essay questions on morality

128 Essay Topics on Moral Values

🏆 best essay topics on morality, ✍️ morality essay topics for college, 👍 good morality research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting morality research titles, 💡 simple morality essay ideas.

Ethics and Morality: Similarities and Differences
The Relation Between Law and Morality
The Law and Morality in Arthur Miller’s “A View from the Bridge”
Relationship Between Morality and Happiness
The Controversy Around Morality of Abortion
Morality Through the Lens of Kate Chopin’s “The Storm”
Courage vs. Recklessness: Morality and Ethics
The Morality of Freedom in Novel “Sula” This paper will seek to explore the concept of freedom exemplified by Sula and whether the actions reflect amorality.
The Concept of Morality as Portrayed in the Novel “Sula” by Toni Morrison The novel “Sula” focuses on various themes such as black-white relations, the fear of death, deceit, slavery, communal norms and practices, and morality among others.
Money and Morality: Children Reward Parents and teachers should be able to distinguish the thin line that exists between offering a reward and bribing a child.
How Popular Culture Influences Morality in Society The article titled “Readers on Morality: Don’s Let TV Be Guide,” reveals much insight regarding what most content consumers feel about popular TV shows.
Justice and Morality: “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave” This essay will discuss how justice and morality intersect in “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave.”
Aspects of Crime Against Morality The paper states that crime against morality is an offense of exiting moral values, moral basis, and views shared by the majority of society.
Morality Play: Everyman This paper discus Everyman, a morality play performed during the medieval ages. The morality plays are also known as allegory essays.
Interaction in Cyberspace: Impact on Morality, Personality, and Behavior of People People’s morality and behaviors have been negatively influenced by cyberspace and Internet communication technology, mainly due to the non-strictness of the rules.
Morality of Stealing and Funding Life-Saving Research Utilitarianism evaluates actions based on their positive and negative value to individuals and society, implying that the ends might justify the means.
Ethics and Morality as Philosophical Concepts: Definitions According to Aristotle, Dante, and Kant The work is aimed to tell about enlightenment according to Kant, Aristotle’s theory of ethics, moral philosophy and the arrangement of Dante’s hell and definition of justice.
Slave Morality and Master Morality: An Argumentative Essay Friedrich Nietzsche’s (1844-1900) works had a tremendous impact on the development of the entire philosophical current of the XX century.
Law and Morality Relationship: Kant vs. Fuller This paper reviews the works of two philosophers, Immanuel Kant and Lon L. Fuller, to describe the relationship between law and morality.
Kant’s Moral Principle and Nietzsche’s Slave Morality This paper explores the possibility of viewing Kant’s moral principle as an expression of Nietzsche’s slave morality.
Philosophers Views on Morality Morality is a state of the mind and has defects that compel a person to undertake certain activities. Moral defects lead people to do things, which may not be moral.
The US Constitution: Morality, Knowledge, and Religion The values of religion, morality, and knowledge combined in the US Constitution allowed people to be free to hold any beliefs and practice any religion.
Peter Singer’s Famine, Affluence, and Morality Peter Singer’s Famine, Affluence, and Morality is a philosophical stance on how modern society may and should reconsider its definition of moral obligation.
Genealogy of Morality by Friedrich Nietzsche This paper will consider the well-known theory of Friedrich Nietzsche, which describes the morality of slaves and masters.
Morality Obligation vs. Aspiration Comparison Moral duty is an obligation that an individual owes and should fulfill, although it is not legally required. A charitable endeavor is an example of a moral commitment.
Euthanasia and Morality Debate Euthanasia may be defined as the assistance provided to people who deliberately want to die due to suffering too much pain because of being terminally ill.
Philosophical Views of Ethics and Morality It is morally wrong to do anything that is not consistent with the established moral standards of the society. Aristotle argued that moral ethics depends on people’s ultimate objective.
Application of Utilitarian Theory of Morality One of the founders of the utilitarian theory of morality, John Stuart Mill, states that pleasure and the absence of pain are the central values desired by the human mind.
Thought Experiment: The Morality of Human Actions A thought experiment aimed at assessing the morality of human actions motivated by divine punishment or reward raises the question of morality and religion correlation.
Dance Activities and Morality in Bangladesh Society This article explores the connection between dance activities, morality, and social context in Bangladesh society.
Morality Policy Making: The Relationship between Politics and Morality This paper discussed the nature of morality policy making as a popular tool amongst certain political factions, as well as its ethically flawed outcomes.
An Overview of the Driving Forces of Morality This essay aims to analyze the driving forces that direct the vector of people’s worldview to recognize elements as moral and socially significant.
Mystery, Morality, and Miracle Plays – “Everyman” In the Medieval Ages, mystery shows lasted several days; they opened with a colorful procession that consisted of citizens of all ages and social groups.
Issue of Morality in “First Impressions” (“Pride and Prejudice”) The title “Pride and Prejudice” suits Jane Austen’s novel much better than the original one – “First Impressions”, “First Impressions” would partly reveal the actual plot.
Morality Concepts Analysis: Theories and Principles Some psychologists argue that morality is not inherent and neither is it enforced by society as suggested by proponents of moral absolutism and universalism.
Morality and Ethics: Philosophical Theories Philosophical theories such as the deontology of ethics and utilitarianism are used to define morality by assessing the motives and outcomes of an action.
Choi and Storr’s Idea of Higher Morality of Markets The paper states that Choi and Storr think that market countries have a higher morality than societies without markets. It is of interest to economists.
Capitalism and Socialism Systems’ Morality The paper focuses on the capitalistic views as more moral due to the opportunities for individual freedom and open markets that support the development of society.
Morality in “A Good Man Is Hard to Find” by O’Connor This research paper focuses on the consideration of the theme of morality and incorrect principles in the short story “A Good Man is Hard to Find” by Flannery O’Connor.
Exploring Peter Singer’s Ethical Concepts in “Famine, Affluence, and Morality” This paper analyzes Peter Singer’s article “Famine, Affluence, and Morality”, examines the principles, concepts presented by Singer in the context of practical ethics and charity.
Relationships and Christian Morality Infidelity is a destructive force, especially when it is revealed to the other member of the couple. Love in a crisis relationship fades.
A Non-Skeptical View of Morality Morality is a philosophical view concerning the distinction between right and wrong behavior. This paper explores a non-skeptical view that supports moral ideas indefinitely.
The Morality and Politics Correlation Analysis Political and moral opinions are complex; how a person comes to hold them depends on a bizarre concoction of their upbringing, society, and intrinsic propensities.
The Morality of Selective Abortion and Genetic Screening The paper states that the morality of selective abortion and genetic screening is relative. This technology should be made available and legal.
Patriotism in Relation to Morality and Politics When relating morality with politics, terms found helpful in this and considered, as per my evaluation, would be patriotism and political conspiracy.
The Morality of Migration Reading by Benhabib In the modern world, the morality and legality of migration are becoming global problems affecting the level of employment.
Nietzsche’s Philosophy: Nihilism, Slave Morality Nietzsche is considered the first philosopher to recognize the main flaw of modernity – viewing science, morality, or religion as the basis of meaning.
Morality and Rationality of Capital Punishment The discussion of the morality or rationality of capital punishment may be conducted from different perspectives.
Principles of Morality and Happiness Numerous thinkers contemplated ever-lasting principles of morality and happiness: David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Hobbes, Aristotle and Immanuel Kant.
British Army Against the Northern Ireland: The Morality of Murder in Wartime The paper sets the task of investigating the question of the morality of murder in wartime. The confrontation of the British Army against the Northern Irish was taken as a basis.
Critique of Ellin’s Position on Professional Morality Even though Ellin argues that deception is morally acceptable, Kant, Bayles, and Gorovitz more convincingly show that these tactics only hurt clients’ trust or limit their basic rights
Assisted Suicide and Its Morality Aspects Assisted suicide or euthanasia used to be allowed. This paper aims to debate the pros and cons of assisted suicide and its morality or immorality.
Drones: Technologies and Morality Drones are crewless aircraft that operate with various degrees of autonomy. Sometimes the morality of the usage of these technologies is questionable.
Famine, Affluence, and Morality, by Peter Singer The author considers famine, refugee crisis, and ways to combat these issues from a philosophical point of view.
Kant’s Morality and Utilitarianism Morality is impossible without freedom, since if a person’s actions are determined by the will of God or the laws of nature, then one cannot speak of morality or morality.
The Morality of the Abortion Case Abortion is perceived as a morally incorrect action. This paper investigates the morality of the case and which action is supposed to be right or wrong.
Peter Singer on Famine, Affluence, and Morality The paper states that Peter Singer’s argument is valid since famine-instigated death can be morally mitigated by those endowed with more resources.
Discussion of Morality in Auschwitz The paper review “Survival in Auschwitz” which author depicts the failure of morality to instil empathy and a moral compass in his life.
“Law, Morality, and the Freedom of Expression”: Relationship Between Morality and the Law The paper discusses the types of relationship that exists between morality and the law based on the writing “Law, morality and the freedom of expression”.
Fetus Abnormality and Morality of Abortion There are various theories that have been used to determine the fetus’s moral status. Each of them has a significant impact on the choices taken by people.
“Famine, Affluence, and Morality” by Peter Singer The article is a review of the essay “Famine, affluence, and morality” by Peter Singer, which reflects the author’s views on charity and donations.
Investigating the Relation Between Law and Morality There is an obvious inconsistency between law and morality, with these two concepts being to some extent corresponding.
Origins of Enkidu’s Morality In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the fight between Enkidu and Gilgamesh results from the demi-god’s ability to understand Uruk’s social norms and how Gilgamesh violates them.
The Morality of Nursing Decisions Nurses can still possess moral integrity and make choices of their value but not when they contradict their patients’ will.
Morality and Happiness: Philosophical Concept Moral phylosophy considers the moral principles of people and their interaction with the environment. The purpose of this paper is to identify its main components.
Same-Sex Marriages: a Question of Legality or Morality The existence of same-sex relationships and the eventual legalization of such marriages have been controversial in different societies around the world.
Ethics, Morality, and Legality Relationship Ethics plays a crucial role within the healthcare field, as it regulates all the patient-doctor and staff interactions during the clinical care process.
Secularist Counter-Arguments Against Religion Ability to Give Added Meaning to Morality Secularist counter-arguments deny the positive influence of religion on morality. They prove the fact that the influence of religion on morality is at least contradictory.
The Ethics of Global Conflict: Violence vs. Morality Within a context of violence vs. morality, violence will always end up having an upper hand – the history of mankind is the best substantive of the validity of this thesis.
The Morality of Euthanasia Euthanasia is any action directed on putting an end to the life of a human being, fulfilling his/her own desire, and executed by a disinterested person.
Democratic Capitalism and Morality in America The problem of the level of the salary in the modern world remains core in economics in the condition of the free market.
Virtual Environment and Morality Discussion of the age of information in relation to ethics; Indicators of conformity and non conformity; The impacts and some speculations.
Socrates’ Political Morality and Philosophy Socrates is the person to whom many people listen, and it is one of the main arguments against him is the encroachment on political morality.
Morality and Ethics Concepts Normative morality refers to a code of conduct that given specific conditions, would be put forward by all rational persons.
Kant vs. Fuller: Law and Morality This paper analyzes the views of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, and Lon L. Fuller, an American legal philosopher, on the relation between law and morality.
Morality in Kant’s, Mill’s, Aristotle’s Philosophies This paper compares the positions of Kant, Mill, and Aristotle on the nature of morality and its relationship with reason or intellect, and with feelings.
Religion in the Public Sphere: Morality and Law The current research will deal with the approaches to the religious presence in the public sphere of Millburn J. Thompson, Janet Jakobsen, Ann Pellegrini, and John Courtney Murray.
Circumcision, Its Legality and Morality The question of circumcision discussed for many decades by numerous scholars. This work explores the issue of the legality and morality of circumcision from various viewpoints.
Different Theories That Have Influence People‘s View on Morality
Children and Morality During the Holocaust
Understanding Human Behavior, Morality, and the Notion of Mean
Wartime Policy: Morality and Reality
Art Morality Nature and Spirituality
The Relationship Between Morality and Religiosity
Strength, Morality, and Justice
The Morality and Constitutionality of Slavery
Achieving Morality Through Redefined Values
Sexual Morality and the Catholic Church
Concepts of Good and Evil Morality
The Most Dangerous Game: A Hunt for Morality
Finding Harmony Between Justice, Friendship, and Morality
The Ethics and Morality of the Water Contamination
Evolutionary Ethics and Biologically Supportable Morality
Biblical Law: The Basis of Morality and Ethics
Analyzing the Supreme Principle of Morality
Protecting Our Ethics: The Choice Between Freedom and Morality
Affirmative Action Policies and Morality
The Morality and Legality Issue in the Abortion Debate
Sociology: Morality and Psychological Egoism
Ethics and Morality According to Aristotle in the Legal Defense of a Guilty Man
Sexual Morality and the Concept of Using Another Person
The Secret Agent: Human Nature vs. Morality
Virtue, Ethics and Morality in Business
Ethics and Morality According to Kant
Homosexuality, Morality, and Human Rights
The Freedom and Reason in Kant Morality
Public Morality: What Are the Limits?
Headhunters Between Duty and Morality
U.S., Social Corruption, and Morality on the Decline
Freuds and Nietzsches Views on Human Morality
The Distinction Between Ethics and Morality
Secular Morality and Religious Morality Inadvertently Influenced One Another
Relation Between Religion and Morality and the Perception
Can Morality Exist Outside Religion
The Connection Between Law and Morality
Time, Money and Morality: How It Helps in the Real World?
Immanuel Kant and the Metaphysics of Morality
Morality and Charles Darwin’s Theories
The Relationship Between Religion and Morality
Russian Entrepreneurship From the Point of View of Christian Morality
The Standard for Societal Morality
Understanding Morality and the Christian View of Morality
The Morality and Social Ethics
Saving Morality: The Implications of Hard Determinism
The Political Morality During the Colonial Times
Religious and Morality Issues of Death Penalty
What Does Morality Mean for the Average Person?
The Ethics and Morality of Stem Cell Research

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These essay examples and topics on Moral Values were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on January 8, 2024 .

180 Ethics Topics & Ethical Questions to Debate

Our code of ethics is derived from what we think is right or wrong. On top of that, we have to agree to the moral standards established by the society we live in. Conventional norms generally label theft, murder, or harassment as bad. However, there are many influences that impact our considerations and understanding of ethics.

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Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies moral issues. This article outlines the three different types of ethics and presents a list of compelling ethics topics for essays and research papers, as well as ethical questions to debate.

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🔝 Top 10 Ethical Topics

🧑🤝🧑Types of Ethics
🤔 Ethical Issues
🖥️ Computer Ethics
🧬 Bioethics
🚓👮 Criminal Justice
⚖️ Ethical Dilemmas

⭐ Top 10 Ethics Topics to Debate

😈 ethical questions to debate, 🔍 references.

Religious beliefs vs. medical care
Issues behind unpaid internships
Toxic environment at the workplace
The dilemma of reporting an accident
Should one’s political leanings be private?
The limits of doctor-patient confidentiality
Is it ethical to pay children for good grades?
Ethics at the workplace and discrimination
Should social media be allowed at the workplace?
Promotion of environmental responsibility in business

🧑🤝🧑 Types of Ethics

Modern philosophy splits ethics into three groups: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.

The core question of metaethics is: “What is morality, and where does it come from?” It is also concerned with the emergence of human values, motivation, and reasoning.
Normative ethics seeks to answer the question, “How should I act?” An example of a normative moral theory is Kant’s Categorical Imperative: Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law . In other words: be kind.
Applied ethics seeks to apply moral considerations into real-life controversial subjects. Its contents can vary greatly and touch bioethics as well as criminal justice. It studies specific actions and practices from the point of moral acceptance.

However, ethics does not end with these three types. Over the centuries, philosophers have proposed various ethical theories. Their four general categories are deontological, utilitarian, right, and virtue ethics.

A deontologist is a person with a set of moral duties from which they will not adhere. When faced with an ethical conflict, they will always act according to their self-proclaimed obligations.
For a utilitarian , a decision needs to yield the greatest benefit for the majority.
If rights are the root of an ethical theory, these are the highest priority. A person’s rights can either be established in a society by law or bestowed from one individual upon another.
Judging someone by virtue means considering a person’s character rather than their actions. Here, an individual’s reputation, motivation, and ethics play a crucial role.

Now that you know the basics, you have the perfect ground to start your ethics essay.

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🤔 Ethical Topics for an Essay

Ethical issues are situations in which an individual needs to evaluate which course of action is morally right. Essays on this topic shine a light on difficult questions. Therefore, students need to defend their position convincingly.

Discuss what we should do about climate change .
What are the moral problems surrounding abortion ?
Can we still justify eating meat?
Investigate the use of plastic in the beauty industry.
Is it unethical to be extremely rich?
Should you buy Nestlé products despite the fact that the company privatizes water?
Is the unequal distribution of wealth unethical?
Discuss how workplace ethics should take sexism into account.
What can we do to combat racism ?
Why are LGBT + people discriminated against?
Should euthanasia be legal?
Can war be ethical?
Should schools punish students for attending the Fridays for Future protests?
Would drug use be unethical if it were legal?
Explain the moral problems that come with automating jobs .

Is it ethical to hire someone to do assignments for you?
How far should everyone’s right to privacy go?
Is using animals for scientific testing unethical?
How should governments deal with refugees ?
Discuss the carbon impact of having children.
Can modern societies still be held accountable for what their nation did in the past?
Analyze the benefits and disadvantages of universal income .
How much control should the state have on the press?
Should schools teach religion ?
What are ethical concerns regarding downloading media from the internet?

🖥️ Computer Ethics Essay Topics

The advent of information technology has altered every aspect of our lives. Computer ethics applies traditional moral theories to everything surrounding computers and cyber security. The list below contains enthralling ethical topics concerned with the realm of computing.

How much work should we leave entirely to computers?
Discuss the dangers of storing vulnerable data online.
Are computers secure enough to contain so much information about our lives?
Discuss if hacking can be morally justified.
Examine privacy-related concerns regarding computers .
Should all software be free?
How can you legitimize the possession of a computer algorithm patent?
What can be done to prevent cyberbullying ?
Investigate the moral effects anonymity has on internet users.
Whose laws apply if you wish to protect your rights online?
Discuss how the necessity to own a computer impacts poorer nations and people.
Which ethical problems can people face due to the internet’s possibilities?
When is sabotaging another person’s computer justified?
Analyze the social responsibility that comes with developing new software.
Are computer crimes less harmful than crimes against humans?
Who owns information that is distributed online?
What is more important: easy accessibility or privacy?
Investigate the moral problems associated with AI .
If a computer makes a critical mistake, whose fault is it?
Discuss the importance of netiquette.
How should tech companies deal with ethical problems?
Can AI algorithms ensure ethical behavior?
Why do tech companies need ethics boards?
Which ethical conflicts appear when using drones ?
Investigate racial bias in facial recognition systems.

