane of graphene oxide is generally decorated with epoxide and hydroxyl groups, whereas the edges presumably contain carboxyl- and carbonyl-based functional groups. 189 The presence of active functional groups in graphene oxide allows its further functionalization with different polymers, small organic compounds, or other nanomaterials to realize several applications. 190
Graphene oxide, due to its oxygen functionality, is insulating in nature and displays poor electrochemical performance. The presence of oxygen functionalities in graphene oxide breaks the conjugated structure and localizes the π-electron network, resulting in poor carrier mobility and carrier concentration. 196 Its electrochemical performance is improved substantially after removing the oxygen-containing functional groups. 197 These functional groups can be removed or reduced via thermal, electrochemical, and chemical means. The product obtained after removing or reducing oxygen moieties is called reduced graphene oxide. The properties of reduced graphene oxide depend upon the effective removal of oxygen moieties from graphene oxide. The process used to remove oxygen-containing functionalities from graphene oxide will determine the extent to which reduced the properties of graphene oxide resemble pristine graphene. 198
Reduced graphene oxide is extensively used to improve the performances of various electrochemical devices. 199 It is essential to mention that even after reducing graphene oxide, some residual sp 3 carbon bonded to oxygen still exists, which somehow disturbs the movement of charge through the delocalized electronic cloud of the sp 2 carbon network. 200 Apart from this, the electrochemical activity of reduced graphene oxide is substantially high enough to manufacture electrochemical devices with improved performances. Recently, the demand for super-performance electrochemical devices has increased to overcome modern challenges relating to electronics and energy-storage devices. 201 Graphene-based materials are considered to be excellent electrode materials, and they can be proved to be revolutionary for use in energy-storage devices such as supercapacitors (SC) and batteries. Graphene-based electrodes improve the performances of existing batteries (lithium-ion batteries) and they are considered useful for developing next-generation batteries such as sodium-ion batteries, lithium–O 2 batteries, and lithium–sulfur batteries ( Fig. 18 ). Being flat in nature, each carbon atom of graphene is available, and ions can easily access the surface due to low diffusion resistance, which provides high electrochemical activity. 202
Graphene and its derivatives are extensively used for the development of electrochemical sensors. 203 The surfaces of bare electrodes are usually not able to sense analytes at trace levels and they cannot differentiate between analytes that have close electrooxidation properties due to their poor surface kinetics. The addition of graphene layers to the surfaces of electrodes can substantially improve the electrocatalytic activity and surface sensitivity towards analytes. 204 Graphene has definite advantages over other materials that are used as electrode materials for sensor applications. Graphene has a substantially high surface-to-volume ratio and atomic thickness, making it extremely sensitive to any changes in its local environment. This is an essential factor in developing advanced sensing tools, as all the carbon atoms are available to interact with target species.
Consequently, graphene exhibits higher sensitivity than its counterparts such as CNTs and silicon nanowires. 205 Graphene has two main advantages over CNTs for the development of electrochemical sensors. First, graphene is mostly produced from graphite, which is a cost-effective route, and second, graphene does not contain metallic impurities like CNTs can. Graphene offers many other advantages when developing sensors and biosensors, such as biocompatibility and π–π stacking interactions with biomolecules. 206 Graphene-based materials are ideal for the construction of nanostructured sensors and biosensors.
The mechanical properties of graphene are used to fabricate highly desired stretchable and flexible sensors. 207 Graphene can be utilized to develop transparent electrodes with excellent optical transmittance. It displays good piezoresistive sensitivity. Researchers are making efforts to replace conventional brittle indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes with flexible graphene electrodes in optoelectronic devices such as liquid-crystal displays and organic light-emitting diodes. 208 For human–machine interfaces, transparent and flexible tactile sensors with high sensitivity have become essential. Graphene film (GF) and PET have been applied to develop transparent tactile sensors that exhibit outstanding cycling stability, fast response times, and excellent sensitivity ( Fig. 19 ). 209 Similarly, graphene is applied for the fabrication of pressure sensors. 210 Overall, graphene is an excellent material for developing transparent and flexible devices. 211,212
The use of graphene-based materials is an effective way to deal with a broad spectrum of pollutants. 213 There are many ways to deal with environmental pollution; among these, adsorption is an effective and cost-effective method. 214,215 Graphene-based adsorbents are found to be useful in the removal of organic, 216 inorganic, and gaseous contaminants. Graphene-based materials have some obvious advantages over CNT-based adsorbents. For example, graphene sheets offer two basal planes for contaminant adsorption, enhancing their effectiveness as an adsorbent. 192 GO contains several oxygen functional groups that impart hydrophilic features. Due to appropriate hydrophilicity, GO-based adsorbents can efficiently operate in water to remove contaminants. Moreover, graphene-oxide-based materials can be functionalized further through reactive moieties with various organic molecules to enhance their adsorption capacities. 217
In short, extensive research must continue in order to develop graphene-based materials with high performance and bring them to the market. Massive focus on graphene research is also justified due to the extraordinary features described in extensive theoretical and experimental research works.
Nanodiamonds possess a core–shell-like structure and display rich surface chemistry, and numerous functional groups are present on their surface. Several functional groups, such as amide, aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alkene, hydroperoxide, nitroso, carbonate ester, and alcohol groups, are present on nanodiamond surfaces, assisting in their further functionalization for desired applications ( Fig. 20 ). 226
Furthermore, nanodiamond surfaces can be homogenized with a single type of functional group according to the application requirements. 227 The use of nanodiamond particles as a reinforcing material in polymer composites has attracted great attention for improving the performance of polymer composite materials. The superior mechanical properties and rich surface chemistry of nanodiamonds have made them a superior material for tuning and reinforcing polymer composites. Nanodiamonds might operate via changing the interphase properties and forming a robust covalent interface with the matrix. 228 Nanodiamond (ND)-reinforced polymer composites have shown superior thermal stabilities, mechanical properties, and thermal conductivities. Nanodiamonds have shown great potential for energy storage applications. 229 Nanodiamonds and their composites are also used in sensor fabrication, environmental remediation, and wastewater treatment. 230,231 Their stable fluorescence and long fluorescence lifetimes have made nanodiamonds useful for imaging and cancer treatment. For biomedical applications, the rational engineering of nanodiamond particle surfaces has played a crucial role in the carrying of bioactive substances, target ligands, and nucleic acids, resisting their aggregation. 232,233 Nanodiamonds have a great future in nanotechnology due to their amazing surface chemistry and unique characteristics.
Carbon quantum dots can be synthesized through several chemical routes. 241–245 Some methodologies for synthesizing carbon dots are described in Fig. 21 . 246–248 Carbon itself is a black material and displays low solubility in water. In contrast, carbon quantum dots are attractive due to their excellent solubility in water. They contain a plethora of oxygen-containing functional groups on their surface, such as carboxylic acids. These functional moieties allow for further functionalization with biological, inorganic, polymeric, and organic species.
Carbon quantum dots are also called carbon nano-lights due to their strong luminescence. 248 In particular, carbon quantum dots offer enhanced chemiluminescence, 249,250 fluorescent emission, 251 two-photon luminescence under near-infrared pulsed-laser excitation, 252 and tunable excitation-dependent fluorescence. 253 The luminescence characteristics of carbon quantum dots have been used to develop highly sensitive and selective sensors. In most cases, a simple principle is involved in sensing with luminescent carbon quantum dots: their photoluminescence intensity changes upon the addition of an analyte. 254 Based on this principle, several efficient sensors have been developed using carbon quantum dots. 255–257 They can be used as sensitive and selective tools for sensing explosives such as TNT. Recognition molecules on the surfaces of carbon quantum dots can help to sense targeted analytes. Amino-group-functionalized carbon quantum dot fluorescence is quenched in the presence of TNT through a photo-induced electron-transfer effect between TNT and primary amino groups. This quenching phenomenon can help to sense the target analyte ( Fig. 22 ). 258 Chiral carbon quantum dots (cCQDs) can exhibit an enantioselective response. The PL responses of cCQDs were evaluated toward 17 amino acids and it was found that the PL intensity of the cCQDs was only substantially enhanced in the presence of L -Lys ( Fig. 22 ). 254
Carbon quantum dots have received significant interest in the fields of biological imaging and nanomedicine ( Fig. 23 ). 239 Direct images of RNA and DNA are essential for understanding cell anatomy. Due to the limitations of current imaging probes, tracking the dynamics of these biological macromolecules is not an easy job. Recently, membrane-penetrating carbon quantum dots have been developed for the imaging of nucleic acids in live organisms. 259 It is important to note that most of the carbon quantum dots utilized to attain cell imaging under UV excitation emit blue radiation. Some biological tissue also emits blue light, specifically that involving carbohydrates, and this interferes with cell imaging carried out with blue-emitting CQDs. This seriously hinders their potential in the field of biomedical imaging. Due to this reason, researchers are focusing on tuning CQDs in a way that their emission peak is red-shifted to avoid interference. 260 Carbon quantum dots with yellow and green fluorescence have been reported for bioimaging purposes. 261,262 The suitable doping of carbon quantum dots can red-shift the emission to enhance the bioimaging effectiveness. 263 Doped carbon quantum dots are capable of biological imaging and display advanced capabilities for scavenging reactive oxygen species. 264
Carbon quantum dots demonstrate photo-induced electron transfer properties 265 that make them valuable for photocatalytic, light-energy conversion, and other related applications. 266 Carbon quantum dots enhance the activities of other photocatalysts to which they are attached. Carbon quantum dots, along with photocatalysts, provide better charge separation and suppress the regeneration of photogenerated electron–hole pairs. Moreover, the proper implantation of carbon quantum dots into photocatalysts can broaden the photo-absorption region. Implanted carbon quantum dots form micro-regional heterostructures that facilitate photo-electron transport. 267 The implantation of carbon quantum dots into g-C 3 N 4 can substantially enhance charge transfer and separation efficiencies, prevent photoexcited carrier recombination, narrow the bandgap, and red shift the absorption edge. 268 The intrinsic catalytic activity of polymeric carbon nitride is improved as a result of the nano-frame heterojunctions formed with the help of CQDs. 269
Carbon quantum dots offer many advantages over conventional semiconductor-based QDs and, thus, they have attracted considerable researcher attention. 244 Due to their remarkable features, they have shown importance in recent years in the fields of light-emitting diodes, nanomedicine, solar cells, sensors, catalysis, and bioimaging. 236
The production of carbon nanohorns has some obvious advantages over carbon nanotubes, such as the ability for toxic-metal-catalyst-free synthesis and large-scale production at room temperature. Carbon nanotube synthesis involves metal particles, and harsh conditions, such as the use of strong acids, are required to remove metallic catalysts. This process introduces many defects into CNT structures and may cause a loss of carbon material. 270 Carbon nanohorns possess a wide diameter compared to CNTs. CNHs possess good absorption capabilities and their interiors are also available after partial oxidation, which provides direct access to their internal parts. Heat treatment under acidic or oxidative conditions facilitates the facile introduction of holes into carbon nanohorns. Holes in graphene sheets of single-walled carbon nanohorns can be produced with O 2 gas at high temperatures. A large quantity of material can be stored inside CNH tubes. 274 The surface area of CNHs is substantially enhanced upon opening the horns to make their interiors accessible. 275 Carbon nanohorns have great potential for energy storage, 275 electrochemiluminescence, 276 adsorption, 277 catalyst support, 278 electrochemical sensing, 279 and drug delivery system 273 uses. CNHs as catalyst supports can provide a homogeneous dispersion of Pt nanoparticles ( Fig. 25 ). The current density of Pt supported on single-walled carbon nanohorns is double compared to a fuel cell made from Pt supported on carbon black. 280 Thus, carbon nanohorns provide a better uniform dispersion that facilitates a high surface area and better catalyst performance.
5.2. Nanoporous materials
In nanoporous materials, the size distributions, volumes, and shapes of the pores directly affect the performances of porous materials for particular applications. It has become a hot area of research to develop materials with precisely controlled pores and arrangements. Recent research has focused more on the precise control of the shapes, sizes, and volumes of pores to produce nanoporous materials with high performance. Several state-of-the-art reviews are present in the literature that focus explicitly on the synthesis, properties, advances, and applications of nanoporous materials. 85,287–289 Based on the materials used, nanoporous materials can be divided into three main groups: inorganic nanoporous materials; carbonaceous nanoporous materials; and organic polymeric nanoporous materials.
Inorganic nanoporous materials include porous silicas, clays, porous metal oxides, and zeolites. The generation of pores in the material can introduce striking features into the material that are absent in non-porous materials. Nanoporous materials offer rich surface compositions with versatile characteristics. Nanoporous materials exhibit high surface-to-volume ratios. Their outstanding features and nanoporous framework structures have made these materials valuable in the fields of environmental remediation, adsorption, catalysis, sensing, energy conversion, purification, and medicine. 284,290
Porous silica is a crucial member of the inorganic nanoporous family. Over the decades, it has generated significant research interest for use in fuel cells, chemical engineering, ceramics, and biomedicine. It is essential to note that specific morphologies and pore size diameters are required for each application, and these can be achieved via tuning during the synthesis process. Nanoporous silica offers two functional surfaces: one is the cylindrical pore surfaces, and the second is the exterior surfaces of the nanoporous silica particles. The surfaces of nanoporous silica can be easily functionalized for the desired applications. The nanoporous silica surface is heavily covered with many silanol groups that act as reactive sites for functionalization ( Fig. 26 ). 291,292 For biomedical applications, mesoporous silica has emerged as a new generation of inorganic platform materials compared to other integrated nanostructured materials. Several factors make it a unique material for biomedical applications: 293,294 (a) its ordered porous structure; (b) its tunable particle size; (c) its large pore volume and surface area; (d) its biocompatibility; (e) its biodegradation, biodistribution, and excretion properties; and (f) its two functional surfaces. For instance, ordered MCM-48 nanoporous silica was used for the delivery of the poorly soluble drug indomethacin. It has been found that surface modification can control drug release. 295 Mesoporous silica-based materials have emerged as excellent materials for use in sustained drug delivery systems (SDDSs), immediate drug delivery systems (IDDSs), targeted drug delivery systems (TDDSs), and stimuli-responsive controlled drug delivery systems (CDDSs). The drug release rate from mesoporous silica can also be controlled via introducing appropriate polymers or functional groups, such as CN, SH, NH 2 , and Cl. Researchers are currently focusing on developing MSN-based (MSN = mesoporous silica nanoparticle) multifunctional drug delivery systems that can release antitumor drugs on demand in a targeted fashion via minimizing the premature release of the drug ( Fig. 27 ). 296
Hierarchically nanoporous zeolites are a vital member of the nanoporous material family. They are crystalline aluminosilicate minerals whose structures comprise uniform, regular arrays of nanopores with molecular dimensions. The microporous structures of zeolites contain pores that are usually below 1 nm in diameter. In zeolites, the micropores are uniform in shape and size, and these pores can effectively discriminate between molecules based on shape and size. 297 Currently, based on crystallography, more than 200 zeolites have been classified. 298 Zeolites have been proved to be useful materials in the field of host–guest chemistry. In solid catalysis, about 40% of the entire solid catalyst field is taken up by zeolites in chemical industry. The excellent catalysis success of zeolites is based on their framework stability, shape-selective porosity, solid acidity, and ion-exchange capacity. Oxygen tetrahedrally coordinates with the Al atoms in most zeolite crystalline silicate frameworks, resulting in charge mismatch between the oxide framework and Al. Extra-framework Na + ions compensate for this charge mismatch. The Na + ions are exchangeable for other cations such as H + and K + . 298 The zeolite crystalline networks are remarkable in that they provide high mechanical and hydrothermal stabilities. The most crucial task facing the zeolite community is to find new structures with desired functions and apply them more effectively for different applications.
Apart from these inorganic porous materials, several other metal- and metal-oxide-based nanoporous materials have been introduced that are more prominent for use in electrode material, catalyst, photodegradation, energy storage, and energy conversion applications. 299–302 Nanoporous metal-based materials are famous due to the nanosized crystalline walls, interconnected porous networks, and numerous surface metal sites that provide them with unique physical/chemical properties compared with their bulk counterparts and other nanostructured materials. 303 For example, nanoporous WO 3 films were developed via tuning the anodization conditions for photoelectrochemical water oxidation. It has been observed that the morphology of the film strongly affected the photoelectrochemical performance. 304 Nanoporous alumina is also a unique material in the inorganic nanoporous family due to several aspects. Nanoporous alumina can be prepared in a controlled fashion with any size and shape in polyprotic aqueous media via the anodic oxidation of the aluminum surface. The parallel arrangement of pores on alumina can easily be controlled from 5 nm to 300 nm, and alumina is stable in the range of 1000 °C. The anodizing time plays a significant role in controlling the pore length. Nanoporous alumina membranes offer various unique properties, such as pores of variable widths/lengths, temperature stability, and optical transparency. Nanoporous alumina pores can be filled with magnetically and optically active elements to produce the desired applications at the nanoscale level. Photoluminescent alumina membranes can be produced via introducing cadmium sulfide, gallium nitride, and siloxenes inside nanoporous alumina using appropriate precursors. 305 Porous alumina also acts as an efficient support and template for the designing of other nanomaterials. Palladium nanowires, 306 high aspect ratio cobalt nanowires, 307 and highly aligned Cu nanowires 308 were developed using porous alumina as a template. Ni–Pd as a catalyst was supported on porous alumina for hydrogenation and oxidation reactions. 309 Nanoporous anodic alumina is also considered to be an efficient material for the development of biosensors due to the ease of fabrication, tunable properties, optical/electrochemical properties, and excellent stability in aqueous environments. 310
Nanoporous carbon-based materials are a hot topic in the field of materials chemistry. Nanoporous carbon materials have become ubiquitous choices in the environmental, energy, catalysis, and sensing fields due to their unique morphologies, large pore volumes, controlled porous structures, mechanical, thermal, and chemical stabilities, and high specific surface areas ( Fig. 28A ). 311 Nanoporous materials are found to be useful in the treatment of water. The separation of spilled oil and organic pollutants from water has emerged as a significant challenge. 312–314 The design of materials that can allow the efficient separation of organic, dye, and metal contaminants from water has become a leading environmental research area. 315,316 Nanoporous carbon can be derived from different natural and synthetic sources. 317–319 Nanoporous carbon foam can be derived from natural sources, such as flour, pectin, and agar, via table-salt-assisted pyrolysis. The agar-derived nanoporous carbon foam showed high absorption capacities, a maximum of 202 times its own weight, for oil and organic solvents. Air filtration paper developed from carbon nanoporous materials and non-woven fabrics has shown a filtration efficiency of greater than 99% ( Fig. 28B ). 320 Nanoporous carbon can also be produced from other porous frameworks, such as metal–organic frameworks. MOF- and COF-based materials are promising precursors for nanoporous carbon-based materials. The direct carbonization of amino-functionalized aluminum terephthalate metal–organic frameworks has produced nitrogen-doped nanoporous carbon that shows an adequate removal capacity of 98.5% for methyl orange under the optimum conditions. 321 Fe 3 O 4 /nanoporous carbon was also produced with Fe salts as a magnetic precursor and MOF-5 as a carbon precursor for removing the organic dye methylene blue (MB) from aqueous solutions. 322 The mesoporous carbon removal efficiency could be further enhanced via modifying or functionalizing the surface with various materials. Unmodified mesoporous carbon has shown a mercury removal efficiency of 54.5%. This efficiency can be substantially improved to 81.6% and 94% upon modification with the anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate and cationic surfactant cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), respectively. 323
Ordered nanoporous carbon, CNTs, and fullerenes are extensively applied for energy and environmental applications. The complicated synthesis routes required for fullerenes and CNTs have slowed down the full exploitation of their potential for highly demanding applications. In comparison, the synthesis of highly ordered nanoporous carbon is facile, and the properties of ordered nanoporous carbon are also appealing for energy and environmental applications. 311 CO 2 is a greenhouse gas, and its sustainable conversion into value-added products has become the subject of extensive research. A nitrogen-doped nanoporous-carbon/carbon-nanotube composite membrane is a high-performance gas-diffusion electrode applied for the electrocatalytic conversion of CO 2 into formate. A faradaic efficiency of 81% was found for the production of formate. 324 Nanoporous carbon materials modified with the non-precious elements P, S, N, and B have emerged as efficient electrode materials for use in the oxygen evolution reaction (OER), hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), batteries, and fuel cells. 311,325–327
Nanoporous polymers, including nanoporous coordination polymers and crystalline nanoporous polymers, have emerged as impressive nanoporous materials. 328 Nanoporous polymers have many applications, and these materials are extensively being evaluated for gas separation and gas storage. The great interest in these applications arises from the presence of pores providing an exceptionally high Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area. Recently, new classes of metal organic framework and covalent organic framework porous materials have been reported that have shown exceptionally high and unprecedented surface areas. For instance, in 2010, a MOF was reported with a surface area of 6143 m 2 g −1 ; 329 in 2012, a MOF was reported with a surface area greater than 7000 m 2 g −1 ; 330 and in 2018, a MOF (DUT-60) was reported with a record surface area of 7836 m 2 g −1 . 331 Mesoporous DUT-60 has also shown a high free volume of 90.3% with a density of 0.187 g cm −3 . 331
Due to their exceptionally high surface areas and porous networks, these MOFs and COFs are ideal for gas storage. Air separation and post-combustion CO 2 capture have become integral parts of mainstream industries related to the energy sector in order to avoid substantial economic penalties. Due to the inefficiencies of available technology and the critical importance of this area, earnest efforts are being made to design gas-selective porous materials for the selective adsorption of desired gases. Nanoporous MOF- and COF-based materials can significantly capture CO 2 and help reach zero or minimum CO 2 emission levels. For instance, nanoporous fluorinated metal–organic frameworks have shown the selective adsorption of CO 2 over H 2 and CH 4 . 332 Hasmukh A. Patel et al. developed N 2 -phobic nanoporous covalent organic polymers for the selective adsorption of CO 2 over N 2 . The azo groups in the framework rejected N 2 , leading to CO 2 selectivity. 333 Nanoporous polymers that are superhydrophobic in nature can also be used for volatile organic compounds and organic contaminants. 334 Nanoporous polymers, due to the presence of a porous network, have been considered as highly suitable materials for catalyst supports. Furthermore, organocatalytic functional groups can be introduced pre-synthetically and post-synthetically into solid catalysts. 335
Nanoporous polymeric materials are amazingly heading towards being extremely lightweight with exceptionally high surface areas. These high surface areas and the fine-tuning of the nanopores has made these nanoporous materials, specifically MOFs and zeolites, ideal support materials for encapsulating ultrasmall metal nanoparticles inside void spaces to produce nanocatalysts with exceptionally high efficiencies. 336 In the coming years, more exponential growth of nanoporous materials is expected in the energy, targeted drug delivery, catalysis, and water treatment fields.
5.3. Ultrathin two-dimensional nanomaterials beyond graphene
However, from a material synthesis standpoint, a graphite-like layered form of Si does not exist in nature and there is no conventional exfoliation process that can generate 2D silicene, although single-walled 351 and multi-walled 352 silicon nanotubes and even monolayers of silicon have been synthesized via exfoliation methods. 353 Forming honeycomb Si nanostructures on substrates like Ag(001) and Ag(110) via molecular beam deposition, so-called “epitaxial growth”, was then proposed as a method for the architectural design of silicene sheets. 354–356 The successful synthesis of a silicene monolayer was first achieved on Ag(111) and ZrB 2 (0001) substrates in 2012; 357,358 later, various demonstrations were made using Ir(111), ZrB 2 (001), ZrC(111), and MoS 2 surfaces as the silicene growth substrates. 359–361 Despite various extensive studies to date involving the “epitaxial growth” of silicene on different substrates and investigations of the electronic properties, 357,362–364 the limited nanometer size, difficulties relating to substrate removal, and air stability issues have substantially impeded the practical applications of silicene. Bearing in mind all these known difficulties, Akinwande and co-workers recently reported a growth–transfer–fabrication process for novel silicene-based field-effect transistor development that involved silicene-encapsulated delamination with native electrodes. 365 An etch-back approach was used to define source/drain contacts in Ag film. Without causing any damage to the silicene, a novel potassium-iodide-based iodine-containing solution was used to etch Ag, avoiding rapid oxidation, unlike other commonly used Ag etchants. The results demonstrated that this was the first proof-of-concept study confirming the Dirac-like ambipolar charge transport predictions made about silicene devices. Comparative studies with a graphene system, the low residual carrier density, and the high gate modulation suggested the opening of a small bandgap in the experimental devices, proving that silicene can be considered a viable 2D nanomaterial beyond graphene.
Nonetheless, the synthesis of silicene on a large-scale is greatly limited, as “epitaxial growth” is the only promising method for obtaining high-quality silicene, and this presents an enduring challenge in relation to silicene research and development. Xu and co-workers recently introduced liquid oxidation and the exfoliation of CaSi 2 as a means for the first scalable preparation of high-quality silicene nanosheets. 366 This new synthetic strategy successfully induced the exfoliation of stacked silicene layers via the mild oxidation of the (Si 2 n ) 2 n layers in CaSi 2 into neutral Si 2 n layers without damage to the pristine silicene structure ( Fig. 29 ). The selective oxidation of pristine CaSi 2 into free-standing silicene sheets without any damage to the original Si framework was carried out via exfoliation in the presence of I 2 in acetonitrile solvent. Furthermore, the obtained silicene sheets yielded ultrathin monolayers or layers with few-layer thickness and exhibited excellent crystallinity. This 2D silicene nanosheet material was extensively explored as a novel anode, which was unlike previously developed silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion batteries. It displayed a theoretical capacity of 721 mA h g −1 at 0.1 A g −1 and superior cycling stability of 1800 cycles. Overall, during the last decade, silicene has been widely accepted as an ideal 2D material with many fascinating properties, suggesting great promise for a future beyond graphene.
Like other 2D materials, MXenes exhibit crystal geometry with a hexagonal close-packed structure based on the equivalent MAX-phase precursor, and the close-packed structure is formed from M atoms with X atoms occupying octahedral sites. 371 According to the formula, there are three representative structures of MXenes: M 2 XT x , M 3 X2T x , and M 4 X3T x . In these combinations, X atoms are formed with n layers, whereas M atoms have n + 1 layers ( Fig. 30 ). 372 Apart from graphene, MXenes are considered the most dynamic developing material, and they have incredible innovation potential amongst typical 2D nanomaterials because of their remarkable properties, such as hydrophilicity, conductivity, considerable adsorption abilities, and catalytic activity. These vital properties of MXenes suggest their use for various potential applications, including in the photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, 373,374 energy, 375 membrane-based separation, 376,377 and biological therapy 378 fields. In this section, we focus on describing new developments relating to MXenes that are utilized for electrocatalytic and energy storage applications, competing as alternatives to graphene materials.
Interestingly, due to the presence of abundant terminal groups, mainly –O, –OH, and –F, and their modifying nature, MXenes can exhibit outstanding hydrophilic properties and high conductivity and charge carrier mobility, making them a very attractive material for various electrocatalytic applications, such as the hydrogen evolution reaction, oxygen evolution reaction, oxygen reduction reaction, nitrogen reduction reaction, and CO 2 reduction reaction. To further increase their electrocatalytic activities, recent works involving MXenes have included incorporation with CNTs, 379 g-C 3 N 4 , 380 FeNi-LDH, 381 NiFeCo-LDH, 382 and metal–organic frameworks. 383
Cho and co-workers designed and developed MXene–TiO 2 2D nanosheets via the surface oxidation of MXene with defect-free control. These MXene–TiO 2 2D nanosheets were successfully implemented in nano-floating-gate transistor memory (NFGTM) providing a floating gate ( i.e. , multilayer MXene) and tunneling dielectric ( i.e. , the TiO 2 layer). A process of oxidation in water further represented a cost-effective and environmentally benign method, as depicted in Fig. 31 . The MXene NFGTM with an optimal oxidation process displayed exceptional nonvolatile memory features, having a great memory window, high programming/erasing current ratio, long term retention, and high durability. 384
There have been some exciting reports on 2D materials from the pnictogen family, particularly phosphorene. Recently, more attention has also been given to the remaining group 15 elements, 390 with the novel 2D materials arsenene, antimonene, and bismuthene being obtained from the key elements arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, respectively. It is reported that 2D monolayers of group 15 elements, including phosphorene allotropes, have five distinct honeycomb (α, β, γ, δ, and ε) and four distinct non-honeycomb (ζ, η, θ, and ι) structures, as depicted in Fig. 32 . Dissimilar crystal orientations were found for single-layered As, Sb, and Bi. Zeng and co-workers also reported comprehensive density functional theory (DFT) computations that proved the energetic stability and broad-range application of these materials in 2D semiconductors. 391 Previously, following theoretical predictions, Wu and co-workers successfully demonstrated that α-phosphorene showed lowest energy configurations in both honeycomb and non-honeycomb nanosheets. 392 In contrast, Zeng and co-workers proved that the buckled forms of 2D sheets of As, Sb, and Bi allotropes are the most stable structures, particularly their β phases. 391
Among monolayer group 15 family materials, 2D sheets of arsenic (As) and antimony (Sb) have gained considerable attention from researchers. 393,394 Studies have shown that As and Sb exhibit better stability than black phosphorus; they are highly stable at room temperature and less reactive to air, likely inhibiting the oxidization process. 395–398 Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that the oxidation process is perhaps favorable for fine-tuning the electronic properties; increases in the indirect band gaps ranging from 0 to a maximum of 2.49 eV are found in free-standing arsenene and antimonene semiconductors. 399–403 Simultaneously, arsenene and antimonene can also be transformed into semiconductors with direct band gaps. These two 2D nanosheets can be used to design mechanical sensors, moving beyond common electronic and optoelectronic applications. These two extraordinary 2D nanosheets have been studied for their structural–property relationships via first-principles methods. 403–405
Continuing the characterization and structural property studies of arsenene carried out by Kamal 404 et al. and Zhang 403 et al. , Anurag Srivastava and co-workers analyzed applications of arsenene to explore the possibility of improving sensor devices that can be utilized to detect ammonia (NH 3 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) molecules. 406,407 They investigated the affinities of NH 3 and NO 2 molecules for pristine arsenene sheets, examining the binding energies, bonding distances, density distributions, and current–voltage features. The results showed that arsenene 2D sheets are highly durable, with significant electronic charge transfer. They also considered germanium-doped arsenene and characterized the 2D lattice based on molecular affinity relationships with respect to the dopant.
