essay writing uk university

Essay and dissertation writing skills

Planning your essay

Writing your introduction

Structuring your essay

• Writing essays in science subjects
• Brief video guides to support essay planning and writing
• Writing extended essays and dissertations
• Planning your dissertation writing time

Structuring your dissertation

• Top tips for writing longer pieces of work

Advice on planning and writing essays and dissertations

University essays differ from school essays in that they are less concerned with what you know and more concerned with how you construct an argument to answer the question. This means that the starting point for writing a strong essay is to first unpick the question and to then use this to plan your essay before you start putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard).

A really good starting point for you are these short, downloadable Tips for Successful Essay Writing and Answering the Question resources. Both resources will help you to plan your essay, as well as giving you guidance on how to distinguish between different sorts of essay questions. 

You may find it helpful to watch this seven-minute video on six tips for essay writing which outlines how to interpret essay questions, as well as giving advice on planning and structuring your writing:

Different disciplines will have different expectations for essay structure and you should always refer to your Faculty or Department student handbook or course Canvas site for more specific guidance.

However, broadly speaking, all essays share the following features:

Essays need an introduction to establish and focus the parameters of the discussion that will follow. You may find it helpful to divide the introduction into areas to demonstrate your breadth and engagement with the essay question. You might define specific terms in the introduction to show your engagement with the essay question; for example, ‘This is a large topic which has been variously discussed by many scientists and commentators. The principle tension is between the views of X and Y who define the main issues as…’ Breadth might be demonstrated by showing the range of viewpoints from which the essay question could be considered; for example, ‘A variety of factors including economic, social and political, influence A and B. This essay will focus on the social and economic aspects, with particular emphasis on…..’

Watch this two-minute video to learn more about how to plan and structure an introduction:

The main body of the essay should elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction and develop an argument(s) that answers the question. It should consist of a number of self-contained paragraphs each of which makes a specific point and provides some form of evidence to support the argument being made. Remember that a clear argument requires that each paragraph explicitly relates back to the essay question or the developing argument.

• Conclusion: An essay should end with a conclusion that reiterates the argument in light of the evidence you have provided; you shouldn’t use the conclusion to introduce new information.
• References: You need to include references to the materials you’ve used to write your essay. These might be in the form of footnotes, in-text citations, or a bibliography at the end. Different systems exist for citing references and different disciplines will use various approaches to citation. Ask your tutor which method(s) you should be using for your essay and also consult your Department or Faculty webpages for specific guidance in your discipline. 

Essay writing in science subjects

If you are writing an essay for a science subject you may need to consider additional areas, such as how to present data or diagrams. This five-minute video gives you some advice on how to approach your reading list, planning which information to include in your answer and how to write for your scientific audience – the video is available here:

A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.

Short videos to support your essay writing skills

There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing, including:

• Approaching different types of essay questions  
• Structuring your essay  
• Writing an introduction  
• Making use of evidence in your essay writing  
• Writing your conclusion

Extended essays and dissertations

Longer pieces of writing like extended essays and dissertations may seem like quite a challenge from your regular essay writing. The important point is to start with a plan and to focus on what the question is asking. A PDF providing further guidance on planning Humanities and Social Science dissertations is available to download.

Planning your time effectively

Try not to leave the writing until close to your deadline, instead start as soon as you have some ideas to put down onto paper. Your early drafts may never end up in the final work, but the work of committing your ideas to paper helps to formulate not only your ideas, but the method of structuring your writing to read well and conclude firmly.

Although many students and tutors will say that the introduction is often written last, it is a good idea to begin to think about what will go into it early on. For example, the first draft of your introduction should set out your argument, the information you have, and your methods, and it should give a structure to the chapters and sections you will write. Your introduction will probably change as time goes on but it will stand as a guide to your entire extended essay or dissertation and it will help you to keep focused.

The structure of  extended essays or dissertations will vary depending on the question and discipline, but may include some or all of the following:

• The background information to - and context for - your research. This often takes the form of a literature review.
• Explanation of the focus of your work.
• Explanation of the value of this work to scholarship on the topic.
• List of the aims and objectives of the work and also the issues which will not be covered because they are outside its scope.

The main body of your extended essay or dissertation will probably include your methodology, the results of research, and your argument(s) based on your findings.

The conclusion is to summarise the value your research has added to the topic, and any further lines of research you would undertake given more time or resources. 

Tips on writing longer pieces of work

Approaching each chapter of a dissertation as a shorter essay can make the task of writing a dissertation seem less overwhelming. Each chapter will have an introduction, a main body where the argument is developed and substantiated with evidence, and a conclusion to tie things together. Unlike in a regular essay, chapter conclusions may also introduce the chapter that will follow, indicating how the chapters are connected to one another and how the argument will develop through your dissertation.

For further guidance, watch this two-minute video on writing longer pieces of work . 

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Academic writing

Advice and resources to support you with effective academic writing.

Approaches to writing

Assignment writing is a process which involves planning, drafting and reviewing what you are going to say. You will find you need to review your initial plan and edit it as you go along. You should expect to have to redraft some sections of writing.

You should also check any guidance given to you as part of your course, as conventions vary between subject areas.

One of the hardest things can be to get started writing an assignment. Sometimes this is a question of taking the time to reflect on what you are being asked to do in the assignment brief. 

Getting started with an assignment

The handout Getting started suggests a way in which you can break down your task, think about aspects of it and commit some of your initial ideas to paper. It also suggests ways you can start to adapt this method to suit you. Alternatively you may prefer to use a prompt list to start to analyse your title.

Getting started (pdf)       Getting started (Word rtf)

Essay title prompts (pdf)       Essay title prompts (Word rtf)

You will want to respond to the assignments you have been set as well as you can. This means paying attention to key words in the question or assignment brief. These are sometimes known as command or directive words because they tell you what to do. The document Directive words provides definitions of some of the commonly used words.

Directive words (pdf)       Directive words (Word rtf)   Directive words – British Sign Language translation (Media Hopper video)

Getting your ideas in order

In any written assignment you will be expected to organise and structure information which is synthesised from a range of sources. You will need to make notes from your readings to help you consolidate and connect your research to your question. The Reading at university page has strategies to help you develop effective skills for making notes from reading.

Reading at university

Making notes means you end up with lots of bits of writing which you need to link together for your reader. Sometimes it can be hard to know what to select and how to identify relationships between ideas and concepts.

There are suggestions in the Getting your ideas in order handout of practical ways in which you might reorganise your material in response to the task set. Playing around with the order can help you arrive at a line reasoning that will convince the reader. Aim to experiment and find out what works for you.

Getting your ideas in order (pdf)           Getting your ideas in order (Word rtf)

Essay parts and paragraphs

If you have been asked to write an academic essay, and you haven't done this before, you may be unsure of what is expected. The Parts of an essay handout gives a brief introductory overview of the component parts of an essay.

Parts of an essay (pdf)           Parts of an essay (Word rtf)

Paragraphs are the building blocks of an essay and are a way of organising your thinking and making your meaning clear in your writing for your reader. The handout Developing writing in paragraphs encourages you to think about the way you shape your paragraphs and when to move on to a new one.

Developing writing in paragraphs (pdf)          Developing writing in paragraphs (Word rtf) 

Build an argument as you go

Identifying and writing about good evidence is not enough. You need to build an argument. An argument is:

Using reasons to support a point of view, so that known or unknown audiences may be persuaded to agree. Cottrell, S. (2011)Critical thinking skills: developing effective analysis and argument. 2nd edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, p52.

You can develop your argument as you read and write by creating a working hypothesis or basic answer in response to the assignment brief.  

Building an argument as you go (pdf)            Building an argument as you go (Word rtf)

As you move through your studies lecturers will expect more from your written work. They will expect the accurate attribution of ideas from others (including academic and other authors, and the ideas of those who teach you). There is general advice and resources for referencing and citations (and avoiding plagiarism) on the Referencing and citations page.

Referencing and citations

Your marker(s) will expect written pieces to be logically structured with fluid expression of thought, and with deeper and more critical engagement with the subjects and ideas you are reading and learning about. 

Aim to become familiar with the level of writing required by reading good quality examples.  At an advanced level you are aiming to write to the style you read in academic journals. 

As your written tasks become longer and more complex it can be helpful to reflect on your own writing process.