🏅 Sports Ethics Topics for a Paper

Morality in sports is based on integrity, respect, responsibility, and fairness. Often, this puts athletes into a dilemma: do I want to be ethical, or do I want to win? Answering these questions is not always easy. The following list compiles sports topics for a research paper on ethics.

What are moral complications when using enhancement drugs?
Is gamesmanship unethical?
How important is ethics in sports?
Discuss the moral responsibilities of athletes .
What are ethical reasons to pay college athletes ?
Investigate the ethical implications of kneeling for the national anthem .
Can college sports and the principles of higher education go hand in hand?
Investigate the sexist bias in sports.
Was it selfish when the American female soccer team went to court to demand equal pay?

What moral obligations do universities have towards their athletes?
When can you justify cheating ?
Concerning the environment, how can professional sports events be ethical?
Which ethical issues do healthcare workers have concerning sportspeople?
Which moral duties do teams’ coaches have?
Are the extremely high salaries of sports professionals justified?
In 2003, the Olympics abolished the wild card system. Was that fair?
Because of the Paralympics, disabled athletes cannot take part in the real Olympics. Is that discriminatory?
Discuss how money influences the fairness of a sport.
Debate if and how children are exploited to become elite athletes.
Which moral duties should a good sport follow?
How much should parents get involved in their child’s physical education ?
Investigate if everyday codes of ethics should apply to sports.
Discuss the ethical implications of motorsports.
Who is responsible if a player gets injured?
Are referees always fair?

🧬 Bioethics Topics for an Essay

Bioethics comes into play when we talk about life and health. It expands from genetics to neurology and even plastic surgery. In the name of the common good, researchers often find themselves in conflicting positions. This makes bioethics an especially exciting topic to write about.

Discuss the moral conflicts of genetic engineering .
What are the ethical responsibilities associated with using CRISPR ?
Investigate the problems of stem cell research .
When can humans be used for drug testing ?
Should vaccinations be mandatory for everyone?
Investigate the ethics that apply to a medical worker.
Discuss the harmful effects of plastic surgery .
Should a person who is brain dead be kept alive?
Is it just that medical care is linked to an individual’s ability to pay?
Should everyone be an organ donor by default?
What is more important: a person’s right to privacy or the information of at-risk relatives?
Is prenatal invasive testing ethical?
Should neuroenhancement drugs be legal?
Discuss ethical conflicts concerning Disclosure and Barring Service.
Is it ethical to improve memory functions with brain stimulation ?
Analyze the ethical issues concerning precision medicine.
What are the problems of surrogacy ?
Should medical personnel collect healthy tissues of a deceased person without their consent?

Bioethics is closely connected with the fields of technology, medicine, politics, philosophy, and law,

What should be done with the child of a brain-dead pregnant woman?
How important is a subject’s anonymity during research?
Discuss the ethics of shared decision-making .
How much responsibility do mentally challenged people carry for their actions?
Was Sweden right not to impose strict lockdown rules during the COVID-19 pandemic?
To what extent are businesses responsible for their employees’ health?
Should universal healthcare be free?

🚓👮 Criminal Justice Ethics Topics to Write About

Law enforcers should always act ethically. Unfortunately, it is not always the case. Police officers and attorneys often end up in morally ambiguous situations. In many cases, they don’t do what the public deems the right thing. Below are the examples of criminal justice ethics topics.

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When is it legitimate for a police officer to use violence?
How can an officer remain impartial?
Should law enforcement visibly wear guns in public?
How much force is too much?
Investigate possible ethical implications associated with true crime podcasts.
Should prostitution be legal in the US?
How ethical is interrogation ?
Can torture be justified?
Discuss the ethical consequences of lying when working in criminal justice .
Is working undercover deception?
Debate whether it is an American citizen’s moral duty to participate in jury duty.
Should the police be allowed to access everyone’s data?
Discuss the moral complications of “innocent until proven guilty.”
Should convicted pedophiles be allowed to see their children?
Can teaching ethics at schools prevent crime?
Analyze ethical problems of the Stanford Prison Experiment .
Should NATO have become involved in America’s Afghan war ?
What are the ethical implications of shooter drills at school?
Was Edward Snowden morally in the wrong?
How should we deal with child soldiers ?
Discuss if the prosecution of Julian Assange is justified.
Examine the ethical problems of private prisons .
What moral obligations should someone consider when granting prisoners the right to work?
When is capital punishment justified?
Is it ethical to incarcerate juvenile offenders ?

⚖️ Ethical Dilemma Topics to Write About

An ethical issue becomes a dilemma when different moral standards clash with each other. In this situation, it is impossible to find a path to an ethically permissible solution that is unambiguous. The following sample topics are a solid base to start a discussion on morals.

Should parents watch over what their children do on the internet?
Would you report an accident you caused if there are no witnesses?
What should a doctor do if a patient refuses life-saving treatment for religious reasons?
Should you turn down a client if their political views do not match yours?
Would you promote something you are not convinced of to get money?
Should you lie to land a job that gets you out of poverty?

Your partner cheated on you. Now, you get the chance to take your revenge with someone you really like. Would you do it?
Should students use automated writing tools like free thesis generators , summarizers, and paraphrasers?
Your teacher is continuously mocking your classmate. You are a teacher’s pet. Would you speak up?
Your son likes to wear dresses. One day, he asks if he can wear one to school. Will you let him?
You are very religious. Your daughter wants to get married to another woman and invites you to her wedding. What will you do?
Prenatal testing showed that your unborn child has a disability. Would you terminate pregnancy?
You are in a long-term relationship. Suddenly, your partner gets a job offer in another part of the world. What would you do?
You have a terminal illness . This makes you a financial burden to your relatives. Are you obliged towards them to quit your treatment?
You have a red and a blue candy bar. Blue is your favorite, but you also know that it’s your friend’s favorite. Will you give it to them?
A friend asked you for a loan. Since then, they have not given you anything back. They are still not wholly stable financially. Will you ask them to return the money?
Your grandma passed away and bequeathed her favorite mink coat to you. You are a vegan. What do you do?
A few years ago, you borrowed a gun from a friend. Now, they ask for it back, but their mental state seems to be rapidly deteriorating. This makes you scared they are going to shoot someone, or themselves. What do you do?
You find out that your friend cheats on their spouse. You are close friends with their family. Will you tell on them?
For your birthday, your friend gave you a sweater they’ve made themselves. You think it’s ugly. Do you tell them?
You are a vegan . Should you buy vegan products which are highly problematic to produce?
You are in a restaurant. Your order arrives too late. The waitress looks stressed. Will you make her take it back?
You went to the store and bought a new, expensive item. The clerk gives you too much change. Do you give it back?
You are walking with a friend and find $50 on the floor. Would you share it with them?
Your child firmly believes in Santa Claus. One Christmas , they start suspecting that he is not real. What do you do?
Is having pets ethical?
Can eating meat be justified?
Should we defund the police?
Should atomic bombs be banned?
Can discrimination be justified?
Is it ethical to ask someone’s age?
Should children get paid for chores?
Is it unprofessional to send voice messages?
Should children be allowed to vote?
Should influencers promote products they don’t use?
Should there be any limitations to doctor and patient confidentiality?
Should physician-assisted suicide be allowed?
Can teenagers get plastic surgery?
What to do when you find out that your relative has committed an offense?
What to do when you see your friend cheating on the exam?
Should sportsmen be paid more than teachers?
Should gender quotas be used during parliamentary elections?
Do companies have the right to collect information about their customers?
Can politicians appeal to religious issues during electoral campaigns?
Should fake news be censored in a democratic society?

We hope that in this list you’ve found the ethics topic that fits you the best. Good luck with your assignment!

502 Ethics Essay Topics & Ideas

18 January 2024

last updated

Ethics essay topics traverse a wide range of issues deeply rooted in the moral fabric of society. They can include analysis of ethical dilemmas faced by individuals, corporations, or governments, such as healthcare decisions, corporate social responsibility, or public policy formation. Some themes can cover philosophical questions about the nature of good and evil, the boundaries of moral obligation, or the ethical implications of artificial intelligence. They can also explain contemporary ethical issues, like data privacy, environmental sustainability, or systemic discrimination. Other topics can encourage the exploration of ethical theories like deontology, consequentialism, or virtue ethics. Moreover, they can delve into the intersection of ethics with fields, like technology, medicine, business, or law. As a result, ethics essay topics require critical thinking, nuanced argumentation, and deep reflection on the ethical dimensions of human actions and decisions in an ever-complex world.

Best Ethics Essay Topics

Ethical Dimensions of Artificial Intelligence: Concerns and Potential Solutions
Is Animal Testing Morally Defensible?
Evaluating Censorship: Freedom of Expression vs. Harm Minimization
Autonomous Vehicles: Moral Implications and Responsibility Allocation
Genetic Engineering: Navigating the Labyrinth of Ethical Issues
Capital Punishment: An Ethical Examination
Ethics of Surveillance: Balancing Privacy and Security
Climate Change: Moral Obligations and Sustainable Development
Euthanasia: A Compassionate Choice or an Ethical Misstep?
Ethical Challenges in Global Business Practices
Privacy and Data Collection: Digital Age Dilemmas
Sustainable Consumerism: Ethical Implications and Responsibilities
Organ Transplantation Ethics: Debating Donor Consent
Deepfake Technology: Ethical Quandaries in Virtual Realities
Civil Disobedience: When Is It Ethically Justifiable?
Resource Allocation in Healthcare: An Ethical Dilemma
Ethics in Scientific Research: Boundaries and Breaches
Moral Implications of Cloning: Science and Society
Child Labor: Unveiling the Ethical Concerns
Genetic Data Privacy: An Emerging Ethical Frontier
War Ethics: Exploring Just War Theory
Privacy Invasion Through Technology: An Ethical Debate
Mandatory Vaccinations: Balancing Public Health and Individual Rights
Drone Warfare: Navigating Ethical Implications

Easy Ethics Essay Topics

Fair Trade: Ethical Aspects and Global Impact
Genetic Screening: Ethical Questions in Predictive Medicine
Autonomous Weapon Systems: The Ethics of Killer Robots
Influence of Media: Ethical Implications in Society
Designer Babies: The Morality of Genetic Modification
Wealth Inequality: Exploring Ethical Perspectives
Human Enhancement Technologies: Are They Ethically Sound?
Migration Policies: Ethical Considerations and Human Rights
Artificial Womb Technology: Navigating the Ethical Landscape
Intellectual Property Rights: An Ethical Investigation
Transhumanism: Ethical Implications and Future Prospects
Nanotechnology Applications: Unveiling Ethical Concerns
Child Soldiers: The Moral Dilemma in Armed Conflict
Population Control Policies: Ethics and Human Rights
Genetic Discrimination: An Emerging Ethical Crisis
Ghostwriting: Evaluating the Ethical Dimensions
Human Trafficking: Unpacking the Ethical Implications
Food Waste: Ethical Concerns and Solutions
Medical Tourism: Navigating the Ethical Implications
Cybersecurity Ethics: Protecting Data, Respecting Privacy
In Vitro Meat: Evaluating the Ethical Considerations
Ethics in Space Exploration: Colonization and Beyond
Animal Rights vs. Cultural Traditions: An Ethical Conflict

Interesting Ethics Essay Topics

Political Lobbying: Ethical Implications and Public Interests
Internet Censorship: Ethical Considerations and Freedom of Information
Ethics of Experiments on Humans: Reviewing Past and Present
Globalization’s Impact on Labor Ethics: An Investigation
Digital Identity Theft: Ethical Implications and Countermeasures
Zero-Waste Movement: Ethical Reflections and Practicalities
Assisted Suicide: A Compassionate Option or an Ethical Dilemma?
Cognitive Enhancements: Ethical Implications in Education and Workplace
Universal Basic Income: Ethical Considerations and Economic Consequences
Biofuels and Sustainability: An Ethical Examination
Ethics of Zoos: Animal Welfare vs. Conservation Education
Responsible AI: Establishing Ethical Guidelines for Artificial General Intelligence
Factory Farming: Unveiling Its Ethical and Environmental Impact
Mandatory Military Service: An Ethical Inquiry
Robotics in Healthcare: Ethical Issues and Human Interaction
The Right to Die: Unpacking the Ethics of Assisted Dying
The Ethics of Space Mining: Resource Exploitation Beyond Earth
Moral Questions in Quantum Computing: An Untouched Frontier
Teleportation Ethics: Navigating Possible Future Dilemmas
Digital Divide: Ethical Implications and Solutions
Human Cloning: A Moral and Ethical Minefield
Ethics in Advertising: Truth, Deception, and Manipulation

Ethics Essay Topics for High School

Ethical Implications of Genetic Engineering: Pros and Cons
Universal Human Rights: Their Origin and Impact
Autonomy and Respect in Medical Decisions: A Discussion
Euthanasia Debate: Ethical Dilemmas and Solutions
Environmental Ethics: Responsibility Toward Nature
Truthfulness in Journalism: Obligations and Challenges
War Ethics: Justification of Violence in Conflicts
Freedom of Speech: Where Should We Draw the Line?
Surveillance Society: Privacy and Public Security
Capital Punishment: An Ethical Evaluation
Plagiarism in Academia: Causes and Consequences
Moral Responsibility in Artificial Intelligence Development
Animal Rights: Ethical Considerations and Activism
Ethical Considerations in Organ Transplantation
Utilitarianism vs. Deontological Ethics: A Comparative Study
Social Inequality: The Ethical Duty of Reducing Poverty
Ethical Challenges in the Age of Biotechnology
Ethics of Whistleblowing in Corporate Culture
Business Ethics: The Role of Transparency in Trust Building
Internet Censorship: Balancing Freedom and Security
Ethics of Advertising: Consumer Manipulation or Information Provision?

Ethics Essay Topics for College Students

Balancing Personal Privacy and National Security: An Ethical Dilemma
Animal Rights: Evaluating Moral Obligations Towards Non-Human Beings
Digital Ethics: Exploring the Morality of Online Behavior
Corporate Social Responsibility: Unearthing the Ethical Boundaries in Business
Bioethics: Delving Into Genetic Engineering and Cloning Issues
Capital Punishment: Analyzing Its Ethical Implications
Ethical Dimensions in Modern Advertising: A Deceptive Practice?
Fair Trade and Globalization: The Ethical Debate
Dissecting the Ethics of Euthanasia: Who Decides Life and Death?
Understanding Ethics in Politics: Corrupt Practices and Moral Duties
Surveillance Technologies: The Big Brother and Ethical Issues
Impacts of Artificial Intelligence: Ethical Considerations for the Future
Wealth Distribution: An Ethical Perspective on Economic Inequality
Internet Censorship: The Question of Ethical Implications
Whistleblowing: An Analysis of its Ethical Considerations
Professional Ethics in Medicine: Analyzing Patient Rights and Doctor Duties
Unraveling the Ethics of Child Labor in Developing Countries
Climate Change: Evaluating the Ethical Responsibility of Individuals and Corporations
Genetically Modified Foods: Examining the Ethical Questions
Drug Legalization: Delving Into the Ethical Aspects

Ethical Argument Topics

Justification of Capital Punishment in Modern Societies
Animal Rights: Unseen Victims of Industrial Agriculture
Self-Driving Vehicles and the Question of Liability
Artificial Intelligence: Ensuring Ethical Treatment
Surveillance States: Invasion of Privacy vs. National Security
Online Censorship: Freedom of Speech or Prevention of Hate Speech
Mandatory Vaccinations: Individual Liberty vs. Public Health
Genetic Engineering: Prospects and Ethical Implications
Climate Change: Balancing Economic Growth and Environmental Protection
Wealth Distribution: Morality of Extreme Economic Inequality
Human Cloning: Scientific Progress or Ethical Nightmare
Euthanasia: Compassionate Care or Ending Life Prematurely
Influencers and Digital Ethics: Accountability on Social Media
Food Wastage: Addressing Ethical Concerns in Consumerism
Offshore Tax Havens: Legal Evasion or Immoral Avoidance
Internet Privacy: Data Collection and User Rights
Organ Trafficking: Addressing the Desperate Demand for Transplants
Biometric Data: Security Enhancement or Personal Privacy Breach
Pharmaceutical Industry: Ethical Issues in Drug Pricing
War on Terror: Justifying Collateral Damage
Designer Babies: Ethical Boundaries of Genetic Selection

Ethics Topics on Animals

Animal Testing: Necessary Evil or Inhumane Practice?
Breeding Programs: An Ethical Approach to Conservation?
Rights of Animals: Toward Legal Protection
Endangered Species Hunting: Conservation or Cruelty?
Ethical Considerations in the Genetic Engineering of Animals
Dilemmas in Captive Breeding for Endangered Species
Ethics in Animal Agriculture: A Global Perspective
Fur Industry: The Moral Argument Against Animal Cruelty
Lab Animals: Balancing Scientific Progress and Ethical Responsibility
Rethinking Zoos: Animal Rights vs. Educational Benefits
Ethical Breeding: Combatting Overpopulation of Domestic Pets
Companion Animals: Examining the Ethics of Ownership
The Morality of Keeping Exotic Pets
Wildlife Conservation: Ensuring Ethical Practices
Veganism: A Moral Obligation for Animal Rights?
Ethics of Hunting: Sport, Survival, or Savagery?
Animal Entertainment: Is It Ethically Justifiable?
Poultry Farming: Assessing Ethical Implications
Deforestation: Examining Its Impact on Animal Ethics
Animals in Research: Ethical Guidelines and Controversies

Bioethics Topics

Ethical Implications of Genetic Engineering
Assisted Reproduction: A Moral Examination
Medical Privacy: Balancing Transparency and Confidentiality
Implementing Ethics in Telemedicine Practices
Addressing Racial Disparities in Healthcare
AI’s Influence on Patient Autonomy
Vaccine Distribution: Prioritizing Fairness and Equality
End-of-Life Decisions: Assessing Moral Boundaries
Conducting Ethical Animal Testing in Biomedical Research
Consent in Pediatric Care: Navigating Parents’ and Children’s Rights
Ethical Dilemmas in Organ Donation and Transplantation
Analyzing Ethical Dimensions of Aging and Longevity
Genomic Data Sharing: Balancing Innovation and Privacy
Mental Health Treatment: Striking a Balance Between Autonomy and Safety
Ethical Challenges of Prenatal Genetic Testing
Confronting Ethical Issues in Biobanking
Navigating Bioethical Challenges in Biotechnology Patenting
Social Responsibility in Pharmaceutical Industry Practices
Compassionate Use of Experimental Drugs: Weighing Risks and Benefits
CRISPR Technology: The Ethics of Gene Editing
Dilemmas Surrounding Do-Not-Resuscitate (DNR) Orders