However, the incorporation of any dopants into 2D nanomaterials not only results in experimental difficulty but it also lowers the stability of 2D materials. 408 Recently, Dameng Liu and co-workers reported the electronic structures, focusing on band structures, band offsets, and intrinsic defect properties, of few-layer arsenic and antimony. 409 The spontaneous oxide passivation layer that is formed naturally on pristine antimonene provides excellent stability. 410 Very recently, Stefan Wolff and co-workers conducted DFT calculations on various single or few-layer antimony oxide structures to describe the stoichiometry and bonding type. Interestingly, the samples exhibited various structural stabilities and electronic properties with a wide range of direct and indirect band gaps. Showing band gaps between 2.0 and 4.9 eV, these 2D layers of antimonene exhibited the potential to be used as insulators or semiconductors. 411 The same group also analyzed Raman spectra and discussed identifying the predicted antimonene oxide structures experimentally. The enduring task of exploring the utility of antimonene has boosted recent research interest in 2D nanomaterials due to the broad range of potential applications, such as their use in electrochemical sensors, 412,413 stable organic solar cells, 414 and supercapacitors 415 to name a few.
The 2D MOF nanosheets are also evaluated for the development of high-performance power-storage devices. For example, Li et al. 427 recently reported two novel Mn-2D MOFs and Ni-2D MOFs as anode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries. The Mn-based ultrathin metal–organic-framework nanosheets, due to thinner nanosheets, a higher specific surface area, and smaller metal ion radius, had structural advantages over Ni-based ultrathin metal–organic-framework nanosheets. Due to these features, the Mn-based ultrathin metal–organic-framework nanosheets displayed a high reversible capacity of 1187 mA h g −1 at 100 mA g −1 for 100 cycles and a rate capability of 701 mA h g −1 even at 2 A g −1 .
The expensive metal oxides utilized in the catalytic process can be replaced in due course by 2D-MOF-based nanosheets with exposed metal sites that impart an adjustable pore structure, ultrathin thickness, a high surface-to-volume atom ratio, and high design flexibility. As a result, 2D-MOFs have extensively been explored for various electrocatalytic applications, including the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), and carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO 2 RR). For example, Marinescu et al. 428 combined cobalt dithiolene species with benzenehexathiol (BHT) and yielded 2D-MOFs capable of acting as electrocatalysts for the HER in water ( Fig. 34 ). In the presence of 2D-MOF sheets, a high current density of 41 mA cm −2 , at −0.8 V vs. SHE and a pH value of 1.3, is observed. Similarly, Feng et al. 429 also developed single-layer Ni-based 2D-MOF sheets that are highly effective for electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Later, Patra et al. 430 reported similar 2D sheets from covalent organic frameworks (2D-COFs) as metal-free catalysts for HER applications. 2D-MOFs are also being explored as active catalysts for the OER process. For example, Xu et al. 431 reported the preparation of 2D Co-MOF sheets using polyvinylpyrrolidone as a surfactant under mild solvothermal conditions. These novel 2D Co-MOFs displayed ultrathin nanosheets with many surface-based metal active sites, improving the overall OER performance.
Interestingly, experimental electrochemical measurement data showed that Co-MOF sheets offer a low overpotential ( i.e. , 263 mV at 10 mA cm −2 ). Similarly, Wang et al. 432 also reported that double-metal 2D-sheets (2D NiFe MOFs) consisting of a very ultrathin structure with a thickness of ∼10 nm further offer a low overpotential of 260 mV at 10 mA cm −2 . In other reports, Zhang et al. 433 successfully performed the OER process with ultrathin 2D-MOF sheets prepared via electrochemical and chemical exfoliation strategies.
Recent work on the catalytic activity of 2D-MOFs has also been reported in relation to the ORR and CO 2 RR because of their layered crystal structures and high-volume modifiable porous structures. For example, Dincă et al. 434 demonstrated that ultrathin layered conductive sheets of the 2D-MOF Ni 3 (HITP) 2 (HITP = 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaiminotriphenylene) could actively be utilized as a catalyst in an alkaline medium for the ORR process. These 2D-MOF sheets show high stability while retaining 88% of the initial current density over 8 h at 0.77 V vs. RHE. In another report, through fabricating Co x Zn 2− x (bim) 4 2D-sheets as precursors, Zhao et al. 435 successfully synthesized cobalt nanodots (Co-NDs) with bimetallic Co x Zn 2− x (bim) 4 nanosheets encapsulating few-layer graphene (Co@FLG). For the CO 2 RR, a cobalt–porphyrin-containing 2D-MOF was achieved for the selective electrochemical reduction of CO 2 to CO with enhanced stability by Peidong Yang and co-workers. 436 The results further proved that these thin-film catalysts have the highest selectivity for CO ( i.e. , 76%) at −0.7 V vs. RHE with the little-to-no substantial decrease in activity over 7 h at −0.7 V vs. RHE, and 16 mL of CO was produced. Besides, like many other porous materials, 2D-MOFs were also shown to be a supporting platform for catalytic nanoparticles because of their high specific surface areas and favorable porosity distributions. To this end, an example can be noted from Wang et al. 437 reporting that fine porous MOF-5 nanosheets can be utilized to immobilize Pd nanoparticles.
5.4. Metal-based nanostructured materials
As discussed, catalysis is one of the main uses of metal-based nanostructured materials. A continuous increase in the demand for energy, the rapid depletion of conventional energy reservoirs, and rising concerns over the emission of CO 2 have increased the challenges and urgency in the energy field. 460 Metal-based nanostructured materials are extensively being explored to produce alternative clean and renewable energy sources. A range of metal-based nanomaterials has been evaluated and is under consideration for developing robust electrodes that can be effectively applied to water splitting, batteries, and solar cells.
High energy demands have led to more pressure to improve the performances of existing highly demanded lithium-ion batteries. Researchers have focused on improving their lifetimes, sizes, and safety. 462 Nanostructured metal-oxide-based materials are promising electrode materials for use in high-performance charge-storage devices. A metal-based nanostructured electrode is evaluated as both the anode and cathode to overcome the challenges of conventional electrodes. 463 In a conventional LIB, LiCoO 2 was used as the cathode material. Controlled morphology plays a crucial role in determining the performance of a material. Powder composed of spherical particles of LiNi 0.8 Co 0.2 O 2 showed a higher tap density compared to irregular particles and the material substantially improved the power density of secondary lithium batteries. 464 Hierarchical nanostructures of metal-based oxides (such as 3D hierarchical ZnCo 2 O 4 nanostructures) have emerged as a new trend for the development of high-capacity electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. 465 Since their commercialization by Sony in the early 1990s, LIBs have achieved tremendous success in bringing portable electronic devices to the market. However, their sustainable development on the grid-scale is hampered due to limited Li resources in nature, and this is causing a continuous increase in cost. 466 Sodium-ion batteries are in the spotlight to replace powerful lithium-ion batteries due to the widespread availability of sodium and its lower cost compared with lithium. 467 It is essential to note that, in terms of energy densities for SIBs, it is difficult to bypass LIBs because of the low standard electrochemical potential and higher weight of Na. SIBs could be proved to be ideal for those applications where cost is a critical factor compared to energy density. 466
SIBs also operate similarly to LIBs, based on an intercalation mechanism. SIBs also consist of cathode and anode electrodes separated through an electrolyte. During the charging process, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode and inserted into the anode via the electrolyte. In the discharging process, the electrons leave the anode through an external circuit to reach the cathode, providing electricity to the load, whereas Na + moves to the cathode during this process. The radius of Na + (1.02 Å) is greater than that of Li + (0.76 Å), making it challenging to intercalate into electrode materials. 468 Thus, appropriate electrode materials are required in which fast Na-ion insertion and extraction is possible. However, SIBs are suffering from a lack of appropriate electrode materials. It is important to develop electrode materials that have enough interstitial space within their crystallographic structures and better electrochemical performance. Among the various proposed electrode materials, Na x MO 2 layered transition-metal oxides (M = V, Fe, Cu, Co, Ni, Cr, Mn, and their combinations) are considered to be promising electrode materials for SIBs. Layered metal oxides are considered to be promising electrode materials due to their facile scalable synthesis, simple structures, appropriate operating potentials, and high capacities. 469,470 Large volume expansion and poor kinetics during the charge–discharge process can severely affect the cyclability and performance of SIBs. One of the effective strategies to deal with the mechanical stress triggered by large volume changes is the design of hollow or porous structures. In response, three-dimensional network-based Sb 2 O 3 @Sb composite anode materials can help to relieve the volume-change-related stress through their uniform porous networks and provide better transportation channels for Na + . 471
The large volume expansion of electrodes can also be buffered via designing 2D metal-oxide materials with large interlayer spacing. The ultrathin nanosheets provide high reversible capacity with enhanced cycling stability and contribute to providing reaction sites for electrons/ions, decreasing the diffusion distance, providing effective diffusion channels, and facilitating fast charge/discharge for sodium and lithium. 2D SnO nanosheet anodes were evaluated for SIBs. The capacity and cyclic stability improved, as the number of atomic SnO layers is decreased in the sheets. 472 Sb is a promising anode material, but during the sodiation/desodiation processes, huge volume expansion of 390% is observed, which hinders its practical use. Nanostructured Sb in the form of nanorod arrays with large interval spacing displays the great capacity to accommodate volume changes during cycling. 473 A comparison of various nanostructured metal-based electrodes for various charge storage purposes is shown in Table 3 . Overall, well-structured metal or metal-based oxide nanomaterials have the capacity to resolve current issues relating to charge storage devices.
Recently, an immense focus of research has been to produce H 2 fuel via water-splitting to replace conventional fossil fuels. This will help to eliminate emissions from the use of carbonaceous species. 484 Electrochemical method are considered simple water splitting approaches, as these methods only require an applied voltage and water as inputs to produce hydrogen fuel. 485 The coupling of solar irradiation to electrochemical water splitting has enhanced the performance and reduced the process cost. Due to these reasons, this has become a hot area of research. 486 During water electrolysis, H 2 is produced through the hydrogen evolution reaction at the cathode and O 2 is produced through the oxygen evolution reaction at the anode. However, water splitting is not so straightforward, and it requires an efficient catalyst that can facilitate the splitting of water. Metal- and metal-oxide-based catalysts are extensively being explored for water splitting. For the HER reaction, Pt-based catalysts are found to be suitable, whereas for OER reactions, Ir-/Ru-based compounds are found to be benchmark catalysts. Scarcity and high cost have limited the widespread use of these metals. The barrier of noble-metal cost can be mitigated through developing noble-metal nanostructured surfaces that produce more active sites or via depositing monolayers of noble metals on low-cost materials. The alloying of noble metals with other metals has enhanced site-specific activity. 484 At present, more focus is being placed on developing noble-metal-free catalysts for water splitting. 485 Usually, an efficient electrocatalyst is characterized by: 487 a low overpotential; high stability; low production costs; and high electrocatalytic activity.
The nano-structuring of catalysts is an effective tool to boost their surface areas. The electrolysis of water occurs at the surface of a catalyst, and nanostructured catalysts provide more active sites and the better diffusion of ions and electrolytes. 484 Non-noble metals that are under observation for the development of HER electrocatalysts include nickel (Ni), tungsten (W), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo), cobalt (Co), and copper (Cu). 487 For instance, a noble metal-free catalyst, carbon-decorated Co 3 O 4 nanoarrays on carbon paper, required a small overpotential of 370 mV to reach a current density of 10 mA cm −2 . It can maintain a current density of 100 mA cm −2 for 413.8 h and 86.8 h under alkaline and acidic conditions, respectively. 488
Metal-based semiconductor materials play a crucial role in a range of applications. For photoelectrochemical water splitting, the semiconductor material plays a central role in the solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency. Some critical features are prerequisites when it comes to selecting the right semiconductor material for the photoelectrochemical splitting of water: 489 an extraordinary capacity to absorb visible light; an appropriate bandgap; suitable valence and conduction band positions; commercial feasibility; and chemical stability.
For an ideal semiconductor for water splitting, the valence band and conduction band edge positions must straddle the oxidation and the reduction potentials of water. Metal oxides have received significant attention among semiconductors due to their wide band gap distributions, remarkable photo-electrochemical stabilities, and favorable band edge positions. 490 Semiconductor-based photoelectrodes become excited upon light irradiation, and electrons from the valence band move to the unoccupied conduction band. Some of the generated electrons at the cathode surface reduce protons to hydrogen gas, whereas holes at the photoanode produce oxygen gas via water splitting. 490 As a result, various nanostructured metal oxides can be used as photoelectrode materials, such as WO 3 , 491 Cu 2 O, 492 TiO 2 , 493 ZnO, 494 SnO 2 , 495 BiVO 4 , 496 and α-Fe 2 O 3 , 490 for the efficient splitting of water. As discussed, the nano-structuring of semiconductors can significantly impact the electrode photoelectrochemical performance during water splitting.
Metal-based nanomaterials have been used for the development of sensitive sensors. These metal-based sensors can replace the complex and expensive instruments that are conventionally used for the sensing of analytes. Metal-oxide-based sensors have the interesting characteristics of low detection limits, low cost, high sensitivity, and facile operation. 497 Mostly, semiconducting metal-oxide-based sensors are used for the sensing of toxic, flammable, and exhaust gases. Semiconductor metal oxides with a size in the range of 1–100 nm have been significantly investigated as gas sensors due to their size-dependent properties. The geometry and size of a nanomaterial can considerably affect the hole and electron movement in semiconductors. 498 The surface-to-volume ratio and surface area are substantially enhanced at the nanoscale level, and this is amazingly beneficial for sensing. Chemiresistive semiconducting metal oxides are potential candidates for gas sensing due to the following features: 499 rapid response times; fast recovery times; low cost; simple electronic interfaces; user-friendliness and low maintenance; and abilities to sense a wide range of gases.
Electrode materials decorated with metal- or metal-oxide-based nanostructured materials have shown better responses and selectivity for determining various analytes over conventional electrode materials. The nano-sized metal structures act as an electrocatalyst and electronic wires to provide rapid electron transfer between the transducers and analyte molecules. 500 The electrochemical redox reaction of H 2 O 2 can be improved via the thermally controlled anchoring of Pt NPs on the electrode surface. 501
Currently, researchers are not just concentrating on the development of randomly shaped nanomaterials; instead, they are very focused on and interested in the rational design of materials with controlled nano-architectures for boosting their performances for specific applications. As a result, extensive research has been carried out to develop metal-based materials with controlled dimensions to achieve better catalytic responses. Particle morphology is a crucial factor in the performance of nanomaterials for specific applications. Laifa Shen et al. rationally designed an electrode architecture via growing mesoporous NiCo 2 O 4 nanowire arrays on carbon textiles, which boosted the electrode performance ( Fig. 37 ). 474
The same materials with different morphologies can produce different outcomes. For instance, MnO 2 nanoflowers have provided high initial sodium-ion storage capacity compared with MnO 2 nanorods. 481 Radha Narayanan and Mostafa A. El-Sayed have analyzed various nanoscale morphologies of Pt, such as tetrahedral, cubic, and near-spherical nanoparticles. The highest rate constant is observed with tetrahedral nanoparticles and the lowest rate constant was observed with cubic nanoparticles, whereas spherical nanoparticles exhibited an intermediate rate constant during catalysis. 502 Xiaowei Xie et al. found that Co 3 O 4 nanorods show high activity compared to conventional Co 3 O 4 nanoparticles for the low-temperature oxidation of CO. 503 The catalytic activity of metal-based nanomaterials is strongly affected by their shape. 504 Shape-defined mesoporous materials (TiO 2 ) have shown superior photoanode activities ( Fig. 38 ). 505 As a result, in the literature, several nanostructured morphologies of metal-based materials, such as nanotubes, 506,507 nanorods, 508,509 nanoflowers, 510 nanosheets, 511 nanowires, 512 nanocubes, 513 nanospheres, 514,515 nanocages, 516 and nanoboxes, 517 have been reported for a range of applications.
Hollow nanostructures have surfaced as an amazing class of nanostructured material, and they have received significant attention from researchers. Hollow nanostructures have the unique features of: 518,519 low density; abundant inner void spaces; large surface areas; and the ability to act as nanoscale containers with high loading capacity, nanoreactors, and nanocarriers.
Various metal-based hollow nanostructures, such as hollow SnO 2 , 520 hollow palladium nanocrystals, 521 Co–Mn mixed oxide double-shell hollow spheres, 521 hollow Cu 2 O nanocages, 522 three-dimensional hollow SnO 2 @TiO 2 spheres, 523 hollow ZnO/Co 3 O 4 nano-heterostructure, 524 triple-shell hollow α-Fe 2 O 3 , 525 and hierarchical hollow Mn-doped Ni(OH) 2 nanostructures, 526 have been developed for various applications. The presence of nanoscale hollow interiors and functional shells imparts them with great potential for gas sensing, catalysis, biomedicine, energy storage, and conversion. 519
From this discussion, it can be concluded that metal-based nanostructured materials have great potential compared to their bulk counterparts. The conversion of materials to the nanoscale is not enough to achieve high performance with better selectivity. Now, research is switching from conventional nanomaterials to more advanced and smartly designed nanomaterials. In modern research, nanomaterials are being designed with better-controlled morphologies and regulated features.
5.5. Core–shell nanoparticles
A spherical nanoparticle core–shell nanostructure is a practical way to introduce multiple functionalities on the nanoscopic length scale. 528 The properties arising from the core or shell can be different, and these properties can be tuned via controlling the ratio of the constituent materials. The shape, size, and composition play a critical role in tuning the core–shell nanoparticle properties. 529 The shell material can help to improve the chemical and thermal stabilities of the core material. The core–shell design has become effective where an inexpensive material cannot be used directly due to its instability or easily oxidizable nature. The core can consist of an easily oxidizable inexpensive metal, whereas the shell might consist of noble metals, oxides, polymers, or silica. 530 For instance, magnetic nanoparticles when prepared can be sensitive toward air, acids, and bases. Magnetic nanoparticles can be protected via coating with organic or inorganic shells. 528
Core–shell metal nanoparticles are an emerging nanostructured material with great potential in the fields of energy and catalysis. 531 The first report of core–shell nanoparticles (2007) for supercapacitor applications consisted of a polyaniline/multi-walled-carbon-nanotube composite (PANI/MWNTs). 532 Metal-based core–shell structured nanoparticles have shown enhanced catalytic performance due to their shape-controlled properties. 533 Ming-Yu Kuo et al. developed Au@Cu 2 O core–shell particles with controllable shell thicknesses that acted as a dual-functional catalyst. The shell thickness of Cu 2 O increased with an increasing concentration of Cu 2+ precursor. The thicknesses of the shells of Au@Cu 2 O-1.5 (12.2 ± 1.7 nm), Au@Cu 2 O-2 (13.2 ± 1.8 nm), Au@Cu 2 O-3 (18.2 ± 2.2 nm), and Au@Cu 2 O-4 (20.8 ± 2.5 nm) due to various concentrations are shown in Fig. 40 . 534 A NiO@SiO 2 core–shell catalyst provided a higher yield of acrylic acid from acetylene hydroxycarbonylation. 535 Core–shell architecture can be used to prevent active metal nanoparticles from oxidation during operation. For instance, a plasmonic photocatalyst was developed that consisted of silver nanoparticles embedded in titanium dioxide. The direct contact of Ag with TiO 2 could lead to its oxidization; this is prevented via developing core–shell architecture in which Ag is used as the core and SiO 2 is used as a shell to protect it. 536 Another excellent option is to replace an expensive core with a non-noble metal to reduce the core–shell cost while using a thin layer of a noble metal that consumes a small amount of metal as the shell. This will ensure the prolonged stability of the catalyst during operation. 533 Overall, core–shell morphologies provide better catalytic activity due to the synergistic effect of the metallic core–shell components. 152
Among the several classes of nanomaterials, core–shell nanoparticles are found to be more promising for different biomedical applications. For instance, magnetic nanoparticles are considered to be useful for biomedical applications due to the following reasons: (a) aggregation is prevented due to superparamagnetism; (b) delivery and separation can be controlled using an external magnetic field; (c) they can be appropriately dispersed; and (d) there is the possibility of functionalization. A range of magnetic nanoparticles is available, such as NiO, Ni, Co, and Mn 3 O 4 . The most famous example is iron oxide, but uncoated iron oxides are unstable under physiological conditions. This may result in controlled drug delivery failure due to improper ligand surface binding and the promotion of the formation of harmful free radicals. Therefore, the formation of shells around magnetic nanoparticles has tremendous significance for biomedical applications. 537 One of the approaches is to use gold shells on magnetic nanoparticles. Au NPs are also called surface plasmons and they substantially enhanced the absorption of light in the visible and near-infrared regions. Thus, coating magnetic nanoparticles with a Au shell can result in a core–shell nanostructure that displays both optical and magnetic functionality in combination. 529
Numerous biocompatible core–shell nanoparticles are being developed for photothermal therapy, as core–shell materials are found to be useful for photothermal therapy. Hui Wang et al. have developed bifunctional core–shell nanoparticles for dual-modal imaging-guided photothermal therapy. The core–shell nanoparticles consist of a magnetic ∼9.1 nm core of Fe 3 O 4 covered by an approximately 3.4 nm fluorescent carbon shell. The Fe 3 O 4 core leads to superparamagnetic behavior, whereas the carbon shell provides near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence properties. The bifunctional nanoparticles have shown dual-modal imaging capacity both in vivo and in vitro . The iron oxide–carbon core–shell nanoparticles absorbed and converted near-infrared light to heat, facilitating photothermal therapy. 538 Au-Based core–shell structures are also being prepared for photothermal therapy. Bulk gold is biocompatible, but Au NPs can accumulate in the spleen and liver, causing severe toxicity. Koo Chul Kwon et al. have developed Au-NP-based core–shell structures that did not result in any gross or histological lesions in the major organs of mice, which revealed that this is a potent and safe agent for photothermal cancer therapy. The core–shell nanoparticles consisted of proteinticle/gold (PGCS-NP) and were developed via proteinticle surface engineering. PGCS-NP was injected intravenously into mice with tumors, and the injected core–shell nanoparticles successfully reached the EGFR-expressing tumor cells. The tumor size was significantly reduced upon exposure to near-infrared laser irradiation ( Fig. 41 ). No accumulation of Au NPs was observed in the mice organs, which indicated that PGCS-NP disassembled into many tiny gold dots, which were easily excreted by the kidneys and liver without causing any toxicity. 539 In another example, multifunctional Au@graphene oxide nanocolloid core@shell nanoparticles were developed, in which the core and shell consisted of gold and a graphene oxide nanocolloid, respectively. The developed core–shell structure showed multifunctional properties, allowing Raman bioimaging and photothermal/photodynamic therapy with low toxicity. 540 Apart from this, numerous other core–shell nanoparticles, such as polydopamine–mesoporous silica core–shell nanoparticles, 541 AuPd@PVP core–shell nanoparticles, 542 Au@Cu 2− x S core–shell nanoparticles, 543 bismuth sulfide@mesoporous silica core–shell nanoparticles, 544 and Ag@S-nitrosothiol core–shell nanoparticles, have been used for photothermal therapy. 545
Due to their unique features and the combination of properties from the shell and core, these core–shell nanoparticles have received considerable interest in many fields, ranging from materials chemistry to the biomedical field. For electrochemical reactions, the core–shell structure conductivity can be enhanced via conducting polymers, carbon materials, and metals. Core–shell nanoparticles as electrode materials showed better performance compared to single components. Most of the core materials are prepared via hydrothermal methods, and shells can be prepared via hydrothermal or electrodeposition methods. 546 Even though significant progress has been made relating to the synthesis methods of core–shell materials, a major challenge is the high-quality production of core–shell materials in more effective ways for required applications, specifically biomedical applications.
6. Challenges and future perspectives
(a) The presence of defects in nanomaterials can affect their performance and their inherent characteristics can be compromised. For instance, carbon nanotubes are one of the strongest materials that are known. However, impurities, discontinuous tube lengths, defects, and random orientations can substantially impair the tensile strength of carbon nanotubes. 547
(b) The synthesis of nanomaterials through cost-effective routes is another major challenge. High-quality nanomaterials are generally produced using sophisticated instrumentation and harsh conditions, limiting their large-scale production. This issue is more critical for the synthesis of 2D nanomaterials. Most of the methods that have been adopted for large-scale production are low cost, and these methods generally produce materials with defects that are of poor quality. The controlled synthesis of nanomaterials is still a challenging job. For example, a crucial challenge associated with carbon nanotube synthesis is to achieve chiral selectivity, conductivity, and precisely controlled diameters. 548,549 Obtaining structurally pure nanomaterials is the only way to achieve the theoretically calculated characteristics described in the literature. More focused efforts are required to develop new synthesis methods that overcome the challenges associated with conventional methods.
(c) The agglomeration of particles at the nanoscale level is an inherent issue that substantially damages performance in relevant fields. Most nanomaterials start to agglomerate when they encounter each other. The process of agglomeration may be due to physical entanglement, electrostatic interactions, or high surface energy. 550 CNTs undergo van der Waals interactions and form bundles, making it difficult to align or properly disperse them in polymer matrices. 159 Similarly, graphene agglomeration is triggered by the basal planes of graphene sheets due to π–π interactions and van der Waals forces. Due to severe agglomeration, the high surface areas and other unique graphene features are compromised. These challenges hinder the practical application of high-throughput electrode materials or composite materials for various applications. 551
(d) The efficiency of nanomaterials can be tuned via developing 3D architectures. 3D architectures have been tried with several nanomaterials, such as graphene, to improve their inherent features. 3D architectures of 2D graphene have provided high specific surface areas and fast mass and electron transport kinetics. This has become possible due to the combination of the exceptional intrinsic properties of graphene and 3D porous structures. 194,552 The combination of graphene and CNT assemblies into 3-D architectures has emerged as the most investigated nanotechnology research area. Porous architectures of other nanomaterials can be developed to enhance their catalysis performance through providing nanomaterial interior availability.
(e) 2D ultrathin materials are an outstanding class of nanomaterial with promising theoretical properties; however, very little experimental evaluation of these materials has been done, apart from the case of graphene. The synthesis and stability of 2D ultrathin materials are some of the major challenges associated with them. In the future, more focus is anticipated to be placed on their synthesis and practical utilization.
(f) Nanomaterial utilization in industry is being increased, and there is also demand for nanoscale material production at higher rates. Moreover, nanotechnology research has vast horizons; the exploration of new nanomaterials with fascinating features will continue and, in the future, more areas will be discovered. One of the significant concerns relating to nanomaterials that cannot be overlooked is their toxicity, which is still poorly understood, and this is a serious concern relating to their environmental, domestic, and industrial use. The extent to which nanoparticle-based materials can contribute to cellular toxicity is unclear. 553 There is a need for the scientific community to put efforts into reducing the knowledge gap between the rapid development of nanomaterials and their possible in vivo toxicity. A proper and systematic understanding of the interaction of nanomaterials with cells, tissues, and proteins is critical for the safe design and commercialization of nanotechnology. 14
The future of advanced technology is linked with advancements in the field of nanotechnology. The dream of clean energy production is becoming possible with the advancement of nanomaterial-based engineering strategies. These materials have shown promising results, leading to new generations of hydrogen fuel cells and solar cells, acting as efficient catalysts for water splitting, and showing excellent capacity for hydrogen storage. Nanomaterials have a great future in the field of nanomedicine. Nanocarriers can be used for the delivery of therapeutic molecules.
7. Conclusions
Conflicts of interest, acknowledgements.
- F. J. Heiligtag and M. Niederberger, Mater. Today , 2013, 16 , 262–271 CrossRef CAS .
- P. Walter, E. Welcomme, P. Hallégot, N. J. Zaluzec, C. Deeb, J. Castaing, P. Veyssière, R. Bréniaux, J.-L. Lévêque and G. Tsoucaris, Nano Lett. , 2006, 6 , 2215–2219 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. Jeevanandam, A. Barhoum, Y. S. Chan, A. Dufresne and M. K. Danquah, Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. , 2018, 9 , 1050–1074 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- I. Freestone, N. Meeks, M. Sax and C. Higgitt, Gold Bull. , 2007, 40 , 270–277 CrossRef CAS .
- A. Santamaria, Nanotoxicity , Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, 2012, pp. 1–12 Search PubMed .
- R. P. Feynman, Eng. Sci. , 1960, 23 , 22–36 Search PubMed .
- S. Bayda, M. Adeel, T. Tuccinardi, M. Cordani and F. Rizzolio, Molecules , 2019, 25 , 112 CrossRef PubMed .
- M. Nasrollahzadeh, S. M. Sajadi, M. Sajjadi and Z. Issaabadi, Interface Science and Technology , Elsevier B.V., 2019, vol. 28, pp. 1–27 Search PubMed .
- N. Taniguchi, Proc. Int. Conf. Prod. Eng. Issue PART II , 1974, 18–23.
- G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, US Pat. , US4343993A, 1982 Search PubMed .
- G. Binnig, C. F. Quate and C. Gerber, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 1986, 56 , 930–933 CrossRef PubMed .
- H.-J. Butt, B. Cappella and M. Kappl, Surf. Sci. Rep. , 2005, 59 , 1–152 CrossRef CAS .
- A. C. Marques, M. Vale, D. Vicente, M. Schreck, E. Tervoort and M. Niederberger, Global Challenges , 2021, 2000116 CrossRef PubMed .
- S. Sharifi, S. Behzadi, S. Laurent, M. Laird Forrest, P. Stroeve and M. Mahmoudi, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2012, 41 , 2323–2343 RSC .