Reflect on your writing process (pdf)            Reflect on your writing process (Word rtf)

Different types of academic writing

Academic writing is much more than just an essay. You might be asked to write a lab or business report, a policy brief, a blog post, a journal article or a reflection piece for example. These tend to be subject and task specific so you need to check the assignment brief and any criteria for details of their purpose, formatting, structure, things to include etc.

Reflective academic writing

In some subjects, assessment may be based on critical reflection. This can be a challenge as it is a very particular style and form of writing which you may not have come across before. As well as check your assignment brief for specifics, the University’s Employability Consultancy have created a Reflection Toolkit of resources, models and questions to help you develop your reflective writing skills.

The Reflection Toolkit

School-level support

Take advantage of any writing development sessions organised through or learning materials offered by your School, Deanery or course. These will help you develop the specific writing skills you need for your discipline or subject area.

Writing your own title

If you have to write your own title in response to the brief you have been set, you need to think about how to frame this.  The Formulating your own title handout suggests some aspects to consider.

Formulating your own title (pdf)          Formulating your own title (Word rtf)

Differences from non-academic writing

If you are studying during a career break, or part-time while still working, you need to be aware that academic writing is a very different skill from other forms of writing you may have done in the workplace. Academic writing tends to be more formal, requiring succinct prose rather than bullet points, and it is more about the argument than simply conveying, or describing, information. Writing for assessment requires you to think carefully about your assignment and criteria, your argument and content, use of your subject specific conventions (e.g. language, style etc.), and your audience.

Your written work needs to be grounded in and backed up by appropriate and informed opinion and sources, rather than solely by personal opinion and experience. Academic written work will also make fewer absolute statements. Language is often more tentative or cautious.

Academic Phrasebank is a collection of general phrases taken from academic sources created by John Morley at the University of Manchester. The phrases are sorted into writing and assignment themes such as being critical and writing conclusions.

This article was published on 2024-02-26

• Subject Guides

Academic writing: a practical guide

• Academic writing
• The writing process
• Academic writing style
• Structure & cohesion
• Criticality in academic writing
• Working with evidence
• Referencing
• Assessment & feedback
• Dissertations
• Reflective writing
• Examination writing
• Academic posters
• Feedback on Structure and Organisation
• Feedback on Argument, Analysis, and Critical Thinking
• Feedback on Writing Style and Clarity
• Feedback on Referencing and Research
• Feedback on Presentation and Proofreading

Showing your understanding of a topic and the critical arguments that relate to it.

What are essays?

Most degree programmes include essays. They are the most common form of written assignment and so for most students, being good at essays is essential to gaining good marks, which lead to good grades, which lead to the degree classification desired. Essays are both a particular method of writing and a collection of sub-skills that students need to master during degree studies.

Find out more:

Essays: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [interactive tutorial]  |  Essays: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [Google Doc]

General essay writing

You have an essay to write... what next .

• Read the assessment brief carefully to find out what the essay is about, what you are required to do specifically. What instructions are you given (discuss, explain, explore)? What choices do you need to make?
• Work through the practical guide to essays above. This will help you to think about what an essay is and what is required of you.
• Look at the  assignment writing process . How will you produce your essay?
• Make a plan for when, where, and how you will research, think, draft, and write your essay.
• Execute your plan .
• Finish early. Leave a couple of spare days at the end to  edit and proofread . 
• Hand it in and move on to the next challenge!

Features of essay writing

Essays vary lots between disciplines and specific tasks, but they share several features that are important to bear in mind. 

• They are an argument towards a conclusion.  The conclusion can be for or against a position, or just a narrative conclusion. All your writing and argumentation should lead to this conclusion. 
• They have a reader.  It is essential that you show the logic of your argument and the information it is based on to your reader. 
• They are based on evidence . You must show this using both your referencing and also through interacting with the ideas and thinking found within the sources you use. 
• They have a structure.  You need to ensure your structure is logical and that it matches the expectations of your department. You should also ensure that the structure enables the reader to follow your argument easily. 
• They have a word limit.  1000 words means 'be concise and make decisions about exactly what is important to include' whereas 3500 words means 'write in more depth, and show the reader a more complex and broad range of critical understanding'. 
• They are part of a discipline/subject area, each of which has conventions . For example, Chemistry requires third person impersonal writing, whereas Women's Studies requires the voice (meaning experiential viewpoint) of the author in the writing. 

Types of essay

Each essay task is different and consequently the information below is not designed to be a substitute for checking the information for your specific essay task. It is essential that you check the assessment brief, module handbook and programme handbook, as well as attend any lectures, seminars and webinars devoted to the essay you are working on.  

Essays in each subject area belong to a faculty (science, social sciences, arts and Humanities). Essays within the same faculty tend to share some features of style, structure, language choice, and scholarly practices. Please click through to the section relevant to your faculty area and if you want to be curious, the other ones too! 

Arts & Humanities essays

Arts and Humanities is a faculty that includes a huge range of subject areas, from Music to Philosophy. Study in the arts and humanities typically focuses on products of the human mind, like music, artistic endeavour, philosophical ideas, and literary productions. This means that essays in the arts and humanities are typically exploring ideas, or interpreting the products of thinking (such as music, art, literature). 

There are a range of essay writing styles in arts and humanities, and each subject area has its own conventions and expectations, which are explained and built into modules within each degree programme. Typically, each essay explores an idea, using critical engagement with source material, to produce an argument.

There is typically more reliance on the interpretation of ideas and evidence by the student than in the sciences and social sciences. For the student, the challenge is to understand and control the ideas in each essay, producing a coherent and logical argument that fulfils the essay brief. As with all essays, careful structure, word choices, and language use are essential to succeeding.

Department-specific advice for essays in Arts and Humanities 

Some departments provide web-based advice:

• English and Related Literature essay writing advice pages
• Philosophy essay writing advice pages
• Music Department 'House Style' guidance for essay writing
• Language and Linguistic Science style guide

If your department does not appear above, do ask your supervisor or other academic staff what specific guidance is available. 

Key Features of Arts and Humanities essays

• They are based on evidence . It is important that ideas used in essays are derived from credible and usable sources to root your essay in the scholarly materials of the subject that you are writing about. 
• There is usually a thesis statement.  This appears towards the end of your introductory paragraph, concisely outlining the purpose and the main argument of the essay. It is short (once sentence), concise, and precise. Though the essay may have multiple sub-arguments, all must tie into the thesis statement. This means it is important to know, state and stick to the primary focus set out in your thesis statement. 
• They require you to interpret evidence. It is unlikely that you will find a source that directly answers the essay question set. You will typically be required to interpret primary and secondary evidence. Primary evidence includes the manuscript of a novel, or a letter describing an historical event. Secondary evidence includes academic books and peer reviewed articles. 
• They require you to apply ideas. Many essays will ask you to apply an abstract idea to a scenario, or interpretation of something. For example, you could be asked to apply a Marxist ideology upon Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights or Post-Colonialist theories upon Shakespeare's The Tempest.
• Essays vary greatly in terms of length, required depth of thinking and purpose.  You must carefully read the assessment brief and any supporting materials provided to you. It is also important to complete formative tasks that prepare you for an essay, as these will help you to become use to the requirements of the summative essay. 
• They must show criticality. When interpreting evidence, or applying ideas in your essay you must be aware that there is more than one possible understanding. Through exploring multiple sources and showing the limits and interconnectedness of ideas you show criticality. More information on criticality can be found on the Criticality page of this guide . 

Example extract of an arts and humanities essay

Essay Title: Liturgical expression and national identity during the reign of Æthelred the Unready

This essay is from English studies and shows typical features of an arts and humanities essay. It is examining two ideas, namely 'national identity' and 'liturgical expression' and applying them both to a period of history. The essay does this by analysing linguistic choices, using interpretation from the literature base to create an argument that addresses the essay title. 

It also has the feature of the student using sources of evidence to offer an interpretation that may disagree with some published sources. This use of evidence to create an argument that is novel to the student and requires interpretation of ideas is typical of arts and humanities writing. '"engla God", these liturgical verses themselves both signify and enact a ritualised unity with God.' is an example from the essay extract that shows the careful language choices used to create a concise and precise argument that clearly conveys complex thought to the reader from the author. 