Biomedical Ethics Essay Topics

Ethical Dilemmas in Genetic Engineering: Assessing Prospects and Pitfalls
Balancing Patient Confidentiality and Public Health in Pandemic Times
Evaluating the Ethical Concerns in End-of-Life Decision-Making
Moral Imperatives in Psychiatric Practice: The Question of Informed Consent
Probing the Ethical Boundaries of Animal Experimentation in Biomedical Research
Justice in Healthcare: Navigating Socioeconomic Disparities in Treatment Access
Human Cloning: Parsing the Moral and Ethical Implications
Neonatal Intensive Care Units and the Dilemma of Quality vs. Quantity of Life
Weighing the Ethics of Organ Transplants and Donor Organ Allocation
Scrutinizing the Intersection of Biotechnology and Bioethics: Genetically Modified Organisms
Cybernetics and Ethics: Discussing the Human-Machine Boundary in Medical Technology
Understanding the Ethical Dilemmas Surrounding Antimicrobial Resistance
Considerations on Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: A New Ethical Frontier?
Abortion Policies and Ethics: Exploring the Rights of Mothers and Unborn Children
Data Privacy and Ethics in Biomedical Research: Striking the Balance
Evaluating the Ethics of Mandatory Vaccinations: Individual Liberty vs. Public Health
Probing the Bioethical Aspects of Fertility Treatments and Reproductive Technology
Resource Allocation in Healthcare: Dissecting the Ethics of Rationing
Ethical Analysis of Human Enhancement through Genetic Manipulation
Unveiling the Bioethical Challenges in Stem Cell Research

Business Ethics Essay Topics

Implementing Corporate Social Responsibility: A Ethical Business Paradigm Shift
Balancing Profit and Social Responsibility: The Moral Dilemma
Unveiling Greenwashing: Misrepresentation in Environmental Claims
Privacy Intrusion: Ethical Concerns in Digital Marketing
Whistleblowing: Courageous Act or Betrayal?
Child Labor in Global Supply Chains: Ethical Considerations
Navigating Insider Trading: An Ethical Quagmire in Business
Philanthropy or Publicity Stunt? Assessing Corporate Donations
Data Security: Addressing Ethical Issues in Business Informatics
Sweatshops and Modern Slavery: Unethical Practices in the Global Economy
Biased Algorithms: The Hidden Dilemma in AI Businesses
Pay Equality: The Ethics of Gender Wage Gap in Corporate Spheres
Ethical Dilemmas in Pharmaceutical Patents: Balancing Profit and Public Health
Climate Change: The Ethical Responsibility of Oil and Gas Companies
Animal Testing in Cosmetics: An Unsettling Ethical Challenge
Adverse Effects of Planned Obsolescence: Ethical Perspective
Ethics of Tax Avoidance: A Corporate Responsibility
Deceptive Advertising: Analyzing its Ethical Implications
Fair Trade: Ethical Considerations in Global Commerce
Inequality in the Workplace: Discrimination and Its Ethical Ramifications
Unpacking Corruption: The Ethical Degradation in Business Practices

Computer Ethics Essay Topics

Exploring Privacy Concerns in the Digital Age: A Critical Analysis
Impacts of Artificial Intelligence on Human Jobs: An Ethical Perspective
Ethical Implications of Cybersecurity Breaches: Unveiling the Dark Side of Technology
Technological Innovation and Its Role in Deepening the Digital Divide
The Conundrum of Social Media: Ethical Boundaries and Responsibilities
Surveillance Systems in Public Places: An Ethical Inquiry
Evaluating Ethical Practices in Software Development: Necessity or Luxury?
Autonomous Vehicles and Moral Decision Making: A Road to Controversy
Responsibility of Tech Giants: Exploring Ethical Implications
Unraveling Ethical Issues in Digital Piracy: The Unseen Consequences
Analyzing Ethical Concerns in Data Mining: Privacy vs. Profits
Ethics of Cloud Computing: Trust, Security, and Privacy Challenges
Smart Cities and Their Impact on Individual Privacy: An Ethical Investigation
Net Neutrality: Unpacking Its Ethical Significance in a Digital Society
Cyberbullying: Understanding Its Ethical Dimensions and Mitigation Strategies
The Intricacy of Bioinformatics: Ethical Implications and Challenges
Cryptocurrency and Blockchain: A Journey Through Ethical Quandaries
Ethical Dilemmas in Facial Recognition Technology: A Reality Check
Machine Learning Algorithms: A Deep Dive Into Bias and Ethical Dilemmas
Cyber War: Evaluating Its Ethical Implications on Nations and Citizens

Educational Ethics Topics

Fostering Academic Integrity: An Ethical Approach
Protecting Student Privacy in the Digital Age
Evaluation of Bias in Standardized Testing
Cyberbullying Prevention Strategies and Ethics
Inclusive Education: Ethical Considerations
Plagiarism: Implications and Ethical Solutions
Ethical Dilemmas in Educational Research
Diversification of Curriculum: An Ethical Imperative
Ethical Implications of School Surveillance
Impartiality in Grade Allocation: Ensuring Fairness
Responsible Use of AI in Education
Informed Consent in School Counseling
Cultivating Ethical Leadership in Education
Addressing Discrimination: The Role of Schools
Teacher’s Roles in Developing Moral Reasoning
Exploring Equity in Special Education Services
School Policies: Navigating Freedom of Speech
Ethics of Standardized vs. Adaptive Learning
Intellectual Property Rights in Educational Settings
Honoring Cultural Diversity: A Moral Obligation
Privilege in Education: Understanding Its Impact

Environmental Ethics Essay Topics

The Moral Responsibility of Individuals in Addressing Climate Change
Ethical Considerations in Wildlife Conservation Efforts
The Role of Environmental Justice in Sustainable Development
Ethical Transitions in Renewable Energy Deployment
The Moral Dilemma of Deforestation and Land Use
Sustainable Agriculture: Ethical Practices for Food Production
Environmental Ethics and the Preservation of Biodiversity
Ethics of Water Resource Management and Access
Ethical Implications of Pollution Mitigation and Waste Disposal
Moral Dimensions in Environmental Policy Making
Animal Rights and Welfare: Ethical Approaches to Environmental Conservation
Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Environmental Ethics
Environmental Ethics in the Era of Technological Advancements
Ethical Challenges of Urbanization and Building Sustainable Cities
Corporate Responsibility in Environmental Sustainability
Ethics of Consumption: Environmental Impact and Conscious Choices
Promoting Ethical Environmental Education and Awareness
Ethical Dimensions in Climate Adaptation Strategies
Geoengineering and Climate Intervention: Ethical Implications
Ethical Dilemmas in Ecotourism and Sustainable Travel

Ethics & Artificial Intelligence Topics

Ethical Considerations in Autonomous Vehicle Decision-Making
The Role of Ethics in Facial Recognition Technology Deployment
Ethical Implications of Deepfake Technology
Ensuring Fairness in Algorithmic Decision-Making
Ethical Dilemmas in Data Privacy and AI
The Ethics of AI-Powered Healthcare Diagnosis
Balancing Privacy and Security in AI Applications
Ethical Frameworks for AI in Criminal Justice Systems
Addressing Bias and Discrimination in AI Algorithms
Ethical Implications of AI in Social Media Manipulation
Ensuring Ethical Standards in AI Research and Development
Ethical Challenges in AI-Powered Customer Service
The Moral Responsibility of AI Developers
The Impact of AI on Employment and Ethical Considerations
Ethical Issues in AI-Powered Biometric Identification Systems
Ethics of AI in Environmental Conservation and Sustainability
Ensuring Transparency and Accountability in AI Governance
Ethical Challenges in AI-Based Predictive Policing
Moral Dilemmas of AI-Powered Humanoid Robots
Ethical Implications of AI in Journalism and News Reporting
The Role of Ethics in AI-Powered Decision Support Systems
Ethical Considerations in AI-Based Financial Advising
Balancing Autonomy and Control in AI Systems

Ethics of Emerging Technologies Topics

Ethical Considerations in Artificial Intelligence Development
Privacy Concerns Surrounding Big Data Analytics
Moral Questions Raised by Human Enhancement Technologies
Social Impacts of Autonomous Vehicles
Ethics and Genetic Engineering
The Role of Morality in Blockchain Technology
Ethical Challenges in Virtual Reality Applications
Sustainability Ethics in Renewable Energy Technologies
Ethical Dilemmas of Biometric Identification Systems
Cybersecurity Ethics and Data Breaches
Ethical Implications of 3D Printing
Ethics and Robotics Automation
Responsible Use of Augmented Reality
Ethical Issues in Brain-Computer Interfaces
Ethical Considerations in Nanotechnology
Ethics and the Use of Drones
The Role of Morality in Biomedical Implants
Ethical Challenges of Biometric Surveillance
Ethical Dimensions of Neural Networks
Social Media Algorithms and Ethical Implications

Ethics of War and Peace Topics

Moral Responsibility in Chemical Weapon Use
Cyber Warfare: Analyzing Ethical Ramifications
Interrogation Techniques: The Ethics of War Torture
Peacekeeping Operations: Ethical Challenges and Dilemmas
Ethics in War Propaganda
Justifying Collateral Damage: Ethical Dilemmas
Covert Operations: Ethical Considerations
War Crimes Tribunals: Ethical Dimensions
Environmental Impact of Warfare: Ethical Perspectives
Just War vs. Pacifism: Ethical Stances
Ethical Decision-Making in Times of War
Economic Sanctions: Ethical Implications in Conflict Resolution
Proportionality Principle in Warfare Ethics
Unmanned Combat Systems: Ethical Questions
Moral Imperative of Post-War Reconstruction
Ethical Dilemmas in Civil War Interventions
Nonviolent Resistance: Ethical Dimensions in Achieving Peace
Information Warfare: Ethics and Accountability
Just War Theory and Humanitarian Interventions: Ethical Analysis
Ethical Considerations in the Use of Child Soldiers
Coercive Interrogation Techniques: Moral Challenges in War

Ethics Essay Topics for Informative Papers

The Significance of Ethical Leadership in Business Organizations
Exploring the Ethical Dimensions of Artificial Intelligence Development
Ethical Implications of Genetic Modification in Human Enhancement
Analyzing the Ethics of Animal Experimentation in Scientific Research
Ethical Dilemmas in End-of-Life Care and Assisted Suicide
Ethical Considerations of Privacy in the Digital Era
Examining the Moral Responsibility of Corporations in Environmental Preservation
Ethical Issues in Human Cloning and Reproductive Procedures
Exploring the Ethical Implications of Autonomous Vehicles
The Role of Ethics in Healthcare Decision-Making
Ethical Challenges in the Era of Social Media
Ethics of Whistleblowing in Corporate and Government Settings
Examining the Ethical Implications of Big Data and Data Privacy
Ethical Issues in Organ Transplantation and Allocation
Ethics of Genetic Testing and Confidentiality
Moral Obligations of Healthcare Professionals During the Covid-19 Pandemic
Ethical Considerations in Human-Animal Relationships and Animal Rights
Ethics of Capital Punishment and the Death Penalty
Ethical Challenges in Clinical Trials and Research Studies
Moral Dimensions of Global Poverty and Wealth Disparity

Legal Ethics Essay Topics

Ethical Considerations in Lawyer-Client Confidentiality
Balancing Legal Advocacy and Professional Responsibility
The Role of Ethics in Judicial Decision-Making
Professional Standards in Legal Negotiations
Safeguarding Attorney-Client Privilege
Conflicts of Interest and Professional Ethics
The Intersection of Legal Ethics and Technology
Maintaining Zealous Advocacy Within Ethical Boundaries
Ethical Issues in Legal Advertising and Solicitation
Ensuring Competence and Continuing Legal Education
Upholding Loyalty to Clients and Ethical Duties
Ethical Billing Practices in the Legal Field
Ethical Dilemmas in Witness Preparation and Presentation
Ethical Considerations in Alternative Dispute Resolution
Professional Responsibility in Multijurisdictional Practice
Ethical Challenges in Pro Bono Legal Services
Ethics in Corporate Law Practice
Managing Pretrial and Trial Publicity Ethically
Conflicts of Interest in Law Firm Partnerships
Ethical Use of Electronic Communications and Confidentiality
Ethical Implications of Social Media for Lawyers

Media Ethics Essay Topics

Shaping Cultural Norms: Media’s Role and Responsibility
Advertising Ethics: Persuasion or Manipulation?
Journalism Ethics in Covering International Conflicts
Paparazzi Culture: Ethical Implications in Celebrity Journalism
Photojournalism Ethics: Publishing Disturbing Images
Citizen Journalism: Ethical Challenges and Responsibilities
Media Ownership: Impact on Diversity and Pluralism
Promoting Social Justice: Media’s Ethical Obligations
Ethical Implications of Influencer Marketing
Media Accountability: Importance of Ethical Guidelines
Digital Manipulation: Ethical Concerns in Media
Ethical Challenges in Reporting Crime and Trials
Balancing Freedom of Speech: Media’s Responsibility
Ethical Considerations in Documentary Storytelling
Media’s Influence on Political Discourse and Elections
Privacy Invasion: Ethical Dilemmas in Investigative Journalism
Native Advertising: Ethical Dimensions in Journalism
Media’s Role in Exposing and Combating Corruption
Ethical Challenges in Reporting Medical and Health Issues
Media Ethics in the Era of Deepfakes and AI
Censorship and Control: Moral Implications in News

Medical Ethics Topics

Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide: Ethical Considerations
Medical Errors and Patient Safety: Ethical Perspectives
Ethical Challenges in Global Health Initiatives
Informed Consent and Patient Autonomy in Medical Research
The Ethics of Human Enhancement Technologies
Ethical Issues Surrounding Animal Experimentation in Medicine
Allocation of Limited Medical Resources: Ethical Frameworks
Confidentiality and Privacy in Telemedicine and Electronic Health Records
Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
Professional Integrity and Conflicts of Interest in Medical Practice
Ethical Considerations in Clinical Trials and Drug Development
End-of-Life Decision-Making for Minors: Legal and Ethical Challenges
Ethical Issues in Emergency Medical Care and Triage
Organ Trafficking and Underground Organ Trade: Ethical Analysis
Cultural Competence and Ethical Care in a Diverse Society
Ethical Implications of Embryo Selection and Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis
Paternalism and Patient Autonomy: Balancing Healthcare Decision-Making
Ethical Concerns in Genetic Engineering and Gene Therapy
Medical Negligence and Malpractice: Ethical and Legal Perspectives
Ethical Challenges in Access to Healthcare: Equity and Justice

Nursing Ethics Essay Topics

Ethical Implications of Nurse-Patient Boundaries
Integrating Cultural Competence Into Nursing Ethics
Balancing Patient Advocacy and Confidentiality in Nursing
Challenges in Ethical Mental Health Nursing
Promoting Ethical Decision-Making in Nursing Leadership
Issues in Research Ethics: Protecting Human Subjects
Significance of Ethical Communication in Nursing Practice
Exploring Responsibilities in Emergency Nursing Ethics
Ethical Considerations in Pain Management for Nurses
Organ Transplantation Ethics in Nursing
Ethical Challenges in Nursing Informatics
Ensuring Equity and Justice in Nursing Care: Ethical Perspectives
Ethical Issues in Nursing Education and Training
Implications of Technology Use in Nursing Practice Ethics
Genetic Testing and Counseling Ethics in Nursing
Balancing Professional and Personal Ethics in Nursing
Challenges in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) Ethics
Ethical Considerations in Palliative and Hospice Care Nursing
Roles of Decision-Making Models in Nursing Ethics
Addressing Ethical Issues in Transcultural Nursing
Implications of Nurse Staffing Ratios on Ethics

Political Ethics Essay Topics

The Significance of Monetary Influence on Political Campaigns: Analyzing Its Impact on Ethical Decision-Making
Ethical Considerations of Lobbying Practices Within the Political Sphere
Environmental Ethics and the Ethical Decision-Making Process in Politics: Achieving a Balance
Examining the Ethical Implications of Political Advertising: Informative Communication or Manipulation?
Ethical Dimensions of Political Spin: Striking a Balance Between Truth and Persuasion
Ethical Challenges Associated With Political Fundraising: Ensuring Transparency and Accountability
Moral Dilemmas in Political Decision Making: Navigating Complex Ethical Gray Areas
The Role of Ethical Journalism in Political Reporting: Objectivity vs. Bias
Analyzing the Ethical Considerations of Political Campaign Promises: Assessing Accountability and Feasibility
Whistleblowing in Politics: Ethical Obligations and Protection Measures
Politicians’ Moral Responsibility: Balancing Personal Convictions and Public Interest
Ethical Implications of Political Gerrymandering: Ensuring Fair Representation and Democratic Values
Political Ethics and the Ethical Use of Social Media: Balancing Freedom of Speech and Combating Hate Speech
The Importance of Ethical Leadership in Political Institutions: Setting a High Standard
Ethical Considerations in International Relations: Balancing National Interests and Global Cooperation
Examining the Ethical Use of Artificial Intelligence in Political Decision Making
Ethical Implications of Government Surveillance: Striking a Balance Between Security and Privacy
Political Discourse Ethics: Promoting Constructive Dialogue and Minimizing Toxicity
Ethical Challenges in Allocating Political Funds: Prioritizing the Public Good
The Role of Political Ethics in Public Health Policy: Balancing Individual Rights and Collective Well-Being

Social Work Ethics Topics

The Influence of Technology on Social Work Ethics
Fostering Self-Determination in Social Work Practice
Addressing Ethical Challenges in Child Protection Services
Integration of Cultural Competence in Social Work Ethics
Ethical Considerations in Mental Health Assessment and Intervention
Ensuring Confidentiality in the Practice of Social Work
Ethical Implications of Social Media Use in the Field of Social Work
Advocacy for Social Justice in Social Work Ethics
Establishing Boundaries in Ethical Social Work Practice
Ethical Dilemmas in Serving Vulnerable Populations
Striking a Balance between Autonomy and Paternalism in Social Work Ethics
Ethical Decision-Making in End-of-Life Care Settings
Power Dynamics and Ethics in Social Work Practice
Informed Consent in Ethical Social Work Practice
Ethical Considerations in Forensic Social Work
Ethical Challenges in International Social Work Practice
Upholding Ethical Research Practices in Social Work
The Impact of Legal and Ethical Standards on Social Work Practice
Values and Ethics in Supervision in Social Work
Ethical Considerations in Working With LGBTQ+ Individuals
Ethical Dilemmas in Substance Abuse Treatment and Recovery

Sports Ethics Essay Topics

Sportsmanship in Youth Athletics: Teaching Values or Pursuing Victory?
The Ethics of Performance-Enhancing Technologies in Athletics
Integrity in Sports: Balancing Competition and Fair Play
The Influence of Money and Corruption in Professional Athletics
Sports Governance: Ensuring Transparency and Accountability
Gender Equality in Athletics: Breaking Barriers and Challenging Stereotypes
Ethics of Violence in Contact Sports
Ethical Considerations in Sports Sponsorship and Advertising
The Role of Coaches in Shaping Ethical Behavior in Athletes
Sports and Social Justice: Addressing Discrimination and Inequality
Ethical Implications of Genetic Testing in Sports
Sports Gambling and its Moral Consequences
Ethics of Youth Sports: Parental Pressure and Burnout
Ethical Challenges in Sports Medicine and Performance Enhancement
Athletics and National Identity: Balancing Patriotism and Fair Play
The Role of Technology in Shaping Sports Ethics
Ethics of Transgender Participation in Athletics
Environmental Sustainability in Sports: Balancing Recreation and Conservation
Ethics of Team Ownership and Control
Athletics and Human Rights: Examining Exploitation and Labor Issues

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691 philosophy essay topics & good ideas, 839 social issues essay topics, lists, & good ideas.