- Nat. Nanotechnol. , 2019, 14 , 193 Search PubMed .
- P. N. Sudha, K. Sangeetha, K. Vijayalakshmi and A. Barhoum, Emerging Applications of Nanoparticles and Architecture Nanostructures , Elsevier, 2018, pp. 341–384 Search PubMed .
- W. G. Kreyling, M. Semmler-Behnke and Q. Chaudhry, Nano Today , 2010, 5 , 165–168 CrossRef .
- B. Bhushan, Springer Handbooks , Springer, 2017, pp. 1–19 Search PubMed .
- F. Trotta and A. Mele, Nanosponges: From Fundamentals to Applications , 2019, pp. 1–24 Search PubMed .
- Nanoanalytics , ed. S. Shtykov, De Gruyter, Berlin, Boston, 2018 Search PubMed .
- C. J. Murphy and N. R. Jana, Adv. Mater. , 2002, 14 , 80–82 CrossRef CAS .
- P. Moriarty, Rep. Prog. Phys. , 2001, 64 , 297–381 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Chen, J. R. G. Evans, H. C. Greenwell, P. Boulet, P. V. Coveney, A. A. Bowden and A. Whiting, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2008, 37 , 568–594 RSC .
- P. Khanna, A. Kaur and D. Goyal, J. Microbiol. Methods , 2019, 163 , 105656 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. Zhuang, E. S. Lee, L. Lei, B. B. Nunna, L. Kuang and W. Zhang, Int. J. Energy Res. , 2016, 40 , 2136–2149 CrossRef CAS .
- T. Prasad Yadav, R. Manohar Yadav and D. Pratap Singh, Nanosci. Nanotechnol. , 2012, 2 , 22–48 CrossRef .
- H. Lyu, B. Gao, F. He, C. Ding, J. Tang and J. C. Crittenden, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. , 2017, 5 , 9568–9585 CrossRef CAS .
- R. Ostermann, J. Cravillon, C. Weidmann, M. Wiebcke and B. M. Smarsly, Chem. Commun. , 2011, 47 , 442–444 RSC .
- P. S. Kumar, J. Sundaramurthy, S. Sundarrajan, V. J. Babu, G. Singh, S. I. Allakhverdiev and S. Ramakrishna, Energy Environ. Sci. , 2014, 7 , 3192–3222 RSC .
- P. Du, L. Song, J. Xiong, N. Li, Z. Xi, L. Wang, D. Jin, S. Guo and Y. Yuan, Electrochim. Acta , 2012, 78 , 392–397 CrossRef CAS .
- A. Pimpin and W. Srituravanich, Eng. J. , 2012, 16 , 37–56 CrossRef .
- Z. Szabó, J. Volk, E. Fülöp, A. Deák and I. Bársony, Photonics Nanostruct. , 2013, 11 , 1–7 CrossRef .
- C.-W. Kuo, J.-Y. Shiu, Y.-H. Cho and P. Chen, Adv. Mater. , 2003, 15 , 1065–1068 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Yin, B. Gates and Y. Xia, Adv. Mater. , 2000, 12 , 1426–1430 CrossRef CAS .
- K. Xu and J. Chen, Appl. Nanosci. , 2020, 10 , 1013–1022 CrossRef CAS .
- R. Matsumoto, S. Adachi, E. H. S. Sadki, S. Yamamoto, H. Tanaka, H. Takeya and Y. Takano, ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. , 2020, 2 , 677–682 CrossRef CAS .
- V. Garg, R. G. Mote and J. Fu, Appl. Surf. Sci. , 2020, 526 , 146644 CrossRef CAS .
- P. Ayyub, R. Chandra, P. Taneja, A. K. Sharma and R. Pinto, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process. , 2001, 73 , 67–73 CrossRef CAS .
- H. H. Son, G. H. Seo, U. Jeong, D. Y. Shin and S. J. Kim, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer , 2017, 113 , 115–128 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Wender, P. Migowski, A. F. Feil, S. R. Teixeira and J. Dupont, Coord. Chem. Rev. , 2013, 257 , 2468–2483 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Muñoz-García, L. Vázquez, R. Cuerno, J. A. Sánchez-García, M. Castro and R. Gago, Toward Functional Nanomaterials , Springer US, New York, NY, 2009, pp. 323–398 Search PubMed .
- J. H. Nam, M. J. Jang, H. Y. Jang, W. Park, X. Wang, S. M. Choi and B. Cho, J. Energy Chem. , 2020, 47 , 107–111 CrossRef .
- M. Nie, K. Sun and D. D. Meng, J. Appl. Phys. , 2009, 106 , 054314 CrossRef .
- D. Zhang, K. Ye, Y. Yao, F. Liang, T. Qu, W. Ma, B. Yang, Y. Dai and T. Watanabe, Carbon , 2019, 142 , 278–284 CrossRef CAS .
- C. M. Lieber and C.-C. Chen, Solid State Physics – Advances in Research and Applications , Academic Press, 1994, vol. 48, pp. 109–148 Search PubMed .
- J. M. Jones, R. P. Malcolm, K. M. Thomas and S. H. Botrell, Carbon , 1996, 34 , 231–237 CrossRef CAS .
- F. Liang, M. Tanaka, S. Choi and T. Watanabe, Carbon , 2017, 117 , 100–111 CrossRef CAS .
- F. Liang, T. Shimizu, M. Tanaka, S. Choi and T. Watanabe, Diamond Relat. Mater. , 2012, 30 , 70–76 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Li, Z. Wang, K. Zhao, Z. Shi, Z. Gu and S. Xu, Carbon , 2010, 48 , 1580–1585 CrossRef CAS .
- Z.-S. Wu, W. Ren, L. Gao, J. Zhao, Z. Chen, B. Liu, D. Tang, B. Yu, C. Jiang and H.-M. Cheng, ACS Nano , 2009, 3 , 411–417 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- V. Amendola and M. Meneghetti, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2009, 11 , 3805 RSC .
- J. Zhang, M. Chaker and D. Ma, J. Colloid Interface Sci. , 2017, 489 , 138–149 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- R. A. Ismail, M. H. Mohsin, A. K. Ali, K. I. Hassoon and S. Erten-Ela, Phys. E , 2020, 119 , 113997 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Chrzanowska, J. Hoffman, A. Małolepszy, M. Mazurkiewicz, T. A. Kowalewski, Z. Szymanski and L. Stobinski, Phys. Status Solidi , 2015, 252 , 1860–1867 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Duque, B. Madrigal, H. Riascos and Y. Avila, Colloids Interfaces , 2019, 3 , 25 CrossRef CAS .
- S. S. Su and I. Chang, Commercialization of Nanotechnologies–A Case Study Approach , Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2018, pp. 15–29 Search PubMed .
- H. Park, D. A. Reddy, Y. Kim, S. Lee, R. Ma and T. K. Kim, Chem. – A Eur. J. , 2017, 23 , 13112–13119 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. C. Jones and M. L. Hitchman, in Chemical Vapour Deposition , ed. A. C. Jones and M. L. Hitchman, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 2008, pp. 1–36 Search PubMed .
- K. A. Shah and B. A. Tali, Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. , 2016, 41 , 67–82 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Ago, Frontiers of Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes , Springer, Japan, Tokyo, 2015, pp. 3–20 Search PubMed .
- P. Machac, S. Cichon, L. Lapcak and L. Fekete, Graphene Technol. , 2020, 5 , 9–17 CrossRef .
- Q. Wu, W. Wongwiriyapan, J.-H. Park, S. Park, S. J. Jung, T. Jeong, S. Lee, Y. H. Lee and Y. J. Song, Curr. Appl. Phys. , 2016, 16 , 1175–1191 CrossRef .
- X. Wu, G. Q. (Max) Lu and L. Wang, Energy Environ. Sci. , 2011, 4 , 3565 RSC .
- S. Cao, C. Zhao, T. Han and L. Peng, Mater. Lett. , 2016, 169 , 17–20 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Li, Q. Wu and J. Wu, Handbook of Nanoparticles , Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2015, pp. 1–28 Search PubMed .
- A. Chen and P. Holt-Hindle, Chem. Rev. , 2010, 110 , 3767–3804 CrossRef CAS .
- L.-Y. Meng, B. Wang, M.-G. Ma and K.-L. Lin, Mater. Today Chem. , 2016, 1–2 , 63–83 CrossRef .
- Y. Dong, X. Du, P. Liang and X. Man, Inorg. Chem. Commun. , 2020, 115 , 107883 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Jiang, Z. Peng, S. Zhang, F. Li, Z. Liu, J. Zhang, Y. Liu and K. Wang, Ceram. Int. , 2018, 44 , 6115–6126 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Chai, M. Xu, J. Yan and Z. Ren, Appl. Surf. Sci. , 2018, 430 , 523–530 CrossRef CAS .
- A. E. Danks, S. R. Hall and Z. Schnepp, Mater. Horiz. , 2016, 3 , 91–112 RSC .
- T. K. Tseng, Y. S. Lin, Y. J. Chen and H. Chu, Int. J. Mol. Sci. , 2010, 11 , 2336–2361 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Parashar, V. K. Shukla and R. Singh, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Electron. , 2020, 31 , 3729–3749 CrossRef CAS .
- L. Znaidi, Mater. Sci. Eng., B , 2010, 174 , 18–30 CrossRef CAS .
- C. de Coelho Escobar and J. H. Z. dos Santos, J. Sep. Sci. , 2014, 37 , 868–875 CrossRef PubMed .
- Y. Liu, J. Goebl and Y. Yin, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2013, 42 , 2610–2653 RSC .
- W. Li and D. Zhao, Chem. Commun. , 2013, 49 , 943–946 RSC .
- R. R. Poolakkandy and M. M. Menamparambath, Nanoscale Adv. , 2020, 2 , 5015–5045 RSC .
- C. T. Kresge, M. E. Leonowicz, W. J. Roth, J. C. Vartuli and J. S. Beck, Nature , 1992, 359 , 710–712 CrossRef CAS .
- J. S. Beck, J. C. Vartuli, W. J. Roth, M. E. Leonowicz, C. T. Kresge, K. D. Schmitt, C. T. W. Chu, D. H. Olson, E. W. Sheppard, S. B. McCullen, J. B. Higgins and J. L. Schlenker, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 1992, 114 , 10834–10843 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Liu, T. Yang, D.-W. Wang, G. Q. Lu, D. Zhao and S. Z. Qiao, Nat. Commun. , 2013, 4 , 2798 CrossRef .
- R. Lv, C. Cao, H. Zhai, D. Wang, S. Liu and H. Zhu, Solid State Commun. , 2004, 130 , 241–245 CrossRef .
- L. Martins, M. A. Alves Rosa, S. H. Pulcinelli and C. V. Santilli, Microporous Mesoporous Mater. , 2010, 132 , 268–275 CrossRef CAS .
- T. Tang, T. Zhang, W. Li, X. Huang, X. Wang, H. Qiu and Y. Hou, Nanoscale , 2019, 11 , 7440–7446 RSC .
- B. Szczęśniak, J. Choma and M. Jaroniec, Chem. Commun. , 2020, 56 , 7836–7848 RSC .
- Y. Yamauchi and K. Kuroda, Chem. – Asian J. , 2008, 3 , 664–676 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. J. Hurst, E. K. Payne, L. Qin and C. A. Mirkin, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2006, 45 , 2672–2692 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. A. Malik, M. Y. Wani and M. A. Hashim, Arabian J. Chem. , 2012, 5 , 397–417 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Soleimani Zohr Shiri, W. Henderson and M. R. Mucalo, Materials , 2019, 12 , 1896 CrossRef PubMed .
- T.-D. Nguyen, Nanoscale , 2013, 5 , 9455 RSC .
- S. Yi, F. Dai, C. Zhao and Y. Si, Sci. Rep. , 2017, 7 , 9806 CrossRef .
- R. Jose Varghese, E. H. M. Sakho, S. Parani, S. Thomas, O. S. Oluwafemi and J. Wu, Nanomaterials for Solar Cell Applications , Elsevier, 2019, pp. 75–95 Search PubMed .
- E. Roduner, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2006, 35 , 583 RSC .
- A. J. Mannix, X.-F. Zhou, B. Kiraly, J. D. Wood, D. Alducin, B. D. Myers, X. Liu, B. L. Fisher, U. Santiago, J. R. Guest, M. J. Yacaman, A. Ponce, A. R. Oganov, M. C. Hersam and N. P. Guisinger, Science , 2015, 350 , 1513–1516 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Nanobiotechnology: Concepts and Applications in Health, Agriculture, and Environment , ed. R. S. Tomar, A. Jyoti and S. Kaushik, 1st edn, 2020 Search PubMed .
- A. P. Alivisatos, Science , 1996, 271 , 933–937 CrossRef CAS .
- R. Tomar, A. A. Abdala, R. G. Chaudhary and N. B. Singh, Mater. Today: Proc. , 2020, 29 , 967–973, DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.144 .
- L. D. Geoffrion and G. Guisbiers, J. Phys. Chem. Solids , 2020, 140 , 109320 CrossRef CAS .
- S. K. Krishnan, E. Singh, P. Singh, M. Meyyappan and H. S. Nalwa, RSC Adv. , 2019, 9 , 8778–8881 RSC .
- Q. Wu, W. Miao, Y. Zhang, H. Gao and D. Hui, Nanotechnol. Rev. , 2020, 9 , 259–273 CrossRef CAS .
- W. Zhu, Y. Guo, B. Ma, X. Yang, Y. Li, P. Li, Y. Zhou and M. Shuai, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy , 2020, 45 , 8385–8395 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Liu, M. Xu, L. Wan, H. Zhu, K. Yao, R. Linguerri, G. Chambaud, Y. Han and C. Meng, ACS Catal. , 2020, 10 , 3084–3093 CrossRef CAS .
- P. Makvandi, C. Wang, E. N. Zare, A. Borzacchiello, L. Niu and F. R. Tay, Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2020, 30 , 1910021 CrossRef CAS .
- E. Castro, A. H. Garcia, G. Zavala and L. Echegoyen, J. Mater. Chem. B , 2017, 5 , 6523–6535 RSC .
- M. S. Mauter and M. Elimelech, Environ. Sci. Technol. , 2008, 42 , 5843–5859 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- L. Chen, S. Zhao, Q. Hasi, X. Luo, C. Zhang, H. Li and A. Li, Global Challenges , 2020, 4 , 1900098 CrossRef PubMed .
- R. G. Mendes, A. Bachmatiuk, B. Büchner, G. Cuniberti and M. H. Rümmeli, J. Mater. Chem. B , 2013, 1 , 401–428 RSC .
- M. T. Beck and G. Mándi, Fullerene Sci. Technol. , 1997, 5 , 291–310 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Fan, N. Soin, H. Li, H. Li, X. Xia and J. Geng, Energy Environ. Mater. , 2020, 3 , 469–491, DOI: 10.1002/eem2.12071 .
- S. Goodarzi, T. Da Ros, J. Conde, F. Sefat and M. Mozafari, Mater. Today , 2017, 20 , 460–480 CrossRef CAS .
- P. Ehrenfreund and B. H. Foing, Science , 2010, 329 , 1159–1160 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. C. Withers, R. O. Loutfy and T. P. Lowe, Fullerene Sci. Technol. , 1997, 5 , 1–31 CrossRef .
- A. Rodríguez-Fortea, A. L. Balch and J. M. Poblet, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2011, 40 , 3551 RSC .
- N. A. Kaskhedikar and J. Maier, Adv. Mater. , 2009, 21 , 2664–2680 CrossRef CAS .
- A. A. Popov, S. Yang and L. Dunsch, Chem. Rev. , 2013, 113 , 5989–6113 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Q. Mercado, C. M. Beavers, M. M. Olmstead, M. N. Chaur, K. Walker, B. C. Holloway, L. Echegoyen and A. L. Balch, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2008, 130 , 7854–7855 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. Yang and C.-R. Wang, Endohedral Fullerenes , World Scientific, 2014 Search PubMed .
- H. Okada, T. Komuro, T. Sakai, Y. Matsuo, Y. Ono, K. Omote, K. Yokoo, K. Kawachi, Y. Kasama, S. Ono, R. Hatakeyama, T. Kaneko and H. Tobita, RSC Adv. , 2012, 2 , 10624 RSC .
- H. Bai, H. Gao, W. Feng, Y. Zhao and Y. Wu, Nanomaterials , 2019, 9 , 630 CrossRef CAS .
- O. V. Pupysheva, A. A. Farajian and B. I. Yakobson, Nano Lett. , 2008, 8 , 767–774 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Gaboardi, N. Sarzi Amadé, M. Aramini, C. Milanese, G. Magnani, S. Sanna, M. Riccò and D. Pontiroli, Carbon , 2017, 120 , 77–82 CrossRef CAS .
- A. Shokuhi Rad and K. Ayub, Comput. Theor. Chem. , 2017, 1121 , 68–75 CrossRef CAS .
- D. Guldi and N. Martin, Comprehensive Nanoscience and Technology , Elsevier, 2011, pp. 379–398 Search PubMed .
- L. Sánchez, N. Martín and D. M. Guldi, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2005, 44 , 5374–5382 CrossRef PubMed .
- X. Zhang, Y. Ma, S. Fu and A. Zhang, Nanomaterials , 2019, 9 , 1647 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- N. Martin and G. Bodwell, Acc. Chem. Res. , 2019, 52 , 2757–2759 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. Harano and E. Nakamura, Acc. Chem. Res. , 2019, 52 , 2090–2100 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. Montellano, T. Da Ros, A. Bianco and M. Prato, Nanoscale , 2011, 3 , 4035 RSC .
- E. Alipour, F. Alimohammady, A. Yumashev and A. Maseleno, J. Mol. Model. , 2020, 26 , 7 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M.-S. Lin, R.-T. Chen, N.-Y. Yu, L.-C. Sun, Y. Liu, C.-H. Cui, S.-Y. Xie, R.-B. Huang and L.-S. Zheng, Colloids Surf., B , 2017, 159 , 613–619 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. Minami, K. Okamoto, K. Harano, E. Noiri and E. Nakamura, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2018, 10 , 19347–19354 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. Minami, K. Okamoto, K. Doi, K. Harano, E. Noiri and E. Nakamura, Sci. Rep. , 2015, 4 , 4916 CrossRef PubMed .
- S. S. Babu, H. Möhwald and T. Nakanishi, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2010, 39 , 4021 RSC .
- N. Furuuchi, R. Shrestha, Y. Yamashita, T. Hirao, K. Ariga and L. Shrestha, Sensors , 2019, 19 , 267 CrossRef PubMed .
- J. Coro, M. Suárez, L. S. R. Silva, K. I. B. Eguiluz and G. R. Salazar-Banda, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy , 2016, 41 , 17944–17959 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Yousfi-Steiner, P. Moçotéguy, D. Candusso and D. Hissel, J. Power Sources , 2009, 194 , 130–145 CrossRef CAS .
- A. R. Tuktarov, A. A. Khuzin and U. M. Dzhemilev, Pet. Chem. , 2020, 60 , 113–133 CrossRef CAS .
- I. Jeon, A. Shawky, H.-S. Lin, S. Seo, H. Okada, J.-W. Lee, A. Pal, S. Tan, A. Anisimov, E. I. Kauppinen, Y. Yang, S. Manzhos, S. Maruyama and Y. Matsuo, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2019, 141 , 16553–16558 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Takabayashi and K. Prassides, Philos. Trans. R. Soc., A , 2016, 374 , 20150320 CrossRef PubMed .
- M. A. Rafiee, F. Yavari, J. Rafiee and N. Koratkar, J. Nanopart. Res. , 2011, 13 , 733–737 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Pan, Z. Guo, S. Ran and Z. Fang, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. , 2020, 137 , 47538 CrossRef .
- S. Iijima, Nature , 1991, 354 , 56–58 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Iijima and T. Ichihashi, Nature , 1993, 363 , 603–605 CrossRef CAS .
- I. V. Zaporotskova, N. P. Boroznina, Y. N. Parkhomenko and L. V. Kozhitov, Mod. Electron. Mater. , 2016, 2 , 95–105 CrossRef .
- X.-Q. Li, P.-X. Hou, C. Liu and H.-M. Cheng, Carbon , 2019, 147 , 187–198 CrossRef CAS .
- C. Shen, A. H. Brozena and Y. Wang, Nanoscale , 2011, 3 , 503–518 RSC .
- V. Popov, Mater. Sci. Eng., R , 2004, 43 , 61–102 CrossRef .
- Z. F. Ren, Science , 1998, 282 , 1105–1107 CrossRef CAS .
- A. G. Rinzler, J. Liu, H. Dai, P. Nikolaev, C. B. Huffman, F. J. Rodríguez-Macías, P. J. Boul, A. H. Lu, D. Heymann, D. T. Colbert, R. S. Lee, J. E. Fischer, A. M. Rao, P. C. Eklund and R. E. Smalley, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process. , 1998, 67 , 29–37 CrossRef CAS .
- P. Nikolaev, M. J. Bronikowski, R. K. Bradley, F. Rohmund, D. T. Colbert, K. Smith and R. E. Smalley, Chem. Phys. Lett. , 1999, 313 , 91–97 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Baig, M. Sajid and T. A. Saleh, TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. , 2019, 111 , 47–61 CrossRef CAS .
- X.-M. Liu, Z. Dong Huang, S. Woon Oh, B. Zhang, P.-C. Ma, M. M. F. Yuen and J.-K. Kim, Compos. Sci. Technol. , 2012, 72 , 121–144 CrossRef CAS .
- T. W. Odom, J.-L. Huang, P. Kim and C. M. Lieber, Nature , 1998, 391 , 62–64 CrossRef CAS .
- K. Balasubramanian and M. Burghard, Small , 2005, 1 , 180–192 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. R. Xiao, B. A. Gama and J. W. Gillespie, Int. J. Solids Struct. , 2005, 42 , 3075–3092 CrossRef .
- H. Kim, M. Wang, S. K. Lee, J. Kang, J.-D. Nam, L. Ci and J. Suhr, Sci. Rep. , 2017, 7 , 9512 CrossRef PubMed .
- J. H. Lehman, M. Terrones, E. Mansfield, K. E. Hurst and V. Meunier, Carbon , 2011, 49 , 2581–2602 CrossRef CAS .
- N. G. Sahoo, S. Rana, J. W. Cho, L. Li and S. H. Chan, Prog. Polym. Sci. , 2010, 35 , 837–867 CrossRef CAS .
- T. Kuang, L. Chang, F. Chen, Y. Sheng, D. Fu and X. Peng, Carbon , 2016, 105 , 305–313 CrossRef CAS .
- Z. Wei, M. Kondratenko, L. H. Dao and D. F. Perepichka, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2006, 128 , 3134–3135 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Bockrath, Science , 2001, 291 , 283–285 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Rother, M. Brohmann, S. Yang, S. B. Grimm, S. P. Schießl, A. Graf and J. Zaumseil, Adv. Electron. Mater. , 2017, 3 , 1700080 CrossRef .
- J.-M. Bonard, M. Croci, C. Klinke, R. Kurt, O. Noury and N. Weiss, Carbon , 2002, 40 , 1715–1728 CrossRef CAS .
- B. J. Landi, M. J. Ganter, C. D. Cress, R. A. DiLeo and R. P. Raffaelle, Energy Environ. Sci. , 2009, 2 , 638 RSC .
- S. Mallakpour and E. Khadem, Chem. Eng. J. , 2016, 302 , 344–367 CrossRef CAS .
- M. W. Chik, Z. Hussain, M. Zulkefeli, M. Tripathy, S. Kumar, A. B. A. Majeed and K. Byrappa, Drug Delivery Transl. Res. , 2019, 9 , 578–594 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- W. Z. Yuan, Y. Mao, H. Zhao, J. Z. Sun, H. P. Xu, J. K. Jin, Q. Zheng and B. Z. Tang, Macromolecules , 2008, 41 , 701–707 CrossRef CAS .
- C. A. Dyke and J. M. Tour, J. Phys. Chem. A , 2004, 108 , 11151–11159 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Singh, S. Vardharajula, P. Tiwari, E. Eroğlu, K. Vig, V. Dennis and S. Z. Ali, Int. J. Nanomed. , 2012, 7 , 5361 CrossRef PubMed .
- K. Zare, V. K. Gupta, O. Moradi, A. S. H. Makhlouf, M. Sillanpää, M. N. Nadagouda, H. Sadegh, R. Shahryari-ghoshekandi, A. Pal, Z. Wang, I. Tyagi and M. Kazemi, J. Nanostruct. Chem. , 2015, 5 , 227–236 CrossRef CAS .
- E. Vázquez and M. Prato, Pure Appl. Chem. , 2010, 82 , 853–861 Search PubMed .
- A. Setaro, M. Adeli, M. Glaeske, D. Przyrembel, T. Bisswanger, G. Gordeev, F. Maschietto, A. Faghani, B. Paulus, M. Weinelt, R. Arenal, R. Haag and S. Reich, Nat. Commun. , 2017, 8 , 14281 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- P. Bilalis, D. Katsigiannopoulos, A. Avgeropoulos and G. Sakellariou, RSC Adv. , 2014, 4 , 2911–2934 RSC .
- Y. Zhou, Y. Fang and R. Ramasamy, Sensors , 2019, 19 , 392 CrossRef PubMed .
- T. Morishita, M. Matsushita, Y. Katagiri and K. Fukumori, Carbon , 2009, 47 , 2716–2726 CrossRef CAS .
- M. S. Ata, R. Poon, A. M. Syed, J. Milne and I. Zhitomirsky, Carbon , 2018, 130 , 584–598 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Alzate-Carvajal, L. M. Bolivar-Pineda, V. Meza-Laguna, V. A. Basiuk, E. V. Basiuk and E. A. Baranova, ChemElectroChem , 2020, 7 , 428–436 CrossRef CAS .
- G. Liu, W. Jin and N. Xu, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2015, 44 , 5016–5030 RSC .
- N. N. Anh, N. Van Chuc, B. H. Thang, P. Van Nhat, N. Hao, D. D. Phuong, P. N. Minh, T. Subramani, N. Fukata and P. Van Trinh, Global Challenges , 2020, 2000010 CrossRef PubMed .
- G. K. Dalapati, S. Masudy-Panah, R. S. Moakhar, S. Chakrabortty, S. Ghosh, A. Kushwaha, R. Katal, C. S. Chua, G. Xiao, S. Tripathy and S. Ramakrishna, Global Challenges , 2020, 4 , 1900087 CrossRef PubMed .
- A. K. Geim and K. S. Novoselov, Nat. Mater. , 2007, 6 , 183–191 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. K. Geim, Science , 2009, 324 , 1530–1534 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. Ghosh, I. Calizo, D. Teweldebrhan, E. P. Pokatilov, D. L. Nika, A. A. Balandin, W. Bao, F. Miao and C. N. Lau, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2008, 92 , 151911 CrossRef .
- A. A. Balandin, S. Ghosh, W. Bao, I. Calizo, D. Teweldebrhan, F. Miao and C. N. Lau, Nano Lett. , 2008, 8 , 902–907 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. I. Bolotin, K. J. Sikes, Z. Jiang, M. Klima, G. Fudenberg, J. Hone, P. Kim and H. L. Stormer, Solid State Commun. , 2008, 146 , 351–355 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Baig, A.-N. Kawde and M. Ibrahim, Mater. Adv. , 2020, 1 , 783–793, 10.1039/D0MA00322K .
- D. Konios, M. M. Stylianakis, E. Stratakis and E. Kymakis, J. Colloid Interface Sci. , 2014, 430 , 108–112 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. Stankovich, D. A. Dikin, R. D. Piner, K. A. Kohlhaas, A. Kleinhammes, Y. Jia, Y. Wu, S. T. Nguyen and R. S. Ruoff, Carbon , 2007, 45 , 1558–1565 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Chen, Y. Zhang, M. Zhang, B. Yao, Y. Li, L. Huang, C. Li and G. Shi, Chem. Sci. , 2016, 7 , 1874–1881 RSC .
- M. Pumera, Electrochem. Commun. , 2013, 36 , 14–18 CrossRef CAS .
- F. Perreault, A. Fonseca de Faria and M. Elimelech, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2015, 44 , 5861–5896 RSC .
- A. Pulido, P. Concepción, M. Boronat, C. Botas, P. Alvarez, R. Menendez and A. Corma, J. Mater. Chem. , 2012, 22 , 51–56 RSC .
- N. Baig and T. A. Saleh, Microchim. Acta , 2018, 185 , 283 CrossRef PubMed .
- A. T. Smith, A. M. LaChance, S. Zeng, B. Liu and L. Sun, Nano Mater. Sci. , 2019, 1 , 31–47 CrossRef .
- S. Pei and H.-M. Cheng, Carbon , 2012, 50 , 3210–3228 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Baig and A.-N. Kawde, RSC Adv. , 2016, 6 , 80756–80765 RSC .
- K. K. H. De Silva, H. H. Huang, R. K. Joshi and M. Yoshimura, Carbon , 2017, 119 , 190–199 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Baig, A. Kawde and M. Ibrahim, ChemistrySelect , 2019, 4 , 1640–1649 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Wang, T. Ruan, Y. Chen, F. Jin, L. Peng, Y. Zhou, D. Wang and S. Dou, Energy Storage Mater. , 2020, 24 , 22–51 CrossRef .
- W. Lv, Z. Li, Y. Deng, Q.-H. Yang and F. Kang, Energy Storage Mater. , 2016, 2 , 107–138 CrossRef .
- G. Li, Y. Xia, Y. Tian, Y. Wu, J. Liu, Q. He and D. Chen, J. Electrochem. Soc. , 2019, 166 , B881–B895 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Baig and A.-N. Kawde, Anal. Methods , 2015, 7 , 9535–9541 RSC .
- C. I. L. Justino, A. R. Gomes, A. C. Freitas, A. C. Duarte and T. A. P. Rocha-Santos, TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. , 2017, 91 , 53–66 CrossRef CAS .