One way of thinking about a good arts and humanities essay is that it is like you are producing a garment from threads. The overall piece has a shape that people can recognise and understand, and each word, like each stitch, builds the whole piece slowly, whilst some key threads, like core ideas in your argument, run through the whole to hold it all together. It is the threading together of the strands of argument that determines the quality of the final essay, just as the threading of strands in a garment determine the quality of the final piece. 

Good arts and humanities essay writing is...

• Based on evidence sources,
• built on the interpretation and application of ideas, evidence and theories,
• a clearly expressed, logical argument that addresses the essay question,
• carefully constructed to guide the reader in a logical path from the introduction to the conclusion,
• filled with carefully chosen language to precisely and accurately convey ideas and interpretations to the reader,
• built on rigorous, careful and close analysis of ideas,
• constructed using careful evaluation of the significance of each idea and concept used,
• readable, meaning it is clear and logical, using clearly understandable English,
• rewarded with high marks.

Common mistakes in arts and humanities essay writing

• Not answering the question posed. It is very easy to answer the question you wished had been asked, or drift away from the question during your writing. Keep checking back to the question to ensure you are still focussed and make a clear plan before writing.  
• Moving beyond the evidence. You are required to interpret ideas and evidence that exist, this requires some application and novelty, but should not be making up new ideas/knowledge to make your argument work; your writing must be rooted in evidence. 
• Using complex and long words where simpler word choices would convey meaning more clearly. Think of the reader. 
• Leaving the reader to draw their own conclusion s, or requiring the reader to make assumptions. They must be able to see your thinking clearly on the page. 
• Using lots of direct quotes . There are times when using quotes is important to detail lines from a novel for example, but you need to use them carefully and judiciously, so that most of your writing is based on your use of sources, for which you gain credit. 

Social Science essays

Social Sciences, as the name suggests, can be thought of as an attempt to use a 'scientific method' to investigate social phenomena. There is a recognition that applying the strict rules of the level of proof required in science subjects is not appropriate when studying complex social phenomena. But, there is an expectation of as much rigour as is possible to achieve in each investigation.

Consequently, there is a huge variation in the types of essays that can be found within the social sciences. An essay based on the carbon dating of human remains within Archaeology is clearly very different from an essay based on the application of an ethical framework in Human Resources Management. The former is likely to be much more like a science essay, whilst the latter may edge towards a Philosophy essay, which is part of arts and humanities. 

Key features of social science essays

• They are evidence-based.  It is crucial to use the evidence in a way that shows you understand how significant the evidence used is. 
• They require interpretation of evidence . By its nature, evidence in social sciences may be less definite than in sciences, and so interpretation is required.  When you interpret evidence, this too must be based on evidence, rather than personal opinion or personal observation. 
• They often require the application of abstract theories to real-world scenarios . The theories are 'clean and clear' and the real world is 'messy and unclear'; the skill of the student is to make plausible judgements. For example, 
• The level of detail and breadth of knowledge that must be displayed varies greatly, depending on the length of the essay. 1000 word essays need concise wording and for the student to limit the breadth of knowledge displayed in order to achieve the depth needed for a high mark. Conversely, 5000 word essays require both breadth and depth of knowledge.
• They should show criticality. This means you need to show uncertainty in the theories and ideas used, and how ideas and theories interact with others. You should present counter-facts and counter-arguments and use the information in the literature base to reach supported conclusions and judgements. 

Example extract of a social science essay

Essay Title: Who Gets What in Education and is that Fair?

Education in the western world has historically favoured men in the regard that women were essentially denied access to it for no other reason than their gender (Trueman,2016) and even though it would seem there is certainly “equality on paper” (Penny, 2010,p1.) when looking at statistics for achievement and gender, the reality is that the struggles facing anyone who does not identify as male require a little more effort to recognise. An excellent example of this can be found in the 2014 OECD report. In the UK women significantly outnumbered men in their application for university places- 376,860 women to 282,170 men (ICEF,2014)- but when observed closer men are applying for places at higher ranking universities and often studying in fields that will eventually allow them to earn better salaries. The same report praised women for the ability to combine their studies with family life and having higher aspirations than boys and therefore likely as being more determined to obtain degrees (ICEF, 2014), yet in reality women have very little choice about coping with the stressful burdens placed on them. The concepts of double burden and triple shift where women are expected to deal with housework and earning an income, or housework, raising children and earning an income (Einhorn, 1993) could in this case relate to the pressure for women to work hard at school to allow them to be able to provide for their families in future. Even women who do not necessarily have their own families or children to care for must face the double burden and triple shift phenomenon in the workplace, as women who work in the higher education sector almost always have the duty of a more pastoral and caring role of their students than male counterparts (Morley,1994).

Education is a social science subject. Some studies within it follow a scientific method of quantitative data collection, whilst others are more qualitative, and others still are more theoretical. In the case of this extract it is about gendered effects in university applications. This is an inevitably complex area to write about, intersecting as it does with social class, economic status, social norms, cultural history, political policy... To name but a few. 

The essay is clearly based on evidence, which in places in numerical and in places is derived from previously written papers, such as 'triple shift where women are expected to deal with housework and earning an income, or housework, raising children and earning an income (Einhorn, 1993)', where the concept of triple shift is derived from the named paper. It is this interleaving of numerical and concrete facts with theoretical ideas that have been created and/or observed that is a typical feature in social sciences. In this case, the author has clearly shown the reader where the information is from and has 'controlled' the ideas to form a narrative that is plausible and evidence-based. 

When compared to science writing, it can appear to be more wordy and this is largely due to the greater degree of interpretation that is required to use and synthesise complex ideas and concepts that have meanings that are more fluid and necessarily less precise than many scientific concepts. 

Good social science essay writing is...

• filled with clearly articulated thinking from the mind of the author,
• well structured to guide the reader through the argument or narrative being created,
• focussed on answering the question or addressing the task presented,
• filled with carefully chosen evaluative language to tell the reader what is more and less significant,
• readable - sounds simple, but is difficult to achieve whilst remaining precise,

Common mistakes in social science essay writing 

• Speculating beyond the limits of the evidence presented . It is important to limit your interpretation to that which is supported by existing evidence. This can be frustrating, but is essential.
• Using complex words where simpler ones will do. It is tempting to try to appear 'clever' by using 'big words', but in most cases, the simplest form of writing something is clearer. Your aim is to clearly communicate with the reader. 
• Giving your personal opinion - this is rarely asked for or required. 
• Not answering the question or fulfilling the task . This is possibly the most common error and largely comes from letting one's own ideas infect the essay writing process. 
• Not being critical. You need to show the limits of the ideas used, how they interact, counter-arguments and include evaluation and analysis of the ideas involved. If you find yourself being descriptive, ask why. 
• Using lots of direct quotes, particularly in first year writing . Quotes should be rare and used carefully because they are basically photocopying. Use your words to show you have understood the concepts involved. 

Science essays

Science essays are precise, logical and strictly evidence-based pieces of writing. They employ cautious language to accurately convey the level of certainty within the scientific understanding that is being discussed and are strictly objective. This means that the author has to make the effort to really understand the meaning and significance of the science being discussed.

In a science essay, your aim is to summarise and critically evaluate existing knowledge in the field. If you're doing your own research and data collection, that will be written up in a report  instead.

The skill of the student is to thread together the ideas and facts they have read in a logical order that addresses the task set. When judgements are made they must be justified against the strength and significance of the theories, findings, and ideas being used. Generally, the student should not be undertaking their own interpretation of the results and facts, but instead be using those of others to create a justifiable narrative. 

Example extract of a science essay

Essay title:  To what extent has Ungerleider and Mishkin’s notion of separate ‘what’ and ‘where’ pathways been vindicated by neuropsychological research?

Van Polanen & Davare (2015) showed that the dorsal stream and ventral streams are not strictly independent, but do interact with each other. Interactions between dorsal and ventral streams are important for controlling complex object-oriented hand movements, especially skilled grasp. Anatomical studies have reported the existence of direct connections between dorsal and ventral stream areas. These physiological interconnections appear to gradually more active as the precision demands of the grasp become higher. 

However, cognition is a dynamic process, and a flexible interactive system is required to coordinate and modulate activity across cortical networks to enable the adaptation of processing to meet variable task demands. The clear division of the dorsal and ventral processing streams is artificial, resulting from experimental situations, which do not reflect processing within the natural environment (Weiller et al., 2011). Most successful execution of visual behaviours require the complex collaboration and seamless integration of processing between the two systems.