Morality Essay Topics & Ideas

Persuasive Essay Topics About Morality
Interesting Essay Topics About Morality

Informative Essay Topics About Morality

Morality essay topics for college students, morality essay topics for high school students.

Morality Compare and Contrast Essay Topics

✒️ Persuasive Essay Topics About Morality

“The Devil Wears Prada”: Morality and Ethics
A Comparative Analysis of The Prince and Julius Caesar: Pragmatism Over Morality
A Relation Between the Idea of Universality and the Morality of Homosexuality and the Legalization of Same-Sex Marriages
A Response to The Morality of Hamlet in The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, a Play by William Shakespeare
A Study at The Theme of Finding Yourself and Morality in Martin Ritt’s Movie Norma Rae
A View of The Morality Issue of Abortion
Abstract Thought Over Experience: a Comparison of Hume’s and Kant’s Concept of Morality
Adam Smith on the Rules of Morality
Ambition Overrides Morality in Macbeth
Analyse how ‘Brave New World’ uses the themes of control, morality and individuality to change the way we think about society
Analysis of Hamlet’s Morality
Analysis of Huckleberry Finn Regarding Theory of Morality
Analysis of Iliad as a Morality Play
Argumentative Essay on Theists and Atheists Morality
Arguments for/Against Morality of Abortion
Artists’ Morality Should not Interfere with Their Art
Ban Smoking Near the Child: Issues of Morality
Business Ethics: Morality Issues toward Customers
Class and Morality in Pygmalion
Computer Games: Morality in the Virtual World Essay (Article)
Corporate Business World: Ethics and Morality
Critical Analysis of Document 28-1 President Lyndon B. Johnson Describes the Great Society and Document 30-4 President Ronald Reagan Defends American Morality
Critical Analysis of Peter Singer’s Famine Affluence and Morality
Deontological Ethics and Morality

✨ Best morality Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

On the Morality of Compulsory Vaccinations Though the presence of anti-vaxxers seems like a modern development, there has been hesitancy to retrieve vaccinations since their emergence in the early 1800s. Despite the evolution of vaccination techniques, the reasons for refusal to vaccinate ….
Ethics: Morality and Ethical Egoist Classes that teach us about ethics are not offered til college. There are no classes that teach morals in grade school or high school. In recent years we have seen young children committing horrible acts, like at Columbine and Virginia Tech. Where ….
The Spiritual Life and Morality of the Sinners Jonathan Edwards’ Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God was a really moving and strong speech, the shock woke the people up from their sin, the sermon also shows us what’s the spiritual life and morality of the people like, we see how the people was ….
The Morality of Birth Control “The Morality of Birth Control. ” “The Morality of Birth Control” by Margaret Sanger, an American Birth Control Activist, gave logical information, arguments about ethics for women, and brought out an emotional response. The rhetor gave off a ….
The Relation Between Justice and Morality in Martin Luther Kings Letter From Birmingham Jail Martin Luther King Jr. has become one of history’s biggest civil rights activists who has completely changed the world we currently live in today. In his Letter from Birmingham Jail, King talks about the difference between moral and immoral laws. ….
Representationof Women & Ideas of Morality In The Revenger’s Tragedy The Revenger’s Tragedy, by Thomas Middleton (1607), has many themes and ideas which, through thematic and structural value, effectively “hold a mirror up to nature”. Through the representation of women and the ideas of morality presented, The ….
An Exposition on James Rachels: “Does Morality Depend on Religion?” An Exposition on James Rachels: “Does Morality Depend on Religion?” James Rachels argues that morality and religion are separate entities. He states that “morality is a matter of reason and conscience, not religious faith” and that “right and wrong ….
3 Norms of Morality 1) Conscience is the practical judgment of reason on the rightness or wrongness of a moral act to be done if it’s right or to be avoided if wrong. It has primary and secondary moral principles, in which it has to be acted upon, which is to do good ….
Personhood: Morality and Mary Anne Warren Abortion is the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy. An abortion would usually be performed during the first 28 weeks. There are a lot of questions raised when talking about abortion including is it morally right or wrong to do it? There are ….
Prose and Morality Much of the prose and poetry produced during the extended rule of Spain (1572- 1898) were written in the 19th century. With the exception of the works of our nationalists who wrote much in Europe, our insular writing were chiefly composed to enhance ….
Morality Is Moral Only When Voluntary Morality is moral only when voluntary Good morning friends, teachers and respected judges. Today I stand here in favour of the topic that morality is moral only when voluntary. One cannot be moral if they are being forced to follow a set of ….
Surpassing Limits-A Question of Morality There are times when humans are faced with a situation in which the morality of the decision they make is difficult to judge. What is right morally for one individual may be thought of as unethical for another. In this particular scenario, an ….
The Morality of Oskar Schindler I believe Oskar Schindler was a person of concrete and righteous morals. During the savage takeover of Poland by the German Nazis, Schindler used what power he had to protect as many Jews as he could. He risked his life business and possibly his ….
Morality of a Teenager Good morning to the wonderful people who are here today. We already know what I am here for. I will be talking for you and you alone. I cannot change you with one talk. But, I will try my best to be a good speaker for you all. First of all, I think ….
Morality Policy Making Morality Policy MakingThe central claim of a growing and aggressive research field of morality policy is that there is a class of value- or morality-based policies that can be distinguished from non-morality policies, and that “these distinguishing ….
Academia vs. Morality A university professor has an exalted position, not only on campus but also in society. A professors students should have higher expectations of his/her behavior than they would of fellow students and others in society. Professor Dobyns was found ….
Explanation of Morality by John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill begins his discussion of moral theory with a definition of utilitarianism, stating that this is “the creed which accept as the foundation of morals ‘utility’ or the ‘greatest happiness principle’ holds that actions are right in ….
What Is the Morality Behind Patient Confidentiality? Patient confidentiality is one of the pillars of modern medical profession. It implies that the medical practitioner is under the obligation to keep his patient’s medical profile confidential. The main reason is to help the patient maintain his ….
Nationalism and Morality In the introduction to “Nationalism and Sexuality: Respectability and Abnormal Sexuality in Modern Europe” George Mosses provides links between development of modern nationalism and middle-class morality. Mosses claims that since the end of the 18th ….
Crime,Revenge and Morality in “Killings” The story of “Killings” by Andre Dubus looked into the themes of crime, revenge and morality. The crime committed in the story depicted the father’s love for his son and the desire to avenge his son’s death. However, his own crime led to his own ….

✍ Interesting Essay Topics About Morality

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99 Moral Development Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best moral development topic ideas & essay examples, 📌 simple & easy moral development essay titles, 👍 good essay topics on moral development, ❓ questions about moral development.

Aggression Development: Piaget’s Moral Development Theory It is the first stage of moral development in which a child views the rules of authority figures as revered and unchangeable.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Concept This is continuous because, in every stage of the moral development, the moral reasoning changes to become increasingly complex over the years. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development in Justice System Burglars, whose predominant level of morality is conventional, tend to consider the opinion of the society on their actions. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development help to identify the problems and find solutions to them.
Pulp Fiction: Moral Development of American Life and Interests Quentin Tarantino introduces his Pulp Fiction by means of several scenes which have a certain sequence: proper enlightenment, strong and certain camera movements and shots, focus on some details and complete ignorance of the others, […]
School Bullying and Moral Development The middle childhood is marked by the development of basic literacy skills and understanding of other people’s behavior that would be crucial in creating effective later social cognitions. Therefore, addressing bullying in schools requires strategies […]
Moral Development in Early Childhood The only point to be poorly addressed in this discussion is the options for assessing values in young children and the worth of this task.
The Moral Development of Children Child development Rev 2000; 71: 1033 1048.’ moral development/moral reasoning which is an important aspect of cognitive development of children has been studied very thoroughly with evidence-based explanations from the work of many psychologists based […]
Cognitive, Psychosocial, Psychosexual and Moral Development This, he goes ahead to explain that it is at this very stage that children learn to be self sufficient in terms of taking themselves to the bathroom, feeding and even walking.
Moral Development and Bullying in Children The understanding of moral development following the theories of Kohlberg and Gilligan can provide useful solutions to eliminating bullying in American schools.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Dilemma According to Kohlberg, justice is the driver of the process of moral development. Therefore, the early Christians should have continued to practice Christianity regardless of the persecution.
Moral Development: Emotion and Moral Behavior More moral emotion is guilt as compared to shame because those who are shamed are relatively unlikely to rectify as compared to the guilty people.
Adolescent Moral Development in the United States Adolescents who are in this stage begin to acknowledge and understand the beliefs embraced in their societies. The absence of a moral compass can make it hard for adolescents in this country to realize their […]
Moral Development Theory Review by Kohlberg and Hersh Overall, the main strength of this article is that the authors present a comprehensive overview of theories that can throw light on the moral development of a person.
Moral Development and Aggression The reason is that children conclude about the acceptability of aggressive or violent behaviors with reference to what they see and hear in their family and community.
Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Dilemmas Another characteristic of this stage of moral speculation is that the speculators mostly view the dilemma through the lens of consequences it might result in and engage them in a direct or indirect manner.
Chinese Foundations for Moral Education and Character Development In Chinese Foundations for Moral Education and Character Development, Vincent Shen and his team make a wonderful attempt to describe how rich and captivating Chinese cultural heritage may be, how considerable knowledge for this country […]
Moral Development and Ethical Concepts The two concepts are important in the promotion of ethical culture within the organizations, the organizations’ performance and the much needed moral and financial support from the organization’s stakeholders and the public in general.
Empathy and Moral Development For a manager to have empathy, he/she has to be able to interact freely with the employees, and spend time with them at their work places. This makes the employees to know that what they […]
Cognitive or Moral Development This is the second of the four Piagetian stages of development and the children begin to make use of words, pictures and diagrams to represent their sentiments.
Moral Intelligence Development In the course of his day-to-day banking activities, I realized that the general manager used to work in line with the banking rules and regulations to the letter.
An Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development and How It Could Be Applied to Grade School It is the purpose of this essay to summarize Kohlberg’s theory, and thereafter analyze how the theory can be applied to grade a school.
Moral Development and Its Relation to Psychology These stages reveal the individual’s moral orientation expanding his/her experiences and perceptions of the world with regard to the cognitive development of a person admitting this expansion. The views of Piaget and Kohlberg differ in […]
The Impact Of Television On The Moral Development
Influences in Moral Development
The Influence of Parenting in the Moral Development of a Child
The Effect of Cognitive Moral Development on Honesty in Managerial Reporting
Huckleberry Finn Moral Development & Changes
Responsibility For Moral Development In Children
Morality and Responsibility – Moral Development in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein
Moral Development And Gender Care Theories
Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg on Moral Development
Kaylee Georgeoff’s Moral Development According To Lawrence Kohlberg
The Criticisms Of Kohlberg’s Moral Development Stages
The Ethics Of The Organization ‘s Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlbergs Stages Of Moral Development
Personal, Psychosocial, And Moral Development Theories
Moral Development and Importance of Moral Reasoning
Integrating Care and Justice: Moral Development
Moral Development in Youth Sport
Kohlberg’s Theory on Moral Development: New Field of Study in Western Science
The Definition of Ethics and the Foundation of Moral Development
Kohleberg´s Philosophy of Moral Development
Stealing and Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Plagiarism and Moral Development
Kohlberg and Moral Development Between the Ages of One and Six
Kohlberg’s 6 Stages of Cognitive Moral Development and Model Suggestions
Moral Development and Narcissism of Private and Public University Business Students
The Effect of the Transcendental Meditation TM Technique on Moral Development
Psychology Stages of Moral Development
The Link Between Friendship and Moral Development
Moral Development And Gender Related Reasoning Styles
Moral Development in the Adventures of Huckleberry Fin by Mark Twain
Moral Development : The Way Someone Thinks, Feels, And Behaves
The Effect of Nuclear and Joint Family Systems on the Moral Development: A Gender Based Analysis
Moral Development and Dilemmas of Huck in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain
Teaching Moral Development To School Children In The Caribbean
History and Moral Development of Mental Health Treatment and Involuntary Commitment
Incorporating Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development into the Justice System
Moral Development Theory in Boys and Girls: Kohlberg and Gilligan
The Different Levels in Moral Development
Moral Development Of Six-Year-Old Children
Portrait of Erik Erikson’s Developmental Theory and Kohlberg’s Model of Moral Development
Moral Development Of Jem And Scout In To Kill A Mockingbird
Moral Development and Aggression in Children
The Idea Of Moral Development In The Novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn By Mark Twain
The Influence of Media Technology on the Moral Development and Self-Concept of Youth
The Character of Tituba in Lawrence Kohlberg’s Different Stages of Moral Development
Multiple Intelligences, Metacognition And Moral Development
Moral Development : The Foundation Of Ethical Behavior
Can Moral Development Lead To Upward Influence Behavior?
What Are the Five Stages of Moral Development?
What Is an Example of Moral Development?
What Is Moral Development, and Why Is It Important?
What Are the Three Levels of Moral Development?
What Are the Six Stages of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development?
What Is Moral Development in a Child?
What Is Moral Development, According to Kohlberg?
How Many Levels of Moral Development Are There?
Why Is Moral Development Significant in Early Childhood?
What Factors Play Into Moral Development?
What Is Moral Development in Adolescence?
What Are the Characteristics of Moral Development?
Why Is Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Critical?
What Characteristics Are Essential for Healthy Moral Development?
How Do Parents Affect a Child’s Moral Development?
What Is the Most Important Influence on a Child’s Moral Development?
What Is the Role of the Teacher in Moral Development?
Why Is Moral Development Significant?
What Is Meant by Moral Development?
Why Is Research on Moral Development Necessary?
What Is the Study of Moral Development?
What Factors Affect Moral Development?
Which of the Following Researchers Studied Moral Development?
How Did Kohlberg Research Moral Development?
What Is Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development?
How Did Piaget Study Moral Development?
What Was Gilligan’s Main Criticism of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development?
What Is the Difference Between Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development and Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Evolution and Gender?
Why Do Different Scholars Criticize Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development?
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What Is Morality?

Morality is the behavior and beliefs that a society deems acceptable

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk, "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

How Morals Are Established

Morals that transcend time and culture, examples of morals, morality vs. ethics, morality and laws.

Morality refers to the set of standards that enable people to live cooperatively in groups. It’s what societies determine to be “right” and “acceptable.”

Sometimes, acting in a moral manner means individuals must sacrifice their own short-term interests to benefit society. Individuals who go against these standards may be considered immoral.

It may be helpful to differentiate between related terms, such as immoral , nonmoral , and amoral . Each has a slightly different meaning:

Immoral : Describes someone who purposely commits an offensive act, even though they know the difference between what is right and wrong
Nonmoral : Describes situations in which morality is not a concern
Amoral : Describes someone who acknowledges the difference between right and wrong, but who is not concerned with morality

Morality isn’t fixed. What’s considered acceptable in your culture might not be acceptable in another culture. Geographical regions, religion, family, and life experiences all influence morals.

Scholars don’t agree on exactly how morals are developed. However, there are several theories that have gained attention over the years:

Freud’s morality and the superego: Sigmund Freud suggested moral development occurred as a person’s ability to set aside their selfish needs were replaced by the values of important socializing agents (such as a person’s parents).
Piaget’s theory of moral development: Jean Piaget focused on the social-cognitive and social-emotional perspective of development. Piaget theorized that moral development unfolds over time, in certain stages as children learn to adopt certain moral behaviors for their own sake—rather than just abide by moral codes because they don’t want to get into trouble.
B.F. Skinner’s behavioral theory: B.F. Skinner focused on the power of external forces that shaped an individual’s development. For example, a child who receives praise for being kind may treat someone with kindness again out of a desire to receive more positive attention in the future.
Kohlberg’s moral reasoning: Lawrence Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development that went beyond Piaget’s theory. Through a series of questions, Kohlberg proposed that an adult’s stage of reasoning could be identified.

What Is the Basis of Morality?

There are different theories as to how morals are developed. However, most theories acknowledge the external factors (parents, community, etc.) that contribute to a child's moral development. These morals are intended to benefit the group that has created them.

Most morals aren’t fixed. They usually shift and change over time.

Ideas about whether certain behaviors are moral—such as engaging in pre-marital sex, entering into same-sex relationships, and using cannabis—have shifted over time. While the bulk of the population once viewed these behaviors as “wrong,” the vast majority of the population now finds these activities to be “acceptable.”

In some regions, cultures, and religions, using contraception is considered immoral. In other parts of the world, some people consider contraception the moral thing to do, as it reduces unplanned pregnancy, manages the population, and reduces the risk of STDs.

7 Universal Morals

Some morals seem to transcend across the globe and across time, however. Researchers have discovered that these seven morals seem somewhat universal:

Defer to authority
Help your group
Love your family
Return favors
Respect others’ property

The following are common morality examples that you may have been taught growing up, and may have even passed on to younger generations:

Have empathy
Don't steal
Tell the truth
Treat others as you want to be treated

People might adhere to these principles by:

Being an upstanding citizen
Doing volunteer work
Donating money to charity
Forgiving someone
Not gossiping about others
Offering their help to others

To get a sense of the types of morality you were raised with, think about what your parents, community and/or religious leaders told you that you "should" or "ought" to do.

Some scholars don’t distinguish between morals and ethics. Both have to do with “right and wrong.”

However, some people believe morality is personal while ethics refer to the standards of a community.

For example, your community may not view premarital sex as a problem. But on a personal level, you might consider it immoral. By this definition, your morality would contradict the ethics of your community.

Both laws and morals are meant to regulate behavior in a community to allow people to live in harmony. Both have firm foundations in the concept that everyone should have autonomy and show respect to one another.

Legal thinkers interpret the relationship between laws and morality differently. Some argue that laws and morality are independent. This means that laws can’t be disregarded simply because they’re morally indefensible.

Others believe law and morality are interdependent. These thinkers believe that laws that claim to regulate behavioral expectations must be in harmony with moral norms. Therefore, all laws must secure the welfare of the individual and be in place for the good of the community.

Something like adultery may be considered immoral by some, but it’s legal in most states. Additionally, it’s illegal to drive slightly over the speed limit but it isn’t necessarily considered immoral to do so.