- Q. He, S. Wu, Z. Yin and H. Zhang, Chem. Sci. , 2012, 3 , 1764 RSC .
- H. Yoon, J. Nah, H. Kim, S. Ko, M. Sharifuzzaman, S. C. Barman, X. Xuan, J. Kim and J. Y. Park, Sens. Actuators, B , 2020, 311 , 127866 CrossRef CAS .
- T.-H. Han, Y. Lee, M.-R. Choi, S.-H. Woo, S.-H. Bae, B. H. Hong, J.-H. Ahn and T.-W. Lee, Nat. Photonics , 2012, 6 , 105–110 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Xu, J. Qi, F. Li, X. Liao, S. Liu and Y. Zhang, RSC Adv. , 2017, 7 , 30506–30512 RSC .
- A. Kaidarova, N. Alsharif, B. N. M. Oliveira, M. Marengo, N. R. Geraldi, C. M. Duarte and J. Kosel, Global Challenges , 2020, 4 , 2000001 CrossRef .
- V. H. R. Souza, M. M. Oliveira and A. J. G. Zarbin, J. Power Sources , 2017, 348 , 87–93 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Zhong, X. Zhang, Y. He, H. Peng, G. Wang and G. Xin, Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2018, 28 , 1801998 CrossRef .
- Mandeep, A. Gulati and R. Kakkar, Chem. Eng. Res. Des. , 2020, 153 , 21–36 CrossRef CAS .
- T. A. Saleh, N. Baig, F. I. Alghunaimi and N. W. Aljuryyed, RSC Adv. , 2020, 10 , 5088–5097 RSC .
- N. Baig, F. I. Alghunaimi, H. S. Dossary and T. A. Saleh, Process Saf. Environ. Prot. , 2019, 123 , 327–334 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Baig, Ihsanullah, M. Sajid and T. A. Saleh, J. Environ. Manage. , 2019, 244 , 370–382 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. Bu, L. Yuan, N. Zhang, D. Liu, Y. Meng and X. Peng, Diamond Relat. Mater. , 2020, 101 , 107604 CrossRef CAS .
- V. V. Danilenko, Phys. Solid State , 2004, 46 , 595–599 CrossRef CAS .
- V. N. Mochalin, O. Shenderova, D. Ho and Y. Gogotsi, Nat. Nanotechnol. , 2012, 7 , 11–23 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Zhang, K. Y. Rhee, D. Hui and S.-J. Park, Composites, Part B , 2018, 143 , 19–27 CrossRef CAS .
- T. L. Daulton, M. A. Kirk, R. S. Lewis and L. E. Rehn, Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res., Sect. B , 2001, 175–177 , 12–20 CrossRef CAS .
- J.-P. Boudou, P. A. Curmi, F. Jelezko, J. Wrachtrup, P. Aubert, M. Sennour, G. Balasubramanian, R. Reuter, A. Thorel and E. Gaffet, Nanotechnology , 2009, 20 , 235602 CrossRef PubMed .
- S. Welz, Y. Gogotsi and M. J. McNallan, J. Appl. Phys. , 2003, 93 , 4207–4214 CrossRef CAS .
- F. Fendrych, A. Taylor, L. Peksa, I. Kratochvilova, J. Vlcek, V. Rezacova, V. Petrak, Z. Kluiber, L. Fekete, M. Liehr and M. Nesladek, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. , 2010, 43 , 374018 CrossRef .
- D. Amans, A.-C. Chenus, G. Ledoux, C. Dujardin, C. Reynaud, O. Sublemontier, K. Masenelli-Varlot and O. Guillois, Diamond Relat. Mater. , 2009, 18 , 177–180 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Kumar, M. Nehra, D. Kedia, N. Dilbaghi, K. Tankeshwar and K.-H. Kim, Carbon , 2019, 143 , 678–699 CrossRef CAS .
- D. H. Jariwala, D. Patel and S. Wairkar, Mater. Sci. Eng., C , 2020, 113 , 110996 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- I. Neitzel, V. N. Mochalin and Y. Gogotsi, Nanodiamonds , Elsevier, 2017, pp. 365–390 Search PubMed .
- H. Wang and Y. Cui, Carbon Energy , 2019, 1 , 13–18 CrossRef .
- H. Lee, H. Kim, S. Weon, W. Choi, Y. S. Hwang, J. Seo, C. Lee and J.-H. Kim, Environ. Sci. Technol. , 2016, 50 , 10134–10142 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- N. A. Zambianco, T. A. Silva, H. Zanin, O. Fatibello-Filho and B. C. Janegitz, Diamond Relat. Mater. , 2019, 98 , 107512 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Lai, M. H. Stenzel and P. Xiao, Int. Mater. Rev. , 2020, 65 , 189–225 CrossRef CAS .
- U. T. Uthappa, O. R. Arvind, G. Sriram, D. Losic, H.-Y. Jung, M. Kigga and M. D. Kurkuri, J. Drug Delivery Sci. Technol. , 2020, 60 , 101993 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Xu, R. Ray, Y. Gu, H. J. Ploehn, L. Gearheart, K. Raker and W. A. Scrivens, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2004, 126 , 12736–12737 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. Shen, Y. Zhu, X. Yang and C. Li, Chem. Commun. , 2012, 48 , 3686 RSC .
- X. Wang, Y. Feng, P. Dong and J. Huang, Front. Chem. , 2019, 7 , 671 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- P. Karfa, S. De, K. C. Majhi, R. Madhuri and P. K. Sharma, Comprehensive Nanoscience and Nanotechnology , Elsevier, 2019, vol. 1–5, pp. 123–144 Search PubMed .
- M. Li, T. Chen, J. J. Gooding and J. Liu, ACS Sens. , 2019, 4 , 1732–1748 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- P. Devi, S. Saini and K.-H. Kim, Biosens. Bioelectron. , 2019, 141 , 111158 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. J. Mintz, Y. Zhou and R. M. Leblanc, Nanoscale , 2019, 11 , 4634–4652 RSC .
- H. Liu, T. Ye and C. Mao, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2007, 46 , 6473–6475 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- D. Pan, J. Zhang, Z. Li, C. Wu, X. Yan and M. Wu, Chem. Commun. , 2010, 46 , 3681 RSC .
- R. Liu, D. Wu, S. Liu, K. Koynov, W. Knoll and Q. Li, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2009, 48 , 4598–4601 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Dong, N. Zhou, X. Lin, J. Lin, Y. Chi and G. Chen, Chem. Mater. , 2010, 22 , 5895–5899 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Zhou, C. Booker, R. Li, X. Zhou, T.-K. Sham, X. Sun and Z. Ding, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2007, 129 , 744–745 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. C. G. Esteves da Silva and H. M. R. Gonçalves, TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. , 2011, 30 , 1327–1336 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Wang and A. Hu, J. Mater. Chem. C , 2014, 2 , 6921 RSC .
- S. N. Baker and G. A. Baker, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2010, 49 , 6726–6744 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Li and S. Han, Microchem. J. , 2020, 154 , 104638 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Jiang, Y. He, S. Li and H. Cui, Chem. Commun. , 2012, 48 , 9634 RSC .
- Z.-F. Pu, Q.-L. Wen, Y.-J. Yang, X.-M. Cui, J. Ling, P. Liu and Q.-E. Cao, Spectrochim. Acta, Part A , 2020, 229 , 117944 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- L. Cao, X. Wang, M. J. Meziani, F. Lu, H. Wang, P. G. Luo, Y. Lin, B. A. Harruff, L. M. Veca, D. Murray, S.-Y. Xie and Y.-P. Sun, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2007, 129 , 11318–11319 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. Cheng, R. Qi, S. Lan, H. Wang, X. Zheng, C. Liu, D. Jia, L. Cao and D. Wang, Dyes Pigm. , 2020, 174 , 108106 CrossRef CAS .
- F. Copur, N. Bekar, E. Zor, S. Alpaydin and H. Bingol, Sens. Actuators, B , 2019, 279 , 305–312 CrossRef CAS .
- Z. Nan, C. Hao, X. Zhang, H. Liu and R. Sun, Spectrochim. Acta, Part A , 2020, 228 , 117717 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- C. Wang, H. Shi, M. Yang, Y. Yan, E. Liu, Z. Ji and J. Fan, J. Photochem. Photobiol., A , 2020, 391 , 112374 CrossRef CAS .
- W. Li, S. Huang, H. Wen, Y. Luo, J. Cheng, Z. Jia, P. Han and W. Xue, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. , 2020, 412 , 993–1002 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- X. Tian, H. Peng, Y. Li, C. Yang, Z. Zhou and Y. Wang, Sens. Actuators, B , 2017, 243 , 1002–1009 CrossRef CAS .
- G. Han, J. Zhao, R. Zhang, X. Tian, Z. Liu, A. Wang, R. Liu, B. Liu, M. Han, X. Gao and Z. Zhang, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2019, 58 , 7087–7091 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- H. Li, F.-Q. Shao, H. Huang, J.-J. Feng and A.-J. Wang, Sens. Actuators, B , 2016, 226 , 506–511 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Sun, S. Zheng, L. Liu, Y. Kong, A. Zhang, K. Xu and C. Han, Nanoscale Res. Lett. , 2020, 15 , 55 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Wei, L. Chen, J. Wang, X. Liu, Y. Yang and S. Yu, Opt. Mater. , 2020, 100 , 109647 CrossRef CAS .
- T. Song, Y. Zhao, T. Wang, J. Li, Z. Jiang and P. Yang, J. Fluoresc. , 2020, 30 , 81–89 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- G. Huang, Y. Lin, L. Zhang, Z. Yan, Y. Wang and Y. Liu, Sci. Rep. , 2019, 9 , 19651 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- X. Wang, L. Cao, F. Lu, M. J. Meziani, H. Li, G. Qi, B. Zhou, B. A. Harruff, F. Kermarrec and Y.-P. Sun, Chem. Commun. , 2009, 3774 RSC .
- Y. Li, B.-P. Zhang, J.-X. Zhao, Z.-H. Ge, X.-K. Zhao and L. Zou, Appl. Surf. Sci. , 2013, 279 , 367–373 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Zhang, Y. Zhao, Z. Xu, H. Su, X. Bian, S. Zhang, X. Dong, L. Zeng, T. Zeng, M. Feng, L. Li and V. K. Sharma, Appl. Catal., B , 2020, 262 , 118306 CrossRef CAS .
- L. Zhang, J. Zhang, Y. Xia, M. Xun, H. Chen, X. Liu and X. Yin, Int. J. Mol. Sci. , 2020, 21 , 1052 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y.-Y. Li, Y. Si, B.-X. Zhou, T. Huang, W.-Q. Huang, W. Hu, A. Pan, X. Fan and G.-F. Huang, Nanoscale , 2020, 12 , 3135–3145 RSC .
- N. Karousis, I. Suarez-Martinez, C. P. Ewels and N. Tagmatarchis, Chem. Rev. , 2016, 116 , 4850–4883 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Zhang and M. Yudasaka, Carbon Nanostructures , Springer International Publishing, 2016, pp. 77–107 Search PubMed .
- S. Iijima, M. Yudasaka, R. Yamada, S. Bandow, K. Suenaga, F. Kokai and K. Takahashi, Chem. Phys. Lett. , 1999, 309 , 165–170 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Zhu and G. Xu, Nanoscale , 2010, 2 , 2538 RSC .
- J. Fan, M. Yudasaka, J. Miyawaki, K. Ajima, K. Murata and S. Iijima, J. Phys. Chem. B , 2006, 110 , 1587–1591 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Z. Zhang, S. Han, C. Wang, J. Li and G. Xu, Nanomaterials , 2015, 5 , 1732–1755 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Z. Liu, W. Zhang, W. Qi, W. Gao, S. Hanif, M. Saqib and G. Xu, Chem. Commun. , 2015, 51 , 4256–4258 RSC .
- T. Ohba, K. Murata, K. Kaneko, W. A. Steele, F. Kokai, K. Takahashi, D. Kasuya, M. Yudasaka and S. Iijima, Nano Lett. , 2001, 1 , 371–373 CrossRef CAS .
- D. Ebenezer, M. Jagannatham, M. S. Lahari, P. Bhuwaneshswar and H. Prathap, Diamond Relat. Mater. , 2016, 70 , 26–32 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Wang, L. Pan, Y. Liu, Y. Ye and S. Yao, J. Electroanal. Chem. , 2020, 862 , 113955 CrossRef CAS .
- T. Yoshitake, Y. Shimakawa, S. Kuroshima, H. Kimura, T. Ichihashi, Y. Kubo, D. Kasuya, K. Takahashi, F. Kokai, M. Yudasaka and S. Iijima, Phys. B , 2002, 323 , 124–126 CrossRef CAS .
- A. Thomas, Nat. Commun. , 2020, 11 , 4985 CrossRef CAS .
- R. W. Derlet and T. E. Albertson, West. J. Med. , 1986, 145 , 493–496 CAS .
- R. Mishra, J. Militky and M. Venkataraman, Nanotechnology in Textiles: Theory and Application , 2018, pp. 311–353 Search PubMed .
- N. Pal, Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. , 2020, 280 , 102156 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. E. Davis, Nature , 2002, 417 , 813–821 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Polarz and B. Smarsly, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. , 2002, 2 , 581–612 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Szczęśniak, S. Borysiuk, J. Choma and M. Jaroniec, Mater. Horiz. , 2020, 7 , 1457–1473 RSC .
- D. Chen, L. Wei, J. Li and Q. Wu, J. Energy Storage , 2020, 30 , 101525 CrossRef .
- L. Zhang and M. Jaroniec, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2020, 49 , 6039–6055 RSC .
- Y. Li, H. Cao and J. Yu, ACS Nano , 2018, 12 , 4096–4104 CrossRef CAS .
- Z. Yang, Z. Xie, H. Liu, F. Yan and H. Ju, Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2008, 18 , 3991–3998 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Bagheri, M. M. Amini, M. Behbahani and G. Rabiee, Microchem. J. , 2019, 145 , 460–469 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Zhou, G. Quan, Q. Wu, X. Zhang, B. Niu, B. Wu, Y. Huang, X. Pan and C. Wu, Acta Pharm. Sin. B , 2018, 8 , 165–177 CrossRef PubMed .
- X. Wang, C. Li, N. Fan, J. Li, Z. He and J. Sun, Mater. Sci. Eng., C , 2017, 78 , 370–375 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- V. Zeleňák, D. Halamová, M. Almáši, L. Žid, A. Zeleňáková and O. Kapusta, Appl. Surf. Sci. , 2018, 443 , 525–534 CrossRef .
- Y. Wang, Q. Zhao, N. Han, L. Bai, J. Li, J. Liu, E. Che, L. Hu, Q. Zhang, T. Jiang and S. Wang, Nanomedicine , 2015, 11 , 313–327 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. Na and G. A. Somorjai, Catal. Lett. , 2015, 145 , 193–213 CrossRef CAS .
- K. Na, M. Choi and R. Ryoo, Microporous Mesoporous Mater. , 2013, 166 , 3–19 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Zhang, Z. Zhang, H. Li, Z. Yu, Q. Huang, Z. Qiao, L. Zong, L. Yan, J. Li and J. Kang, Chem. Eng. J. , 2020, 383 , 123097 CrossRef CAS .
- A. Mohammadi Zardkhoshoui and S. S. Hosseiny Davarani, Dalton Trans. , 2020, 49 , 10028–10041 RSC .
- S. Ouyang, P. Li, H. Xu, H. Tong, L. Liu and J. Ye, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2014, 6 , 22726–22732 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- T. Xu, H. Zheng and P. Zhang, J. Hazard. Mater. , 2020, 388 , 121746 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- W. Luc and F. Jiao, Acc. Chem. Res. , 2016, 49 , 1351–1358 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- T. Zhang, M. Paulose, R. Neupane, L. A. Schaffer, D. B. Rana, J. Su, L. Guo and O. K. Varghese, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells , 2020, 209 , 110472 CrossRef CAS .
- G. Schmid, J. Mater. Chem. , 2002, 12 , 1231–1238 RSC .
- A. Larsson, G. Abbondanza, W. Linpé, F. Carlà, P. Mousley, C. Hetherington, E. Lundgren and G. S. Harlow, J. Electrochem. Soc. , 2020, 167 , 122514 CrossRef CAS .
- P. G. Schiavi, P. Altimari, A. Rubino and F. Pagnanelli, Electrochim. Acta , 2018, 259 , 711–722 CrossRef CAS .
- A. Yadav, M. S. Bobji and S. J. Bull, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. , 2019, 19 , 4254–4259 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- F. Yang, J. Tang, B. Shao, S. Gao and X. Liu, Nano-Struct. Nano-Objects , 2019, 18 , 100287 CrossRef .
- G. Rajeev, B. Prieto Simon, L. F. Marsal and N. H. Voelcker, Adv. Healthcare Mater. , 2018, 7 , 1700904 CrossRef PubMed .
- M. R. Benzigar, S. N. Talapaneni, S. Joseph, K. Ramadass, G. Singh, J. Scaranto, U. Ravon, K. Al-Bahily and A. Vinu, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2018, 47 , 2680–2721 RSC .
- N. Baig and T. A. Saleh, Composites, Part B , 2019, 173 , 106805 CrossRef .
- N. Baig and T. A. Saleh, Global Challenges , 2019, 3 , 1800115 CrossRef PubMed .
- N. Baig and T. A. Saleh, Chem. – Asian J. , 2021, 16 , 329–341, DOI: 10.1002/asia.202001368 .
- S. Kundu, I. H. Chowdhury and M. K. Naskar, ACS Omega , 2018, 3 , 9888–9898 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- T. A. Saleh, N. Baig, H. A. Othman and A. M. Al Harith, Chem. Eng. J. , 2021, 407 , 126216 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Szczęśniak, J. Phuriragpitikhon, J. Choma and M. Jaroniec, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2020, 8 , 18464–18491 RSC .
- Z. Bi, Q. Kong, Y. Cao, G. Sun, F. Su, X. Wei, X. Li, A. Ahmad, L. Xie and C.-M. Chen, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2019, 7 , 16028–16045 RSC .
- Z. Li, D. Guo, Y. Liu, H. Wang and L. Wang, Chem. Eng. J. , 2020, 397 , 125418 CrossRef CAS .
- Z. Li, J. Xu, D. Sun, T. Lin and F. Huang, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. , 2020, 3 , 1564–1570 CrossRef CAS .
- A. O. Abo El Naga, S. A. Shaban and F. Y. A. El Kady, J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. , 2018, 93 , 363–373 CrossRef CAS .
- C. Jiao, Y. Wang, M. Li, Q. Wu, C. Wang and Z. Wang, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. , 2016, 407 , 24–30 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Anbia and S. Amirmahmoodi, Arabian J. Chem. , 2016, 9 , S319–S325 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Wang, J. Jia, P. Song, Q. Wang, D. Li, S. Min, C. Qian, L. Wang, Y. F. Li, C. Ma, T. Wu, J. Yuan, M. Antonietti and G. A. Ozin, Angew. Chem. , 2017, 129 , 7955–7960 CrossRef .
- Y. Zhang, H. Sun, Y. Qiu, E. Zhang, T. Ma, G. Gao, C. Cao, Z. Ma and P. Hu, Energy , 2018, 165 , 537–548 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Luo, W.-J. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. Niu, T. Tang, L.-B. Huang, Y.-Y. Chen, Z. Wei and J.-S. Hu, Carbon , 2018, 128 , 97–105 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Tang, J. Liu, N. L. Torad, T. Kimura and Y. Yamauchi, Nano Today , 2014, 9 , 305–323 CrossRef CAS .
- R. Brilmayer, C. Förster, L. Zhao and A. Andrieu-Brunsen, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. , 2020, 63 , 200–209 CrossRef CAS .
- O. K. Farha, A. Özgür Yazaydın, I. Eryazici, C. D. Malliakas, B. G. Hauser, M. G. Kanatzidis, S. T. Nguyen, R. Q. Snurr and J. T. Hupp, Nat. Chem. , 2010, 2 , 944–948 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- O. K. Farha, I. Eryazici, N. C. Jeong, B. G. Hauser, C. E. Wilmer, A. A. Sarjeant, R. Q. Snurr, S. T. Nguyen, A. Ö. Yazaydın and J. T. Hupp, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2012, 134 , 15016–15021 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- I. M. Hönicke, I. Senkovska, V. Bon, I. A. Baburin, N. Bönisch, S. Raschke, J. D. Evans and S. Kaskel, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2018, 57 , 13780–13783 CrossRef PubMed .
- V. Chernikova, O. Shekhah, Y. Belmabkhout and M. Eddaoudi, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. , 2020, 3 , 6432–6439 CrossRef CAS .
- H. A. Patel, S. Hyun Je, J. Park, D. P. Chen, Y. Jung, C. T. Yavuz and A. Coskun, Nat. Commun. , 2013, 4 , 1357 CrossRef PubMed .
- Y. Zhang, S. Wei, F. Liu, Y. Du, S. Liu, Y. Ji, T. Yokoi, T. Tatsumi and F.-S. Xiao, Nano Today , 2009, 4 , 135–142 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Rose, ChemCatChem , 2014, 6 , 1166–1182 CAS .
- N. Wang, Q. Sun and J. Yu, Adv. Mater. , 2019, 31 , 1803966 CrossRef PubMed .
- C. R. Martin, Science , 1994, 266 , 1961–1966 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- H. Zhao, X. Chen, G. Wang, Y. Qiu and L. Guo, 2D Mater. , 2019, 6 , 032002, DOI: 10.1088/2053-1583/ab1169 .
- C. Tan, X. Cao, X.-J. Wu, Q. He, J. Yang, X. Zhang, J. Chen, W. Zhao, S. Han, G.-H. Nam, M. Sindoro and H. Zhang, Chem. Rev. , 2017, 117 , 6225–6331 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. A. F. K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S. V. Dubonos and I. V. Grigorieva, Science , 2004, 306 , 666–669 CrossRef PubMed .
- F. Bai, L. Xu, X. Zhai, X. Chen and W. Yang, Adv. Energy Mater. , 2020, 10 , 1–19 Search PubMed .
- K. Takeda and K. Shiraishi, Teorìâ ta Metod. Fìzičnogo Vihovannâ , 1994, 50 , 14916–14922 CAS .
- G. G. Guzmán-Verri and L. C. Lew Yan Voon, Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. , 2007, 76 , 075131, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.76.075131 .
- S. Cahangirov, M. Topsakal, E. Aktürk, H. Šahin and S. Ciraci, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2009, 102 , 1–4 CrossRef PubMed .
- N. D. Drummond, V. Zólyomi and V. I. Fal’Ko, Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. , 2012, 85 , 1–7 CrossRef .
- Z. Ni, Q. Liu, K. Tang, J. Zheng, J. Zhou, R. Qin, Z. Gao, D. Yu and J. Lu, Nano Lett. , 2012, 12 , 113–118 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- C. C. Liu, W. Feng and Y. Yao, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2011, 107 , 1–4 Search PubMed .
- F. Liu, C. C. Liu, K. Wu, F. Yang and Y. Yao, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2013, 111 , 1–5 Search PubMed .
- C. Xu, G. Luo, Q. Liu, J. Zheng, Z. Zhang, S. Nagase, Z. Gao and J. Lu, Nanoscale , 2012, 4 , 3111–3117 RSC .
- J. Zhao, H. Liu, Z. Yu, R. Quhe, S. Zhou, Y. Wang, C. C. Liu, H. Zhong, N. Han, J. Lu, Y. Yao and K. Wu, Prog. Mater. Sci. , 2016, 83 , 24–151 CrossRef CAS .
- M. De Crescenzi, P. Castrucci, M. Scarselli, M. Diociaiuti, P. S. Chaudhari, C. Balasubramanian, T. M. Bhave and S. V. Bhoraskar, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2005, 86 , 1–3 CrossRef .
- S. Yamada and H. Fujiki, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., Part 2 , 2006, 45 , 18–21 CrossRef .
- H. Nakano, T. Mitsuoka, M. Harada, K. Horibuchi, H. Nozaki, N. Takahashi, T. Nonaka, Y. Seno and H. Nakamura, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2006, 45 , 6303–6306 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- P. De Padova, C. Quaresima, C. Ottaviani, P. M. Sheverdyaeva, P. Moras, C. Carbone, D. Topwal, B. Olivieri, A. Kara, H. Oughaddou, B. Aufray and G. Le Lay, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2010, 96 , 1–4 CrossRef .
- B. Aufray, A. Kara, Ś. Vizzini, H. Oughaddou, C. Ĺandri, B. Ealet and G. Le-Lay, Appl. Phys. Lett. , 2010, 96 , 1–4 CrossRef .
- C. Léandri, H. Oughaddou, B. Aufray, J. M. Gay, G. Le Lay, A. Ranguis and Y. Garreau, Surf. Sci. , 2007, 601 , 262–267 CrossRef .
- P. Vogt, P. De Padova, C. Quaresima, J. Avila, E. Frantzeskakis, M. C. Asensio, A. Resta, B. Ealet and G. Le Lay, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2012, 108 , 155501 CrossRef .
- A. Fleurence, R. Friedlein, T. Ozaki, H. Kawai, Y. Wang and Y. Yamada-Takamura, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2012, 108 , 1–5 CrossRef PubMed .
- L. Meng, Y. Wang, L. Zhang, S. Du, R. Wu, L. Li, Y. Zhang, G. Li, H. Zhou, W. A. Hofer and H. J. Gao, Nano Lett. , 2013, 13 , 685–690 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- T. Aizawa, S. Suehara and S. Otani, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2014, 118 , 23049–23057 CrossRef CAS .
- D. Chiappe, E. Scalise, E. Cinquanta, C. Grazianetti, B. Van Den Broek, M. Fanciulli, M. Houssa and A. Molle, Adv. Mater. , 2014, 26 , 2096–2101 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- B. Feng, Z. Ding, S. Meng, Y. Yao, X. He, P. Cheng, L. Chen and K. Wu, Nano Lett. , 2012, 12 , 3507–3511 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- D. Chiappe, C. Grazianetti, G. Tallarida, M. Fanciulli and A. Molle, Adv. Mater. , 2012, 24 , 5088–5093 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- P. De Padova, O. Kubo, B. Olivieri, C. Quaresima, T. Nakayama, M. Aono and G. Le Lay, Nano Lett. , 2012, 12 , 5500–5503 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- L. Tao, E. Cinquanta, D. Chiappe, C. Grazianetti, M. Fanciulli, M. Dubey, A. Molle and D. Akinwande, Nat. Nanotechnol. , 2015, 10 , 227–231 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. Liu, Y. Yang, P. Lyu, P. Nachtigall and Y. Xu, Adv. Mater. , 2018, 30 , 1–7 CAS .
- M. Naguib, V. N. Mochalin, M. W. Barsoum and Y. Gogotsi, Adv. Mater. , 2014, 26 , 992–1005 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Ghidiu, M. R. Lukatskaya, M. Q. Zhao, Y. Gogotsi and M. W. Barsoum, Nature , 2014, 516 , 78–81 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- X. Sang, Y. Xie, M. W. Lin, M. Alhabeb, K. L. Van Aken, Y. Gogotsi, P. R. C. Kent, K. Xiao and R. R. Unocic, ACS Nano , 2016, 10 , 9193–9200 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Naguib, M. Kurtoglu, V. Presser, J. Lu, J. Niu, M. Heon, L. Hultman, Y. Gogotsi and M. W. Barsoum, Adv. Mater. , 2011, 23 , 4248–4253 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. Pang, R. G. Mendes, A. Bachmatiuk, L. Zhao, H. Q. Ta, T. Gemming, H. Liu, Z. Liu and M. H. Rummeli, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2019, 48 , 72–133 RSC .
- Z. Li and Y. Wu, Small , 2019, 15 , 1–10 Search PubMed .
- J. Ran, G. Gao, F. T. Li, T. Y. Ma, A. Du and S. Z. Qiao, Nat. Commun. , 2017, 8 , 13907, DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13907 .
- Z. W. Seh, K. D. Fredrickson, B. Anasori, J. Kibsgaard, A. L. Strickler, M. R. Lukatskaya, Y. Gogotsi, T. F. Jaramillo and A. Vojvodic, ACS Energy Lett. , 2016, 1 , 589–594 CrossRef CAS .
- A. Kumar and A. Bhan, Chem. Eng. Sci. , 2019, 197 , 371–378 CrossRef CAS .
- D. Wang, Z. Wang, L. Wang, L. Hu and J. Jin, Nanoscale , 2015, 7 , 17649–17652 RSC .
- J. Abraham, K. S. Vasu, C. D. Williams, K. Gopinadhan, Y. Su, C. T. Cherian, J. Dix, E. Prestat, S. J. Haigh, I. V. Grigorieva, P. Carbone, A. K. Geim and R. R. Nair, Nat. Nanotechnol. , 2017, 12 , 546–550 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- G. Reina, J. M. González-Domínguez, A. Criado, E. Vázquez, A. Bianco and M. Prato, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2017, 46 , 4400–4416 RSC .
- Y. Zhang, H. Jiang, Y. Lin, H. Liu, Q. He, C. Wu, T. Duan and L. Song, Adv. Mater. Interfaces , 2018, 5 , 1–9 Search PubMed .
- T. Y. Ma, J. L. Cao, M. Jaroniec and S. Z. Qiao, Angew. Chem. , 2016, 128 , 1150–1154 CrossRef .
- M. Yu, S. Zhou, Z. Wang, J. Zhao and J. Qiu, Nano Energy , 2018, 44 , 181–190 CrossRef CAS .
- N. Hao, Y. Wei, J. Wang, Z. Wang, Z. Zhu, S. Zhao, M. Han and X. Huang, RSC Adv. , 2018, 8 , 20576–20584 RSC .