Cloutman (2013) had stated that dorsal and ventral streams can be functionally connected in three regards: (1) the independent processing account – where they remain separate but terminate on the same brain area, (2) the feedback account – where feedback loops from locations downstream on one pathway is constantly providing input to the other and (3) the continuous cross-talk account – where information is transferred to and from the system constantly when processing. 

Indeed, the authors found that there were numerous anatomical cross-connections between the two pathways, most notably between inferior parietal and inferior temporal areas. For example, ventral regions TE and TEO have been found to have extensive connectivity with dorsal stream areas, demonstrating direct projections with areas including V3A, MT, MST, FST and LIP (Baizer et al., 1991; Disler et al., 1993).

The first obvious comment is that it is not going to win a prize for literary entertainment! The writing is what one might call 'dry'. This is because it is good scientific writing. It is clearly evidence-based, and is explaining complex interrelationships in a way that is clear, leaves little for the reader to assume and that uses carefully graded language to show the significance of each fact. 

The language choices are carefully aligned with the strength of the evidence that is used. For example, 'have been found to have extensive interconnectivity' is graded to convey that many connections have been detailed in the evidence presented. Similarly, 'Most successful execution of visual behaviours require the complex collaboration' is graded carefully to convey meaning to the reader, derived from the evidence used. The sample displays many examples of controlled word choices that leave the reader in no doubt regarding the meaning they are to take from reading the piece. This concise, controlled, evidence-based and carefully considered writing is typical of that found in the science essays. 

Good science essay writing is...

• evidence-based,
• cohesive due to language choices,
• well-structured to help the reader follow the ideas,
• carefully planned,
• filled with carefully chosen evaluative and analytical language,
• rewarded with high grades.

Common mistakes in science essay writing

• The most common mistake is a lack of accuracy in the language used to convey meaning. This can be due to inadequate reading or a lack of understanding of the subject matter, or alternatively, due to not giving sufficient care to word choice. 'Increased greatly' is different to 'increased', which is different again to 'increased significantly'; it is very important that you understand what you are writing about in enough detail that you can accurately convey an understanding of it accurately to the reader. 
• Trying to put 'you' into the essay. It is highly unlikely that you will be required to refer to your own viewpoints, opinions or lived experience within scientific essay writing. Science is impersonal, it deals in fact, and so you are a third person, impersonal author who is interpreting and curating facts and knowledge into an essay that makes sense to the reader. 
• Going beyond the facts. It is rare that you will be asked to speculate in a science essay. When you are, you will be asked to extrapolate from known understanding in the relevant literature. Stick to the facts and to their meaning and significance. 
• Not placing understanding in context . Each scientific idea sits within a bigger discipline and interacts with other ideas. When you write about ideas, you need to acknowledge this, unless you are specifically told to only focus on one idea. An example would be genomics of viral pathogens, which is currently a much discussed area of activity. This sits within public health, virology, and genomics disciplines, to name a few. Depending on how it is to be written about, you may need to acknowledge one or more of these larger areas. 

Using evidence in essays

Sources of evidence are at the heart of essay writing. You need sources that are both usable and credible, in the specific context of your essay.

A good starting point is often the materials used in the module your essay is attached to. You can then work outwards into the wider field of study as you develop your thinking, and seek to show critical analysis, critical evaluation and critical thought in your essay. 

Discover more about using evidence in your assignments:

Structuring an essay

Clear structure is a key element of an effective essay. This requires careful thought and you to make choices about the order the reader needs the information to be in. 

These resources contain advice and guides to help you structure your work:

You can use these templates to help develop the structure of your essay.

Go to File > Make a copy... to create your own version of the template that you can edit.

Structuring essay introductions

Play this tutorial in full screen

• Explain the different functions that can be fulfilled by an introduction.
• Provide examples of introductions from the Faculties of Social Sciences, Sciences, and Arts and Humanities.
• Evaluating your own introductions.
• Matching elements of an introduction to a description of their purpose.
• Highlighting where evidence is used to support elements of the introduction.
• Highlighting how introductions can make clear links to the essay question.

In this section, you will learn about the functions and key components of an essay introduction.

An introduction can fulfill the functions below. These often move from a broad overview of the topic in context to a narrow focus on the scope of the discussion, key terms and organisational structure.

Click on each function to reveal more.

• It can establish the overall topic and explain the relevance and significance of the essay question to that topic
• What is the topic?
• Why is the essay question worth exploring? Why is the essay worth reading?
• How is it relevant to wider / important / current debates in the field?
• It can briefly explain the background and context and define the scope of the discussion
• Is it helpful to mention some background, historical or broader factors to give the reader some context?
• Is the discussion set in a particular context (geographical; political; economic; social; historical; legal)?
• Does the essay question set a particular scope or are you going to narrow the scope of the discussion?
• It can highlight key concepts or ideas
• Are the key concepts or ideas contentious or open to interpretation?
• Will the key concepts need to be defined and explained?
• It can signpost the broad organisational structure of the essay
• Indicate what you will cover and a brief overview of the structure of your essay
• points made should be supported by evidence
• clear links should be made to the question

Note: Introductions may not cover all of these elements, and they may not be covered in this order.

Useful Link: See the University of Manchester’s Academic Phrasebank for useful key phrases to introduce work.

In this activity, you will review and evaluate introductions you have written, identifying areas for improvement.

Find some examples of introductions you have written for essays.

• Which of the features do they use?
• Are any elements missing?
• How might you improve them?

For the following tasks, you will be using an example introduction from one of the following three faculties. Select a faculty to use an introduction from a corresponding subject.

In this activity, you will look at examples of introductions, identifying key features and their purpose.

Here is an example question:

Sociology: Examine some of the factors that influence procrastination in individuals, exploring and evaluating their impact. Identify an area(s) for future research, justifying your choice.

And here is a sample introduction written for this question:

Procrastination is a complex concept which manifests itself in different types of behaviour yet is experienced by individuals universally. A useful definition of procrastination is ‘the voluntary delay of important, necessary, and intended action despite knowing there will be negative consequences for this delay’ (Ferrari and Tice, 2000, Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 cited in Sirois and Giguère, 2018). The influences on procrastination are multi-faceted, which makes their study incredibly challenging. Researchers are now producing a body of work dedicated to procrastination; including meta-analyses such as those by Varvaricheva (2010) and Smith (2015). Influences on procrastination can be considered in two categories, factors with external, environmental, sources and factors with internal sources due to individual differences. However, these external and environmental categories are not completely independent of one another and this essay will seek to explore the complexities of this interdependence. This essay will discuss how different factors influence individual procrastination, by first examining how gender, age and personality affect the procrastination trait under internal factors, before discussing the external factors; how task aversiveness, deadlines and the internet affect procrastination behavioural outcomes. This will be followed by a brief exploration of how the two interact. Finally there a number of gaps in the literature, which suggest avenues for future research.

Click on the Next arrow to match each section of this introduction with a description of its purpose.

Procrastination is a complex concept which manifests itself in different types of behaviour yet is experienced by individuals universally.

Signposts the broad organisational structure of the essay

Narrows the topic and explains its relevance or significance to current debates

Defines the scope of the discussion

Establishes the topic and explains its broad significance

Defines key concepts

That's not the right answer

Have another go.

Yes, that's the right answer!

A useful definition of procrastination is ‘the voluntary delay of important, necessary, and intended action despite knowing there will be negative consequences for this delay’ (Ferrari and Tice, 2000, Sirois and Pychyl, 2013 cited in Sirois and Giguère, 2018).

The influences on procrastination are multi-faceted, which makes their study incredibly challenging. Researchers are now producing a body of work dedicated to procrastination; including meta-analyses such as those by Varvaricheva (2010) and Smith (2015).

Influences on procrastination can be considered in two categories, factors with external, environmental, sources and factors with internal sources due to individual differences. However, these external and environmental categories are not completely independent of one another and this essay will seek to explore the complexities of this interdependence.

This essay will discuss how different factors influence individual procrastination, by first examining how gender, age and personality affect the procrastination trait under internal factors, before discussing the external factors; how task aversiveness, deadlines and the internet affect procrastination behavioural outcomes. This will be followed by a brief exploration of how the two interact. Finally there a number of gaps in the literature, which suggest avenues for future research.