There may be times when some people argue that breaking the law is the “moral” thing to do. Stealing food to feed a starving person, for example, might be illegal but it also might be considered the “right thing” to do if it’s the only way to prevent someone from suffering or dying.

A Word From Verywell

It can be helpful to spend some time thinking about the morals that guide your decisions about things like friendship, money, education, and family. Understanding what’s really important to you can help you understand yourself better and it may make decision making easier.

Merriam-Webster. A lesson on 'unmoral,' 'immoral,' 'nonmoral,' and 'amoral.'

Ellemers N, van der Toorn J, Paunov Y, van Leeuwen T. The psychology of morality: A review and analysis of empirical studies published from 1940 through 2017 . Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2019;23(4):332-366. doi:10.1177/1088868318811759

Curry OS, Mullins DA, Whitehouse H. Is it good to cooperate? Testing the theory of morality-as-cooperation in 60 societies . Current Anthropology. 2019;60(1):47-69. doi:10.1086/701478

What's the difference between morality and ethics? Encyclopædia Britannica.

Moka-Mubelo W. Law and morality . Reconciling Law and Morality in Human Rights Discourse. Philosophy and Politics - Critical Explorations . 2017;3. Springer, Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-49496-8_3

By Amy Morin, LCSW Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk, "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

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Essays on Morality

Use your morality essay assignment to expand your knowledge of this interesting subject. Term “morality” derived from Latin “moralis” and means “concerning morals”. Authors of morality essays agree that it’s one of the main ways to regulate human actions. Morality is a collective term for moral views and feelings, principles, goals, and motives of actions. Most essays on morality review its purpose: it helps determine the difference between good and bad, honesty and dishonesty, honor and dishonor, justice and injustice, norm and abnormality, mercy and cruelty, etc. Morality usually implies the presence of an external evaluating subject (other people, society, church, etc.). Our morality essay samples can help you in your work – check out our best essay samples below to get your creative juices flowing!

Does Deciding Among Morally Relevant Options Feel Like Making a Choice? How Morality Constrains People’s Sense of Choice In any given society there exist ascribed rules and regulations that determine how people conduct themselves. The ascribed rules and regulations are not strictly enforced. However, people are born into them and simply...

“There is no objective right and wrong because people never agree about what is right and wrong” I agree with the statement, "There is no objective right and wrong since people never concede to what is right and wrong." Going by the example of ethics and morals ,the above statement is...

Words: 1070

Moral issues differ from legal ones because they are not concerns of the state. Morality is what tells us whether an action is bad or not. There are several schools of thought on the subject. Depending on which theory you ascribe to, an argument can be made for and against...

Abortion involves the termination of a pregnancy by removing the fetus before it matures. It is done by either taking pills or going through a surgery. Genetics enhance traits in a person. It redirects the human beings’ instincts about how to approach lives. The genetics, however, may cause defects but...

Words: 1390

Moral Issues and Legal Concerns Moral issues differ from legal ones because they are not concerns of the state. Morality is what tells us whether an action is bad or not. There are several schools of thought on the subject. Each theory tries to offer a framework for decision-making. Is an...

Words: 1044

Definition of Morality People define morality in different ways. What is right and/or wrong depends on the norms and values of a particular social group, ethnic group, or a state, but there is the universal law which applies to everyone. It is good to keep promises as the act portrays our...

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Categorical Imperative Categorical imperative refers to ethics which a person is required to accomplish in life. Immanuel Kant first discussed the concept of imperative and morals in the book The Metaphysics of Morals in 1797. Personal Example 1 A personal example of the categorical imperative is a situation where I used dubious means...

“There is no objective right and wrong because people never agree about what is right and wrong”. I agree with the statement, "There is no objective right and wrong since people never concede to what is right and wrong." Going by the example of ethics and morals ,the above statement...

Words: 1073

Ethical Relativism and Cultural Influence Ethical relativism is not only crucial to political and religious leaders but also shines controversy among various philosophers and anthropologists. Many scholars agree to the fact that there is an active link between culture, moral principles and the general idea of normality. This essay will feature...

Words: 1227

Like the publisher, I chose option B (complete job) as my response. The meeting's initial purpose is stated by Syl in clear terms: "I want to remind the both of you that the purpose of this meeting is for us to discuss how to get this project completed, how to...

My opinions on morality in the workplace My opinions on morality in the workplace, corporate ethics, and customer service have all changed as a result of this course. I am aware of the significance of just compensation and discipline at work. The importance of issues like euthanasia, abortion, and death with...

Ethics and Morality in Literature Ethics and morality have their origins in philosophy, but have subsequently spread to many other areas and are used in a variety of situations. Authors of literature have attempted to explain the distinction between the two because it is clear that acting morally does not justify...

Words: 1151

Study Help Essay Questions

1. When and where did David Hume live? Mention several of the more important events in his life, and tell how they influenced his writings.

2. Make a list of Hume's published writings in the approximate order in which they appeared. What is meant by his interest in the field of epistemology. Why did he think it was important?

3. What is meant by the empirical method in philosophy? Why did Hume think this method was the appropriate one to use in the investigation of morals? How did this method differ from the rationalistic method?

4. How is the Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals related to the Treatise of Human Nature?

5. One of the major issues in moral philosophy has been the question of whether the basis for moral distinctions is to be found in the reason or in the feelings. What difference does it make with reference to moral beliefs?

6. What, according to Hume, has been the chief source of dogmatism in the field of morals? What are some of the evil consequences that follow from it? How can these be avoided?

7. According to Hume, ethical judgments can be neither true nor false. Why? State the reasons why you do or do not agree with this position.

8. Explain in some detail Hume's account of the origin of the virtue of benevolence. Do you think there is anything permanent or unchanging about this virtue? Give reasons for your answer.

9. Do you agree with Hume's statement when he says that in an ideal society where all the needs of all the people are supplied in abundance justice, would not exist at all? Explain your answer.

10. Hume tells us that in times of famine, shipwreck, or other major disasters, the meaning of justice is not the same as it is under normal circumstances. Tell why you do or do not think this is a correct statement.

11. Who were the Levellers , and what did they believe concerning the way in which the wealth of society should be distributed? What was Hume's criticism with reference to this belief?

12. Compare Hume's account concerning the origin of justice with the one given by Thomas Hobbes. What do these two views have in common, and in what respects are they different?

13. Is there anything that is permanent and unchanging about the meaning of justice? If your answer is "no," tell why. If it is "yes," state what you think the unchanging element is. In either case, try to justify your answer.

14. Some writers make a sharp distinction between the real meaning of justice and our human understanding of it. Tell why you do or do not regard this distinction as a valid one.

15. Hume tells us that the rules and regulations concerning international affairs are not binding in quite the same way as the ones that have to do with relationships within a single state. What are his reasons? If you do not agree with him, tell why.

16. Why is it, according to Hume, that utility is pleasant and agreeable to all the members of a human society? Do you think his argument on this point is a valid one?

17. What is meant by a "crucial experiment"? What example does Hume use to prove that at least some actions are not necessarily selfish? Under what conditions are selfishness and altruism necessarily opposed? When are they not opposed?

18. Discuss at some length Hume's conception of sympathy, and tell what place he gives to it in his moral philosophy.

19. After enumerating qualities which are useful to ourselves, Hume explains that each of these must be interpreted in the light of Aristotle's doctrine of the golden mean. What does this mean?

20. What reasons are given by Hume in support of his statement that the moral rules and regulations concerning chastity are not the same for both sexes?

21. Mention several of the qualities which are immediately agreeable to ourselves and to others, and explain why Hume has included these in his account of the virtues.

22. Hume tells us there are many types of action regarded as virtues which ought to be regarded as vices. Name several of them. Tell why they have been regarded as virtues and why Hume thinks they are really vices.

23. Describe at some length Hume's position relative to the proper use of reason in the field of ethics. What, in his judgment are some of the things that reason is incompetent to do? In this connection, what is his criticism of Immanuel Kant's system of ethics?

24. How, according to Hume, is the sense of obligation related to that which is pleasant and agreeable? Does this mean that whatever is pleasant and agreeable is therefore good? Explain.

25. What do you regard as Hume's most important contributions to the study of ethics?

26. What inconsistencies, if any, do you find in Hume's writings?

27. Describe in a general way the influence of Hume's teachings on the subsequent development of moral philosophy.

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Essay on Morality

Students are often asked to write an essay on Morality in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Morality

What is morality.

Morality is about knowing right from wrong. It’s like an invisible rule book that guides us to be good people. Everyone has different ideas about what is moral because we grow up in different places with different beliefs.

Morals in Our Lives

We use morals every day. When we share our toys, tell the truth, or help someone who is hurt, we are showing good morals. Our family, friends, and teachers help us learn these good actions.

Morals and Society

Morals keep society running smoothly. They are like the glue that holds people together. Without morals, there would be more fighting and unhappiness.

Learning Morals

We learn morals from the people around us. Books, stories, and even movies can teach us what is right and wrong. It’s important to keep learning about morals to become better people.

250 Words Essay on Morality

Morality is about knowing the difference between right and wrong or good and bad behavior. It is like a set of rules that people agree on to live together peacefully. Imagine if no one knew not to steal or hurt others; the world would be very chaotic! Morality helps us live in a way that is fair to everyone.

Why is Morality Important?

Morality is important because it guides us in making choices that are good for everyone. It teaches us to treat others kindly and to be honest. When we follow moral rules, we make our families, schools, and communities better places. It’s like playing a game where everyone knows the rules and plays fairly – the game is more fun that way.

Where Does Morality Come From?

People learn about what is right and wrong from their families, schools, and the society they live in. Some moral rules are written in laws, and others are things we just know in our hearts. For example, sharing with others is not a law, but it is a kind thing to do.

Challenges with Morality

Sometimes it’s hard to know what the right thing to do is. Different people or cultures might have different ideas about morality. The key is to think about how your actions affect others and to choose to be kind and fair.

Morality is like the glue that holds people together. It helps us know how to act so that we can all get along and be happy. It’s important for everyone to try their best to be moral and do the right thing.

500 Words Essay on Morality

Morality is about knowing the difference between right and wrong or good and bad behavior. It is a set of rules that we live by. These rules can come from our family, religion, or society. They guide us to be good people and to treat others well.

Why Morality is Important

Morality is important because it helps us live together in peace. When we follow moral rules, we can trust each other. We know that others won’t hurt us or take our things. This trust lets us make friends, work together, and build a happy community.

Different Kinds of Morals

There are many kinds of morals because people come from different places and have different beliefs. Some people think it’s very important to be honest, while others think being kind is the most important. But most people agree on some basic things, like not hurting others, not stealing, and treating others as we want to be treated.

Learning About Morality

We learn about morality from when we are very young. Our parents teach us to share and to say “sorry” when we do something wrong. At school, teachers tell us about being fair and not cheating. We also learn from stories and movies that show heroes being brave and doing the right thing.

Morality and Choices

Every day, we have to make choices. Some choices are about morality. For example, if you find a lost wallet, you have to choose to return it or keep it. Morality helps us make the right choice. Even when no one is watching, being moral means doing the right thing.

Morality and Feelings

Morality is not just about rules; it’s also about feelings. When we do something good, we feel happy and proud. When we do something bad, we might feel sad or guilty. These feelings help us know if our choices match our morals.

Challenges to Morality

Sometimes, it’s hard to be moral. Maybe we are tempted to do something wrong because it seems easier or because we might get something we want. It can also be hard when people around us are not being moral. But sticking to our morals, even when it’s tough, makes us strong and respected.

Morality in the Future

As we grow up, our understanding of morality can change. We start to see the bigger picture and understand why morals are important for everyone. We learn to think about how our actions affect other people, animals, and even the whole planet. Morality helps us become better people and make the world a better place.

In conclusion, morality is like a compass that guides us through life. It helps us know which way is right and which way is wrong. By following our moral compass, we can live in a way that is good for us and for everyone around us. Remember, being moral is not always easy, but it is always worth it.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Essay on Turkey
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Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Essays on Morality

5686 samples on this topic

What's moral and what's not? Philosophers have been wrestling with this question for centuries, and we still have a universal, clear-cut answer. Nevertheless, only a few people dare to deny the importance of morality in modern developed societies. Browse our catalog of free sample papers and discover dozens of engaging and thought-provoking essay topics about morality and related issues. The variety of the presented titles should make it quite easy for you to draw inspiration and come up with a decent idea for your own college paper. Moreover, you can carry out a ton of useful stuff in terms of structuring your piece, be it a short argumentative essay or a profound research paper.

In case even after you look through our samples' directory you still experience hardships with writing a solid paper, WowEssays.com can offer you not only moral support but also practical assistance. Topic ideas, writing custom academic papers according to your instructions, editing, and proofreading – that's just a part of what our professional writers could do for you. And as we fully understand the importance of submitting papers on time, our deadlines start from just 3 hours!

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Ethics and Morality

Morality, Ethics, Evil, Greed

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

To put it simply, ethics represents the moral code that guides a person’s choices and behaviors throughout their life. The idea of a moral code extends beyond the individual to include what is determined to be right, and wrong, for a community or society at large.

Ethics is concerned with rights, responsibilities, use of language, what it means to live an ethical life, and how people make moral decisions. We may think of moralizing as an intellectual exercise, but more frequently it's an attempt to make sense of our gut instincts and reactions. It's a subjective concept, and many people have strong and stubborn beliefs about what's right and wrong that can place them in direct contrast to the moral beliefs of others. Yet even though morals may vary from person to person, religion to religion, and culture to culture, many have been found to be universal, stemming from basic human emotions.

The Science of Being Virtuous
Understanding Amorality
The Stages of Moral Development

Those who are considered morally good are said to be virtuous, holding themselves to high ethical standards, while those viewed as morally bad are thought of as wicked, sinful, or even criminal. Morality was a key concern of Aristotle, who first studied questions such as “What is moral responsibility?” and “What does it take for a human being to be virtuous?”

We used to think that people are born with a blank slate, but research has shown that people have an innate sense of morality . Of course, parents and the greater society can certainly nurture and develop morality and ethics in children.

Humans are ethical and moral regardless of religion and God. People are not fundamentally good nor are they fundamentally evil. However, a Pew study found that atheists are much less likely than theists to believe that there are "absolute standards of right and wrong." In effect, atheism does not undermine morality, but the atheist’s conception of morality may depart from that of the traditional theist.

Animals are like humans—and humans are animals, after all. Many studies have been conducted across animal species, and more than 90 percent of their behavior is what can be identified as “prosocial” or positive. Plus, you won’t find mass warfare in animals as you do in humans. Hence, in a way, you can say that animals are more moral than humans.

The examination of moral psychology involves the study of moral philosophy but the field is more concerned with how a person comes to make a right or wrong decision, rather than what sort of decisions he or she should have made. Character, reasoning, responsibility, and altruism , among other areas, also come into play, as does the development of morality.

The seven deadly sins were first enumerated in the sixth century by Pope Gregory I, and represent the sweep of immoral behavior. Also known as the cardinal sins or seven deadly vices, they are vanity, jealousy , anger , laziness, greed, gluttony, and lust. People who demonstrate these immoral behaviors are often said to be flawed in character. Some modern thinkers suggest that virtue often disguises a hidden vice; it just depends on where we tip the scale .

An amoral person has no sense of, or care for, what is right or wrong. There is no regard for either morality or immorality. Conversely, an immoral person knows the difference, yet he does the wrong thing, regardless. The amoral politician, for example, has no conscience and makes choices based on his own personal needs; he is oblivious to whether his actions are right or wrong.

One could argue that the actions of Wells Fargo, for example, were amoral if the bank had no sense of right or wrong. In the 2016 fraud scandal, the bank created fraudulent savings and checking accounts for millions of clients, unbeknownst to them. Of course, if the bank knew what it was doing all along, then the scandal would be labeled immoral.

Everyone tells white lies to a degree, and often the lie is done for the greater good. But the idea that a small percentage of people tell the lion’s share of lies is the Pareto principle, the law of the vital few. It is 20 percent of the population that accounts for 80 percent of a behavior.

We do know what is right from wrong . If you harm and injure another person, that is wrong. However, what is right for one person, may well be wrong for another. A good example of this dichotomy is the religious conservative who thinks that a woman’s right to her body is morally wrong. In this case, one’s ethics are based on one’s values; and the moral divide between values can be vast.

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg established his stages of moral development in 1958. This framework has led to current research into moral psychology. Kohlberg's work addresses the process of how we think of right and wrong and is based on Jean Piaget's theory of moral judgment for children. His stages include pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional, and what we learn in one stage is integrated into the subsequent stages.

The pre-conventional stage is driven by obedience and punishment . This is a child's view of what is right or wrong. Examples of this thinking: “I hit my brother and I received a time-out.” “How can I avoid punishment?” “What's in it for me?”

The conventional stage is when we accept societal views on rights and wrongs. In this stage people follow rules with a good boy and nice girl orientation. An example of this thinking: “Do it for me.” This stage also includes law-and-order morality: “Do your duty.”

The post-conventional stage is more abstract: “Your right and wrong is not my right and wrong.” This stage goes beyond social norms and an individual develops his own moral compass, sticking to personal principles of what is ethical or not.

Hugh Warwick's book Cull of the Wild argues that at times we need to kill invasive species and offers a thoughtful discussion about the dark side of conservation.

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Professionals like your doctor or therapist must keep learning to benefit you. Attorneys who ignore this tenet of good practice can cause emotional and financial harm.

This post provides you with more than just food for thought. The goal is for you to search deep within yourself and your partner-to-be to make the best possible choice.

When developing trainings for MHPs, you may want to include the latest theory and research on culture, disability, gender, and diversity. But hold on! Some states may forbid it.

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The Definition of Morality

The topic of this entry is not—at least directly—moral theory ; rather, it is the definition of morality. Moral theories are large and complex things; definitions are not. The question of the definition of morality is the question of identifying the target of moral theorizing. Identifying this target enables us to see different moral theories as attempting to capture the very same thing. And it enables psychologists, anthropologists, evolutionary biologists, and other more empirically-oriented theorists to design their experiments or formulate their hypotheses without prejudicing matters too much in terms of the specific content a code, judgment, or norm must have in order to count as distinctively moral.

There does not seem to be much reason to think that a single definition of morality will be applicable to all moral discussions. One reason for this is that “morality” seems to be used in two distinct broad senses: a descriptive sense and a normative sense. More particularly, the term “morality” can be used either

descriptively to refer to certain codes of conduct put forward by a society or a group (such as a religion), or accepted by an individual for her own behavior, or
normatively to refer to a code of conduct that, given specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational people.

Which of these two senses of “morality” a moral philosopher is using plays a crucial, although sometimes unacknowledged, role in the development of an ethical theory. If one uses “morality” in its descriptive sense, and therefore uses it to refer to codes of conduct actually put forward by distinct groups or societies, one will almost certainly deny that there is a universal morality that applies to all human beings. The descriptive use of “morality” is the one used by anthropologists when they report on the morality of the societies that they study. Recently, some comparative and evolutionary psychologists (Haidt 2006; Hauser 2006; De Waal 1996) have taken morality, or a close anticipation of it, to be present among groups of non-human animals: primarily, but not exclusively, other primates.