- L. Zhao, B. Dong, S. Li, L. Zhou, L. Lai, Z. Wang, S. Zhao, M. Han, K. Gao, M. Lu, X. Xie, B. Chen, Z. Liu, X. Wang, H. Zhang, H. Li, J. Liu, H. Zhang, X. Huang and W. Huang, ACS Nano , 2017, 11 , 5800–5807 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- B. Lyu, Y. Choi, H. Jing, C. Qian, H. Kang, S. Lee and J. H. Cho, Adv. Mater. , 2020, 32 , 2–9 Search PubMed .
- L. Li, Y. Yu, G. J. Ye, Q. Ge, X. Ou, H. Wu, D. Feng, X. H. Chen and Y. Zhang, Nat. Nanotechnol. , 2014, 9 , 372–377 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Buscema, D. J. Groenendijk, S. I. Blanter, G. A. Steele, H. S. J. Van Der Zant and A. Castellanos-Gomez, Nano Lett. , 2014, 14 , 3347–3352 CrossRef CAS .
- G. Slotman, A. Rudenko, E. Van Veen, M. I. Katsnelson, R. Roldán and S. Yuan, Phys. Rev. B , 2018, 98 , 1–7 CrossRef .
- C. Hao, B. Yang, F. Wen, J. Xiang, L. Li, W. Wang, Z. Zeng, B. Xu, Z. Zhao, Z. Liu and Y. Tian, Adv. Mater. , 2016, 28 , 3194–3201 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- C. M. Park and H. J. Sohn, Adv. Mater. , 2007, 19 , 2465–2468 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Pumera and Z. Sofer, Adv. Mater. , 2017, 29 , 1605299, DOI: 10.1002/adma.201605299 .
- S. Zhang, M. Xie, F. Li, Z. Yan, Y. Li, E. Kan, W. Liu, Z. Chen and H. Zeng, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2016, 55 , 1666–1669 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Wu, H. Fu, L. Zhou, K. Yao and X. C. Zeng, Nano Lett. , 2015, 15 , 3557–3562 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- P. Ares, F. Aguilar-Galindo, D. Rodríguez-San-Miguel, D. A. Aldave, S. Díaz-Tendero, M. Alcamí, F. Martín, J. Gómez-Herrero and F. Zamora, Adv. Mater. , 2016, 28 , 6332–6336 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Wang and Y. Ding, Nanoscale Res. Lett. , 2015, 10 , 1–10 CrossRef PubMed .
- J. Ji, X. Song, J. Liu, Z. Yan, C. Huo, S. Zhang, M. Su, L. Liao, W. Wang, Z. Ni, Y. Hao and H. Zeng, Nat. Commun. , 2016, 7 , 1–9 Search PubMed .
- H. Liu, A. T. Neal, Z. Zhu, Z. Luo, X. Xu, D. Tománek and P. D. Ye, ACS Nano , 2014, 8 , 4033–4041 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. Favron, E. Gaufrès, F. Fossard, A. L. Phaneuf-Laheureux, N. Y. W. Tang, P. L. Lévesque, A. Loiseau, R. Leonelli, S. Francoeur and R. Martel, Nat. Mater. , 2015, 14 , 826–832 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- G. Abellán, S. Wild, V. Lloret, N. Scheuschner, R. Gillen, U. Mundloch, J. Maultzsch, M. Varela, F. Hauke and A. Hirsch, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2017, 139 , 10432–10440 CrossRef PubMed .
- C. Gibaja, D. Rodriguez-San-Miguel, P. Ares, J. Gómez-Herrero, M. Varela, R. Gillen, J. Maultzsch, F. Hauke, A. Hirsch, G. Abellán and F. Zamora, Angew. Chem. , 2016, 128 , 14557–14561 CrossRef .
- O. Ü. Aktürk, V. O. Özçelik and S. Ciraci, Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. , 2015, 91 , 1–10 CrossRef .
- S. K. Gupta, Y. Sonvane, G. Wang and R. Pandey, Chem. Phys. Lett. , 2015, 641 , 169–172 CrossRef CAS .
- G. Wang, R. Pandey and S. P. Karna, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2015, 7 , 11490–11496 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. Zhang, Z. Yan, Y. Li, Z. Chen and H. Zeng, Angew. Chem. , 2015, 127 , 3155–3158 CrossRef .
- C. Kamal and M. Ezawa, Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. , 2015, 91 , 1–10 CrossRef .
- Z. Zhang, J. Xie, D. Yang, Y. Wang, M. Si and D. Xue, Appl. Phys. Express , 2015, 8 , 055201, DOI: 10.7567/APEX.8.055201 .
- M. S. Khan, A. Srivastava and R. Pandey, RSC Adv. , 2016, 6 , 72634–72642 RSC .
- M. S. Khan, V. Ranjan and A. Srivastava, Proc. – 2015 IEEE Int. Symp. Nanoelectron. Inf. Syst. iNIS 2015 , 2016, 248–251.
- S. Guo, Y. Zhang, Y. Ge, S. Zhang, H. Zeng and H. Zhang, Adv. Mater. , 2019, 31 , 1–19 Search PubMed .
- Y. Liu, T. Wang, J. Robertson, J. Luo, Y. Guo and D. Liu, J. Phys. Chem. C , 2020, 124 , 7441–7448 CrossRef CAS .
- G. Abellán, P. Ares, S. Wild, E. Nuin, C. Neiss, D. R. S. Miguel, P. Segovia, C. Gibaja, E. G. Michel, A. Görling, F. Hauke, J. Gómez-Herrero, A. Hirsch and F. Zamora, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2017, 56 , 14389–14394 CrossRef PubMed .
- S. Wolff, R. Gillen, M. Assebban, G. Abellán and J. Maultzsch, Phys. Rev. Lett. , 2020, 124 , 126101 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- T. García-Mendiola, C. Gutiérrez-Sánchez, C. Gibaja, I. Torres, C. Busó-Rogero, F. Pariente, J. Solera, Z. Razavifar, J. J. Palacios, F. Zamora and E. Lorenzo, ACS Appl. Nano Mater. , 2020, 3 , 3625–3633 CrossRef .
- T. Xue, W. Liang, Y. Li, Y. Sun, Y. Xiang, Y. Zhang, Z. Dai, Y. Duo, L. Wu, K. Qi, B. N. Shivananju, L. Zhang, X. Cui, H. Zhang and Q. Bao, Nat. Commun. , 2019, 10 , 1–9 CrossRef PubMed .
- Z. Wang, Z. Wang, Z. Wang, M. Zhao, Y. Zhou, B. Zhao, Y. Miao, P. Liu, Y. Hao, H. Wang, B. Xu, Y. Wu and S. Yin, 2D Mater. , 2019, 6 , 045017, DOI: 10.1088/2053-1583/ab277d .
- E. Martínez-Periñán, M. P. Down, C. Gibaja, E. Lorenzo, F. Zamora and C. E. Banks, Adv. Energy Mater. , 2018, 8 , 1–8 Search PubMed .
- Y. H. Luo, C. Chen, C. He, Y. Y. Zhu, D. L. Hong, X. T. He, P. J. An, H. S. Wu and B. W. Sun, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2018, 10 , 28860–28867 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. Abhervé, S. Mañas-Valero, M. Clemente-León and E. Coronado, Chem. Sci. , 2015, 6 , 4665–4673 RSC .
- H. S. Wang, J. Li, J. Y. Li, K. Wang, Y. Ding and X. H. Xia, NPG Asia Mater. , 2017, 9 , 1–9 Search PubMed .
- W. J. Song, Talanta , 2017, 170 , 74–80 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Ding, Y. P. Chen, X. Zhang, L. Chen, Z. Dong, H. L. Jiang, H. Xu and H. C. Zhou, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2017, 139 , 9136–9139 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- T. Kambe, R. Sakamoto, K. Hoshiko, K. Takada, M. Miyachi, J. H. Ryu, S. Sasaki, J. Kim, K. Nakazato, M. Takata and H. Nishihara, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2013, 135 , 2462–2465 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- L. Cao, Z. Lin, F. Peng, W. Wang, R. Huang, C. Wang, J. Yan, J. Liang, Z. Zhang, T. Zhang, L. Long, J. Sun and W. Lin, Angew. Chem. , 2016, 128 , 5046–5050 CrossRef .
- T. Rodenas, I. Luz, G. Prieto, B. Seoane, H. Miro, A. Corma, F. Kapteijn, F. X. Llabrés I Xamena and J. Gascon, Nat. Mater. , 2015, 14 , 48–55 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. C. Junggeburth, L. Diehl, S. Werner, V. Duppel, W. Sigle and B. V. Lotsch, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2013, 135 , 6157–6164 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Zheng, S. Zheng, Y. Xu, H. Xue, C. Liu and H. Pang, Chem. Eng. J. , 2019, 373 , 1319–1328 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Wang, Y. Liu, H. Wang, W. Liu, Y. Li, J. Zhang, H. Hou and J. Yang, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. , 2019, 2 , 2063–2071 CrossRef CAS .
- C. Li, X. Hu, W. Tong, W. Yan, X. Lou, M. Shen and B. Hu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2017, 9 , 29829–29838 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. J. Clough, J. W. Yoo, M. H. Mecklenburg and S. C. Marinescu, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2015, 137 , 118–121 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- R. Dong, M. Pfeffermann, H. Liang, Z. Zheng, X. Zhu, J. Zhang and X. Feng, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2015, 54 , 12058–12063 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- B. C. Patra, S. Khilari, R. N. Manna, S. Mondal, D. Pradhan, A. Pradhan and A. Bhaumik, ACS Catal. , 2017, 7 , 6120–6127 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Xu, B. Li, S. Zheng, P. Wu, J. Zhan, H. Xue, Q. Xu and H. Pang, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2018, 6 , 22070–22076 RSC .
- G. Hai, X. Jia, K. Zhang, X. Liu, Z. Wu and G. Wang, Nano Energy , 2018, 44 , 345–352 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Jian, H. Liu, T. Williams, J. Ma, H. Wang and X. Zhang, Chem. Commun. , 2017, 53 , 13161–13164 RSC .
- E. M. Miner, T. Fukushima, D. Sheberla, L. Sun, Y. Surendranath and M. Dinca, Nat. Commun. , 2016, 7 , 1–7 Search PubMed .
- K. Zhao, S. Liu, G. Ye, X. Wei, Y. Su, W. Zhu, Z. Zhou and Z. He, ChemSusChem , 2020, 13 , 1556–1567 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- N. Kornienko, Y. Zhao, C. S. Kley, C. Zhu, D. Kim, S. Lin, C. J. Chang, O. M. Yaghi and P. Yang, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2015, 137 , 14129–14135 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. He, Y. Chen, Z. Zhang, B. Ni, W. He and X. Wang, Chem. Sci. , 2016, 7 , 7101–7105 RSC .
- H. Xu, J. Gao, X. Qian, J. Wang, H. He, Y. Cui, Y. Yang, Z. Wang and G. Qian, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2016, 4 , 10900–10905 RSC .
- W. P. Lustig, S. Mukherjee, N. D. Rudd, A. V. Desai, J. Li and S. K. Ghosh, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2017, 46 , 3242–3285 RSC .
- L. E. Kreno, K. Leong, O. K. Farha, M. Allendorf, R. P. Van Duyne and J. T. Hupp, Chem. Rev. , 2012, 112 , 1105–1125 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Zhao, Y. Wang, Q. Ma, Y. Huang, X. Zhang, J. Ping, Z. Zhang, Q. Lu, Y. Yu, H. Xu, Y. Zhao and H. Zhang, Adv. Mater. , 2015, 27 , 7372–7378 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- H. S. Wang, H. L. Liu, K. Wang, Y. Ding, J. J. Xu, X. H. Xia and H. Y. Chen, Anal. Chem. , 2017, 89 , 11366–11371 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Zhang, Y. Luo, J. Tian, A. M. Asiri, A. O. Al-Youbi and X. Sun, PLoS One , 2012, 7 , e30426, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030426 .
- Y. Y. Fan, Z. L. Mou, M. Wang, J. Li, J. Zhang, F. Q. Dang and Z. Q. Zhang, Anal. Chem. , 2018, 90 , 13708–13713 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- C. He, K. Lu and W. Lin, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2014, 136 , 12253–12256 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Peng, Y. Li, Y. Ban, H. Jin, W. Jiao, X. Liu and W. Yang, Science , 2014, 346 , 1356–1359, DOI: 10.1126/science.1254227 .
- Y. Peng, Y. Li, Y. Ban and W. Yang, Angew. Chem. , 2017, 129 , 9889–9893 CrossRef .
- S. Jiang, X. Shi, F. Sun and G. Zhu, Chem. – Asian J. , 2020, 3 , 1–9 Search PubMed .
- Y. Cheng, X. Wang, C. Jia, Y. Wang, L. Zhai, Q. Wang and D. Zhao, J. Membr. Sci. , 2017, 539 , 213–223 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Shete, P. Kumar, J. E. Bachman, X. Ma, Z. P. Smith, W. Xu, K. A. Mkhoyan, J. R. Long and M. Tsapatsis, J. Membr. Sci. , 2018, 549 , 312–320 CrossRef CAS .
- Z. Kang, Y. Peng, Z. Hu, Y. Qian, C. Chi, L. Y. Yeo, L. Tee and D. Zhao, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2015, 3 , 20801–20810 RSC .
- Y. Yang, K. Goh, R. Wang and T. H. Bae, Chem. Commun. , 2017, 53 , 4254–4257 RSC .
- H. L. Liu, Y. J. Chang, T. Fan and Z. Y. Gu, Chem. Commun. , 2016, 52 , 12984–12987 RSC .
- M. H. Pham, G. T. Vuong, F. G. Fontaine and T. O. Do, Cryst. Growth Des. , 2012, 12 , 3091–3095 CrossRef CAS .
- R. Chen, J. Yao, Q. Gu, S. Smeets, C. Baerlocher, H. Gu, D. Zhu, W. Morris, O. M. Yaghi and H. Wang, Chem. Commun. , 2013, 49 , 9500–9502 RSC .
- R. Kumar, K. Jayaramulu, T. K. Maji and C. N. R. Rao, Dalton Trans. , 2014, 43 , 7383–7386 RSC .
- J. Guo, Y. Zhang, Y. Zhu, C. Long, M. Zhao, M. He, X. Zhang, J. Lv, B. Han and Z. Tang, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. , 2018, 57 , 6873–6877 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- V. Galstyan, M. Bhandari, V. Sberveglieri, G. Sberveglieri and E. Comini, Chemosensors , 2018, 6 , 16 CrossRef .
- M. F. Baran, H. Acay and C. Keskin, Global Challenges , 2020, 4 , 1900104 CrossRef PubMed .
- G. Maduraiveeran, M. Sasidharan and W. Jin, Prog. Mater. Sci. , 2019, 106 , 100574 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Wu, X. Wang, Q. Wang, Z. Lou, S. Li, Y. Zhu, L. Qin and H. Wei, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2019, 48 , 1004–1076 RSC .
- H. Bin Wu, J. S. Chen, H. H. Hng and X. Wen (David) Lou, Nanoscale , 2012, 4 , 2526 RSC .
- W. Zhang, J. Ai, Y. Lei, Y. Li, C. Lai and J. Xie, Solid State Ionics , 2020, 344 , 115132 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Ying, C. Wan, C. Jiang and Y. Li, J. Power Sources , 2001, 99 , 78–84 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Qu, L. Hu, Q. Li, Y. Wang, L. Chen and T. Wang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2014, 6 , 731–736 CrossRef CAS .
- P.-F. Wang, Y. You, Y.-X. Yin and Y.-G. Guo, Adv. Energy Mater. , 2018, 8 , 1701912 CrossRef .
- Y. Fang, X.-Y. Yu and X. W. (David) Lou, Matter , 2019, 1 , 90–114 CrossRef .
- T. Wang, D. Su, D. Shanmukaraj, T. Rojo, M. Armand and G. Wang, Electrochem. Energy Rev. , 2018, 1 , 200–237 CrossRef CAS .
- Q. Liu, Z. Hu, M. Chen, C. Zou, H. Jin, S. Wang, S. Chou and S. Dou, Small , 2019, 15 , 1805381 CrossRef PubMed .
- Y. Huang, Y. Zheng, X. Li, F. Adams, W. Luo, Y. Huang and L. Hu, ACS Energy Lett. , 2018, 3 , 1604–1612 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Ye, G. Xia, Z. Zheng and C. Hu, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy , 2020, 45 , 9969–9978 CrossRef CAS .
- F. Zhang, J. Zhu, D. Zhang, U. Schwingenschlögl and H. N. Alshareef, Nano Lett. , 2017, 17 , 1302–1311 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- L. Liang, Y. Xu, C. Wang, L. Wen, Y. Fang, Y. Mi, M. Zhou, H. Zhao and Y. Lei, Energy Environ. Sci. , 2015, 8 , 2954–2962 RSC .
- L. Shen, Q. Che, H. Li and X. Zhang, Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2014, 24 , 2630–2637 CrossRef CAS .
- D. Kundu, B. D. Adams, V. Duffort, S. H. Vajargah and L. F. Nazar, Nat. Energy , 2016, 1 , 16119 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Ha, Y. Kim and J. Choi, ChemSusChem , 2020, 13 , 419–425 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Z. Kang, C. Wu, L. Dong, W. Liu, J. Mou, J. Zhang, Z. Chang, B. Jiang, G. Wang, F. Kang and C. Xu, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. , 2019, 7 , 3364–3371 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Lu, H. Wang, J. Zhou, X. Wu and W. Qin, Nanoscale , 2017, 9 , 1184–1192 RSC .
- J.-W. Lee, H.-S. Shin, C.-W. Lee and K.-N. Jung, Nanoscale Res. Lett. , 2016, 11 , 45 CrossRef PubMed .
- J. Han, J. Qin, L. Guo, K. Qin, N. Zhao, C. Shi, E. Liu, F. He, L. Ma and C. He, Appl. Surf. Sci. , 2018, 427 , 670–679 CrossRef CAS .
- Z. Zhang, X. Zhao and J. Li, ChemNanoMat , 2016, 2 , 196–200 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Xiong, J. Qian, Y. Cao, X. Ai and H. Yang, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2016, 8 , 16684–16689 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- X. Wang, K. Cao, Y. Wang and L. Jiao, Small , 2017, 13 , 1700873 CrossRef PubMed .
- X. Li, X. Hao, A. Abudula and G. Guan, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2016, 4 , 11973–12000 RSC .
- Y. Yan, B. Y. Xia, B. Zhao and X. Wang, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2016, 4 , 17587–17603 RSC .
- I. Roger, M. A. Shipman and M. D. Symes, Nat. Rev. Chem. , 2017, 1 , 0003 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Zou and Y. Zhang, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2015, 44 , 5148–5180 RSC .
- X. Yang, H. Li, A.-Y. Lu, S. Min, Z. Idriss, M. N. Hedhili, K.-W. Huang, H. Idriss and L.-J. Li, Nano Energy , 2016, 25 , 42–50 CrossRef CAS .
- A. G. Tamirat, J. Rick, A. A. Dubale, W.-N. Su and B.-J. Hwang, Nanoscale Horiz. , 2016, 1 , 243–267 RSC .
- Y. Yang, S. Niu, D. Han, T. Liu, G. Wang and Y. Li, Adv. Energy Mater. , 2017, 7 , 1700555 CrossRef .
- N. Nasori, T. Dai, X. Jia, A. Rubiyanto, D. Cao, S. Qu, Z. Wang, Z. Wang and Y. Lei, J. Semicond. , 2019, 40 , 052701 CrossRef CAS .
- Z. Yu, H. Liu, M. Zhu, Y. Li and W. Li, Small , 2019, 1903378 Search PubMed .
- V. Sharma, M. Prasad, P. Ilaiyaraja, C. Sudakar and S. Jadkar, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy , 2019, 44 , 11459–11471 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Li, C. Gao, H. Duan, B. Lu, Y. Wang, L. Chen, Z. Zhang, X. Pan and E. Xie, Small , 2013, 9 , 2005–2011 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Tayebi and B.-K. Lee, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. , 2019, 111 , 332–343 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Guo, Y. Li, B. Jiang, H. Gao, T. Wang, P. Sun, F. Liu, X. Yan, X. Liang, Y. Gao, J. Zhao and G. Lu, Sens. Actuators, B , 2020, 310 , 127780 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Chen and S. S. Mao, Chem. Rev. , 2007, 107 , 2891–2959 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. Wetchakun, T. Samerjai, N. Tamaekong, C. Liewhiran, C. Siriwong, V. Kruefu, A. Wisitsoraat, A. Tuantranont and S. Phanichphant, Sens. Actuators, B , 2011, 160 , 580–591 CrossRef CAS .
- J. M. George, A. Antony and B. Mathew, Microchim. Acta , 2018, 185 , 358 CrossRef PubMed .
- A.-N. Kawde, M. Aziz, N. Baig and Y. Temerk, J. Electroanal. Chem. , 2015, 740 , 68–74 CrossRef CAS .
- R. Narayanan and M. A. El-Sayed, Nano Lett. , 2004, 4 , 1343–1348 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Xie, Y. Li, Z.-Q. Liu, M. Haruta and W. Shen, Nature , 2009, 458 , 746–749 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. M. Bratlie, H. Lee, K. Komvopoulos, P. Yang and G. A. Somorjai, Nano Lett. , 2007, 7 , 3097–3101 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Z. Sun, T. Liao, L. Sheng, L. Kou, J. H. Kim and S. X. Dou, Chem. – Eur. J. , 2016, 22 , 11357–11364 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Q. Liang, X. Zou, H. Chen, M. Fan and G.-D. Li, Sens. Actuators, B , 2020, 304 , 127241 CrossRef CAS .
- S. Ozkan, N. T. Nguyen, I. Hwang, A. Mazare and P. Schmuki, Small , 2017, 13 , 1603821 CrossRef PubMed .
- S. Cheon, W. W. Lee, W. Il Park, J.-Y. Jung, J.-H. Choi, D.-G. Choi, S. Jeon, J. Jeong and J. Lee, J. Ind. Eng. Chem. , 2020, 81 , 385–392 CrossRef CAS .
- G. A. Cerrón-Calle, A. J. Aranda-Aguirre, C. Luyo, S. Garcia-Segura and H. Alarcón, Chemosphere , 2019, 219 , 296–304 CrossRef PubMed .
- X. Feng, Y. Huang, C. Li, X. Chen, S. Zhou, X. Gao and C. Chen, Chem. Eng. J. , 2019, 368 , 51–60 CrossRef CAS .
- L. Peng, P. Xiong, L. Ma, Y. Yuan, Y. Zhu, D. Chen, X. Luo, J. Lu, K. Amine and G. Yu, Nat. Commun. , 2017, 8 , 15139 CrossRef PubMed .
- K. Xu, S. Ma, Y. Shen, Q. Ren, J. Yang, X. Chen and J. Hu, Chem. Eng. J. , 2019, 369 , 363–369 CrossRef CAS .
- Y. Xie, C. Chen, X. Lu, F. Luo, C. Wang, A. Alsaedi and T. Hayat, J. Hazard. Mater. , 2019, 379 , 120786 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. M. Saleh, Spectrochim. Acta, Part A , 2019, 211 , 141–147 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- M. Guzman, M. Estrada, S. Miridonov and A. Simakov, Microporous Mesoporous Mater. , 2019, 278 , 241–250 CrossRef CAS .
- X. Zhang, W. Lan, J. Xu, Y. Luo, J. Pan, C. Liao, L. Yang, W. Tan and X. Huang, Sens. Actuators, B , 2019, 289 , 144–152 CrossRef CAS .
- M. Wang, Y. Huang, Y. Zhu, N. Zhang, J. Zhang, X. Qin and H. Zhang, Electrochim. Acta , 2020, 335 , 135694 CrossRef CAS .
- J. Feng and Y. Yin, Adv. Mater. , 2019, 31 , 1802349 CrossRef PubMed .
- Z. Wang, L. Zhou and X. W. David Lou, Adv. Mater. , 2012, 24 , 1903–1911 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- X. W. Lou, Y. Wang, C. Yuan, J. Y. Lee and L. A. Archer, Adv. Mater. , 2006, 18 , 2325–2329 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Tianou, W. Wang, X. Yang, Z. Cao, Q. Kuang, Z. Wang, Z. Shan, M. Jin and Y. Yin, Nat. Commun. , 2017, 8 , 1261 CrossRef PubMed .
- S. Zhou, M. Chen, Q. Lu, J. Hu, H. Wang, K. Li, K. Li, J. Zhang, Z. Zhu and Q. Liu, Mater. Lett. , 2019, 247 , 15–18 CrossRef CAS .
- W. Xin, T. Gao, W. Zhang, T. Hu, X. Sun and G. Zhou, J. Alloys Compd. , 2019, 784 , 157–164 CrossRef CAS .
- D. Zhang, Z. Yang, Z. Wu and G. Dong, Sens. Actuators, B , 2019, 283 , 42–51 CrossRef CAS .
- T. Zhang, J. Zheng, Z. Liang, B. Zhao, H. Zeng, W. Guo, L. Zhao, Y. Sun, I. Abdulhalim and L. Jiang, Electrochim. Acta , 2019, 306 , 151–158 CrossRef CAS .
- B. Dong, W. Li, X. Huang, Z. Ali, T. Zhang, Z. Yang and Y. Hou, Nano Energy , 2019, 55 , 37–41 CrossRef CAS .
- R. Ghosh Chaudhuri and S. Paria, Chem. Rev. , 2012, 112 , 2373–2433 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- W. Schärtl, Nanoscale , 2010, 2 , 829 RSC .
- L. León Félix, J. A. H. Coaquira, M. A. R. Martínez, G. F. Goya, J. Mantilla, M. H. Sousa, L. D. L. S. Valladares, C. H. W. Barnes and P. C. Morais, Sci. Rep. , 2017, 7 , 41732 CrossRef PubMed .
- S. Wei, Q. Wang, J. Zhu, L. Sun, H. Lin and Z. Guo, Nanoscale , 2011, 3 , 4474 RSC .
- F. Forato, S. Talebzadeh, N. Rousseau, J.-Y. Mevellec, B. Bujoli, D. A. Knight, C. Queffélec and B. Humbert, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. , 2019, 21 , 3066–3072 RSC .
- H. Mi, X. Zhang, S. An, X. Ye and S. Yang, Electrochem. Commun. , 2007, 9 , 2859–2862 CrossRef CAS .
- R. M. Abdel Hameed, New J. Chem. , 2018, 42 , 2658–2668 RSC .
- M.-Y. Kuo, C.-F. Hsiao, Y.-H. Chiu, T.-H. Lai, M.-J. Fang, J.-Y. Wu, J.-W. Chen, C.-L. Wu, K.-H. Wei, H.-C. Lin and Y.-J. Hsu, Appl. Catal., B , 2019, 242 , 499–506 CrossRef CAS .
- H. S. Choi, J. H. Park, J. W. Bae, J. H. Lee and T. S. Chang, Catal. Commun. , 2019, 123 , 86–90 CrossRef CAS .
- K. Awazu, M. Fujimaki, C. Rockstuhl, J. Tominaga, H. Murakami, Y. Ohki, N. Yoshida and T. Watanabe, J. Am. Chem. Soc. , 2008, 130 , 1676–1680 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- S. V. Salihov, Y. A. Ivanenkov, S. P. Krechetov, M. S. Veselov, N. V. Sviridenkova, A. G. Savchenko, N. L. Klyachko, Y. I. Golovin, N. V. Chufarova, E. K. Beloglazkina and A. G. Majouga, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. , 2015, 394 , 173–178 CrossRef CAS .
- H. Wang, Q. Mu, R. Revia, K. Wang, B. Tian, G. Lin, W. Lee, Y.-K. Hong and M. Zhang, J. Controlled Release , 2018, 289 , 70–78 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- K. C. Kwon, J. H. Ryu, J.-H. Lee, E. J. Lee, I. C. Kwon, K. Kim and J. Lee, Adv. Mater. , 2014, 26 , 6436–6441 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y.-K. Kim, H.-K. Na, S. Kim, H. Jang, S.-J. Chang and D.-H. Min, Small , 2015, 11 , 2527–2535 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- A. Seth, H. Gholami Derami, P. Gupta, Z. Wang, P. Rathi, R. Gupta, T. Cao, J. J. Morrissey and S. Singamaneni, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces , 2020, 12 , 42499–42510 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- Y. Xiang, X. Peng, X. Kong, Z. Tang and H. Quan, Colloids Surf., A , 2020, 594 , 124652 CrossRef CAS .
- Q. Lv, H. Min, D. Duan, W. Fang, G. Pan, A. Shen, Q. Wang, G. Nie and J. Hu, Adv. Healthcare Mater. , 2018, 8 , 1801257 CrossRef PubMed .
- L. Li, Y. Lu, C. Jiang, Y. Zhu, X. Yang, X. Hu, Z. Lin, Y. Zhang, M. Peng, H. Xia and C. Mao, Adv. Funct. Mater. , 2018, 28 , 1704623 CrossRef PubMed .
- T. Liu, X. Li, J. Wang, P. Zhang, X. Huang, Z. Zhang, D.-S. Guo and X. Yang, J. Mater. Chem. B , 2020, 8 , 5483–5490 RSC .
- K.-C. Ho and L.-Y. Lin, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2019, 7 , 3516–3530 RSC .
- Y. Bai, R. Zhang, X. Ye, Z. Zhu, H. Xie, B. Shen, D. Cai, B. Liu, C. Zhang, Z. Jia, S. Zhang, X. Li and F. Wei, Nat. Nanotechnol. , 2018, 13 , 589–595 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- F. Yang, X. Wang, D. Zhang, J. Yang, D. Luo, Z. Xu, J. Wei, J.-Q. Wang, Z. Xu, F. Peng, X. Li, R. Li, Y. Li, M. Li, X. Bai, F. Ding and Y. Li, Nature , 2014, 510 , 522–524 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- J. Liu, J. Lu, X. Lin, Y. Tang, Y. Liu, T. Wang and H. Zhu, Comput. Mater. Sci. , 2017, 129 , 290–294 CrossRef CAS .
- C. R. Vandenabeele and S. Lucas, Mater. Sci. Eng., R , 2020, 139 , 100521 CrossRef .