In this activity, you will identify how introductions make links to the question.

Here is the question again:

Click to highlight the places where the introduction below links closely to the question.

Have another go. You can remove the highlighting on sections by clicking on them again.

Those are the parts of the introduction that link closely to the question.

In this activity, you will consider how introductions make use of supporting evidence.

• Define key concepts
• Establish the topic and explain its relevance or significance

Click to highlight the places where the introduction below supports points with evidence .

Those are the parts of the introduction that use evidence to support points.

Congratulations! You've made it through the introduction!

Click on the icon at the bottom to restart the tutorial.

Nursing: Drawing on your own experiences and understanding gained from the module readings, discuss and evaluate the values, attributes and behaviours of a good nurse.

The Nursing and Midwifery Council’s (NMC) (2015) Code states that a nurse must always put the care of patients first, be open and honest, and be empathic towards patients and their families. Student nurses are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the need for these key skills even at the interview stage and then gain the experiences to develop certain fundamental attributes, values and behaviours in order to advance through the stages of nursing. This assignment will highlight a variety of values, attributes and behaviours a good nurse should have, focusing on courage in particular. Views of courage from political, professional, and social perspectives will be considered, alongside a comparison between the attribute courage and a student nurse’s abilities. This will be demonstrated using observations from practice, appropriate theorists such as Sellman (2011), Lachman (2010) and philosophers including Aristotle and Ross (2011).

The Nursing and Midwifery Council’s (NMC) (2015) Code states that a nurse must always put the care of patients first, be open and honest, and be empathic towards patients and their families.

Explains the context to the discussion, with reference to the workplace

Defines the scope of the discussion by narrowing it

Defines relevant key concepts or ideas

Student nurses are expected to demonstrate an understanding of the need for these key skills even at the interview stage and then gain the experiences to develop certain fundamental attributes, values and behaviours in order to advance through the stages of nursing.

This assignment will highlight a variety of values, attributes and behaviours a good nurse should have, focusing on courage in particular.

Views of courage from political, professional, and social perspectives will be considered, alongside a comparison between the attribute courage and a student nurse’s abilities. This will be demonstrated using observations from practice, appropriate theorists such as Sellman (2011), Lachman (2010) and philosophers including Aristotle and Ross (2011).

• Define relevant key concepts or ideas
• Signpost the broad organisational structure of the essay, making a clear link to the question

Archaeology: Explain some of the ways in which Star Carr has been re-interpreted since the initial discovery in the 1940s. Briefly evaluate how the results of recent excavations further dramatically affect our understanding of this site.

Star Carr has become the ‘best known’ Mesolithic site in Britain (Conneller, 2007, 3), in part because of its high levels of artefact preservation due to waterlogging, as the site was once on the Eastern edge of the ancient Lake Flixton, close to a small peninsula (Taylor, 2007). First excavated by Grahame Clark in 1949-51, there was a further invasive investigation in 1985 and 1989, again in 2006-8, and 2010. An impressive haul of artefacts have been excavated over the years, including bone and antler tools, barbed points, flint tools and microliths, and enigmatic red deer frontlets (Milner et al., 2016). Since Clark’s first published report in 1954 there have been numerous re-examinations of the subject, including by Clark himself in 1974. Resulting interpretations of the site have been much debated; it has been classified as ‘in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition’ (Taylor et al., 2017). This discussion will explore the ways in which the site has been variously re-interpreted during this time period, and consider how more recent study of the site has prompted new perspectives.

Star Carr has become the ‘best known’ Mesolithic site in Britain (Conneller, 2007, 3), in part because of its high levels of artefact preservation due to waterlogging, as the site was once on the Eastern edge of the ancient Lake Flixton, close to a small peninsula (Taylor, 2007).

Explains the background to the discussion and its significance

Establishes the topic

Explains the scope of the topic and highlights key interpretations

First excavated by Grahame Clark in 1949-51, there was a further invasive investigation in 1985 and 1989, again in 2006-8, and 2010. An impressive haul of artefacts have been excavated over the years, including bone and antler tools, barbed points, flint tools and microliths, and enigmatic red deer frontlets (Milner et al., 2016).

Since Clark’s first published report in 1954 there have been numerous re-examinations of the subject, including by Clark himself in 1974. Resulting interpretations of the site have been much debated; it has been classified as ‘in situ settlement, a refuse dump, and the result of culturally prescribed acts of deposition’ (Taylor et al., 2017).

This discussion will explore the ways in which the site has been variously re-interpreted during this time period, and consider how more recent study of the site has prompted new perspectives.

• Establish the topic, explains the background and significance
• Explains the significance of the topic
• Highlights key interpretations

Structuring essay conclusions

In this section you will consider the different functions a conclusion can fulfil, look at examples of conclusions, and identify key features and their purpose.

A conclusion can fulfil the functions below. These often move from a narrow focus on the outcomes of the discussion to a broad view of the topic's relevance to the wider context.

Summary of the main points in relation to the question

• This might involve restating the scope of the discussion and clarifying if there any limitations of your discussion or of the evidence provided
• This may include synthesising the key arguments and weighing up the evidence

Arrive at a judgement or conclusion

• Having weighed up the evidence, come to a judgement about the strength of the arguments

Restate the relevance or significance of the topic to the wider context

• Make it clear why your conclusions - which are based on your discussion through the essay - are important or significant in relation to wider/current debates in the field

Make recommendations or indicate the direction for further study, if applicable

• Recommendations may be for further research or for practice/policy
• What further research/investigation would be necessary to overcome the limitations above?
• What are the implications of your findings for policy/practice?

Note: Conclusions may not cover all of these elements, and they may not be covered in this order.

• Clear links should be made to the question
• Do not make new points in the conclusion

Useful Link: See the University of Manchester’s Academic Phrasebank for useful key phrases to conclude work.

In this activity, you will look at an example conclusion, identifying key features and their purpose.

In this task, you will be using an example conclusion from one of the following three faculties. Select a faculty to use a conclusion from a corresponding subject.

And here is a sample conclusion written for the question:

In conclusion procrastination is a complex psychological phenomenon that is influenced by a number of factors, both internal and external. However it has a hugely multifaceted nature and the factors that influence it are not truly independent of one another. Character traits and the environmental impact on behaviour are interrelated; for example similar procrastination outcomes may arise from a highly conscientious individual in a distracting environment and an individual low in conscientiousness in a non-distracting setting. This means that future studies need to be very considered in their approach to separating, or controlling for, these factors. These further studies are important and urgently needed as the impact of procrastination on society is far-reaching. For instance: individuals delay contributing to a pension, meaning that old age may bring poverty for many; couples put off entering into formal contracts with each other, potentially increasing disputes over child custody and inheritance; and indeed women delay starting a family and increasing age leads to decreased fertility, thus leading to higher societal costs of providing assisted fertilisation. Furthermore one could expand the scope to include the effects on children of being born to older parents (such as risks of inherited genetic defects). These are themselves wide fields of study and are mentioned merely to illustrate the importance of further research. Until the nature of influences on procrastination is fully understood, our development of approaches to reduce procrastination is likely to be hindered.

Click on the Next arrow to match each section of the conclusion with a description of its purpose.

In conclusion procrastination is a complex psychological phenomenon that is influenced by a number of factors, both internal and external.

Synthesises the key arguments and weighs up the evidence

Indicates limitations

Restates the scope of the discussion

Indicates the direction and significance for further study

Summary of the main point in relation to the question

However it has a hugely multifaceted nature and the factors that influence it are not truly independent of one another.

Character traits and the environmental impact on behaviour are interrelated; for example similar procrastination outcomes may arise from a highly conscientious individual in a distracting environment and an individual low in conscientiousness in a non-distracting setting.

This means that future studies need to be very considered in their approach to separating, or controlling for, these factors. These further studies are important and urgently needed as the impact of procrastination on society is far-reaching. For instance: individuals delay contributing to a pension, meaning that old age may bring poverty for many; couples put off entering into formal contracts with each other, potentially increasing disputes over child custody and inheritance; and indeed women delay starting a family and increasing age leads to decreased fertility, thus leading to higher societal costs of providing assisted fertilisation. Furthermore one could expand the scope to include the effects on children of being born to older parents (such as risks of inherited genetic defects). These are themselves wide fields of study and are mentioned merely to illustrate the importance of further research.