Accepting that there are two uses or senses of “morality”—a descriptive sense and a normative sense—does not commit one to holding that the “distinction between descriptions and norms—between what is and what ought to be—is obvious and unbridgeable”, as some have held that it does (Churchland 2011: 185). To see this, note that it is obvious that there is a descriptive sense of morality. That is, it is obvious that one can sensibly describe the moralities of various groups without making any normative claims. And it should be equally obvious that that one might hold that a certain code of conduct would be put forward by all rational people under certain conditions without having any particular views about the nature of the is/ought gap or the possibility of crossing it.

Any definition of “morality” in the descriptive sense will need to specify which of the codes put forward by a society or group count as moral. Even in small homogeneous societies that have no written language, distinctions are sometimes made between morality, etiquette, law, and religion. And in larger and more complex societies these distinctions are often sharply marked. So “morality” cannot be taken to refer to every code of conduct put forward by a society.

In the normative sense, “morality” refers to a code of conduct that would be accepted by anyone who meets certain intellectual and volitional conditions, almost always including the condition of being rational. That a person meets these conditions is typically expressed by saying that the person counts as a moral agent . However, merely showing that a certain code would be accepted by any moral agent is not enough to show that the code is the moral code. It might well be that all moral agents would also accept a code of prudence or rationality, but this would not by itself show that prudence was part of morality. So something else must be added; for example, that the code can be understood to involve a certain kind of impartiality, or that it can be understood as having the function of making it possible for people to live together in groups.

As we’ve just seen, not all codes that are put forward by societies or groups are moral codes in the descriptive sense of morality, and not all codes that would be accepted by all moral agents are moral codes in the normative sense of morality. So any definition of morality—in either sense—will require further criteria. Still, each of these two very brief descriptions of codes might be regarded as offering some features of morality that would be included in any adequate definition. In that way they might be taken to be offering some definitional features of morality, in each of its two senses. When one has specified enough definitional features to allow one to classify all the relevant moral theories as theories of a common subject, one might then be taken to have given a definition of morality. This is the sense of “definition” at work in this entry.

Explicit attempts, by philosophers, to define morality are hard to find, at least since the beginning of the twentieth century. One possible explanation for this is the combined effect of early positivistic worries about the metaphysical status of normative properties, followed (or augmented) by Wittgensteinian worries about definitions of any significant terms whatsoever. Whatever the explanation, when definitions have been offered, they have tended to be directed at the notion of moral judgment (Hare 1952, 1981) rather than at morality itself. However, to the degree that these definitions of moral judgment are adequate, they might, without much effort, be converted into definitions of morality in the descriptive sense. For example, a particular person’s morality might be regarded as the content of the basic moral judgments that person is prepared to accept.

One might use a detailed definition of moral judgment to define morality in a descriptive sense in another way—other than simply as the content of a person’s moral judgments, or the content of the moral judgments that prevail in a certain society or group. In particular, the very features of a judgment that make it qualify as a moral judgment might be transposed from a psychological key to something more abstract. Here is one simplified example. Suppose that a negative judgment of an action only counts as a negative moral judgment if it involves the idea that there is a prima facie case for punishing that action. In that case, a definition of morality in the descriptive sense will include a corresponding idea: that the prohibitions of morality, taken in the descriptive sense, are those that are backed by the threat of punishment. Of course, if one goes this route, other conditions will need to be included, to differentiate morality from criminal law.

What counts as definitional of morality, in either sense of “morality”, is controversial. Moreover, the line between what is part of a definition, in the sense at issue, and what is part of a moral theory, is not entirely sharp. For example, some might regard it as definitional of morality, in the normative sense, that it governs only interpersonal interactions. Others, however, might take this to be a substantive theoretical claim. Some might take it as definitional of “morality” in its descriptive sense that it be a code of conduct that a person or group takes to be most important. But others might say that attention to religion casts doubt on this idea.

“Morality”, when used in a descriptive sense, has an important feature that “morality” in the normative sense does not have: a feature that stems from its relational nature. This feature is the following: that if one is not a member of the relevant society or group, or is not the relevant individual, then accepting a certain account of the content of a morality, in the descriptive sense, has no implications for how one thinks one should behave. On the other hand, if one accepts a moral theory’s account of moral agents, and of the conditions under which all moral agents would endorse a code of conduct as a moral code, then one accepts that moral theory’s normative definition of “morality”. Accepting an account of “morality” in the normative sense commits one to regarding some behavior as immoral, perhaps even behavior that one is tempted to perform. Because accepting an account of “morality” in the normative sense involves this commitment, it is not surprising that philosophers seriously disagree about which account to accept.

1. Is Morality Unified Enough to Define?

2. descriptive definitions of “morality”, 3. implicit and explicit definitions in allied fields, 4. normative definitions of “morality”, 5.1 morality as linked to norms for responses to behavior, 5.2 morality as linked to advocacy of a code, 5.3 morality as linked to acceptance of a code, 5.4 morality as linked to justification to others, other internet resources, related entries.

An assumption suggested by the very existence of this encyclopedia entry is that there is some unifying set of features in virtue of which all moral systems count as moral systems. But Sinnott-Armstrong (2016) directly argues against an analogous hypothesis in connection with moral judgments, and also seems to take this view to suggest that morality itself is not a unified domain. He points out that moral judgments cannot be unified by any appeal to the notion of harm to others, since there are such things as moral ideals, and there are harmless behaviors that a significant number of people regard as morally wrong: Sinnott-Armstrong gives example such as cannibalism and flag-burning. Whether people who condemn such behaviors morally are correct in those judgments is largely irrelevant to the question of whether they count as moral in the first place.

Sinnott-Armstrong seems right in holding that moral judgments cannot be delimited from other judgments simply by appeal to their content. It seems quite possible for someone to have been raised in such a way as to hold that it is morally wrong for adult men to wear shorts. And it also seems plausible that, as he also argues, moral judgments cannot be identified by reference to any sort of neurological feature common and peculiar to them and them alone. A third strategy might be to claim that moral judgments are those one makes as a result of having been inducted into a social practice that has a certain function. However, this function cannot simply be to help facilitate the sorts of social interactions that enable societies to flourish and persist, since too many obviously non-moral judgments do this.

Beyond the problem just described, attempts to pick out moral codes in the descriptive sense by appeal to their function often seem to be specifying the function that the theorist thinks morality, in the normative sense, would serve, rather than the function that actual moralities do serve. For example, Greene claims that

morality is a set of psychological adaptations that allow otherwise selfish individuals to reap the benefits of cooperation, (2013: 23)

and Haidt claims that

moral systems are interlocking sets of values, virtues, norms, practices, identities, institutions, technologies, and evolved psychological mechanisms that work together to suppress or regulate self-interest and make cooperative societies possible. (2011: 270)

But these claims need to deal with the existence of dysfunctional moralities that do not in fact serve these functions. Perhaps this problem could be alleviated by pointing out that many instances of a kind that have a function—for example, an actual human heart—fail to fulfill that function.

Even if Sinnott-Armstrong’s position is correct with regard to morality in the descriptive sense, there might nevertheless be a code of conduct that, given certain specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational agents. That is, even if the descriptive sense of morality is a family-resemblance notion, vaguely bordered and open-textured, or even if it is significantly disjunctive and disunified, the normative sense might not be. By way of comparison, we might think of the notion of food in two ways: as what people regard as food, and as what they would regard as food if they were rational and fully informed. Certainly there is not much that unifies the first category: not even being digestible or nutritious, since people regard various indigestible and non-nutritious substances as food, and forego much that is digestible and nutritious. But that does not mean that we cannot theorize about what it would be rational to regard as food.

An initial naïve attempt at a descriptive definition of “morality” might take it to refer to the most important code of conduct put forward by a society and accepted by the members of that society. But the existence of large and heterogeneous societies raises conceptual problems for such a descriptive definition, since there may not be any such society-wide code that is regarded as most important. As a result, a definition might be offered in which “morality” refers to the most important code of conduct put forward and accepted by any group, or even by an individual. Apart from containing some prohibitions on harming (certain) others, different moralities—when “morality” is understood in this way—can vary in content quite substantially.

Etiquette is sometimes included as a part of morality, applying to norms that are considered less serious than the kinds of norms for behavior that are more central to morality. Hobbes expresses this sort of view when he uses the term “small morals” to describe “decency of behavior, as how one man should salute another, or how a man should wash his mouth or pick his teeth before company”, and distinguishes these from “those qualities of mankind that concern their living together in peace and unity” (1660 [1994]: Chapter XI, paragraph 1). When etiquette is included as part of morality, morality is almost always being understood in the descriptive sense. One reason for this is that it is clear that the rules of etiquette are relative to a society or group. Moreover, there are no plausible conditions under which we could pick out the “correct” rules of etiquette as those that would be accepted by all rational beings.

Law is distinguished from morality by having explicit written rules, penalties, and officials who interpret the laws and apply the penalties. Although there is often considerable overlap in the conduct governed by morality and that governed by law, laws are often evaluated—and changed—on moral grounds. Some theorists, including Ronald Dworkin (1986), have even maintained that the interpretation of law must make use of morality.

Although the morality of a group or society may derive from its religion, morality and religion are not the same thing, even in that case. Morality is only a guide to conduct, whereas religion is always more than this. For example, religion includes stories about events in the past, usually about supernatural beings, that are used to explain or justify the behavior that it prohibits or requires. Although there is often a considerable overlap in the conduct prohibited or required by religion and that prohibited or required by morality, religions may prohibit or require more than is prohibited or required by guides to behavior that are explicitly labeled as moral guides, and may recommend some behavior that is prohibited by morality. Even when morality is not regarded as the code of conduct that is put forward by a formal religion, it is often thought to require some religious explanation and justification. However, just as with law, some religious practices and precepts are criticized on moral grounds, e.g., that the practice or precept involves discrimination on the basis of race, gender, or sexual orientation.

When “morality” is used simply to refer to a code of conduct put forward by an actual group, including a society, even if it is distinguished from etiquette, law, and religion, it is being used in a descriptive sense. It is also being used in the descriptive sense when it refers to important attitudes of individuals. Just as one can refer to the morality of the Greeks, so one can refer to the morality of a particular person. This descriptive use of “morality” is now becoming more prominent because of the work of psychologists such as Jonathan Haidt (2006), who have been influenced by the views of David Hume (1751), including his attempt to present a naturalistic account of moral judgments.

Guides to behavior that are regarded as moralities normally involve avoiding and preventing harm to others (Frankena 1980), and perhaps some norm of honesty (Strawson 1961). But all of them involve other matters as well, and Hare’s view of morality as that which is most important allows that these other matters may be more important than avoiding and preventing harm to others (Hare 1952, 1963, 1981). This view of morality as concerning that which is most important to a person or group allows matters related to religious practices and precepts, or matters related to customs and traditions, e.g., purity and sanctity, to be more important than avoiding and preventing harm.

When “morality” is used in a descriptive sense, moralities can differ from each other quite extensively in their content and in the foundation that members of the society claim their morality to have. Some societies may claim that their morality, which is more concerned with purity and sanctity, is based on the commands of God. The descriptive sense of “morality”, which allows for the view that morality is based on religion in this way, picks out codes of conduct that are often in significant conflict with all normative accounts of morality.

A society might have a morality that takes accepting its traditions and customs, including accepting the authority of certain people and emphasizing loyalty to the group, as more important than avoiding and preventing harm. Such a morality might not count as immoral any behavior that shows loyalty to the preferred group, even if that behavior causes significant harm to innocent people who are not in that group. The familiarity of this kind of morality, which makes in-group loyalty almost equivalent to morality, seems to allow some comparative and evolutionary psychologists, including Frans De Waal (1996), to regard non-human animals to be acting in ways very similar to those that are regarded as moral.

Although all societies include more than just a concern for minimizing harm to (some) human beings in their moralities, this feature of morality, unlike purity and sanctity, or accepting authority and emphasizing loyalty, is included in everything that is regarded as a morality by any society. Because minimizing harm can conflict with accepting authority and emphasizing loyalty, there can be fundamental disagreements within a society about the morally right way to behave in particular kinds of situations. Philosophers such as Bentham (1789) and Mill (1861), who accept a normative account of morality that takes the avoiding and preventing harm element of morality to be most important, criticize all actual moralities (referred to by “morality” in the descriptive sense) that give precedence to purity and loyalty when they are in conflict with avoiding and preventing harm.

Some psychologists, such as Haidt, take morality to include concern with, at least, all three of the triad of (1) harm, (2) purity, and (3) loyalty, and hold that different members of a society can and do take different features of morality to be most important. But beyond a concern with avoiding and preventing such harms to members of certain groups, there may be no common content shared by all moralities in the descriptive sense. Nor may there be any common justification that those who accept morality claim for it; some may appeal to religion, others to tradition, and others to rational human nature. Beyond the concern with harm, the only other feature that all descriptive moralities have in common is that they are put forward by an individual or a group, usually a society, in which case they provide a guide for the behavior of the people in that group or society. In the descriptive sense of “morality”, morality may not even incorporate impartiality with regard to all moral agents, and it may not be universalizable in any significant way (compare MacIntyre 1957).

Although most philosophers do not use “morality” in any of the above descriptive senses, some philosophers do. Ethical relativists such as Harman (1975), Westermarck (1960), and Prinz (2007), deny that there is any universal normative morality and claim that the actual moralities of societies or individuals are the only moralities there are. These relativists hold that only when the term “morality” is used in this descriptive sense is there something that “morality” actually refers to. They claim that it is a mistake to take “morality” to refer to a universal code of conduct that, under certain conditions, would be endorsed by all rational persons. Although ethical relativists admit that many speakers of English use “morality” to refer to such a universal code of conduct, they claim such persons are mistaken in thinking that there is anything that is the referent of the word “morality” taken in that sense.

Wong (1984, 2006, 2014) claims to be an ethical relativist because he denies that there is any universal moral code that would be endorsed by all rational people. But what seems to stand behind this claim is the idea that there are cultural variations in the relative weights given to, for example, considerations of justice and considerations of interpersonal responsibility. And he assumes that those who believe in a universal morality are committed to the idea that “if there is fundamental disagreement, someone has got it wrong” (2014: 339). But Gert (2005) is certainly not a relativist, and it is central to his moral theory that there are fundamental disagreements in the rankings of various harms and benefits, and with regard to who is protected by morality, and no unique right answer in such cases. Wong himself is willing to say that some moralities are better than others, because he thinks that the moral domain is delimited by a functional criterion: among the functions of a morality are that it promote and regulate social cooperation, help individuals rank their own motivations, and reduce harm.

When used with its descriptive sense, “morality” can refer to codes of conduct with widely differing content, and still be used unambiguously. This parallels the way in which “law” is used unambiguously even though different societies have laws with widely differing content. However, when “morality” is used in its descriptive sense, it sometimes does not refer to the code of a society, but to the code of a group or an individual. As a result, when the guide to conduct put forward by, for example, a religious group conflicts with the guide to conduct put forward by a society, it is not clear whether to say that there are conflicting moralities, conflicting elements within morality, or that the code of the religious group conflicts with morality.

In small homogeneous societies there may be a guide to behavior that is put forward by the society and that is accepted by (almost) all members of the society. For such societies there is (almost) no ambiguity about which guide “morality” refers to. However, in larger societies people often belong to groups that put forward guides to behavior that conflict with the guide put forward by their society, and members of the society do not always accept the guide put forward by their society. If they accept the conflicting guide of some other group to which they belong (often a religious group) rather than the guide put forward by their society, in cases of conflict they will regard those who follow the guide put forward by their society as acting immorally.

In the descriptive sense of “morality”, a person’s own morality cannot be a guide to behavior that that person would prefer others not to follow. However, that fact that an individual adopts a moral code of conduct for his own use does not entail that the person requires it to be adopted by anyone else. An individual may adopt for himself a very demanding moral guide that he thinks may be too difficult for most others to follow. He may judge people who do not adopt his code of conduct as not being as morally good as he is, without judging them to be immoral if they do not adopt it. However, such cases do not undermine the restriction; a guide is plausibly referred to as a morality only when the individual would be willing for others to follow it, at least if “follow” is taken to mean “successfully follow”. For it may be that the individual would not be willing for others to try to follow that code, because of worries about the bad effects of predictable failures due to partiality or lack of sufficient foresight or intelligence.

Philosophers, because they do not need to produce operational tests or criteria in the way that psychologists, biologists, and anthropologists do, often simply take for granted that everyone knows what belongs, and does not belong, to the moral domain. This attitude finds expression in the philosopher’s common appeal to intuition, or to what everyone agrees about. For example, Michael Smith (1994) provides a very detailed analysis of normative reasons, but in distinguishing specifically moral reasons from other sorts of reasons, he says only that they are picked out by appeal to a number of platitudes. And he makes no effort to provide anything like a comprehensive list of such platitudes. Moreover, it is very likely that there will be disagreement as to what counts as platitudinous. Or, if it is definitional of “platitude” that it be uncontroversial, it may be that what is platitudinous about morality will be so thin as to fail to separate morality from other domains. Failing to specify which particular criteria one takes to govern one’s own theorizing, and consequently tacitly relying on the idea that everyone already knows what counts as moral, can lead to a number of problems. One, of course, is a conflation of morality with other things (see Machery 2012 on Churchland 2011). Another is that one mistakes one’s own cultural biases for universal truths (Haidt and Kesiber 2010).

Because theorists in psychology and anthropology often need to design questionnaires and other sorts of probes of the attitudes of subjects, they might be expected to be more sensitive to the need for a reasonably clear means of separating moral judgments from other sorts of judgments. After all, examining the specifically moral judgments of individuals is one of the most direct means of determining what the moral code of a person or group might be. But despite this expectation, and roughly half a century ago, Abraham Edel (1962: 56) decried the lack of an explicit concern to delimit the domain of morality among anthropologists, writing that “morality…is taken for granted, in the sense that one can invoke it or refer to it at will; but it is not explained, depicted, or analysed”. One explanation for this that Edel suggested is the same as the explanation for the same phenomenon in Philosophy: “it is assumed that we all know what morality is and no explicit account need be given”. But the danger for those making this assumption, he points out, is that of “merging the morality concept with social control concepts”. Reinforcing this tendency was the influence, in anthropology, of the sociologist Émile Durkheim (1906 [2009]), for whom morality was simply a matter of how a given society enforces whatever social rules it happens to have.