- Y. He, W. Chen, X. Li, Z. Zhang, J. Fu, C. Zhao and E. Xie, ACS Nano , 2013, 7 , 174–182 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- C. Li and G. Shi, Nanoscale , 2012, 4 , 5549 RSC .
- P. Tucci, G. Porta, M. Agostini, D. Dinsdale, I. Iavicoli, K. Cain, A. Finazzi-Agró, G. Melino and A. Willis, Cell Death Dis. , 2013, 4 , e549–e549 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- T. G. Smijs and S. Pavel, Nanotechnol., Sci. Appl. , 2011, 4 , 95–112 CrossRef CAS PubMed .
- W. J. Stark, P. R. Stoessel, W. Wohlleben and A. Hafner, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2015, 44 , 5793–5805 RSC .
Environmental and Societal Impact of Nanotechnology
Ieee account.
- Change Username/Password
- Update Address
Purchase Details
- Payment Options
- Order History
- View Purchased Documents
Profile Information
- Communications Preferences
- Profession and Education
- Technical Interests
- US & Canada: +1 800 678 4333
- Worldwide: +1 732 981 0060
- Contact & Support
- About IEEE Xplore
- Accessibility
- Terms of Use
- Nondiscrimination Policy
- Privacy & Opting Out of Cookies
A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. © Copyright 2024 IEEE - All rights reserved. Use of this web site signifies your agreement to the terms and conditions.
An official website of the United States government
Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.
Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock Locked padlock icon ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.
- Publications
- Account settings
- Advanced Search
- Journal List
Green Nanotechnology: Plant-Mediated Nanoparticle Synthesis and Application
Faryad khan, mohammad shariq, mansoor ahmad siddiqui, pieter malan, faheem ahmad.
- Author information
- Article notes
- Copyright and License information
Correspondence: [email protected]
Received 2022 Jan 9; Accepted 2022 Feb 3; Collection date 2022 Feb.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
The key pathways for synthesizing nanoparticles are physical and chemical, usually expensive and possibly hazardous to the environment. In the recent past, the evaluation of green chemistry or biological techniques for synthesizing metal nanoparticles from plant extracts has drawn the attention of many researchers. The literature on the green production of nanoparticles using various metals (i.e., gold, silver, zinc, titanium and palladium) and plant extracts is discussed in this study. The generalized mechanism of nanoparticle synthesis involves reduction, stabilization, nucleation, aggregation and capping, followed by characterization. During biosynthesis, major difficulties often faced in maintaining the structure, size and yield of particles can be solved by monitoring the development parameters such as temperature, pH and reaction period. To establish a widely accepted approach, researchers must first explore the actual process underlying the plant-assisted synthesis of a metal nanoparticle and its action on others. The green synthesis of NPs is gaining attention owing to its facilitation of the development of alternative, sustainable, safer, less toxic and environment-friendly approaches. Thus, green nanotechnology using plant extract opens up new possibilities for the synthesis of novel nanoparticles with the desirable characteristics required for developing biosensors, biomedicine, cosmetics and nano-biotechnology, and in electrochemical, catalytic, antibacterial, electronics, sensing and other applications.
Keywords: biosynthesis, eco-friendly, green chemistry, nanoparticle, plant extract, sustainable application
1. Introduction
The nanotechnology sector has proven to be one of the most active research fields [ 1 ]. Owing to their broad uses in catalysis, sensing, electronics, photonics and medicines, the synthesis of nanoparticles has gained significant attention in recent decades [ 2 ]. Scientists have understood the potential of biological organisms to reduce metal precursors since the nineteenth century, but the mechanisms are still not known. Researchers have drawn attention towards biological methods due to the success of nanoparticle synthesis using natural reduction, capping and stabilizing agents, and avoiding harmful chemicals and high energy consumption [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. A wide variety of products (e.g., Quantum dots (Q-dots) of cadmium sulphide, titanium oxide hybrid-based electrochemical biosensors and oxorubicin-loaded heparinized nanoparticles) can be developed through nanotechnology, and applicable to a broad array of scientific fields, including optoelectronics, biosensors, nano-biotechnology, biomedicine and others [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Creation, exploitation and synthesis are nanotechnology concepts that typically consider materials smaller than 1 mm in dimension [ 10 ]. Many different methods, such as physical, chemical and green (biological) techniques, have been used to synthesize nanoparticles [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. The stabilized nanoparticles are formed by reducing ions through reduction (palladium NPs), nucleation (silver NPs) and growth system (silver NPs) [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Green chemistry, which uses chemical principles to reduce or eliminate the use of hazardous substances, has led to considerable reductions in toxic residues, which are harmful to man and the environment.
Green chemistry may be defined as chemical-assisted pollution-prevention strategies employed in specific domains such as green analytical chemistry, ecologically friendly analytical chemistry and clean analytical methodologies [ 17 ]. Thus, green synthesis is regarded as a viable approach for nanoparticle synthesis since it is biocompatible, inert and environmentally safe [ 18 ].
2. Different Types of Nanotechnologies
In general, the three types of nanotechnologies are wet, dry and computational. Wet nanotechnology is concerned with the investigation of living organisms and their components such as tissues [ 19 ], enzymes and membranes [ 20 ] that are predominantly found in water-based systems [ 21 ]. Physical chemistry and inorganic compounds such as carbon and silicon are associated with dry nanotechnology. On the other hand, computational nanotechnology is associated with simulations of nanometer-sized components [ 22 ]. The three nanotechnologies, viz., wet, dry and computational, are interdependent for optimal functionality ( Figure 1 ).
Different types of nanotechnologies.
3. Biosynthesis of Novel Metal Nanoparticles Using Plant Extracts
Nanoparticles with sizes ranging from 1 to 100 nm bind larger particles to atomic or molecular structures [ 23 ]. They are synthesized via different approaches, mainly divided into physical and chemical processes ( Figure 2 ). The physical process involves laser ablation, condensation, evaporation, etc., whereas the chemical process involves hydrazine, sodium borohydride, green synthesis, etc. Using plant species to produce nanoparticles has been termed a green technique ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ) and the most reliable environmentally sustainable approach [ 24 , 25 ]. Nowadays, researchers are attracted towards biological synthesis, including the use of natural reducing, capping and stabilizing agents and without using hazardous, high-cost chemicals and high power consumption [ 26 ] ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ). NPs are extensively utilized in human contact areas (medicine, [ 27 , 28 ] and agriculture, [ 29 , 30 ]), and synthesis methods that do not use harmful compounds are increasingly required.
Different methods of nanoparticle synthesis.
The schematic diagram for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) via a green route using plant extract.
3.1. Mechanism of Nanoparticle Synthesis
Extensive research has been published on the testing and assessing of plants to prepare metallic nanoparticles ( Figure 3 ), but the underlying principle for synthesizing nanomaterials has received comparatively less scientific attention [ 31 , 32 ]. The general tools, steps and materials involved in nanoparticle synthesis include reducing agents, capping agents, solvents, metal salts, nucleation, growth, aggregation, stabilization and characterization ( Figure 4 ). Chemical reduction is commonly used in nanoparticle synthesis. Most methods utilize highly reactive reducing agents such as amino acids, citric acid, aldehydes, flavonoids, NADP reductase, tartaric acids, secondary metabolites, etc. Two researchers reported that the reduction potential of each metal is different and greatly affect the reduction of metals or metal precursors during synthesis. If the positive reduction potential is more, the metal precursor can be reduced at a faster rate. The nucleation and growth phases will be close to equilibrium when the reducing rate is slow [ 33 , 34 ]. In one-step synthesis, the slow reduction rate is also a key factor in the production of Au−Pd core–shell NPs. The finding reported the reduction potentials of PdCl 4 2− /Pd and AuCl 4− /Au are 0.59 and 0.99 eV, respectively. As confirmed from the TEM analysis, during reaction the Au particles were synthesized earlier then Pd at different time intervals. This is highly consistent with PdCl 4 2− /Pd and AuCl 4− /Au’s redox potential difference, and it is believed that this difference is very important for the development of the core–shell NPs [ 34 ]. In the water-soluble components of geranium leaves, Shankar et al. [ 35 ] recognized proteins and secondary metabolites. They suggested that terpenoids aid in reducing silver ions, which are then oxidized to carbonyl groups. In a study with tamarind leaf broth, the probability of an acid (tartaric acid) functional group operating as a capping medium and being essential for forming bio-reduced gold nanoparticles was studied by Ankamwar et al. [ 36 ]. This study investigated the way that alfalfa roots can absorb silver from agar media in the form of Ag(0) and transmit it to the shooting segment in the identical oxidation number [ 37 ]. The synthesized nanoparticles’ general characterization was carried out through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Microscopy (SEM and TEM) is used to determine the shape, size and particle aggregation of the desired nanoparticles without any comparison with standard materials [ 38 ]. Spectrometric techniques are the most widely used tactic for nanoparticle characterization. EDX is used to confirm the composition and distribution of the nanoparticles through spectrum and element mapping. The UV–Vis spectrometry investigates nanoparticles on the basis of particle aggregation and average particle size [ 39 ]. The basic principle of this method is absorption of plasmas by free electrons attached on the surface of nanoparticles. They interact with the electromagnetic field and shift towards higher wavelength values because the size of nanoparticles is directly proportional to higher values of wavelength. Furthermore, FTIR and XRD are applied for the determination of structural characteristics and crystallinity of formed particles.
Mechanism of nanoparticle synthesis using phytoextracts.
The information on the production of various metallic NPs such as silver, gold, zinc, palladium and titanium using various plant extracts is summarized here.
3.2. Silver Nanoparticles
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are commonly utilized nanoparticles and have attracted much study interest due to their distinctive properties. They are widely used in emerging biomedical and industrial applications [ 40 ]. AgNPs exhibit completely different characteristics from bulk materials derived from the same material due to their elevated surface/volume ratio [ 41 ]. In recent times, the synthesis of silver NPs by bio-organisms containing phytochemical agents has become an important goal for workers. Various unique secondary metabolites derived from plant extracts such as sugars, alkaloids, phenolic acids, flavonoids and terpenoids are responsible for bio-reducing ionic silver metal into nanoparticles [ 25 , 42 , 43 ].
Biosynthesis of AgNPs by Tribulus terrestris [ 44 ] and Astragalus tribuloides Delile [ 45 ] has already been reported. Spherical silver nanoparticles of size 2–6 nm were obtained from Cycas leaf [ 46 ]. For the synthesis of AgNPs, the affinity of Curcuma longa bark and powder extracts was determined. It was found that bark extract could produce more AgNPs than powder extract [ 47 ]. Kumar and Yadav [ 48 ] investigated Lonicera japonica plant leaf extract to develop silver and gold nanostructures. The particles obtained were different in size and shape; AgNPs were spherical to plate-like poly-shaped, and their size was 36–72 nm. Banerjee and Narendhirakannan [ 49 ] utilized seed extract of Syzygium cumuni to form crystalline silver nanoparticles. There is considerable data available on how to make silver nanoparticles from the latex of the Plumeria rubra plant [ 50 ]. Ponarulselvam et al. [ 51 ] evaluated Catharanthus roseus to produce silver nanoparticles because of the presence of vincristine and vinblastin. Sathishkumar et al. [ 52 ] prepared silver nanoparticles using Cinnamomum zeylanicum bark extract and powdered bark extract and studied the variations in the biogenic nanoparticles.
AgNPs were synthesized with a 58–458 nm range in size from the leaf extract of Mukia maderaspatana [ 53 ]. Pedalium murex was also reported to synthesize AgNPs by Anandalakshmi et al. [ 54 ]. The TEM micrographs revealed that the produced AgNPs were circular with a mean value of 50 nm. Raju et al. [ 55 ] utilized living peanut plants to synthesize AgNPs. The TEM examination showed that the biosynthesized AgNPs were of different shapes (spherical, hexagonal, triangular, square and rod-shaped) and sizes. Most of the formed AgNPs were spherical and 56 nm in average size. The EDX technique confirmed that the formed NPs were of silver. Some reports on plant-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles are enlisted below in Table 1 .
Plant-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles.
3.3. Gold Nanoparticles
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are the most appealing new metal NPs due to their remarkable uses in catalysis, gene expression, nonlinear optics, nanoelectronics and disease diagnostics fields [ 79 ]. Gold nanoparticles made using either phytochemicals or other extract constituents are stable for a limited period [ 80 ]. According to Sharma et al. [ 81 ], tea leaf extract can be employed in gold NP preparation. Suman et al. [ 82 ] synthesize gold NPs of size range 8–17 nm from the root extracts of Morinda citrifolia at ambient temperature. The biogenic production of gold nanoparticles exploiting Nyctanthes arbortristis alcoholic extract led to the creation of spherical-shaped nanostructures of size 19.8 ± 5.0 nm [ 83 ]. The synthesis of AuNPs was reported with Bael ( Aegle marmelos ) leaves and the particles obtained were round and 4–10 nm in size [ 84 ].
Lee et al. [ 38 ] performed the synthesis of AuNPs from the peel aqueous extract of Garcinia mangostana . The aqueous solution of gold in contact with G. mangostana extract was reduced to gold metal ions and synthesized AuNPs. The FTIR results suggested that the reducing agent found in the aqueous solution of G. mangostana is strongly associated with anthocyanins, benzophenones, flavonoids and phenols. The synthesized AuNPs were spherical with a size range of 32.96 ± 5.25 nm that was analyzed by TEM. Rodríguez-León et al. [ 85 ] synthesized AuNPs from the bark extract of Mimosa tenuiflora at different metallic (acting as precursor) concentrations.
AuNPs were made from the aqueous suspension of Azadirachta indica [ 86 ]. When the A. indica extract was mixed with Au(III) solution, the nanoparticle formation commenced. Kasthuri et al. [ 87 ] constructed gold nanoparticles with triangular and hexagonal shapes from HAuCl 4 solution and a diluted extract possessing phyllanthin (derived from Phyllanthus amarus ). Aromal and Philip [ 88 ] synthesized AuNPs using Benincasa hispida seed extract as either a reducing or capping agent. Carboxylic groups (COOH) found in the plant extract change to COO - during the reduction process. The protein’s COOH group works as a surfactant, adhering to the surface of the AuNPs and then stabilizing AuNPs via electrostatic stabilization. The synthesized AuNPs were observed to have a crystalline nature and were 10–30 nm in size. Some reports on the plant-assisted synthesis of gold nanoparticles are listed below in Table 2 .
Plant-assisted synthesis of gold nanoparticles.
3.4. Zinc Nanoparticles
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is an inorganic metal oxide with a vast range of nanostructures. Zinc nanoparticles (ZnNPs) have gained considerable attention due to their low cost, large surface area, white appearance, UV-filtering, antifungal, antibacterial and photochemical properties, and high catalytic activity [ 104 , 105 ]. There are several reports of ZnO nanoparticle synthesis using various plant extracts [ 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 ]. Plant extracts contain some phytochemicals (i.e., polyphenols, saponins, terpenoids) that act as reducing and stabilizing agents in the reaction system. Phytochemicals are synthesized in the plant parts, including root, stem, leaf, fruit and seed. These phytochemicals lower the metal’s valence to zero, then calcinate it to add oxide. Additionally, zinc ions interact with the polyphenols in the plant extract to form a complex. After that, zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH) 2 ) is formed via hydrolysis, and then ZnO nanoparticles are synthesized after complex calculations [ 110 ].
During the literature survey, it was observed that members of the Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Apocynaceae, Solanaceae and Lamiaceae families are most commonly employed for the production of ZnNPs ( Table 3 ). Plants from the family Lamiaceae, such as Anisochilus carnosus , Plectranthus amboinicus and Vitex negundo were used to produce ZnO nanoparticles of different sizes and shapes, including hexagonal, spherical, quasi-spherical and rod-shaped particles. The findings indicated that the particle sizes decrease when plant extract concentration increases [ 111 , 112 ]. All experiments displayed nanoparticles in the same size range with spherical and hexagonal disc shapes, which XRD and TEM analysis characterized. Singh et al. [ 113 ] synthesized ZnO NPs using Calotropis procera latex that were spherical and 5 nm to 40 nm in size. Ramesh et al. [ 114 ] used the floral extract of Cassia auriculata to react with Zn(NO 3 ) 2 solution resulting in the development of ZnNPs with a particle size ranging from 110 nm to 280 nm. Some reports on the plant-assisted synthesis of zinc nanoparticles are listed below in Table 3 .
Plant-assisted synthesis of zinc nanoparticles.
3.5. Titanium Nanoparticles
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiNPs) have drawn great attention because of their appropriate electrical band structure, high specific surface area and quantum efficacy, stability, and chemical innerness [ 139 ]. TiNPs have a wide applicability in lowering the toxicity of synthetic dyes [ 140 ] and pharmaceutical medicines [ 141 ], wastewater treatment [ 142 ], etc. The synthesis of TiO 2 nanoparticles on a wide scale using biological methods has stimulated the interest of researchers due to its low cost, environmental friendliness and reproducibility. Nowadays, there are many reports on the biosynthesis of TiO 2 nanoparticles by using microbes (such as bacteria and fungi), algae, plant parts and enzymes. The aqueous extract of Eclipta prostrata produce nanoparticles with a spherical shape and sizes ranging from 36 nm to 68 nm, confirmed by XRD and TEM analysis [ 143 ]. Subhashini and Nachiyar [ 144 ] used the leaf extract of Albizia saman for the production of titanium NPs via a green route. The aqueous TiO 2 solution was added dropwise into the leaf extract with stirring at 50 °C resulting in the formation of anatase crystals of TiO 2 nanoparticles. The synthesized TiO 2 nanoparticles were found to be 41 nm in size and confirmed by XRD analysis. Jalill et al. [ 145 ] synthesized the anatase form of TiO 2 nanoparticles by using the plant extract of Curcuma longa (because of its terpenoid and flavonoid contents). The nanoparticles that were developed were identified by the techniques of XRD, FTIR, SEM and EDX that revealed the aggregated, circular structure and a particle size of 160–220 nm. TiNPs were synthesized by the utilization of herbal extract (as a bio-reductant) of Echinacea purpurea [ 146 ]. The particle size of the synthesized TiO 2 nanoparticles was found to be in the 120 nm range. The leaf extract of Psidium guajava includes alcohol and primary and aromatic amines, which aid in producing TiO 2 nanoparticles. Some reports on the plant-assisted synthesis of titanium nanoparticles are listed below in Table 4 .
Plant-assisted synthesis of titanium nanoparticles.
3.6. Palladium Nanoparticles
The major studies of most researchers were focused on the biological synthesis of palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs) via plant materials because it is cost-effective, sustainable, and human- and eco-friendly. Plant extracts contain a number of primary and secondary metabolites that transform metal (Pd) salts to PdNPs. Siddiqi and Husen [ 165 ] reported that the shape, size and stability of PdNPs depends on concentrations of plant extract, pH, temperature and incubation time. Plant sources including the extracts of leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, peels and roots were extensively utilized to synthesize Pd nanoparticles.
Gurunathan et al. [ 166 ] synthesized Pd nanoparticles from a plant extract of Evolvulus alsinoides . This plant extract has various natural antioxidants, including alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannin, steroids and phenol, which work as reducing and capping tools to synthesize Pd nanoparticles. Nasrollahzadeh et al. [ 167 ] used the leaf extract of Hippophae rhamnoides to synthesize PdNPs because the leaf extract has polyphenols that play an important role as reducing and capping agents for nanostructure development. The formed NPs were found to be spherically shaped and ranging from 2.5 nm to 14 nm, which was confirmed by TEM. Pd nanoparticles have been synthesized from the root extract of Salvadora persica , which contains polyphenols that act as reductant and stabilizing agents [ 168 ]. The average particle size of synthesized NPs was 10 nm at 90°C, which was revealed from the UV spectrum of the colloidal solution. Palladium NPs were generated with the bark extract of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and PdCl 2 solution at 30 °C [ 169 ]. Khan et al. [ 170 ] carried out the plant-assisted synthesis of PdNPs from the extract of Pulicaria glutinosa and PdCl 2 . After stirring the mixture of PdCl 2 + extract at 90 °C for 2 h, the colour changed from pale yellow to dark brown, indicating the production of PdNPs, validated by UV–visible spectroscopy. A TEM monograph revealed the particle size of the obtained Pd nanoparticles ranged between 20 nm and 25 nm. The particle size of the synthesized NPs was found to be between 10 nm and 50 nm. The biosynthesis of Pd nanoparticles from the leafy solution of Glycine max has been reported [ 171 ]. The shape of the particles was found to be uniformly spherical with a 15 nm diameter, which was confirmed by TEM micrograph. Jia et al. [ 172 ] performed the synthesis of Pd nanoparticles utilizing Gardenia jasminoides extract containing various antioxidants such as geniposide, crocins, crocetin and chlorogenic acid, which reduce and stabilize the nanoparticles. There are some reports on plant-assisted synthesis of palladium nanoparticles listed below in Table 5 .
Plant-assisted synthesis of palladium nanoparticles.
4. Factors Affecting Plant-Assisted Synthesis of Nanoparticles
During the biosynthesis of nanoparticles, the major difficulties often faced are maintaining the structure and size of particles in addition to obtaining mono-dispersity in the solution phase. Nevertheless, these problems can be solved by monitoring development factors, namely pH, temperature and incubation time ( Figure 5 ).
Factors affecting plant-assisted synthesis of nanoparticles.
4.1. Effect of pH
Several scientists have reported that pH plays a crucial role in nanoparticles’ biological synthesis. Muthu and Priya [ 181 ] studied the way that pH is an essential element for the plant-assisted preparation of silver nanoparticles and found that the size of nanoparticles increases with the decrease in pH. In this investigation the intensity of the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak increases with a successive rise in pH from 3 to 9 and the rate of the generation of silver NPs is greater at pH = 9. This shows the alkaline pH significantly enhances the reducing and stabilizing potential of Ficus hispida leaf extract in the formation of AgNPs. The number of formed silver NPs increased with higher pH because of the increased reaction rate of the leaf extract of the test plant and thus NPs with a small particle size were observed [ 182 ]. Armendariz et al. [ 183 ] stated that the size of gold NPs prepared from Avena sativa extract was directly pH-dependent. The experiment conducted by Zulfiqar et al. [ 184 ] reported the stability of the biosynthesized silver nanoparticle colloid at pH 4. Another study reported that alakaline pH (8) at room temperature results in the formation of diverse-shaped gold NPs from the leaf extracts of Angelica archangelica , Hypericum perforatum and Hamamelis virginiana with sizes ranging from 4 to 8 nm in diameter [ 185 ]. Dhamecha et al. [ 186 ] observed that red to dark purple color gold NPs were formed depending upon the pH. NPs with a purple colour were produced at pH 7, a fluorescent purple colour at pH 10 and no colour was noticed in acidic pH 2. Sathishkumar et al. [ 169 ] tested the pH effect over a broader range (1–11) in Cinnamom zeylanicum and bark-extract-synthesized silver nanoparticles. They found, after the synthesis of silver NPs, a drop in the pH of the solution in most cases. Dubey et al. [ 70 ] observed that AgNPs had a reduced zeta potential value (−26 mV) in highly acidic pH solutions than at alkaline pH, indicating that nanoparticles at basic pH are more stable and smaller in size. At pH 8, the colloid consists of nanoparticles of approximately 20 nm in size, with triangular, hexagonal and nearly spherical shapes. In the present study the average size of AgNPs at pH 4 was 32.7 nm and they were spherical in shape. As the pH of the reaction increased to 7, the mean size of the NPs decreased to 7.12 nm. This shows a direct relation between the pH of the extract and nanoparticle size [ 187 ]. Silva-De-Hoyos et al. [ 188 ] observed that high pH, i.e., 7.8, led to the development of AuNPs with a size of 11–20 nm.
4.2. Temperature Role in Plant-Assisted Synthesis
In most studies, regarding the influence of the reaction temperature, it was evaluated that the size of nanostructures is inversely proportional to the temperature. At room temperature (27 °C), NPs with a mean size of 49.91 nm and distorted spherical shape were found. As the temperature increases moderately to 45 °C, the size of silver NPs starts reducing to 33.61 nm, with a more uniform spherical shape [ 187 ]. Fayaz et al. [ 189 ] also reported that the size of the NPs decreases at higher temperatures and increases at lower temperatures. Silver nanoparticles using olive leaf extract were synthesized by Khalil et al. [ 190 ]. They found that on increasing the temperature, there was a quick reduction of Ag + ions and the simultaneous uniform nucleation of silver nuclei allowing the formation of nanoparticles of a small size. At high temperatures, a higher reduction rate was observed because of the utilization of silver ions in nuclei production, whereas the secondary reduction was halted over the surface of predetermined nuclei [ 69 ]. Similarly, the intensity of the SPR peak was increased with elevation in temperature. The enhanced reaction temperature causes faster reduction of the Ag + ions and successive homogeneous nucleation of Ag NPs results in production of small sized particles. When the temperature changes from 35 to 90 °C, the intensity of the SPR peak is also shifted to high. Further temperature rises above 90 °C result in decreased intensity of the SPR peak and hence 90 °C is considered as the optimum temperature for AgNP synthesis [ 182 ]. Song et al. [ 191 ] studied the role of temperature on the formation of nanoparticles. They found that a high temperature favored the formation of small and spherical particles, whereas, at a lower temperature, polydispersed particles of size 5–300 nm were extracted.
4.3. Contact or Incubation Role in Plant-Assisted Synthesis
Many scientists have worked on nanoparticle synthesis and showed the effect of the incubation period. Bar et al. [ 62 ] evaluated the impact of reaction time on synthesis of AgNPs using the optimized concentration of AgNO 3 (0.005 M) and latex extract (3%) of Jatropha curcas . It was observed that the intensity of SPR peaks increases as the reaction time proceeds and after 4 h of incubation period, two SPR bands separated by more than 50 nm were achieved. Philip [ 192 ] suggested that in a plant-mediated synthesis, silver nanoparticles’ size was dependent on the contact time. Ghoreishi et al. [ 193 ] also documented the importance of an appropriate reaction time in the stable synthesis of gold and silver NPs with Rosa damascena. While dealing with Chenopodium leaf extract, the authors of [ 194 ] observed a clear rise in the peaks of UV absorption spectra on increasing contact time. They obtained nanoparticles within 15 min of the reaction and these kept rising for about 2 h, but a slight deviation was observed after it. Likewise, Dubey et al. [ 70 ] noted that the synthesis of Au and Ag NPs was initiated after 10 min of the reaction in Tansy fruit-mediated synthesis. The UV–Vis spectral analysis showed enhancement in the absorbance intensity of the reaction mixture with incubation time, which consequently resulted in solution stability after 24 h of exposure, indicating the successful synthesis of silver nanoparticles [ 195 ].
5. Application of Nanoparticles
Nanotechnology has attracted researchers’ interest because of the microscopic size and high surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles, which results in chemical and physical changes in the characteristics. Due to these properties, nanoparticles have a great variety of applications in several biomedical, environmental and agricultural sectors.
Hydrophilic (water-soluble) nanoparticles have been employed as drug carriers for many years. The most efficient nanoparticles used for this purpose are polyethylene oxide nanoparticles [ 27 ]. Their ability to deliver drugs in an optimum range has enhanced therapeutic efficiency and patient compliance. Among the metal nanoparticles, Au, Ag and Fe NPs have been widely used in medical applications. AuNPs are used in drug delivery, bioimaging and photothermal therapy [ 196 ], whereas AgNPs are used for drug delivery, wound dressing, cancer therapy and to restrict the growth of microbial infection [ 197 ]. ZnNPs have recently been applied as antimicrobial and anticancer agents due to their potential to generate reactive oxygen species [ 197 ], and nanoparticles synthesized using copper have also been used in a wide range of biomedical applications [ 198 , 199 ]. Similarly, nanoparticles of iron, gold, silver, copper, zinc and titanium are applied as antimicrobial agents to inhibit the growth of infectious bacteria and fungus and thus induce mortality [ 29 , 30 ].
In the environment sector, due to the ratio of surface area to mass, nanoparticles play a very important role in the purification of water through binding with precipitates, debris and heavy metals [ 200 ]. This binding depends on the composition, morphology and absorbency of the nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are applied in the field of environment in three different ways. Firstly, making environment-friendly products through green chemistry to avoid pollution [ 201 ]. Secondly, the bioremediation of environmental contaminants [ 202 ]. Thirdly, nanoparticles are used as sensors to identify changes in environmental stages [ 142 , 203 ]. TiO 2 nanoparticles are an effective photocatalytic agent used in water treatment. The use of these nanoparticles to filter out the organic contaminants from several water reservoirs has been explored [ 204 ]. FeNPs have gained attention because of their potency to bioremediate heavy metals, namely lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium and thallium from water [ 205 ]. In addition to bioremediation, photo-degradation by NiO and ZnO nanoparticles has also been accomplished [ 206 , 207 ]. The efficient photo-degradation was due to nano-sized nanoparticles (10–50 nm) [ 208 ].
Nanoparticles have many potential applications in the field of agriculture due to their antimicrobial activity. In the agriculture sector, nanoparticles are used as nano-formulations of agrochemicals to be applied as pesticides and fertilizers for crop improvement, nano-sensors for recognizing diseases to protect the crop and nano-devices for genetic engineering of plants. The agricultural applications of antimicrobial nanomaterials have increased since the last decade. Silver nanoparticles have been found to be very effective against Bacillus cereus , Staphylococcus aureus , Shigella flexneri and Escherichia coli [ 45 ]. Similarly, antimicrobial activity has also been reported for several other green-synthesized nanoparticles, including gold, zinc, titanium and palladium [ 89 , 109 , 148 , 176 ]. An overview of nanotechnology applications in agriculture is presented in Figure 6 .
An overview diagram shows synthesized nanoparticles (NPs) produced via the green route for various biological applications. The different sizes, shapes and surface bio-functionalized NPs are developed in a controlled way for the target application.