Until the nature of influences on procrastination is fully understood, our development of approaches to reduce procrastination is likely to be hindered.

Opportunities for nurses to display courage occur every day, although it is at the nurse’s discretion whether they act courageously or not. As discussed in this assignment, courage is likewise an important attribute for a good nurse to possess and could be the difference between good and bad practice. It is significantly important that nurses speak up about bad practice to minimize potential harm to patients. However nurses do not need to raise concerns in order to be courageous, as nurses must act courageously every day. Professional bodies such as the RCN and NMC recognise that courage is important by highlighting this attribute in the RCN principles. The guidelines for raising concerns unite the attribute courage with the RCN’s principles of nursing practice by improving nurses’ awareness of how to raise concerns. Lachman’s (2010) CODE is an accessible model that modern nurses could use as a strategy to help them when raising concerns. Although students find it difficult to challenge more senior nursing professionals, they could also benefit from learning the acronym to help them as they progress through their career. For nursing students, courage could be seen as a learning development of the ability to confront their fear of personal emotional consequences from participating in what they believe to be the right action. On the whole a range of values, attributes and behaviours are needed in order to be a good nurse, including being caring, honest, compassionate, reliable and professional. These qualities are all important, but courage is an attribute that is widely overlooked for nurses to possess but vitally fundamental.

Opportunities for nurses to display courage occur every day, although it is at the nurse’s discretion whether they act courageously or not. As discussed in this assignment, courage is likewise an important attribute for a good nurse to possess and could be the difference between good and bad practice. It is significantly important that nurses speak up about bad practice to minimize potential harm to patients. However nurses do not need to raise concerns in order to be courageous, as nurses must act courageously every day.

Arrives at an overall judgement or conclusion

Make recommendations for practice

Professional bodies such as the RCN and NMC recognise that courage is important by highlighting this attribute in the RCN principles. The guidelines for raising concerns unite the attribute courage with the RCN’s principles of nursing practice by improving nurses’ awareness of how to raise concerns. Lachman’s (2010) CODE is an accessible model that modern nurses could use as a strategy to help them when raising concerns.

Although students find it difficult to challenge more senior nursing professionals, they could also benefit from learning the acronym to help them as they progress through their career. For nursing students, courage could be seen as a learning development of the ability to confront their fear of personal emotional consequences from participating in what they believe to be the right action.

On the whole a range of values, attributes and behaviours are needed in order to be a good nurse, including being caring, honest, compassionate, reliable and professional. These qualities are all important, but courage is an attribute that is widely overlooked for nurses to possess but vitally fundamental.

Star Carr is one of the most fascinating and informative Mesolithic sites in the world. What was once considered to be the occasional winter settlement of a group of hunter-gatherer families, now appears to be a site of year-round settlement occupied over centuries. Since its initial discovery and excavation in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a great deal of further data has been collected, altering interpretations made by the primary excavators who pioneered analysis of the site. What once was considered a typical textbook Mesolithic hunting encampment is now theorized to be a site of ritual importance. The site has produced unique findings such as a multitude of barbed points, twenty one antlered headdresses and the earliest known example of a permanent living structure in Britain. These factors will combine to immortalise the site, even when its potential for further research is thoroughly decayed, which tragically could be very soon (Taylor et al. 2010).

Star Carr is one of the most fascinating and informative Mesolithic sites in the world.

Synthesise the main points

Limitations and implications for future research

Restate the significance of the topic to the wider context

What was once considered to be the occasional winter settlement of a group of hunter-gatherer families, now appears to be a site of year-round settlement occupied over centuries. Since its initial discovery and excavation in the late 1940s and early 1950s, a great deal of further data has been collected, altering interpretations made by the primary excavators who pioneered analysis of the site. What once was considered a typical textbook Mesolithic hunting encampment is now theorized to be a site of ritual importance. The site has produced unique findings such as a multitude of barbed points, twenty one antlered headdresses and the earliest known example of a permanent living structure in Britain.

These factors will combine to immortalise the site, even when its potential for further research is thoroughly decayed, which tragically could be very soon (Taylor et al. 2010).

Congratulations! You've made it through the conclusion!

Click on the icon below to restart the tutorial.

Other support for essay writing

Online resources.

The general writing pages of this site offer guidance that can be applied to all types of writing, including essays. Also check your department guidance and VLE sites for tailored resources.

Other useful resources for essay writing:

Appointments and workshops 

There is lots of support and advice for essay writing. This is likely to be in your department, and particularly from your academic supervisor and module tutors, but there is also central support, which you can access using the links below. 

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How to write an essay

Essay writing is an inevitable part of the student experience. To achieve top grades on these assignments, discover how to compose a well-written essay

You might think you know how to write a good essay from your time at school but writing an essay at undergraduate level is a whole new ball game. Taking the time to properly plan your work can lead to higher marks, with lecturers welcoming a logical structure that clearly demonstrates your understanding of the subject.

However, knowing where to begin and how to go about completing the assignment is not always easy - especially if you're still adjusting to university life and you haven't written at undergraduate level before.

'There is an art (and a bit of a science) to every type of writing,' says Dr Rushana Khusainova, lecturer in marketing at the University of Bristol. 'By mastering the art of academic essay writing, you'll also be mastering the skill for writing general and business emails, reports, etc. Overall, it's a vital skill to have.'

Katherine Cox, professor and head of department for humanities and law at Bournemouth University agrees. 'Getting feedback on your development is a key part of developing as a student. Essay writing is an excellent opportunity for formal feedback on your progress, and like any skill it needs practice and polish.'

Here we'll cover the seven main points of planning and executing a well-written essay:

• understanding the question
• researching and gathering helpful resources
• putting together an essay plan
• writing the essay
• tackling the introduction and conclusion
• reviewing what you’ve written.

Mastering how to write an essay early on will also help you prepare for  writing your dissertation  in your final year.

Understand the question

The first step in tackling an essay is to make sure that you understand what is being asked of you.

'I recommend that you read and re-read the essay question,' advises Dr Khusainova. 'With each time, the question will feel clearer.' Break it down into its component parts and pay particular attention to instruction words, for example, 'explain', 'discuss', 'outline' - what do these mean in practice? What are you being asked to do? Be aware that essays take several different forms and a 'compare and contrast' essay requires a different approach to an analytical ('analyse') or argumentative ('critically examine') essay.

For example, the question, 'Compare and contrast the representation of masculinity in two James Bond films from the 1960s and 2000s', can be classified like this:

• instruction (i.e. compare and contrast)
• topic (i.e. the representation of masculinity)
• focus (i.e. in two James Bond films)
• further information (i.e. from the 1960s and 2000s).

'Take coloured pens and highlight each sub-question or sub-task within the essay brief,' explains Dr Khusainova. 'Write bullet points for all sub-questions of the essay. I would recommend using pen and paper. Research suggests that when we use pen and paper to write down our thoughts, our brain structures information in a more efficient way.'

Ask yourself:

• What is significant about the question and its topic?
• What existing knowledge do you have that will help you answer this question?
• What do you need to find out?
• How are you going to successfully address this question?
• What logical sequence will your ideas appear in?

If you still don't understand the question or the complexity of the response expected from you, don't be afraid to ask for clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you need it. If you have questions, speak up when the essay is set rather than leaving it too late.

Gather resources

With so much information available, it's vital that you only look for directly relevant material when researching. Decide where the gaps in your knowledge and understanding are, and identify the areas where you need more supporting evidence. Make a list of keywords that describe the topic and use them to search with.

Useful resources include:

• course material
• lecture notes
• library books
• journal articles

Engage in active reading and keep organised with effective note-taking. Once you've done your research, create a mind map. Carefully note the key theories, information and quotes that will help you to answer all components of the question. Consider grouping these into three or four main themes, including only the most significant points. You must be ruthless and exclude ideas that don't fit in seamlessly with your essay's focus.

Create an essay plan

'You can write an essay without planning, but I'm not sure you can write a good essay without planning,' says Katherine.

When you have an idea of the points you're going to address in your essay, and a rough idea of the order in which these will appear, you're ready to start planning. There are two main ways to do this:

• Linear plans  - useful for essays requiring a rigid structure. They provide a chronological breakdown of the key points you're going to address.
• Tabular plans  - best for comparative assignments. You'll be able to better visualise how the points you're contrasting differ across several aspects.