The failure to offer an operational definition of morality or moral judgment may help explain the widespread but dubious assumption in contemporary anthropology, noted by James Laidlaw (2016: 456), that altruism is the essential and irreducible core of ethics. But Laidlaw also notes that many of the features of what Bernard Williams (1985) described as “the morality system”—features that Williams himself criticized as the parochial result of a secularization of Christian values—are in fact widely shared outside of the West. This state of affairs leads Laidlaw to ask the crucial question:

Which features, formal or substantive, are shared by the “morality system” of the modern West and those of the other major agrarian civilizations and literate religions?

This is, to a very close approximation, a request for the definition of morality in the descriptive sense.

Klenk (2019) notes that in recent years anthropology has taken what he terms an “ethical turn”, recognizing moral systems, and ethics more generally, as a distinct object of anthropological study. This is a move away from the Durkheimian paradigm, and includes the study of self-development, virtues, habits, and the role of explicit deliberation when moral breakdowns occur. However, Klenk’s survey of attempts by anthropologists to study morality as an independent domain lead him to conclude that, so far, their efforts do

not readily allow a distinction between moral considerations and other normative considerations such as prudential, epistemic, or aesthetic ones. (2019: 342)

In light of Edel’s worry about a conflation of moral systems with systems of social control, it is interesting to consider Curry (2016), who defends the hypothesis that

morality turns out to be a collection of biological and cultural solutions to the problems of cooperation and conflict recurrent in human social life. (2016: 29)

Curry notes that rules related to kinship, mutualism, exchange, and various forms of conflict resolution appear in virtually all societies. And he argues that many of them have precursors in animal behavior, and can be explained by appeal to his central hypothesis of morality as a solution to problems of cooperation and conflict resolution. He also notes that philosophers, from Aristotle through Hume, Russell, and Rawls, all took cooperation and conflict resolution to be central ideas in understanding morality. It is unclear, however, whether Curry’s view can adequately distinguish morality from law and from other systems that aim to reduce conflict by providing solutions to coordination problems.

Turning from anthropology to psychology, one significant topic of investigation is the existence and nature of a distinction between the moral and the conventional. More specifically, the distinction at issue is between (a) acts that are judged wrong only because of a contingent convention or because they go against the dictates of some relevant authority, and (b) those that are judged to be wrong quite independently of these things, that have a seriousness to them, and that are justified by appeal to the notions of harm, rights, or justice. Elliot Turiel emphasized this distinction, and drew attention to the danger, if one overlooks it, of lumping together moral rules with non-moral “conventions that further the coordination of social interactions within social systems” (1983: 109–111). Those who accept this distinction are implicitly offering a definition of morality in the descriptive sense. Not everyone does accept the distinction, however. Edouard Machery and Ron Mallon (2010) for example, are suspicious of the idea that authority-independence, universality, justification by appeal to harm, justice, or rights, and seriousness form a cluster found together with sufficient regularity to be used to set moral norms apart from other norms. Kelly et al. (2007) are similarly skeptical, and bring empirical evidence to bear on the question.

The psychologist Kurt Gray might be seen as offering an account of moral judgment that would allow us to determine the morality of an individual or group. He and his co-authors suggest that

morality is essentially represented by a cognitive template that combines a perceived intentional agent with a perceived suffering patient. (Gray, Young, & Waytz 2012: 102)

This claim, while quite strong, is nevertheless not as implausibly strong as it might seem, since the thesis is directly concerned with the template we use when thinking about moral matters; it is not directly concerned with the nature of morality itself. In the sense of “template” at issue here, the template we use when thinking about dogs might include having four legs, a tail, and fur, among other things. But that does not mean that an animal must have these features to count as a dog, or even that we believe this.

Given the way that Gray et al. think of templates, even if their hypothesis is correct, it would not mean that our psychology requires us to think of the moral as always involving intentional agents and perceiving patients. In line with this, and despite some lapses in which they suggest that “moral acts can be defined in terms of intention and suffering”, (2012: 109) their considered view seems to be only that the dyadic template fits the majority of moral situations, as we conceive them. Moreover, the link between immoral behavior and suffering to which they appeal in defending their general view is sometimes so indirect as to undermine its significance. For example, they fit authority violations into their suffering-based template by noting that “authority structures provide a way of peacefully resolving conflict” and that “violence results when social structures are threatened”. In a similar stretch, they account for judgments that promiscuity is wrong by gesturing at the suffering involved in sexually transmitted diseases (2012: 107).

Another position in cognitive psychology that has relevance for the definition of morality in the descriptive sense takes moral judgment to be a natural kind: the product of an innate moral grammar (Mikhail 2007). If moral judgment is a natural kind in this way, then a person’s moral code might simply consist in the moral judgments that person is disposed to make. One piece of evidence that there is such a grammar is to be found in the relative universality of certain moral concepts in human cultures: concepts such as obligation, permission, and prohibition. Another is an argument similar to Chomsky’s famous “poverty of the stimulus” argument for a universal human grammar (Dwyer et al. 2010; see also Roedder and Harman 2010).

In evolutionary biology, morality is sometimes simply equated with fairness (Baumard et al. 2013: 60, 77) or reciprocal altruism (Alexander 1987: 77). But it is also sometimes identified by reference to an evolved capacity to make a certain sort of judgment and perhaps also to signal that one has made it (Hauser 2006). This also makes morality into something very much like a natural kind, that can be identified by reference to causal/historical processes. In that case, a content-based definition of morality isn’t required: certain central features are all that one needs to begin one’s theorizing, since they will be enough to draw attention to certain psychologically and biologically individuated mechanisms, and the study of morality will be a detailed inquiry into the nature and evolutionary history of these mechanisms.

Those who use “morality” normatively hold that morality is (or would be) the behavioral code that meets the following condition: all rational persons, under certain specified conditions, would endorse it. Indeed, this is a plausible basic schema for definitions of “morality” in the normative sense. Although some hold that no code could meet the condition, many theorists hold that there is one that does; we can call the former “moral skeptics” and the latter “moral realists” (see entries on LINK: moral skepticism and moral realism).

Many moral skeptics would reject the claim that there are any universal ethical truths, where the ethical is a broader category than the moral. But another interesting class of moral skeptics includes those who think that we should only abandon the narrower category of the moral—partly because of the notion of a code that is central to that category. These moral skeptics hold that we should do our ethical theorizing in terms of the good life, or the virtues. Elizabeth Anscombe (1958) gave expression to this kind of view, which also finds echoes in the work of Bernard Williams (1985). On the other hand, some virtue theorists might take perfect rationality to entail virtue, and might understand morality to be something like the code that such a person would implicitly endorse by acting in virtuous ways. In that case, even a virtue theorist might count as a moral realist in the sense above.

Consequentialist views might not seem to fit the basic schema for definitions of “morality” in the normative sense, since they do not appear to make reference to the notions of endorsement or rationality. But this appearance is deceptive. Mill himself explicitly defines morality as

the rules and precepts for human conduct, by the observance of which [a happy existence] might be, to the greatest extent possible, secured. (1861 [2002: 12])

And he thinks that the mind is not in a “right state” unless it is in “the state most conducive to the general happiness”—in which case it would certainly favor morality as just characterized. And the act-consequentialist J.J.C. Smart (1956) is also explicit that he is thinking of ethics as the study of how it is most rational to behave. His embrace of utilitarianism is the result of his belief that maximizing utility is always the rational thing to do. On reflection it is not surprising that many moral theorists implicitly hold that the codes they offer would be endorsed by all rational people, at least under certain conditions. Unless one holds this, one will have to admit that, having been shown that a certain behavior is morally required, a rational person might simply shrug and ask “So what? What is that to me?” And, though some exceptions are mentioned below, very few moral realists think that their arguments leave this option open. Even fewer think this option remains open if we are allowed to add some additional conditions beyond mere rationality: a restriction on beliefs, for example (similar to Rawls’ (1971: 118) veil of ignorance), or impartiality.

Definitions of morality in the normative sense—and, consequently, moral theories—differ in their accounts of rationality, and in their specifications of the conditions under which all rational persons would necessarily endorse the code of conduct that therefore would count as morality. These definitions and theories also differ in how they understand what it is to endorse a code in the relevant way. Related to these differences, definitions of “morality”—and moral theories—differ with regard to those to whom morality applies: that is, those whose behavior is subject to moral judgment. Some hold that morality applies only to those rational beings that have certain specific features of human beings: features that make it rational for them to endorse morality. These features might, for example, include fallibility and vulnerability. Other moral theories claim to put forward an account of morality that provides a guide to all rational beings, even if these beings do not have these human characteristics, e.g., God.

Among those who use “morality” normatively, virtually all hold that “morality” refers to a code of conduct that applies to all who can understand it and can govern their behavior by it, though many hold that it protects a larger group. Among such theorists it is also common to hold that morality should never be overridden. That is, it is common to hold that no one should ever violate a moral prohibition or requirement for non-moral reasons. This claim is trivial if “should” is taken to mean “morally should”. So the claim about moral overridingness is typically understood with “should” meaning “rationally should”, with the result that moral requirements are asserted to be rational requirements. Though common, this view is by no means always taken as definitional. Sidgwick (1874) despaired of showing that rationality required us to choose morality over egoism, though he certainly did not think rationality required egoism either. More explicitly, Gert (2005) held that though moral behavior is always rationally permissible , it is not always rationally required . Foot (1972) seems to have held that any reason—and therefore any rational requirement—to act morally would have to stem from a contingent commitment or an objective interest. And she also seems to have held that sometimes neither of these sorts of reasons might be available, so that moral behavior might not be rationally required for some agents. Finally, moral realists who hold desire-based theories of reasons and formal, means/end theories of rationality sometimes explicitly deny that moral behavior is always even rationally permissible (Goldman 2009), and in fact this seems to be a consequence of Foot’s view as well, though she does not emphasize it.

Despite the fact that theorists such as Sidgwick, Gert, Foot, and Goldman do not hold that moral behavior is rationally required, they are by no means precluded from using “morality” in the normative sense. Using “morality” in the normative sense, and holding that there is such a thing, only entails holding that rational people would put a certain system forward; it does not entail holding that rational people would always be motivated to follow that system themselves. But to the degree that a theorist would deny even the claim about endorsement, and hold instead that rational people might not only fail to act morally, but might even reject it as a public system, that theorist is either not using “morality” in a normative sense, or is denying the existence of morality in that sense. Such a theorist may also be using “morality” in a descriptive sense, or may not have any particular sense in mind.

When “morality” is used in its normative sense, it need not have either of the two formal features that are essential to moralities referred to by the descriptive sense: that it be a code of conduct that is put forward by a society, group, or individual, or that it be accepted as a guide to behavior by the members of that society or group, or by that individual. Indeed, it is possible that morality, in the normative sense, has never been put forward by any particular society, by any group at all, or even by any individual. This is partly a consequence of the fact that “morality” in the normative sense is understood in terms of a conditional that is likely to be counterfactual: it is the code that would be endorsed by any fully rational person under certain conditions.

If one is a moral realist, and one also acknowledges the descriptive sense of “morality”, one may require that descriptive moralities at least approximate, in some ways, morality in the normative sense. That is, one might claim that the guides to behavior of some societies lack so many of the essential features of morality in the normative sense, that it is incorrect to say that these societies even have a morality in a descriptive sense. This is an extreme view, however. A more moderate position would hold that all societies have something that can be regarded as their morality, but that many of these moralities—perhaps, indeed, all of them—are defective. That is, a moral realist might hold that although these actual guides to behavior have enough of the features of normative morality to be classified as descriptive moralities, they would not be endorsed in their entirety by all moral agents.

While moral realists do not claim that any actual society has or has ever had morality as its actual guide to conduct, “natural law” theories of morality claim that any rational person in any society, even one that has a defective morality, is capable of knowing what general kinds of actions morality prohibits, requires, discourages, encourages, and allows. In the theological version of natural law theories, such as that put forward by Aquinas, this is because God implanted this knowledge in the reason of all persons. In the secular version of natural law theories, such as that put forward by Hobbes (1660), natural reason is sufficient to allow all rational persons to know what morality prohibits, requires, etc. Natural law theorists also claim that morality applies to all rational persons, not only those now living, but also those who lived in the past.

In contrast to natural law theories, other moral theories do not hold quite so strong a view about the universality of knowledge of morality. Still, many hold that morality is known to all who can legitimately be judged by it. Baier (1958), Rawls (1971) and contractarians deny that there can be an esoteric morality: one that judges people even though they cannot know what it prohibits, requires, etc. For all of the above theorists, morality is what we can call a public system : a system of norms (1) that is knowable by all those to whom it applies and (2) that is not irrational for any of those to whom it applies to follow (Gert 2005: 10). Moral judgments of blame thus differ from legal or religious judgments of blame in that they cannot be made about persons who are legitimately ignorant of what they are required to do. Act consequentialists seem to hold that everyone should know that they are morally required to act so as to bring about the best consequences, but even they do not seem to think judgments of moral blame are appropriate if a person is legitimately ignorant of what action would bring about the best consequences (Singer 1993: 228). Parallel views seem to be held by rule consequentialists (Hooker 2001: 72).

The ideal situation for a legal system would be that it be a public system. But in any large society this is not possible. Games are closer to being public systems and most adults playing a game know its rules, or they know that there are judges whose interpretation determines what behavior the game prohibits, requires, etc. Although a game is often a public system, its rules apply only to those playing the game. If a person does not care enough about the game to abide by the rules, she can usually quit. Morality is the one public system that no rational person can quit. The fact that one cannot quit morality means that one can do nothing to escape being legitimately liable to sanction for violating its norms, except by ceasing to be a moral agent. Morality applies to people simply by virtue of their being rational persons who know what morality prohibits, requires, etc., and being able to guide their behavior accordingly.

Public systems can be formal or informal . To say a public system is informal is to say that it has no authoritative judges and no decision procedure that provides a unique guide to action in all situations, or that resolves all disagreements. To say that a public system is formal is to say that it has one or both of these things (Gert 2005: 9). Professional basketball is a formal public system; all the players know that what the referees call a foul determines what is a foul. Pickup basketball is an informal public system. The existence of persistent moral disagreements shows that morality is most plausibly regarded as an informal public system. This is true even for such moral theories as the Divine Command theory and act utilitarianism, inasmuch as there are no authoritative judges of God’s will, or of which act will maximize utility, and there are no decision procedures for determining these things (Scanlon 2011: 261–2). When persistent moral disagreement is recognized, those who understand that morality is an informal public system admit that how one should act is morally unresolvable, and if some resolution is required, the political or legal system can be used to resolve it. These formal systems have the means to provide unique guides, but they do not provide the uniquely correct moral guide to the action that should be performed.

An important example of a moral problem left unsettled by the informal public system of morality is whether fetuses are impartially protected by morality and so whether or under what conditions abortions are allowed. There is continuing disagreement among fully informed moral agents about this moral question, even though the legal and political system in the United States has provided fairly clear guidelines about the conditions under which abortion is legally allowed. Despite this important and controversial issue, morality, like all informal public systems, presupposes agreement on how to act in most moral situations, e.g., all agree that killing or seriously harming any moral agent requires strong justification in order to be morally allowed. No one thinks it is morally justified to cheat, deceive, injure, or kill a moral agent simply in order to gain sufficient money to take a fantastic vacation. Moral matters are often thought to be controversial because everyday decisions, about which there is no controversy, are rarely discussed. The amount of agreement concerning what rules are moral rules, and on when it is justified to violate one of these rules, explains why morality can be a public system even though it is an informal system.

By using the notion of an informal public system, we can improve the basic schema for definitions of “morality” in the normative sense. The old schema was that morality is the code that all rational persons, under certain specified conditions, would endorse. The improved schema is that morality is the informal public system that all rational persons, under certain specified conditions, would endorse. Some theorists might not regard the informal nature of the moral system as definitional, holding that morality might give knowable precise answers to every question. This would have the result that conscientious moral agents often cannot know what morality permits, requires, or allows. Some philosophers deny that this is a genuine possibility.

On any definition of “morality”, whether descriptive or normative, it is a code of conduct. However, on ethical- or group-relativist accounts or on individualistic accounts—all of which are best regarded as accounts of morality in the descriptive sense—morality often has no special content that distinguishes it from nonmoral codes of conduct, such as law or religion. Just as a legal code of conduct can have almost any content, as long as it is capable of guiding behavior, and a religious code of conduct has no limits on content, most relativist and individualist accounts of morality place few limits on the content of a moral code. Of course, actual codes do have certain minimal limits—otherwise the societies they characterize would lack the minimum required degree of social cooperation required to sustain their existence over time. On the other hand, for moral realists who explicitly hold that morality is an informal public system that all rational persons would put forward for governing the behavior of all moral agents, it has a fairly definite content. Hobbes (1660), Mill (1861), and most other non-religiously influenced philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition limit morality to behavior that, directly or indirectly, affects others.

The claim that morality only governs behavior that affects others is somewhat controversial, and so probably should not be counted as definitional of morality, even if it turns out to be entailed by the correct moral theory. Some have claimed that morality also governs behavior that affects only the agent herself, such as taking recreational drugs, masturbation, and not developing one’s talents. Kant (1785) may provide an account of this wide concept of morality. Interpreted this way, Kant’s theory still fits the basic schema, but includes these self-regarding moral requirements because of the particular account of rationality he employs. However, pace Kant, it is doubtful that all moral agents would put forward a universal guide to behavior that governs behavior that does not affect them at all. Indeed, when the concept of morality is completely distinguished from religion, moral rules do seem to limit their content to behavior that directly or indirectly causes or risks harm to others. Some behavior that seems to affect only oneself, e.g., taking recreational drugs, may have a significant indirect harmful effect on others by supporting the illegal and harmful activity of those who benefit from the sale of those drugs.

Confusion about the content of morality sometimes arises because morality is not distinguished sufficiently from religion. Regarding self-affecting behavior as governed by morality is supported by the idea that we are created by God and are obliged to obey God’s commands, and so may be a holdover from the time when morality was not clearly distinguished from religion. This religious holdover might also affect the claim that some sexual practices such as homosexuality are immoral. Those who clearly distinguish morality from religion typically do not regard sexual orientation as a moral matter.

It is possible to hold that having a certain sort of social goal is definitional of morality (Frankena 1963). Stephen Toulmin (1950) took it to be the harmony of society. Baier (1958) took it to be “the good of everyone alike”. Utilitarians sometimes claim it is the production of the greatest good. Gert (2005) took it to be the lessening of evil or harm. This latter goal may seem to be a significant narrowing of the utilitarian claim, but utilitarians always include the lessening of harm as essential to producing the greatest good and almost all of their examples involve the avoiding or preventing of harm. It is notable that the paradigm cases of moral rules are those that prohibit causing harm directly or indirectly, such as rules prohibiting killing, causing pain, deceiving, and breaking promises. Even those precepts that require or encourage positive action, such as helping the needy, are almost always related to preventing or relieving harms, rather than promoting goods such as pleasure.