At present, green-synthesized metal nanoparticles are viewed as powerful nanotechnology to manage hazardous soil-borne microbes. Many green-synthesized metal nanoparticles have been explored for their antimicrobial properties. These include silver, iron, copper, silicon, silica, graphene, gold, palladium, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, selenium oxide and carbon nanotubes. Currently, the application of green nanoparticles is being encouraged to manage plant-parasitic nematodes as they have a multisite mode of action and no phytotoxicity ( Figure 6 ).
6. Conclusions and Future Roles
The traditional nanoparticle synthesis approaches are expensive and generate potentially toxic substances; it is necessary to reduce the risk of contamination from the various chemicals used during chemical and physical methods. The generation of nanoparticles using extracts of different plant species, or green synthesis, has emerged as an important front in nanotechnology. Furthermore, plant extracts are readily available to develop an efficient and healthy green route for the scale-up and industrial development of well-dispersed metallic nanoparticles.
This review emphasizes recent research findings in novel metal nanoparticle plant-assisted synthesis and critically examines the various mechanisms proposed to explain it. The plant-assisted synthesis of metal NPs derived from plant extracts has multiple positive aspects: eco-friendliness, biocompatibility and cost-effectiveness. Researchers have prioritized the investigation of the biochemical pathways and enzymatic reactions of nanomaterials biosynthesis, as well as the identification and characterization of biomolecules associated with nanoparticle synthesis. Research is an ongoing operation, with researchers from different fields regularly contributing more substantial solutions to the significant problems.
Author Contributions
F.K., M.S. and M.A.—conceptualization and writing; F.A. and P.M.—review and editing; F.A. and M.A.S.—visualization and supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
We thank the University Grants Commission for financial support (UGC-BSR Research Start-up-Grant: F30-409/2018).
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
- 1. Sergeev G.B., Shabatina T.I. Cryochemistry of nanometals. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2008;313–314:18–22. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2007.04.064. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 2. Duan H., Wang D., Li Y. Green chemistry for nanoparticle synthesis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2015;44:5778–5792. doi: 10.1039/C4CS00363B. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 3. Korbekandi H., Iravani S., Abbasi S. Production of nanoparticles using organisms Production of nanoparticles using organisms. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2009;29:279–306. doi: 10.3109/07388550903062462. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 4. Luangpipat T., Beattie I.R., Chisti Y., Haverkamp R.G. Gold nanoparticles produced in a microalga. J. Nanopart. Res. 2011;13:6439–6445. doi: 10.1007/s11051-011-0397-9. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 5. Arumugam A., Karthikeyan C., Haja Hameed A.S., Gopinath K., Gowri S., Karthika V. Synthesis of cerium oxide nanoparticles using Gloriosa superba L. leaf extract and their structural, optical and antibacterial properties. Mater. Sci. Eng. C. 2015;49:408–415. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.01.042. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 6. Mehata M.S. Enhancement of Charge Transfer and Quenching of Photoluminescence of Capped CdS Quantum Dots. Sci. Rep. 2015;5:12056. doi: 10.1038/srep12056. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 7. Shetti N.P., Bukkitgar S.D., Reddy K.R., Reddy C.V., Aminabhavi T.M. Nanostructured titanium oxide hybrids-based electrochemical biosensors for healthcare applications. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2019;178:385–394. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.03.013. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 8. Zhang M., Yuan P., Zhou N., Su Y., Shao M., Chi C. pH-Sensitive N-doped carbon dots–heparin and doxorubicin drug delivery system: Preparation and anticancer research. RSC Adv. 2017;7:9347–9356. doi: 10.1039/C6RA28345D. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 9. Niculescu A.G., Chircov C., Bîrcă A.C., Grumezescu A.M. Nanomaterials Synthesis through Microfluidic Methods: An Updated Overview. Nanomaterials. 2021;11:864. doi: 10.3390/nano11040864. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 10. Chung I.M., Park I., Seung-Hyun K., Thiruvengadam M., Rajakumar G. Plant-Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles: Their Characteristic Properties and Therapeutic Applications. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2016;11:1–14. doi: 10.1186/s11671-016-1257-4. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 11. El-Khatib A.M., Badawi M.S., Ghatass Z.F., Mohamed M.M., Elkhatib M. Synthesize of Silver Nanoparticles by Arc Discharge Method Using Two Different Rotational Electrode Shapes. J. Clust. Sci. 2018;29:1169–1175. doi: 10.1007/s10876-018-1430-2. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 12. Kumar P.S.M., Francis A.P., Devasena T. Biosynthesized and Chemically Synthesized Titania Nanoparticles: Comparative Analysis of Antibacterial Activity. J. Environ. Nanotechnol. 2014;3:73–81. [ Google Scholar ]
- 13. Kumar P.V., Kala S.M.J., Prakash K.S. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Croton Caudatus Geisel leaf extract and their biological studies. Mater. Lett. 2019;236:19–22. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2018.10.025. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 14. Chen Y.H., Yeh C.S. Laser ablation method: Use of surfactants to form the dispersed Ag nanoparticles. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2002;197:133–139. doi: 10.1016/S0927-7757(01)00854-8. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 15. Sen P., Ghosh J., Abdullah A., Kumar P. Preparation of Cu, Ag, Fe and Al nanoparticles by the exploding wire technique. J. Chem. Sci. 2003;115:499–508. doi: 10.1007/BF02708241. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 16. Sangar S., Sharma S., Vats V.K., Mehta S.K., Singh K. Biosynthesis of silver nanocrystals, their kinetic profile from nucleation to growth and optical sensing of mercuric ions. J. Clean. Prod. 2019;228:294–302. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.238. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 17. Melchert W.R., Reis B.F., Rocha F.R.P. Green chemistry and the evolution of flow analysis. A review. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2012;714:8–19. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.11.044. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 18. Malik P., Shankar R., Malik V., Sharma N., Mukherjee T.K. Green Chemistry Based Benign Routes for Nanoparticle Synthesis. J. Nanopart. 2014;2014:1–14. doi: 10.1155/2014/302429. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 19. Sofi H.S., Ashraf R., Khan A.H., Beigh M.A., Majeed S., Sheikh F.A. Reconstructing nanofibers from natural polymers using surface functionalization approaches for applications in tissue engineering, drug delivery and biosensing devices. Mater. Sci. Eng. C. 2019;94:1102–1124. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2018.10.069. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 20. Sun Y., Cheng S., Lu W., Wang Y., Zhang P., Yao Q. Electrospun fibers and their application in drug controlled release, biological dressings, tissue repair, and enzyme immobilization. RSC Adv. 2019;9:25712–25729. doi: 10.1039/C9RA05012D. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 21. Căprărescu S., Modrogan C., Purcar V., Dăncilă A.M., Orbuleț O.D. Study of Polyvinyl Alcohol-SiO2 Nanoparticles Polymeric Membrane in Wastewater Treatment Containing Zinc Ions. Polymers. 2021;13:1875. doi: 10.3390/polym13111875. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 22. Sinha S., Pan I., Chanda P., Sen S.K. Nanoparticles fabrication using ambient biological resources. J. Appl. Biosci. 2009;19:1113–1130. [ Google Scholar ]
- 23. Thakkar K.N., Mhatre S.S., Parikh R.Y. Biological synthesis of metallic nanoparticles. Nanomed. Nanotech. Biol. Med. 2010;6:257–262. doi: 10.1016/j.nano.2009.07.002. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 24. Gowramma B., Keerthi U., Rafi M., Muralidhara Rao D. Biogenic silver nanoparticles production and characterization from native stain of Corynebacterium species and its antimicrobial activity. 3 Biotech. 2015;5:195–201. doi: 10.1007/s13205-014-0210-4. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 25. Makarov V.V., Love A.J., Sinitsyna O.V., Makarova S.S., Yaminsky I.V., Taliansky M.E., Kalinina N.O. “Green” nanotechnologies: Synthesis of metal nanoparticles using plants. Acta Nat. 2014;6:35–44. doi: 10.32607/20758251-2014-6-1-35-44. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 26. Mukherjee P., Ahmad A., Mandal D., Senapati S., Sainkar S.R., Khan M.I., Parishcha R., Ajaykumar P.V., Alam M., Kumar R., et al. Fungus-Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Immobilization in the Mycelial Matrix: A Novel Biological Approach to Nanoparticle Synthesis. Nano Lett. 2001;1:515–519. doi: 10.1021/nl0155274. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 27. Wang L., Yao J., Zhang X., Zhang Y., Xu C., Lee R., Yu G., Yu B., Teng L. Delivery of paclitaxel using nanoparticles composed of poly (ethylene oxide)-b-poly (butylene oxide) (PEO-PBO) Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2018;161:464–470. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.11.013. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 28. Niculescu A.G., Grumezescu A.M. Polymer-Based Nanosystems—A Versatile Delivery Approach. Materials. 2021;14:6812. doi: 10.3390/ma14226812. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 29. Ahirwar D., Bano M., Khan I., Gound S.S., Ud Din Sheik M., Mondal R., Khan F. Facile synthesis of macroporous Ag and CuO monoliths as an efficient nonenzymatic electrochemical sensor and antimicrobial agent. J. Solid State Chem. 2019;273:233–242. doi: 10.1016/j.jssc.2019.03.002. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 30. Zare M., Namratha K., Alghamdi S., Mohammad Y.H.E., Hezam A., Zare M., Drmosh Q.A., Byrappa K., Nanjegowda B., Chandrashekar S.R., et al. Novel green biomimetic approach for synthesis of ZnO-Ag nanocomposite; antimicrobial activity against food-borne pathogen, biocompatibility and solar. Sci. Rep. 2019;9:8303. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-44309-w. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 31. Nadagouda M.N., Varma R.S. Green synthesis of silver and palladium nanoparticles at room temperature using coffee and tea extract. Green Chem. 2008;10:859–886. doi: 10.1039/b804703k. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 32. Elavazhagan T., Arunachalam K.D. Memecylon edule leaf extract mediated green synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles. Int. J. Nanomed. 2011;6:1265–1278. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S18347. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 33. Lee Y.W., Kim M., Kim Z.H., Han S.W. One-step synthesis of Au@Pd core-shell nanooctahedron. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009;131:17036–17037. doi: 10.1021/ja905603p. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 34. Zhang G., Liu Z., Xiao Z., Huang J., Li Q., Wang Y., Sun D. Ni2P-graphite nanoplatelets supported Au-Pd core-shell nanoparticles with superior electrochemical properties. J. Phys. Chem. C. 2015;119:10469–10477. doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b02107. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 35. Shankar S.S., Ahmad A., Sastry M. Geranium Leaf Assisted Biosynthesis of Silver Nanoparticles. Biotechnol. Prog. 2003;19:1627–1631. doi: 10.1021/bp034070w. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 36. Ankamwar B., Chaudhary M., Sastry M. Gold Nanotriangles Biologically Synthesized using Tamarind Leaf Extract and Potential Application in Vapor Sensing. Synth. React. Inorg. Met. Nano-Metal Chem. 2005;35:19–26. doi: 10.1081/SIM-200047527. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 37. Gardea-Torresdey J.L., Gomez E., Peralta-Videa J.R., Parsons J.G., Troiani H., Jose-Yacaman M. Alfalfa sprouts: A natural source for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Langmuir. 2003;19:1357–1361. doi: 10.1021/la020835i. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 38. Xin Lee K., Shameli K., Miyake M., Kuwano N., Bt Ahmad Khairudin N.B., Bt Mohamad S.E., Yew Y.P. Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Extract of Garcinia mangostana Fruit Peels. J. Nanomater. 2016;2016:7. doi: 10.1155/2016/8489094. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 39. Davids J.S., Ackah M., Okoampah E., Fometu S.S., Guohua W., Jianping Z. Biocontrol of Bacteria Associated with Pine Wilt Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus by using Plant mediated Gold Nanoparticles. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 2021;26:517–526. [ Google Scholar ]
- 40. Jiang H., Manolache S., Wong A.C.L., Denes F.S. Plasma-enhanced deposition of silver nanoparticles onto polymer and metal surfaces for the generation of antimicrobial characteristics. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2004;93:1411–1422. doi: 10.1002/app.20561. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 41. Thirunavoukkarasu M., Balaji U., Behera S., Panda P.K., Mishra B.K. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle from leaf extract of Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. and its biomedical potential. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2013;116:424–427. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2013.07.033. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 42. Parlinska-Wojtan M., Kus-Liskiewicz M., Depciuch J., Sadik O. Green synthesis and antibacterial effects of aqueous colloidal solutions of silver nanoparticles using camomile terpenoids as a combined reducing and capping agent. Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 2016;39:1213–1223. doi: 10.1007/s00449-016-1599-4. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 43. Rodríguez-León E., Iñiguez-Palomares R., Navarro R.E., Herrera-Urbina R., Tánori J., Iñiguez-Palomares C., Maldonado A. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using reducing agents obtained from natural sources (Rumex hymenosepalus extracts) Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2013;8:1–9. doi: 10.1186/1556-276X-8-318. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 44. Gopinath V., MubarakAli D., Priyadarshini S., Priyadharsshini N.M., Thajuddin N., Velusamy P. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from Tribulus terrestris and its antimicrobial activity: A novel biological approach. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2012;96:69–74. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.03.023. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 45. Sharifi-Rad M., Pohl P., Epifano F., Álvarez-Suarez J.M. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Astragalus tribuloides Delile. Root Extract: Characterization, Antioxidant, Antibacterial, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities. Nanomaterials. 2020;10:2383. doi: 10.3390/nano10122383. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 46. Jha A.K., Prasad K. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Cycas Leaf. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Phys. Chem. 2010;1:110–117. doi: 10.1080/19430871003684572. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 47. Sathishkumar M., Sneha K., Yun Y.S. Immobilization of silver nanoparticles synthesized using Curcuma longa tuber powder and extract on cotton cloth for bactericidal activity. Bioresour. Technol. 2010;101:7958–7965. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2010.05.051. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 48. Kumar V., Yadav S.K. Synthesis of stable, polyshaped silver, and gold nanoparticles using leaf extract of Lonicera japonica L. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Biomed. 2011;3:281–291. doi: 10.1080/19430892.2011.633474. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 49. Banerjee J., Narendhirakannan R.T. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles from Syzygium cumini (L.) seed extract and evaluation of their in vitro antioxidant activities. Dig. J. Nanomater. Biostruct. 2011;6:961–968. [ Google Scholar ]
- 50. Patil C.D., Patil S.V., Borase H.P., Salunke B.K., Salunkhe R.B. Larvicidal activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized using Plumeria rubra plant latex against Aedes aegypti and Anopheles stephensi. Parasitol. Res. 2012;110:1815–1822. doi: 10.1007/s00436-011-2704-x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 51. Ponarulselvam S., Panneerselvam C., Murugan K., Aarthi N., Kalimuthu K., Thangamani S. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using leaves of Catharanthus roseus Linn. G. Don and their antiplasmodial activities. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2012;2:574–580. doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60100-2. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 52. Sathishkumar M., Sneha K., Won S.W., Cho C.W., Kim S., Yun Y.S. Cinnamon zeylanicum bark extract and powder mediated green synthesis of nano-crystalline silver particles and its bactericidal activity. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2009;73:332–338. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2009.06.005. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 53. Harshiny M., Matheswaran M., Arthanareeswaran G., Kumaran S., Rajasree S. Enhancement of antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles-ceftriaxone conjugate through Mukia maderaspatana leaf extract mediated synthesis. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2015;121:135–141. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.04.041. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 54. Anandalakshmi K., Venugobal J., Ramasamy V. Characterization of silver nanoparticles by green synthesis method using Pedalium murex leaf extract and their antibacterial activity. Appl. Nanosci. 2016;6:399–408. doi: 10.1007/s13204-015-0449-z. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 55. Raju D., Paneliya N., Mehta U.J. Extracellular synthesis of silver nanoparticles using living peanut seedling. Appl. Nanosci. 2014;4:875–879. doi: 10.1007/s13204-013-0269-y. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 56. Morales-Lozoya V., Espinoza-Gómez H., Flores-López L.Z., Sotelo-Barrera E.L., Núñez-Rivera A., Cadena-Nava R.D., Alonso-Nuñez G., Rivero I.A. Study of the effect of the different parts of Morinda citrifolia L. (noni) on the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their antibacterial activity. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2021;537:147855. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2020.147855. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 57. Gudimalla A., Jose J., Varghese R.J., Thomas S. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Nymphae odorata Extract Incorporated Films and Antimicrobial Activity. J. Polym. Environ. 2021;29:1412–1423. doi: 10.1007/s10924-020-01959-6. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 58. Nilavukkarasi M., Vijayakumar S., Prathip Kumar S. Biological synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles with Capparis zeylanica L. leaf extract for potent antimicrobial and anti proliferation efficiency. Mater. Sci. Energy Technol. 2020;3:371–376. doi: 10.1016/j.mset.2020.02.008. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 59. Moteriya P., Chanda S. Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles from Caesalpinia pulcherrima Leaf Extract and Evaluation of Their Antimicrobial, Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Potential (3-in-1 System) J. Inorg. Organomet. Polym. Mater. 2020;30:3920–3932. doi: 10.1007/s10904-020-01532-7. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 60. Dalir S.J.B., Djahaniani H., Nabati F., Hekmati M. Characterization and the evaluation of antimicrobial activities of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized from Carya illinoinensis leaf extract. Heliyon. 2020;6:e03624. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03624. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 61. Khatoon A., Khan F., Ahmad N., Shaikh S., Rizvi S.M.D., Shakil S., Al-Qahtani M.H., Abuzenadah A.M., Tabrez S., Ahmed A.B.F., et al. Silver nanoparticles from leaf extract of Mentha piperita: Eco-friendly synthesis and effect on acetylcholinesterase activity. Life Sci. 2018;209:430–434. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.08.046. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 62. Bar H., Bhui D.K., Sahoo G.P., Sarkar P., De S.P., Misra A. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using latex of Jatropha curcas. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2009;339:134–139. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2009.02.008. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 63. Krishnaraj C., Jagan E.G., Rajasekar S., Selvakumar P., Kalaichelvan P.T., Mohan N. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Acalypha indica leaf extracts and its antibacterial activity against water borne pathogens. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2010;76:50–56. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2009.10.008. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 64. Philip D. Green synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles using Hibiscus rosa sinensis. Phys. E Low-Dimens. Syst. Nanostruct. 2010;42:1417–1424. doi: 10.1016/j.physe.2009.11.081. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 65. Awwad A.M., Salem N.M., Abdeen A.O. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using carob leaf extract and its antibacterial activity. Int. J. Ind. Chem. 2013;4:29. doi: 10.1186/2228-5547-4-29. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 66. Satyavani K., Gurudeeban S., Ramanathan T., Balasubramanian T. Toxicity study of silver nanoparticles synthesized from Suaeda monoica on Hep-2 cell line. Avicenna J. Med. Biotechnol. 2012;4:35–39. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 67. Philip D., Unni C. Extracellular biosynthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles using Krishna tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) leaf. Phys. E Low-Dimens. Syst. Nanostruct. 2011;43:1318–1322. doi: 10.1016/j.physe.2010.10.006. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 68. Patil R.S., Kokate M.R., Kolekar S.S. Bioinspired synthesis of highly stabilized silver nanoparticles using Ocimum tenuiflorum leaf extract and their antibacterial activity. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2012;91:234–238. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2012.02.009. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 69. Song J.Y., Kim B.S. Rapid biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles using plant leaf extracts. Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 2009;32:79–84. doi: 10.1007/s00449-008-0224-6. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 70. Dubey S.P., Lahtinen M., Sillanpää M. Tansy fruit mediated greener synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles. Process Biochem. 2010;45:1065–1071. doi: 10.1016/j.procbio.2010.03.024. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 71. Singh A., Jain D., Upadhyay M.K., Khandelwal N., Verma H.N. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Argemone mexicana leaf extract and evaluation of their antimicrobial activities. Dig. J. Nanomater. Biostruct. 2010;5:483–489. [ Google Scholar ]
- 72. Nabikhan A., Kandasamy K., Raj A., Alikunhi N.M. Synthesis of antimicrobial silver nanoparticles by callus and leaf extracts from saltmarsh plant, Sesuvium portulacastrum L. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2010;79:488–493. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.05.018. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 73. Kumar V., Yadav S.C., Yadav S.K. Syzygium cumini leaf and seed extract mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their characterization. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2010;85:1301–1309. doi: 10.1002/jctb.2427. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 74. Huang J., Li Q., Sun D., Lu Y., Su Y., Yang X., Wang H., Wang Y., Shao W., He N., et al. Biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles by novel sundried Cinnamomum camphora leaf. Nanotechnology. 2007;18:105104. doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/18/10/105104. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 75. Sukirtha R., Priyanka K.M., Antony J.J., Kamalakkannan S., Thangam R., Gunasekaran P., Krishnan M., Achiraman S. Cytotoxic effect of Green synthesized silver nanoparticles using Melia azedarach against in vitro HeLa cell lines and lymphoma mice model. Process Biochem. 2012;47:273–279. doi: 10.1016/j.procbio.2011.11.003. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 76. Mittal A.K., Kaler A., Banerjee U.C. Free radical scavenging and antioxidant activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized from flower extract of Rhododendron dauricum. Nano Biomed. Eng. 2012;4:118–124. doi: 10.5101/nbe.v4i3.p118-124. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 77. Cruz D., Falé P.L., Mourato A., Vaz P.D., Luisa Serralheiro M., Lino A.R.L. Preparation and physicochemical characterization of Ag nanoparticles biosynthesized by Lippia citriodora (Lemon Verbena) Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2010;81:67–73. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.06.025. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 78. Satyavani K., Gurudeeban S., Ramanathan T., Balasubramanian T. Biomedical potential of silver nanoparticles synthesized from calli cells of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. J. Nanobiotechnol. 2011;9:1–8. doi: 10.1186/1477-3155-9-43. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 79. Aromal S.A., Philip D. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Trigonella foenum-graecum and its size-dependent catalytic activity. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2012;97:1–5. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2012.05.083. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 80. Singh A.K., Talat M., Singh D.P., Srivastava O.N. Biosynthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles by natural precursor clove and their functionalization with amine group. J. Nanopart. Res. 2010;12:1667–1675. doi: 10.1007/s11051-009-9835-3. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 81. Sharma R.K., Gulati S., Mehta S. Preparation of gold nanoparticles using tea: A green chemistry experiment. J. Chem. Educ. 2012;89:1316–1318. doi: 10.1021/ed2002175. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 82. Suman T.Y., Radhika Rajasree S.R., Ramkumar R., Rajthilak C., Perumal P. The Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using an aqueous root extract of Morinda citrifolia L. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2014;118:11–16. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2013.08.066. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 83. Das R.K., Gogoi N., Bora U. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Nyctanthes arbortristis flower extract. Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 2011;34:615–619. doi: 10.1007/s00449-010-0510-y. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 84. Jha A.K., Prasad K. Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles using bael (Aegle marmelos) leaf: Mythology meets technology. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Biomed. 2011;3:92–97. doi: 10.1080/19430892.2011.574560. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 85. Rodríguez-León E., Rodríguez-Vázquez B.E., Martínez-Higuera A., Rodríguez-Beas C., Larios-Rodríguez E., Navarro R.E., López-Esparza R., Iñiguez-Palomares R.A. Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles Using Mimosa tenuiflora Extract, Assessments of Cytotoxicity, Cellular Uptake, and Catalysis. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2019;14:334. doi: 10.1186/s11671-019-3158-9. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 86. Anuradha J., Tasneem A., Abbasi S.A. “Green” Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles with Aqueous Extracts of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Res. J. Biotechnol. 2010;5:75–79. [ Google Scholar ]
- 87. Kasthuri J., Kathiravan K., Rajendiran N. Phyllanthin-assisted biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles: A novel biological approach. J. Nanopart. Res. 2009;11:1075–1085. doi: 10.1007/s11051-008-9494-9. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 88. Aromal S.A., Philip D. Benincasa hispida seed mediated green synthesis of gold nanoparticles and its optical nonlinearity. Phys. E Low-Dimens. Syst. Nanostruct. 2012;44:1329–1334. doi: 10.1016/j.physe.2012.02.013. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 89. Muniyappan N., Pandeeswaran M., Amalraj A. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Curcuma pseudomontana isolated curcumin: Its characterization, antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol. 2021;3:117–124. doi: 10.1016/j.enceco.2021.01.002. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 90. Kumari P., Meena A. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles from Lawsoniainermis and its catalytic activities following the Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2020;606:125447. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.125447. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 91. ElMitwalli O.S., Barakat O.A., Daoud R.M., Akhtar S., Henari F.Z. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using cinnamon bark extract, characterization, and fluorescence activity in Au/eosin Y assemblies. J. Nanopart. Res. 2020;22:1–9. doi: 10.1007/s11051-020-04983-8. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 92. Chandran S.P., Chaudhary M., Pasricha R., Ahmad A., Sastry M. Synthesis of gold nanotriangles and silver nanoparticles using Aloe vera plant extract. Biotechnol. Prog. 2006;22:577–583. doi: 10.1021/bp0501423. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 93. Jha A.K., Prasad K. Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles using common aromatic plants. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Biomed. 2012;4:219–224. doi: 10.1080/19430892.2012.706070. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 94. Shukla D., Vankar P.S. Synthesis of plant parts mediated gold nanoparticles. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Biomed. 2012;4:277–288. doi: 10.1080/19430892.2012.706175. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 95. Philip D., Unni C., Aromal S.A., Vidhu V.K. Murraya Koenigii leaf-assisted rapid green synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2011;78:899–904. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2010.12.060. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 96. Noruzi M., Zare D., Khoshnevisan K., Davoodi D. Rapid green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Rosa hybrida petal extract at room temperature. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2011;79:1461–1465. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2011.05.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 97. Kumar K.M., Mandal B.K., Sinha M., Krishnakumar V. Terminalia chebula mediated green and rapid synthesis of gold nanoparticles. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2012;86:490–494. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2011.11.001. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 98. Pandey S., Oza G., Mewada A., Sharon M. Green Synthesis of Highly Stable Gold Nanoparticles using Momordica charantia as Nano fabricator. Arch. Appl. Sci. Res. 2012;4:1135–1141. [ Google Scholar ]
- 99. Annamalai A., Babu S.T., Jose N.A., Sudha D., Lyza C.V. Biosynthesis and characterization of silver and gold nanoparticles using aqueous leaf extraction of Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. World Appl. Sci. J. 2011;13:1833–1840. [ Google Scholar ]
- 100. Philip D. Rapid green synthesis of spherical gold nanoparticles using Mangifera indica leaf. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2010;77:807–810. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2010.08.008. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 101. Mishra A.N., Bhadauria S., Gaur M.S., Pasricha R., Kushwah B.S. Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles by Leaves of Zero-Calorie Sweetener Herb ( Stevia rebaudiana ) and Their Nanoscopic Characterization by Spectroscopy and Microscopy. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Phys. Chem. 2010;1:118–124. doi: 10.1080/19430871003684705. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 102. Sneha K., Sathishkumar M., Lee S.Y., Bae M.A., Yun Y.S. Biosynthesis of Au nanoparticles using cumin seed powder extract. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2011;11:1811–1814. doi: 10.1166/jnn.2011.3414. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 103. Dubey S.P., Lahtinen M., Särkkä H., Sillanpää M. Bioprospective of Sorbus aucuparia leaf extract in development of silver and gold nanocolloids. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2010;80:26–33. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.05.024. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 104. Kajbafvala A., Ghorbani H., Paravar A., Samberg J.P., Kajbafvala E., Sadrnezhaad S.K. Effects of morphology on photocatalytic performance of Zinc oxide nanostructures synthesized by rapid microwave irradiation methods. Superlattices Microstruct. 2012;51:512–522. doi: 10.1016/j.spmi.2012.01.015. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 105. Kumar S.S., Venkateswarlu P., Rao V.R., Rao G.N. Synthesis, characterization and optical properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Int. Nano Lett. 2013;3:1–6. doi: 10.1186/2228-5326-3-30. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 106. Lingaraju K., Raja Naika H., Manjunath K., Basavaraj R.B., Nagabhushana H., Nagaraju G., Suresh D. Biogenic synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Ruta graveolens (L.) and their antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Appl. Nanosci. 2016;6:703–710. doi: 10.1007/s13204-015-0487-6. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 107. Chaudhuri S.K., Malodia L. Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using leaf extract of calotropis gigantea: Characterization and its evaluation on tree seedling growth in nursery stage. Appl. Nanosci. 2017;7:501–512. doi: 10.1007/s13204-017-0586-7. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 108. Ahmad H., Venugopal K., Rajagopal K., De Britto S., Nandini B., Pushpalatha H.G., Konappa N., Udayashankar A.C., Geetha N., Jogaiah S. Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using eucalyptus globules and their fungicidal ability against pathogenic fungi of apple orchards. Biomolecules. 2020;10:425. doi: 10.3390/biom10030425. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 109. Gomathi R., Suhana H. Green synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Artemisia pallens plant extract. Inorg. Nano-Metal Chem. 2021;51:1663–1672. doi: 10.1080/24701556.2020.1852256. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 110. Bala N., Saha S., Chakraborty M., Maiti M., Das S., Basu R., Nandy P. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Hibiscus subdariffa leaf extract: Effect of temperature on synthesis, anti-bacterial activity and anti-diabetic activity. RSC Adv. 2015;5:4993–5003. doi: 10.1039/C4RA12784F. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 111. Ambika S., Sundrarajan M. Antibacterial behaviour of Vitex negundo extract assisted ZnO nanoparticles against pathogenic bacteria. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2015;146:52–57. doi: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.02.020. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 112. Anbuvannan M., Ramesh M., Viruthagiri G., Shanmugam N., Kannadasan N. Anisochilus carnosus leaf extract mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles for antibacterial and photocatalytic activities. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 2015;39:621–628. doi: 10.1016/j.mssp.2015.06.005. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 113. Singh R.P., Shukla V.K., Yadav R.S., Sharma P.K., Singh P.K., Pandey A.C. Biological approach of zinc oxide nanoparticles formation and its characterization. Adv. Mater. Lett. 2011;2:313–317. doi: 10.5185/amlett.indias.204. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 114. Ramesh P., Rajendran A., Sundaram M. Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using Flower Extract Cassia Auriculata. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2014;2:41–45. [ Google Scholar ]