Scrutinise the notes you've already made - including those from your evaluation of relevant materials from your literature search - and ensure they're placed into a logical order.

There are different approaches to planning an essay. Some students might prefer a step-by-step, structured approach, while others might find it helpful to begin in a more fluid way - jotting down keywords and ideas that they later develop into a more structured working plan.   Essay planning can take several forms, 'for example, you might try a mind map, a collage, or use headings. You might prefer to plan in written form or online. You'll also turn ideas over in your head - just remember to jot down these insights,' adds Katherine.

'In my experience most students find it helpful to start by writing an essay skeleton - a bullet pointed structure of the essay,' says Dr Khusainova.

'I also advise taking an inverted pyramid approach to the storyline. This is where you start broad and slowly narrow down your focus to the specific essay question.'

Write clearly and concisely

Most university essays are set with a word count and deadline in place. It's therefore important that you don't waste time or words on waffle. You need to write clearly and concisely and ensure that every sentence and paragraph works towards answering the essay question.

Aim to write a first draft where you cover everything in your plan. You can then refine and edit this in your second draft.

'A successful essay is one that answers all parts of the essay question,' explains Dr Khusainova. 'Also consider elements such as the level of critical thinking and whether it's written in a suitable style.

'One of the most important (and coincidentally, the most challenging) elements of essay writing is ensuring your assignment has a logical storyline. Make sure no idea is coming out of the blue and that the discussion flows logically.'

Also consider your method of referencing. Some institutions specify a preferred citation style such as The Harvard System. Whatever referencing system you're using ensure that you're doing so correctly to avoid plagiarism. It should go without saying that your writing needs to be your own.

If you need help Katherine points out 'you can turn to your tutors and your peers. Perhaps you can you organise a study group and discuss one another's ideas? It's tempting with new and emerging artificial intelligence technology to turn to these resources but they are in their infancy and not particularly reliable. A number of universities advise you to avoid these resources altogether.'

Carefully consider the introduction and conclusion

Starting an essay and writing an impactful conclusion are often the trickiest parts.

It can be useful to outline your introduction during the early stages of writing your essay. You can then use this as a frame of reference for your writing. If you adopt this approach be aware that your ideas will likely develop or change as you write, so remember to revisit and review your introduction in later stages to ensure it reflects the content of your final essay.

While the conclusion may not be the first thing you write, it's still helpful to consider the end point of your essay early on, so that you develop a clear and consistent argument. The conclusion needs to do justice to your essay, as it will leave the greatest impression on your reader.

On the other hand, if you're unsure what shape your argument may take, it's best to leave both your introduction and conclusion until last.

Evaluate what you've written

Once you've written and edited your essay, leave it alone for a couple of days if possible. Return to it with fresh eyes and give it a final check.

'Reading an essay out loud works well for some students,' says Dr Khusainova. 'Swapping drafts with a classmate could also work on some modules.'

Don't skip this step, final checks are important. This is when you can pick up on formatting and spelling errors and correct any referencing mistakes.

• Check that your introduction provides a clear purpose for your essay.
• Ensure that the conclusion provides a clear response to the essay question, summarising your key findings/argument. 
• Check the structure of your paragraphs for clear topic and link sentences. Are the paragraphs in a logical order with a clear and consistent line of argument that a reader can follow?
• Read your essay slowly and carefully. Writing has a rhythm - does your writing flow and is it correctly punctuated?
• Remove unnecessary repetition.
• Review the examples and evidence you've used. Is there enough to support your argument?

'Receiving feedback can be an emotional experience - so be honest with yourself,' advises Katherine. 'What is the feedback telling you - what are your strengths? What areas could you improve?'

Find out more

• Struggling with your workload? Here are  5 ways to manage student stress .
• Discover  how to revise for exams .
• Take a look at 7 time management tips for students .

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Studying at university

• Being organised
• Searching for information
• Reading and evaluating information
• Referencing
• Laboratory reports and lab books
• Dissertations, projects and theses
• Reflective writing
• Book reviews
• Notes and other writing tasks
• Strategies for writing
• Developing as a writer
• Assessment and feedback

People who can help

An essay is a piece of academic writing which makes an evidenced argument in response to a question or series of questions. Some essays aim to prove something by developing a case, by reasoning, using examples and by taking a position. Essays may also involve providing clear explanations about a topic and allow you to demonstrate your understanding. In many cases, writing essays will involve gathering examples and evidence, and involves carrying out some initial research and reading.

Sometimes you will be assigned an essay question; in other cases, you will be given a topic and it is up to you to identify the possible questions you will seek to address in your essay.

At university, you will therefore usually be expected to read more widely and support your essay argument by referring to a more diverse range of sources and evidence.  Good essays will still need to meet important criteria that you have probably encountered at school and college: essays should be appropriately presented, clearly structured, and should demonstrate they have been proofread to check for clarity of expression and to minimise errors.  However, you will also be expected to follow academic conventions on how to reference existing research from books and journals as well as other appropriate sources.  You will need to engage critically with what has been written on the subject so that you explain the significance and importance of issues and examples.  You may also need to discuss the consequences and purposes of theories, methods and analyses presented by existing scholarship beyond identifying what has been said or done. 

For many students, writing essays at university may be difficult to begin with and it is very important to pay attention and try and respond to any feedback you receive.

Starting an essay

The first thing you should do is to read any guidance your school has provided and make sure you understand how your essay will be assessed. Pay particular attention to any assessment criteria or marking sheets, as well as any feedback you've been given previously.

• Identify the question(s) to be addressed
• Develop your thinking and reading to note down some initial ideas and thoughts
• Don't become fixed in your early ideas: remain open minded, as you may wish to change your perspective as you read more
• Consider the arguments against your view - how could you defend or rebut alternative positions
• Begin to think of the structure of your essay and the sequence you wish to introduce points. Work towards sketching out an outline of how these points can be linked together
• Start writing - some students find they can refine their ideas by trying to express them in written form
• Be prepared to re-draft your work before final submission
• Where possible, give yourself time to put the essay aside for a day or two and come back to it during the drafting phases. Seeing it with fresh eyes will be particularly useful when re-considering the structure and placing of paragraphs.
• Try asking friends to read your draft work. It can be very difficult after repeated reading to see your own mistakes.  Alternatively, use text-speech software such as TextHelp Read&Write (available on the UoN network) to read the text aloud to you.
• When you have a fairly complete and well-organised draft, revise sentences, with special attention to transitions, checking that a reader will be able to follow the sequences of ideas within and between sentences and between paragraphs.

Points to remember

Check that when you are starting work on your essay and reading materials and sources, make a clear note of the bibliographic details (e.g. author, date, title, publisher etc.) as you will need this information to accurately complete any citation of references and list of sources or bibliography.  Harvard is often used in many schools, but check and follow the recommended system of the School or department offering the module.

Before submission, proofread the final copy checking for grammar and spelling mistakes. You might find it helpful to print out your essay and make notes on the hard copy.

Structuring your essay

Your structure should embody a basic plan necessary to write an essay relevant to the title.

It will need an introduction, a main body and a conclusion (or summing up at the end). However beyond this basic structure, it is likely that your school can provide more detailed guidance.

Introductions

Introductions are like an itinerary or road-map for your reader.  They will usually identify what specific questions or issues you are tackling in the essay (the focus) and indicate how you will work through answering the question/title you are writing about (the method or theory applied). 

It can help to think of the introduction to an essay being around 10% of the total word count.  For a short essay of 1500 words, it may be just a single paragraph of approximately 150 words.  For longer essays, you may need to set the scene of the topic first, so it may be two or three paragraphs in length.

The paragraphs in the main body develop your argument or response to the essay title, using examples to explore the different aspects of the question.  Think about how each paragraph builds up the argument and use connecting words and phrases to link together the paragraphs.  In some departments, you may be encouraged to use headings for the different sections, but check this with your assignment guidelines or tutors. 

Conclusions

The conclusion will indicate the overall themes and summarise the key points you have raised in the essay, identifying how this has addressed the question.  It can help to think of the conclusion as being around 5-10% of the total word count.  For a short essay of 1500 words, it may be a single paragraph of approximately 100-150 words.  For longer essays, the conclusion may be a couple of paragraphs long. The conclusion is where you summarise and synthesize the significance or importance of the key evidence and examples you have discussed.