Among the views of moral realists, differences in content are less significant than similarities. For all such philosophers, morality prohibits actions such as killing, causing pain, deceiving, and breaking promises. For some, morality also requires charitable actions, but failure to act charitably on every possible occasion does not require justification in the same way that any act of killing, causing pain, deceiving, and breaking promises requires justification. Both Kant (1785) and Mill (1861) distinguish between duties of perfect obligation and duties of imperfect obligation and regard not harming as the former kind of duty and helping as the latter kind of duty. For Gert (2005), morality encourages charitable action, but does not require it; it is always morally good to be charitable, but it is not immoral not to be charitable.

Even if the plausible basic schema for definitions of “morality” in the normative sense is accepted, one’s understanding of what morality is, in this sense, will still depend very significantly on how one understands rationality. As has already been mentioned, morality, in the normative sense, is sometimes taken to prohibit certain forms of consensual sexual activity, or the use of recreational drugs. But including such prohibitions in an account of morality as a universal guide that all rational persons would put forward requires a very particular view of rationality. After all, many will deny that it is irrational to favor harmless consensual sexual activities, or to favor the use of certain drugs for purely recreational purposes.

One concept of rationality that supports the exclusion of sexual matters, at least at the basic level, from the norms of morality, is that for an action to count as irrational it must be an act that harms oneself without producing a compensating benefit for someone—perhaps oneself, perhaps someone else. Such an account of rationality might be called “hybrid”, since it gives different roles to self-interest and to altruism. An account of morality based on the hybrid concept of rationality could agree with Hobbes (1660) that morality is concerned with promoting people living together in peace and harmony, which includes obeying the rules prohibiting causing harm to others. Although moral prohibitions against actions that cause harm or significantly increase the risk of harm are not absolute, in order to avoid acting immorally, justification is always needed when violating these prohibitions. Kant (1797) seems to hold that it is never justified to violate some of these prohibitions, e.g., the prohibition against lying. This is largely a result of the fact that Kant’s (1785) concept of rationality is purely formal, in contrast with the hybrid concept of rationality described above.

Most moral realists who offer moral theories do not bother to offer anything like a definition of morality. Instead, what these philosophers offer is a theory of the nature and justification of a set of norms with which they take their audience already to be acquainted. In effect, they tacitly pick morality out by reference to certain salient and relative uncontroversial bits of its content: that it prohibits killing, stealing, deceiving, cheating, and so on. In fact, this would not be a bad way of defining morality, if the point of such a definition were only to be relatively theory-neutral, and to allow theorizing to begin. We could call it “the reference-fixing definition” or “the substantive definition” (see Prinz and Nichols 2010: 122).

Some, including Hare (1952, 1963), have been tempted to argue against the possibility of a substantive definition of morality, on the basis of the claim that moral disapproval is an attitude that can be directed at anything whatsoever. Foot (1958a, 1958b), argued against this idea, but the substantive definition still has the drawback is that it does not, somehow, seem to get at the essence of morality. One might suggest that the substantive definition has the advantage of including Divine Command theories of morality, while such theories might seem to make trouble for definitions based on the plausible schema given above. But it is plausible to hold that Divine Command theories rest on Natural Law theories, which do in fact fit the schema. Divine Command theories that do not rest on Natural Law might make trouble for the schema, but one might also think that such theories rest instead on a confusion, since they seem to entail that God might have made it immoral to act beneficently.

5. Variations

As one gives more substance and detail to the general notions of endorsement, rationality, and the relevant conditions under which rational people would endorse morality, one moves further from providing a definition of morality in the normative sense, and closer to providing an actual moral theory. And a similar claim is true for definitions of morality in the descriptive sense, as one specifies in more detail what one means in claiming that a person or group endorses a system or code. In the following four subsections, four broad ways of making the definitions of morality more precise are presented. They are all sufficiently schematic to be regarded as varieties of definition, rather than as theories.

Expressivists about morality do not take there to be any objective content to morality that could underwrite what we above called “the substantive definition”. Rather, they explicitly recognize the existence of significant variation in what rules and ideals different people put forward as morality in the normative sense. And they doubt that this variation is compatible with moral realism. Consequently, they need to offer some unifying features of these different sets of rules and ideals, despite variation in their content. As a result of this pressure, some expressivists end up offering explicit accounts of a distinctively moral attitude one might hold towards an act token or type. These accounts can of course be taken to underwrite various forms of morality in the descriptive sense. But they can also be taken to provide the basis of one form of moral realism.

To see how an expressivist view can be co-opted by a moral realist of a certain sort, consider Allan Gibbard’s (1990) moral expressivism. Gibbard holds that moral judgments are expressions of the acceptance of norms for feeling the emotions of guilt and anger. One can accept Gibbard’s view of what it is to endorse a moral claim without accepting the view that, in conflicts, all disagreements are faultless. That is, even a moral realist can use Gibbard’s view of the nature of moral judgment, and extract from it a definition of morality. Used by such a theorist, Gibbard’s view entails that morality, in the normative sense, is the code that is picked out by the correct set of norms for feeling guilt and anger: that is, the norms a rational person would endorse. This is equivalent to accepting the plausible general schema for a definition of “morality” given above, and understanding endorsement in a special sense. To endorse a code in the relevant way, on this definition, is to think that violations of its norms make guilt and anger appropriate.

Closely related to Gibbard’s account is one according to which the norms of relevance are not norms for the emotions, but are norms for other reactions to behavior. For example, a person’s morality might be the set of rules and ideals they regard as picked out by appropriate norms for praise and blame, and other social sanctions (Sprigge 1964: 317). In fact, reference to praise and blame may be more adequate than reference to guilt and anger, since the latter seem only to pick out moral prohibitions, and not to make room for the idea that morality also recommends or encourages certain behaviors even if it does not require them. For example, it is plausible that there is such a thing as supererogatory action, and that the specification of what counts as supererogatory is part of morality—whether in the descriptive or normative sense. But it does not seem likely that we can account for this part of morality by appeal to norms for guilt and anger, and it is not at all clear that there are emotions that are as closely linked to supererogation as guilt and anger are to moral transgression. On the other hand, it seems plausible that norms for praising action might help to pick out what counts as supererogatory.

Another version of the present strategy would replace talk of praise and blame with talk of reward and punishment. This view would take morality to be a system that explained what kinds of actions are appropriately rewarded and—more centrally—punished. This sort of view, which remains closely related to Gibbard’s suggestion, can also be regarded as fitting the general schema given above. On this view, the notion of endorsing a code is unpacked in terms of the acceptance of norms for reward and punishment. Skorupski (1993), following Mill (1861), advocates a definition of morality along these lines, though he then understands punishment primarily in terms of blame, and understands blame as very closely linked to emotion—indeed, merely having the emotion can count as blaming—so that the resulting view is similar to Gibbard’s in one important way, at least when one focuses on moral wrongness.

It is certainly plausible that it is appropriate to feel guilt when one acts immorally, and to feel anger at those who act immorally towards those one cares about. It is even plausible that it is only appropriate, in some particular sense of “appropriate”, to feel guilt and anger in connection with moral transgressions. So norms for guilt and anger may well uniquely pick out certain moral norms. And similar claims might be made about norms for praise and blame. However, it is not equally clear that morality is properly defined in terms of emotions or other reactions to behavior. For it may be, as Skorupski emphasizes, that we need to understand guilt and anger, and praise and blame, in terms of moral concepts. This worry about direction of explanation seems less pressing for the notions of reward and punishment. These responses to behavior, at least in themselves , might simply be understood in terms of the meting out of benefits and harms. Of course they will only count as reward and punishment when they are linked to someone’s having followed or violated a rule that all rational people would want to see enforced by such responses.

One way of understanding the notion of endorsement is as advocacy. Advocating a code is a second- or third-personal matter, since one advocates a code to others. Moreover, it is consistent with advocating a code, that one does not plan on following that code oneself. Just as asserting something one believes to be false still counts as asserting it, hypocritical advocacy of a code still counts as advocacy of that code. When endorsement is understood as advocacy, it can be used in definitions of morality, in the descriptive sense, as long as it is the morality of a group or society. And advocacy can also be used as an interpretation of endorsement when providing a definition of morality in the normative sense. Of course those who accept a definition of morality in any of these senses—as the code that a group or society endorses, or as the code that would be universally advocated by all rational agents under certain conditions—do not hold that the advocacy would necessarily, or even probably, be hypocritical. But they do hold that the important thing about a moral code—what picks it out as a moral code—is that it would be put forward by all the relevant agents, not that it would be followed by all of them. The notion of advocacy has less of a place in a descriptive account of a single person’s morality, since when someone is hypocritical we often deny that they really hold the moral view that they advocate.

Mill (1861), in addition to offering a moral theory, takes pains to explain how morality differs from other normative systems. For him, norms that simply promote utility are norms of expediency. In order to qualify as morally wrong, an act must be one that ought to be punished. Thinking that an act of a certain kind ought to be punished is a third-personal matter, so it seems plausible to put Mill’s view of what is definitional of morality into the category being discussed in this section. It is worth noting that hypocrisy is, for Mill, not only a possibility, but—given the present sorry state of moral education—virtually unavoidable. That is because being motivated to advocate punishment for a certain kind of act is quite different from being motivated to refrain from that same kind of act. Advocating punishment for a certain kind of act might be one’s utility-maximizing choice, while actually performing that kind of act (trying, of course, to avoid detection) might also be utility-maximizing. And for Mill what determines what a person will advocate, and how a person will act, are the foreseeable consequences for that person .

Bernard Gert’s (2005) moral view also operates with a definition of morality that understands endorsement as advocacy, in the sense of putting forward as a guide for all rational agents. Gert offers the following two conditions as those under which all rational persons would put forward a universal guide for governing the behavior of all moral agents. The first condition is that they are seeking agreement with all other rational persons or moral agents. The second condition is that they use only those beliefs that are shared by all rational persons: for example, that they themselves are fallible and vulnerable and that all those to whom morality applies are also fallible and vulnerable. The second condition rules out both religious beliefs and scientific beliefs since there are no religious beliefs or scientific beliefs that all rational persons share. This condition is plausible because no universal guide to behavior that applies to all rational persons can be based on beliefs that some of these rational persons do not share.

Another way of understanding the notion of endorsement is as acceptance. Unlike advocating a code, accepting a code is a first-personal matter. It might include intending to conform one’s own behavior to that code, feeling guilty when one does not, and so on. One cannot hypocritically accept a code. Indeed, hypocrisy is simply a matter of advocating a code one does not accept. So this notion of endorsement is available to someone who is trying to provide a definition of morality in the descriptive sense, even when considering a single person’s morality.

Paradigmatic views in the natural law tradition starting with Aquinas hold both that the laws of morality have their source in God, and that these laws constitute the principles of human practical rationality (Finnis 1980; MacIntyre 1999). Views in this tradition may be seen as using the basic schema for definitions of morality in the normative sense, understanding endorsement as acceptance. Members of this tradition typically hold that all rational persons know what kinds of actions morality prohibits, requires, discourages, encourages, and allows. It is central to Aquinas’s view that morality is known to all those whose behavior is subject to moral judgment, even if they do not know of the revelations of Christianity. This is why Aquinas holds that knowing what morality prohibits and requires does not involve knowing why morality prohibits and requires what it does.

Those who belong to the natural law tradition also hold that reason endorses acting morally. This sort of endorsement of course has a cognitive component. But it is also motivational. Aquinas does not hold that knowledge of morality is always effective: it can be blotted out by evil persuasions or corrupt habits. But if reason is not opposed by such forces, any rational person would not only know what was prohibited and required by morality, but would follow those prohibitions and requirements. So, for natural law theorists, endorsement amounts to acceptance.

The lack of an explicit and widely accepted definition of morality may partially explain the resilience of act-consequentialist accounts of morality. Without an explicit definition, it may be easier to ignore the fact that act-consequentialist theories are not particularly concerned with interpersonal interactions, but typically apply just as well to desert island scenarios as to individuals who live in societies. In any case, it has been recognized that in order to combat consequentialism, it would be helpful to have something like a plausible definition of morality that made it clear that the subject matter of morality is something different from simply the goodness and badness of consequences. T.M. Scanlon (1982, 1998), applying this strategy, suggests that the subject matter of morality—what we are talking about, when we talk about morality—is a system of rules for the regulation of behavior that is not reasonably rejectable based on a desire for informed unforced general agreement.

Scanlon’s suggestion regarding the subject matter of morality can easily be seen as an instance of the general schema given above. His “system of rules” is a specific kind of informal public system; he understands endorsement by all rational people as non-rejection by all reasonable people; and he offers a specific account of the conditions under which moral agents would reach the relevant agreement. But Scanlon also places very heavy emphasis on the fact that if he is right about the subject matter of morality, then what compliance with moral norms allows us to do is to justify our behavior to others in ways that they cannot reasonably reject. Indeed, the ability to justify ourselves to reasonable people is a primary source of moral motivation for Scanlon (see also Sprigge 1964: 319). This might seem to suggest a somewhat different definitional claim about morality: that morality consists in the most basic norms in terms of which we justify ourselves to others. But it is plausible that this purportedly definitional claim is better thought of as a corollary of Scanlon’s particular version of the general schema, with endorsement understood as non-rejection. For, if morality is the system of norms that would be endorsed in this way, we can justify our actions to others by pointing out that even they, were they reasonable, would have endorsed rules that allowed our behavior.

Stephen Darwall’s (2006) moral view can also be seen as flowing from a version of the general schema, and yielding claims about justifiability to others. Darwall claims that morality is a matter of equal accountability among free and rational beings. On his view, I behave morally towards you to the degree that I respect the claims you have authority to make on me. Darwall also holds that I will respect those claims if I acknowledge certain assumptions to which I am committed simply in virtue of being a rational, deliberating agent. As a result, his view is that morality—or at least the morality of obligation—is a “scheme of accountability” (a certain sort of informal public system) that all rational people will endorse. Unlike Scanlon’s view, however, Darwall’s view makes use of a stronger sense of endorsement than non-rejection. Specifically, it includes the recognition of the reasons provided by the authoritative demands of other people. And that recognition is positively motivational.

Both Scanlon’s and Darwall’s views emphasize the social nature of morality, taken in the normative sense: Scanlon, by reference to justification to others; Darwall, by appeal to the relevance of second-personal reasons. But Darwall builds a responsiveness to second-personal reasons into the relevant notion of rationality, while Scanlon simply makes the empirical claim that many people are motivated by a desire to justify themselves to others, and notes that his definition of morality will yield rules that will allow one to do this, if one follows them. The sort of definition described in section 5.1 also makes the social nature of morality essential to it, since it centrally features the notion of a response to the behavior of others. The definitions described in sections 5.2 and 5.3 do not entail the social nature of morality, since it is possible to accept, and even to advocate, a code that concerns only self-regarding behavior. But on any plausible account of rationality a code that would be advocated by all moral agents will govern interpersonal interactions, and will include rules that prohibit causing harm without sufficient reason. Only the definition offered in section 5.3 therefore can be taken as realistically compatible with an egoistic morality.

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Wren, T.E. (ed.), 1990, The Moral Domain: Essays in the Ongoing Discussion Between Philosophy and the Social Sciences , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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Home — Essay Samples — Philosophy — Jacques Derrida — The Meaning of Morality

The Meaning of Morality

Categories: Jacques Derrida

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Published: Mar 14, 2019

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Mankind: Medieval Morality Plays

By anonymous - mankind, mankind: medieval morality plays essay questions.

What do you think the allegory in Mankind is trying to teach its audience? How is this message made clearer by being told using allegorical means?

This question asks you to consider the play's use of allegory, to outline broadly what you think the play is trying to teach its audience, and then to consider how the two fit together. Why might some ideas be better told using allegory? Why might allegory be a "good fit" for certain types of lessons? (See Summary & Analysis for Section 1 for more help).

Allegorical characters simply make for boring, didactic drama. Do you agree?

This question asks you to look specifically at the use of allegorical figures - which includes almost every character in the play! How do they work dramatically - are they simply boring, two-dimensional mouthpieces for a single viewpoint? Or, perhaps, can they be more complex and more interesting? It is, again, helpful to weigh up both sides before concluding.

Imagine that you are the director of a production of Mankind. Describe the choices you would make to bring the play to life, focussing on acting, set design, costume, music and lights.

This question asks you to consider Mankind as a play in the theater, and to consider ways of translating it to the stage. Remember that we have no evidence Everyman was performed on stage in the late medieval period, so it might be worth you looking carefully at the text for clues as to how an original production (if indeed there was one) might have dealt with the play in production. It might particularly be worth thinking about how you could use the audience in your production.

Are the comic scenes in Mankind “vulgar but not funny” and “irrelevant”?

This question asks you to consider a critical viewpoint on the play. Remember that you should find both reasons to agree and to disagree with the proposition put forward by the question. A good answer would also perhaps locate the comment in its critical context (see Section 4 of the Mankind Analysis for more information).

How does Mankind make use of the audience and why?

This question simply asks you to consider the audience and the role they have to play in Mankind . Perhaps start by making a list of the moments when the audience might be directly addressed or referred to - not forgetting the two key moments of the collection and the Christmas song where they are involved - before moving on to considering what the advantages might be of using the audience in this way.

"The biggest weakness of Mankind is that it makes evil more fun than good." Do you agree?

This question asks you to consider a critical proposition about the play. It's always a good idea with these questions to balance up both sides of the argument before coming to a conclusion. It might be good to start by thinking about how you might consider the play as glamorizing or endorsing evil and then to move onto counter-arguments that look at the play's construction another way.

Compare and contrast Everyman with Mankind . Do you think the somberness of the former or the humor of the latter is a more effective means of communicating the Christian message?

This question asks you to read and compare two morality plays, and then to weigh up which one you think is more effective. There is, remember, no single right answer to this question, so you need to support your opinion with textual evidence. What do you think the best way to teach is - through seriousness or through humor? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?

Write a short character sketch of Mankind himself. What sort of man does he seem to be?

This question simply asks you to examine the character of Mankind as he appears in the play. As well as examining the more obvious things in the play such as his appearance and actions, don't forget to pay close attention to his language and how he speaks - particularly drawing out the contrast between him before and after he has been converted to sin.

Look closely at the three vices, Mischief and Titivillus. How does the playwright ensure that they are clearly delineated as characters?

This questions asks you to examine five characters, all of whom represent sin and evil. You might want to spend some time thinking about what they represent as well as what they do and how they speak - and don't forget any clues in the text about how they might look!

Trace the references to the Bible and Christian ceremony in Mankind . What do they add to the play?

This question asks you to think about moment when the play makes explicit or implicit reference to the Bible or Christian theology. As well as obvious moments like the references to Job and to the Crucifixion, it is worth examining some of the subtler moments (this is a great play for parody, remember) such as the mock-collection, the "Christmas song" and the re-entrance of Mercy with a whip (like Jesus in the temple).

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7. Compare and contrast Everyman with Mankind. Do you think the somberness of the former or the humor of the latter is a more effective means of communicating the Christian message? This question asks you to read and compare two morality plays, and then to weigh up which one you think is more effective.
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