- 115. Jayachandran A., Aswathy T.R., Nair A.S. Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Cayratia pedata leaf extract. Biochem. Biophys. Rep. 2021;26:100995. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2021.100995. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 116. Ahmad W., Kalra D. Green synthesis, characterization and anti-microbial activities of ZnO nanoparticles using Euphorbia hirta leaf extract. J. King Saud Univ.-Sci. 2020;32:2358–2364. doi: 10.1016/j.jksus.2020.03.014. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 117. Sharmila G., Thirumarimurugan M., Muthukumaran C. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Tecoma castanifolia leaf extract: Characterization and evaluation of its antioxidant, bactericidal and anticancer activities. Microchem. J. 2019;145:578–587. doi: 10.1016/j.microc.2018.11.022. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 118. Raj L.F.A., Jayalakshmy E. Biosynthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using root extract of Zingiber officinale. Orient. J. Chem. 2015;31:51–56. doi: 10.13005/ojc/310105. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 119. Noorjahan C.M., Shahina S.K.J., Deepika T., Rafiq S. Green Synthesis and Characterization of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles from Neem (Azadirachta indicia) Int. J. Sci. Eng. Technol. Res. 2015;4:5751–5753. [ Google Scholar ]
- 120. Savithramma N., Bhumi G. Biological Synthesis of Zinc oxide Nanoparticles from C atharanthus roseus (l.) G. Don. Leaf extract and validation for antibacterial activity. Int. J. Drug Dev. Res. 2014;6:208–214. [ Google Scholar ]
- 121. Ramesh M., Anbuvannan M., Viruthagiri G. Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Solanum nigrum leaf extract and their antibacterial activity. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2015;136:864–870. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2014.09.105. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 122. Awwad A.M., Albiss B., Ahmad A.L. Green synthesis, characterization and optical properties of zinc oxide nanosheets using Olea europea leaf extract. Adv. Mater. Lett. 2014;5:520–524. doi: 10.5185/amlett.2014.5575. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 123. Oudhia A., Kulkarni P., Sharma S. Green Synthesisof ZnO nanotubes for Bioapplications. J. Adv. Eng. Res. Stud. 2015:280–281. [ Google Scholar ]
- 124. Jamdagni P., Khatri P., Rana J.S. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using flower extract of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis and their antifungal activity. J. King Saud Univ.-Sci. 2018;30:168–175. doi: 10.1016/j.jksus.2016.10.002. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 125. Devi R., Gayathri R. Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles by using Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Int. J. Curr. Eng. Technol. 2014;44:2444–2446. [ Google Scholar ]
- 126. Varghese E., George M. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Int. J. Adv. Res. Sci. Eng. 2015;4:307–314. [ Google Scholar ]
- 127. Raut S., Thorat P.V., Thakre R. Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanoparticles Using Ocimum Tenuiflorum Leaves. Int. J. Sci. Res. 2013;4:2319–7064. [ Google Scholar ]
- 128. Azizi S., Ahmad M.B., Namvar F., Mohamad R. Green biosynthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using brown marine macroalga Sargassum muticum aqueous extract. Mater. Lett. 2014;116:275–277. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2013.11.038. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 129. Kumar M.A.P., Suresh D., Nagabhushana H., Sharma S.C. Beta vulgaris aided green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles and their luminescence, photocatalytic and antioxidant properties. Eur. Phys. J. Plus. 2015;130:1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2015.01.048. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 130. Fatimah I., Yudha S.P., Mutiara N.A.L. In: Green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles via complex formation by using Curcuma longa extract. Proceedings of 6th Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Symposium (NNS2015), Sukarta, Indonesia, 4–5 November 2015. Purwano A., Nur A., Rahmawati F., Dyartanti E.R., Jumari A., editors. AIP Publishing LLC; Melville, NY, USA: 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
- 131. Yuvakkumar R., Suresh J., Hong S.I. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Adv. Mater. Res. 2014;952:137–140. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.952.137. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 132. Suresh D., Shobharani R.M., Nethravathi P.C., Pavan Kumar M.A., Nagabhushana H., Sharma S.C. Artocarpus gomezianus aided green synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles: Luminescence, photocatalytic and antioxidant properties. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2015;141:128–134. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2015.01.048. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 133. Sindhura K.S., Tnvkv P., Selvam P.P., Hussain O.M. Green Synthesis of Zinc Nanoparticles from Senna Auriculata and Influence on Peanut Pot-Culture. Int. J. Res. Agric. Sci. 2015;2:61–69. [ Google Scholar ]
- 134. Raj A., Lawrence R.S., Jalees M., Lawrence K. Anti-Bacterial Activity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Prepared from Brassica Oleraceae Leaves Extract. Int. J. Adv. Res. 2015;3:322–328. [ Google Scholar ]
- 135. Gnanasangeetha D., Thambavani D. Biological and Physical Sciences Biogenic Production of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using Acalypha Indica. J. Chem. Biol. Phys. Sci. 2014;4:238–246. [ Google Scholar ]
- 136. Vijayakumar S., Vinoj G., Malaikozhundan B., Shanthi S., Vaseeharan B. Plectranthus amboinicus leaf extract mediated synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and its control of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilm and blood sucking mosquito larvae. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2015;137:886–891. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2014.08.064. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 137. Nagajyothi P.C., Sreekanth T.V.M., Tettey C.O., Jun Y.I., Mook S.H. Characterization, antibacterial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities of ZnO nanoparticles using Coptidis Rhizoma. Bioorganic Med. Chem. Lett. 2014;24:4298–4303. doi: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.07.023. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 138. Janaki A.C., Sailatha E., Gunasekaran S. Synthesis, characteristics and antimicrobial activity of ZnO nanoparticles. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2015;144:17–22. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2015.02.041. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 139. Lai Y., Wang L., Liu D., Chen Z., Lin C. TiO2-Based Nanomaterials: Design, Synthesis, and Applications. J. Nanomater. 2015;2015:1–3. doi: 10.1155/2015/250632. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 140. Altikatoglu Yapaoz M., Attar A. Salvia officinalis-derived rutile TiO2NPs: Production, characterization, antibacterial evaluation and its effect on decolorization. Mater. Res. Express. 2019;6:55039. doi: 10.1088/2053-1591/ab0690. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 141. Mahmoud W.M.M., Rastogi T., Kümmerer K. Application of titanium dioxide nanoparticles as a photocatalyst for the removal of micropollutants such as pharmaceuticals from water. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. 2017;6:1–10. doi: 10.1016/j.cogsc.2017.04.001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 142. Abel S., Jule L.T., Belay F., Shanmugam R., Dwarampudi L.P., Nagaprasad N., Krishnaraj R. Application of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Synthesized by Sol-Gel Methods in Wastewater Treatment. J. Nanomater. 2021;2021:3039761. doi: 10.1155/2021/3039761. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 143. Rajakumar G., Rahuman A.A., Priyamvada B., Khanna V.G., Kumar D.K., Sujin P.J. Eclipta prostrata leaf aqueous extract mediated synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Mater. Lett. 2012;68:115–117. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2011.10.038. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 144. Subhashini D., Nachiyar C.V. Albizia saman: A Green Route for the Reduction of Bulk TiO2. Int. J. Chem Tech. Res. 2014;6:5137–5141. [ Google Scholar ]
- 145. Jalill R.D.A., Nuaman R.S., Abd A.N. Biological synthesis of Titanium Dioxide nanoparticles by Curcuma longa plant extract and study its biological properties. World Sci. News. 2016;49:204–222. [ Google Scholar ]
- 146. Dobrucka R. Synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Echinacea purpurea herba. Iran. J. Pharm. Res. 2017;16:753–759. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 147. Aswini R., Murugesan S., Kannan K. Bio-engineered TiO2 nanoparticles using Ledebouria revoluta extract: Larvicidal, histopathological, antibacterial and anticancer activity. Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem. 2021;101:2926–2936. doi: 10.1080/03067319.2020.1718668. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 148. Narayanan M., Devi P.G., Natarajan D., Kandasamy S., Devarayan K., Alsehli M., Elfasakhany A., Pugazhendhi A. Green synthesis and characterization of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using leaf extract of Pouteria campechiana and larvicidal and pupicidal activity on Aedes aegypti. Environ. Res. 2021;200:111333. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111333. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 149. Sethy N.K., Arif Z., Mishra P.K., Kumar P. Green synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles from Syzygium cumini extract for photo-catalytic removal of lead (Pb) in explosive industrial wastewater. Green Process. Synth. 2020;9:171–181. doi: 10.1515/gps-2020-0018. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 150. Ahmad W., Jaiswal K.K., Soni S. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles by using Mentha arvensis leaves extract and its antimicrobial properties. Inorg. Nano-Metal Chem. 2020;50:1032–1038. doi: 10.1080/24701556.2020.1732419. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 151. Thakur B.K., Kumar A., Kumar D. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Azadirachta indica leaf extract and evaluation of their antibacterial activity. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2019;124:223–227. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2019.05.024. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 152. Santhoshkumar T., Rahuman A.A., Jayaseelan C., Rajakumar G., Marimuthu S., Kirthi A.V., Velayutham K., Thomas J., Venkatesan J., Kim S.K. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Psidium guajava extract and its antibacterial and antioxidant properties. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2014;7:968–976. doi: 10.1016/S1995-7645(14)60171-1. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 153. Sundrarajan M., Gowri S. Green synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles by nyctanthes arbor-tristis leaves extract. Chalcogenide Lett. 2011;8:447–451. [ Google Scholar ]
- 154. Marimuthu S., Rahuman A.A., Jayaseelan C., Kirthi A.V., Santhoshkumar T., Velayutham K., Bagavan A., Kamaraj C., Elango G., Iyappan M., et al. Acaricidal activity of synthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Calotropis gigantea against Rhipicephalus microplus and Haemaphysalis bispinosa. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med. 2013;6:682–688. doi: 10.1016/S1995-7645(13)60118-2. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 155. Rajakumar G., Rahuman A.A., Jayaseelan C., Santhoshkumar T., Marimuthu S., Kamaraj C., Bagavan A., Zahir A.A., Kirthi A.V., Elango G., et al. Solanum trilobatum extract-mediated synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles to control Pediculus humanus capitis, Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum and Anopheles subpictus. Parasitol. Res. 2014;113:469–479. doi: 10.1007/s00436-013-3676-9. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 156. Sankar R., Rizwana K., Shivashangari K.S., Ravikumar V. Ultra-rapid photocatalytic activity of Azadirachta indica engineered colloidal titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Appl. Nanosci. 2015;5:731–736. doi: 10.1007/s13204-014-0369-3. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 157. Velayutham K., Rahuman A.A., Rajakumar G., Santhoshkumar T., Marimuthu S., Jayaseelan C., Bagavan A., Kirthi A.V., Kamaraj C., Zahir A.A., et al. Evaluation of Catharanthus roseus leaf extract-mediated biosynthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles against Hippobosca maculata and Bovicola ovis. Parasitol. Res. 2012;111:2329–2337. doi: 10.1007/s00436-011-2676-x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 158. Nwanya A.C., Ugwuoke P.E., Ejikeme P.M., Oparaku O.U., Ezema F.I. Jathropha curcas and citrus aurantium leaves dye extract for use in dye sensitized solar cell with TiO2 films. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2012;7:11219–11235. [ Google Scholar ]
- 159. Hudlikar M., Joglekar S., Dhaygude M., Kodam K. Green synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles by using aqueous extract of Jatropha curcas L. latex. Mater. Lett. 2012;75:196–199. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2012.02.018. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 160. Zahir A.A., Chauhan I.S., Bagavan A., Kamaraj C., Elango G., Shankar J., Arjaria N., Roopan S.M., Rahuman A.A., Singh N. Green synthesis of silver and titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Euphorbia prostrata extract shows shift from apoptosis to G0/G1 arrest followed by necrotic cell death in Leishmania donovani. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2015;59:4782–4799. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00098-15. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 161. Rao K.G., Ashok C., Rao K.V., Chakra C.S., Rajendar V. Synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles from orange fruit waste. Int. J. Multidiscip. Adv. Res. Trends. 2015;2:82–90. [ Google Scholar ]
- 162. Valli D.G., Geetha S. A green method for the synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Cassia auriculata leaves extract. Eur. J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci. 2015;2:490–497. [ Google Scholar ]
- 163. Salam H.A., Sivaraj R. Ocimum basilicum L. var. purpurascens Benth.-Lamiaceae Mediated Green Synthesis and Characterization of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles. Adv. Biores. 2014;5:10–16. [ Google Scholar ]
- 164. Valli G., Jayalakshmi A. Erythrina variegate leaves extract assisted synthesis of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in an eco-friendly approach. Eur. J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci. 2015;2:1228–1236. [ Google Scholar ]
- 165. Siddiqi K.S., Husen A. Green Synthesis, Characterization and Uses of Palladium/Platinum Nanoparticles. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2016;11:482. doi: 10.1186/s11671-016-1695-z. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 166. Gurunathan S., Kim E.S., Han J.W., Park J.H., Kim J.-H.H., Grumezescu A.M. Green chemistry approach for synthesis of effective anticancer palladium nanoparticles. Molecules. 2015;20:22476–22498. doi: 10.3390/molecules201219860. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 167. Nasrollahzadeh M., Sajadi S.M., Maham M. Green synthesis of palladium nanoparticles using Hippophae rhamnoides Linn leaf extract and their catalytic activity for the Suzuki-Miyaura coupling in water. J. Mol. Catal. A Chem. 2015;396:297–303. doi: 10.1016/j.molcata.2014.10.019. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 168. Khan M., Albalawi G.H., Shaik M.R., Khan M., Adil S.F., Kuniyil M., Alkhathlan H.Z., Al-Warthan A., Siddiqui M.R.H. Miswak mediated green synthesized palladium nanoparticles as effective catalysts for the Suzuki coupling reactions in aqueous media. J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 2017;21:450–457. doi: 10.1016/j.jscs.2016.03.008. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 169. Sathishkumar M., Sneha K., Kwak I.S., Mao J., Tripathy S.J., Yun Y.S. Phyto-crystallization of palladium through reduction process using Cinnamom zeylanicum bark extract. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009;171:400–404. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.014. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 170. Khan M.M., Khan M.M., Kuniyil M., Adil S.F., Al-Warthan A., Alkhathlan H.Z., Tremel W., Tahir M.N., Siddiqui M.R.H. Biogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles using Pulicaria glutinosa extract and their catalytic activity towards the Suzuki coupling reaction. Dalt. Trans. 2014;43:9026–9031. doi: 10.1039/C3DT53554A. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 171. Kumar Petla R., Vivekanandhan S., Misra M., Kumar Mohanty A., Satyanarayana N. Soybean (Glycine Max) Leaf Extract Based Green Synthesis of Palladium Nanoparticles. J. Biomater. Nanobiotechnol. 2012;3:14–19. doi: 10.4236/jbnb.2012.31003. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 172. Jia L., Zhang Q., Li Q., Song H. The biosynthesis of palladium nanoparticles by antioxidants in Gardenia jasminoides Ellis: Long lifetime nanocatalysts for p-nitrotoluene hydrogenation. Nanotechnology. 2009;20:385601–385611. doi: 10.1088/0957-4484/20/38/385601. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 173. Fahmy S.A., Fawzy I.M., Saleh B.M., Issa M.Y., Bakowsky U., Azzazy H.M.E.S. Green synthesis of platinum and palladium nanoparticles using Peganum harmala L. Seed alkaloids: Biological and computational studies. Nanomaterials. 2021;11:965. doi: 10.3390/nano11040965. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 174. Bathula C., Subalakshmi K., Kumar A., Yadav H., Ramesh S., Shinde S., Shrestha N.K., Mallikarjuna K., Kim H. Ultrasonically driven green synthesis of palladium nanoparticles by Coleus amboinicus for catalytic reduction and Suzuki-Miyaura reaction. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2020;192:111026. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111026. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 175. Kora A.J., Rastogi L. Green synthesis of palladium nanoparticles using gum ghatti (Anogeissus latifolia) and its application as an antioxidant and catalyst. Arab. J. Chem. 2018;11:1097–1106. doi: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2015.06.024. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 176. Sharmila G., Farzana Fathima M., Haries S., Geetha S., Manoj Kumar N., Muthukumaran C. Green synthesis, characterization and antibacterial efficacy of palladium nanoparticles synthesized using Filicium decipiens leaf extract. J. Mol. Struct. 2017;1138:35–40. doi: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2017.02.097. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 177. Yang X., Li Q., Wang H., Huang J., Lin L., Wang W., Sun D., Su Y., Opiyo J.B., Hong L., et al. Green synthesis of palladium nanoparticles using broth of Cinnamomum camphora leaf. J. Nanopart. Res. 2010;12:1589–1598. doi: 10.1007/s11051-009-9675-1. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 178. Bankar A., Joshi B., Kumar A.R., Zinjarde S. Banana peel extract mediated novel route for the synthesis of palladium nanoparticles. Mater. Lett. 2010;64:1951–1953. doi: 10.1016/j.matlet.2010.06.021. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 179. Kalaiselvi A., Roopan S.M., Madhumitha G., Ramalingam C., Elango G. Synthesis and characterization of palladium nanoparticles using Catharanthus roseus leaf extract and its application in the photo-catalytic degradation. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2015;135:116–119. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2014.07.010. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 180. Sathishkumar M., Sneha K., Yun Y. Palladium Nanocrystal Synthesis Using Curcuma longa Tuber Extract. Int. J. Mater. Sci. 2009;4:11–17. [ Google Scholar ]
- 181. Muthu K., Priya S. Green synthesis, characterization and catalytic activity of silver nanoparticles using Cassia auriculata flower extract separated fraction. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2017;179:66–72. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2017.02.024. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 182. Ramesh A.V., Devi D.R., Battu G.R., Basavaiah K. A Facile plant mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles using an aqueous leaf extract of Ficus hispida Linn. f. for catalytic, antioxidant and antibacterial applications. S. Afr. J. Chem. Eng. 2018;26:25–34. doi: 10.1016/j.sajce.2018.07.001. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 183. Armendariz V., Herrera I., Peralta-Videa J.R., Jose-Yacaman M., Troiani H., Santiago P., Gardea-Torresdey J.L. Size controlled gold nanoparticle formation by Avena sativa biomass: Use of plants in nanobiotechnology. J. Nanopart. Res. 2004;6:377–382. doi: 10.1007/s11051-004-0741-4. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 184. Zulfiqar H., Zafar A., Rasheed M.N., Ali Z., Mehmood K., Mazher A., Hasan M., Mahmood N. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Fagonia cretica and their antimicrobial activities. Nanoscale Adv. 2019;1:1707–1713. doi: 10.1039/C8NA00343B. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 185. Pasca R.D., Mocanu A., Cobzac S.C., Petean I., Horovitz O., Tomoaia-Cotisel M. Biogenic Syntheses of Gold Nanoparticles Using Plant Extracts. Part. Sci. Technol. 2014;32:131–137. doi: 10.1080/02726351.2013.839589. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 186. Dhamecha D., Jalalpure S., Jadhav K. Nepenthes khasiana mediated synthesis of stabilized gold nanoparticles: Characterization and biocompatibility studies. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2016;154:108–117. doi: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.12.002. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 187. Lee K.X., Shameli K., Mohamad S.E., Yew Y.P., Isa E.D.M., Yap H.Y., Lim W.L., Teow S.Y. Bio-Mediated Synthesis and Characterisation of Silver Nanocarrier, and Its Potent Anticancer Action. Nanomaterials. 2019;9:1423. doi: 10.3390/nano9101423. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 188. Silva-De-Hoyos L.E., Sánchez-Mendieta V., Rico-Moctezuma A., Vilchis-Nestor A.R., Camacho-López M.A., Avalos-Borja M. Silver nanoparticles biosynthesized using Opuntia ficus aqueous extract. Superf. Vacio. 2012;25:31–35. [ Google Scholar ]
- 189. Fayaz A.M., Balaji K., Kalaichelvan P.T., Venkatesan R. Fungal based synthesis of silver nanoparticles-An effect of temperature on the size of particles. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces. 2009;74:123–126. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2009.07.002. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 190. Khalil M.M.H., Ismail E.H., El-Baghdady K.Z., Mohamed D. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using olive leaf extract and its antibacterial activity. Arab. J. Chem. 2014;7:1131–1139. doi: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.04.007. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 191. Song J.Y., Jang H.K., Kim B.S. Biological synthesis of gold nanoparticles using Magnolia kobus and Diopyros kaki leaf extracts. Process Biochem. 2009;44:1133–1138. doi: 10.1016/j.procbio.2009.06.005. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 192. Philip D. Mangifera Indica leaf-assisted biosynthesis of well-dispersed silver nanoparticles. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2011;78:327–331. doi: 10.1016/j.saa.2010.10.015. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 193. Ghoreishi S.M., Behpour M., Khayatkashani M. Green synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles using Rosa damascena and its primary application in electrochemistry. Phys. E Low-Dimens. Syst. Nanostruct. 2011;44:97–104. doi: 10.1016/j.physe.2011.07.008. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 194. Dwivedi A.D., Gopal K. Biosynthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles using Chenopodium album leaf extract. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2010;369:27–33. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2010.07.020. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 195. Masum M.I., Siddiqa M.M., Ali K.A., Zhang Y., Abdallah Y., Ibrahim E., Qiu W., Yan C., Li B. Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles using phyllanthus emblicafruit extract and its inhibitory action against the pathogen acidovorax oryzaestrain RS-2 of rice bacterial brown stripe. Front. Microbiol. 2019;10:820. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00820. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 196. Elahi N., Kamali M., Baghersad M. Recent biomedical applications of gold nanoparticles: A review. Talanta. 2018;184:537–556. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.02.088. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 197. Viet Long N., Yang Y., Teranishi T., Minh Thi Ho Chi C., Minh Thi C., Cao Y., Nogami M. Biomedical applications of advanced multifunctional magnetic nanoparticles. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2015;15:10091–10107. doi: 10.1166/jnn.2015.11691. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 198. Rubilar O., Rai M., Tortella G., Diez M.C., Seabra A.B., Durán N. Biogenic nanoparticles: Copper, copper oxides, copper sulphides, complex copper nanostructures and their applications. Biotechnol. Lett. 2013;35:1365–1375. doi: 10.1007/s10529-013-1239-x. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 199. Wang J., Liu R., Liu B. Cadmium-containing quantum dots: Current perspectives on their application as nanomedicine and toxicity concerns. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2016;16:905–916. doi: 10.2174/1389557516666160211121247. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 200. Khan S.T., Malik A. Engineered nanomaterials for water decontamination and purification: From lab to products. J. Hazard. Mater. 2019;363:295–308. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.09.091. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 201. Wilson M.P., Schwarzman M.R. Toward a new U.S. chemicals policy: Rebuilding the foundation to advance new science, green chemistry, and environmental health. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009;117:1202–1209. doi: 10.1289/ehp.0800404. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 202. Benjamin S.R., de Lima F., Florean E.O.P.T., Guedes M.I.F. Current trends in nanotechnology for bioremediation. Int. J. Environ. Pollut. 2019;66:19–40. doi: 10.1504/IJEP.2019.104526. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 203. Chen J., Zheng A., Chen A., Gao Y., He C., Kai X. A functionalized gold nanoparticles and Rhodamine 6G based fluorescent sensor for high sensitive and selective detection of mercury (II) in environmental water. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2007;599:134–142. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2007.07.074. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 204. Wu W., Xiao X., Zhang S., Ren F., Jiang C. Facile method to synthesize magnetic iron oxides/TiO 2 hybrid nanoparticles and their photodegradation application of methylene blue. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2011;6:1–15. doi: 10.1186/1556-276X-6-533. [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 205. Thomas P., Rumjit N.P., George P.J., Lai C.W., Tyagi P., Johan M.R.B., Saravanakumar M.P. Nanotechnology for Food, Agriculture and Environment. Springer Science and Business Media B.V.; Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: 2020. Remediation of heavy metal Ions using nanomaterials sourced from wastewaters; pp. 255–296. [ Google Scholar ]
- 206. Bashir A., Razanamahandry L., Nwanya A., Kaviyarasu K., Saban W., Mohamed H., Ntwampe S., Ezema F., Maaza M. Biosynthesis of NiO nanoparticles for photodegradation of free cyanide solutions under ultraviolet light. J. Phys. Chem. Solids. 2019;134:133–140. doi: 10.1016/j.jpcs.2019.05.048. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 207. Varadavenkatesan T., Lyubchik E., Pai S., Pugazhendhi A., Vinayagam R., Selvaraj R. Photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B by zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the leaf extract of Cyanometra ramiflora. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2019;199:111621. doi: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2019.111621. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
- 208. Rogozea E., Petcu A., Olteanu N., Lazar C., Cadar D., Mihaly M. Tandem adsorption-photodegradation activity induced by light on NiO-ZnO p–n couple modified silica nanomaterials. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 2017;57:1–11. doi: 10.1016/j.mssp.2016.10.006. [ DOI ] [ Google Scholar ]
Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
- View on publisher site
- PDF (3.9 MB)
- Collections
Similar articles
Cited by other articles, links to ncbi databases.
- Download .nbib .nbib
- Format: AMA APA MLA NLM
Add to Collections
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Abstract. This review paper look into the present aspects of "Nanotechnology". It gives a brief description about Nanotechnology and its application in various fields viz. medicine, computing ...
Nanotechnology is a relatively new field of science and technology that studies tiny objects (0.1-100 nm). Due to various positive attributes displayed by the biogenic synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) such as cost-effectiveness, none to negligible environmental hazards, and biological reduction served as an attractive alternative to its counterpart chemical methods.
This paper summarizes the various applications of nanotechnology in recent decades. Simplified scheme of the generation of covalently bound surface acidic groups (Liu et al., 2014) Figures ...
Nanotechnology contributes significantly to the growth and even revolutionization of many technical and industrial fields, namely, Electrical, agricultural, medical and electronic technologies, homeland security and food safety, transport and much more. Nanotechnology currently utilizes advances in chemical, mechanics, Materials research and biotechnology for the development of new materials ...
Nanotechnology, contrary to its name, has massively revolutionized industries around the world. This paper predominantly deals with data regarding the applications of nanotechnology in the modernization of several industries. A comprehensive research strategy is adopted to incorporate the latest data driven from major science platforms. Resultantly, a broad-spectrum overview is presented which ...
The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in the United States define Nanotechnology as "a science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale (1 to 100 nm), where unique phenomena enable novel applications in a wide range of fields, from chemistry, physics and biology, to medicine, engineering and electronics" . This ...
This review discusses a brief history of nanomaterials and their use throughout history to trigger advances in nanotechnology development. In particular, we describe and define various terms relating to nanomaterials. Various nanomaterial synthesis methods, including top-down and bottom-up approaches, are discussed.
The paper also aims to provide a quick outline of the concepts and progress in nanotechnology and nanomaterial classifications. This review is not exhaustive research in literature, but it does examine some of the most imperative work in the subject and aspires to give researchers a comprehensive and fundamental understanding of nanomaterials ...
Nanotechnology is starting to play a role in a number of commercial products, though in an evolutionary, rather than revolutionary way, says Peter Dobson. Peter Dobson Thesis 08 Nov 2016
Nanotechnology encompasses science, engineering, and technology at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. a nanometer is small as one-billionth of a meter. For reference, a sheet of paper is about 100,000 nanometers thick. Nanoscale matter can behave differently than the same bulk material.
The field of nanotechnology involves the creation and utilization of chemical, physical, and biological systems with structural features between single atoms or molecules to submicron dimensions, and also the assimilation of resultant nanostructures into larger systems [2], [3]. The simplest definition of nanotechnology is "technology on the ...
Nanotechnology refers to an emerging field of science that. includes synthesis and development of vario us nanomaterials. Nanoparticles can be defined as objects ranging in size from 1-. 100 nm ...
Sustainable nanotechnology has made substantial contributions in providing contaminant-free water to humanity. In this Review, we present the compelling need for providing access to clean water through nanotechnology-enabled solutions and the large disparities in ensuring their implementation. We also discuss the current nanotechnology frontiers in diverse areas of the clean water space with ...
A scale covering 1-100 nm. 8. Nanomaterial. A material is called a nanomaterial if it has at least one dimension in the nanoscale range of 1-100 nm. 19. Nano-object. A nano-object is a discrete piece of material with one, two, or three external dimensions in the nanoscale range. 3 and 20. Nanoparticle.
thesis processes have developed their scientific base decades ago, long before other nanotechnology areas have emerged. One finds in this category the pyrol-ysis process for carbon black and the flame reaction for pigments, particle polymerization techniques, self-assembling of micelles in colloidal suspensions, and chemistry selfassembling.
The famous visionary lecture given by the American physicist Richard Feynman, "There's plenty of room at the bottom" in 1959, is believed to have given a conceptual birth to the field of nanotechnology. At present, it is inevitable to almost every area of sciences, including medicine, environment, agriculture, and engineering.
The ability to measure, understand, manipulate, organize, engineer and control matter on the nanoscale has been opening up the wealth of possibilities that were otherwise non - existent at higher scales. At this scale, basic research principles and tools in biology, physics, chemistry, and engineering converge and have led to all-inclusive applications of nanotechnology. Despite the innovative ...
548 views. An interdisciplinary journal across nanoscience and nanotechnology, at the interface of chemistry, physics, materials science and engineering. It focuses on new nanofabrication methods and their ap...
Creation, exploitation and synthesis are nanotechnology concepts that typically consider materials smaller than 1 mm in dimension [10]. Many different methods, such as physical, chemical and green (biological) techniques, have been used to synthesize nanoparticles [11, 12, 13]. The stabilized nanoparticles are formed by reducing ions through ...