Remember to not include any new ideas or information in your conclusion.

Proofreading

Many students find it easier to proofread from the printed page rather than a computer screen, but do think about using technology to support your proofreading process.  Text-to-speech software such as TextHelp Read&Write can read text aloud to you, highlighting each word as it reads, and can help identify homophones along with a range of other proofreading support strategies. Read&Write is available on the UoN network. 

• Check paragraphing for length, transitional links, and internal coherence
• Check word choice - use a dictionary to check accurate meanings
• Review your style and check for clarity - reading aloud can often help
• incomplete sentences
• missing or mis-used punctuation 
• possessives (The dog's bone or the two dogs' bone)
• matching verbs and subjects (plural or singular).
• Check spelling and typing for possible errors. Run a spell checker, but remember if your mis-spelling actually spells another real word it often won't identify these.

Evaluating your essay

When finishing an essay you should check it against the marking criteria provided by your school. Here are some useful questions to ask yourself:

• Did you give a brief introduction that provides any indication of the overall flow of your essay?
• Did you use a logical progression of concepts and information using subheadings, if appropriate, for the main body?
• Did you include too little information?  You will need detail, or specifics and examples.
• Did you include too much?  You often don't need more than one or two examples to make a point; you need to make theories, issues or arguments clear, but not verbose. Make sure you keep within the word limit set for the essay.
• If appropriate to your discipline, did you use clearly labelled diagrams, figures, or images that are referred to in the body of the text? (Diagrams are not free-standing items and are of benefit only when they highlight key points or mechanisms.)
• Did you write clearly and unambiguously? Keep your sentence construction simple, and avoid overlong sentences. Punctuate correctly.
• Did you give a brief concluding paragraph to round off your essay?
• Did you acknowledge your sources using the appropriate referencing system?

Further reading

• Creative and critical thinking

Preparing for assessment

• Using feedback

Reading and interpreting sources and data

• Finding sources
• Reading strategies
• Citing, referencing and bibliographies

Practical strategies for managing writing

• Preparation and planning
• Technical advice on writing
• Choosing your words and improving your writing
• Writing critically
• Referencing and bibliographies 

more from Academic Support study resources 

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Introduction to Academic Writing: Writing

• Essay Structure
• Argumentation

Overview of academic writing

'Your success with academic writing depends upon how well you understand what youare doing as you write and then how you approach the writing task.' - L. Lennie Irvin

The main task of academic writing is to refine and focus an idea through research and interrogation, then to clearly state and properly support that idea with effective argumentation and adequate evidence. Any style of writing that stands in the way of your ideas is not serving your task: to communicate. Be sure to ask for specific requirements within your discipline.

Guide contents

The tabs of this guide will support you in developing a strong foundation for your writing at university. The sections are organised as follows:

• The Six Cs  - Presents a quick, helpful overview of the main qualities of effective academic writing.
• Essay Structure  - Defines the primary building blocks of an academic essay, with videos to illustrate.
• Argumentation   - Distinguishes between argument in academia and common usage, and conveys the importance of evidence in academic writing.

The six Cs of academic writing

There is a common misconception that academic writing should be difficult to read. How many books or articles have you read where the language obstructs the clarity of the writing and the meaning of the text?

Good academic writing should be complex, but the complexity of your work should stem from the ideas presented and the depth of your discussion, not from the style of communication or the language used.

The six Cs provide a helpful way to prioritise and think about the qualities of effective writing in academic contexts:

Considerate

Have a clear picture of your intended reader and tailor your writing to meet those expectations. Consider what knowledge they might possess and whether they have any potential biases.

Don’t absorb information in a passive manner. Engage with your sources and the topic by investigating ideas thoroughly.

Your primary aim should be communicating your ideas and your argument as clearly and directly as possible. Avoid confusing punctuation, long and convoluted sentences and any unnecessarily complex language.

Before you submit an assignment, read it aloud to yourself. If you find it difficult to recite or run out of breath before you reach the end of a sentence, you should consider simplifying your prose.

Be direct and avoid any unnecessary phrases or paragraphs. Be mindful of any repetition and always try to ensure that your language directly communicates your ideas. Also, resist any unnecessary deviations that distract from your focus.

Ensure that the ideas and evidence presented directly relate to your main point. Think carefully about the structure and linearity of your argument. Does your argument progress in a logical manner? Give careful thought to the ordering of your paragraphs and consider how they relate to one another.

Be sure that the information presented is accurate and that the general formatting and referencing adheres to the standards set by your discipline.

Practicing the six Cs

Academic writing entails a whole suite of skills that you will continually develop throughout your degree. It takes time, trial, and error to discover your academic voice. To scaffold your abilities in writing clearly and critically, consider studying phrase banks to explore the kind of language typically used to convey ideas in academia.

– Academic phrasebank (University of Manchester)

– 'They say / I say': the moves that matter in academic writing (Graff, Birkenstein, & Durst, 2012)

The importance of structure

An academic essay should explicitly state its purpose and outline the way in which it plans to achieve that purpose. It should then methodically move through critical points supported by evidence until it supports all its claims and achieves its purpose. Therefore, the strength of an academic essay lies in its logical argumentation through sound evidence and clear structure.

The basics of structure

Despite the variety you will find in the topics covered and arguments made across academic essays, the same basic structure underpins the writing. Here are the building blocks you will normally use to build an academic essay:

Check the rubric or assignment brief for any details about the essay title. In some cases, the module lead will ask everyone to use a predetermined title. If this is the case, follow those instructions.

If you have a chance to write your own title, make it short, but pertinent. Don’t just write the essay question. Capitalise it in the manner dictated by your subject area's style guide ( find the link to your style guide for details). Many markers love a clever pun in the title, but do get to know your instructor's personality before trying this out!

Introduction

Introduce us to your topic, your main argument, and how you plan to support that argument. Explain what you plan to write and why it matters. The introduction typically opens with broader context and then narrows to your specific aim and thesis.

For a detailed exploration of the introduction and its components, please see our Crafting the Introduction guide .

Body paragraphs

Each paragraph should have a central focus that helps to develop and validate your central thesis. Establish that focus using a clear topic sentence. Within each paragraph, you should then move methodically through specific pieces of evidence and focused commentary connected to the topic sentence. Finally, you transition to the next topic (in a new paragraph).

In this way, your whole essay can move from more general writing (i.e., introducing) to more specific writing (i.e., citing evidence, supporting claims). If you cannot summarise each body paragraph into a few words easily, think about reorganising the essay's body, perhaps by amending the focus of your paragraphs.

Tip:  There aren't hard and fast rules governing how long a body paragraph can be. However, if your paragraph lasts for an entire page, think about breaking it up. Consider your own experience as a reader: if you shudder when an author forces you to wade through a whole-page paragraph, then why subject  your  readers to that tedium? 

Some people like a conclusion that reiterates the thesis and summarises the evidence. Other people like the conclusion to offer a new synthesis of the evidence to propose a solution. Others like a conclusion that offers new questions that have been raised. Ask your tutor which they prefer.

Diving deeper into structure

The two recorded webinars linked below expand on the concepts introduced on this page. Check them out to develop your skills in devising and honing the building blocks of a strong academic essay.

Argument in academia

There are different ways to understand the concept of argument.  Indeed, scholars have created many frameworks and definitions to express exactly what an argument entails.

When writing an essay for university, the most important distinction to make is that between  argument  as it's understood in  academia  versus  common usage . In daily life, the word argument  gives the sense of something adversarial or even aggressive. Arguments depicted in the media can be very binary in their presentation: 'Stance A' versus 'Stance B', for example, with each side believing the other to be wrong, wrong,  wrong.

In academia,   however,  argument  is often far more subtle and nuanced. Emphasis is placed on how you use critical thinking and evidence (e.g. journal articles, statistics, experiment results, etc.) to support claims.

The Greek triad

The Greeks had a famous triad of components informing the appeal of a specific argument: ethos , pathos , and logos .

• The identity and background of the writer is often referred to as their ethos . Expertise is proved in the academic world through research, publication, and experience.
• Pathos refers to the emotional component of a piece of writing - does the text make its argument by causing panic, fear, love, comfort, etc.?
• And lastly, logos refers to the ability of the evidence to support a logical conclusion based on facts to remove doubt/disagreement.

Perhaps the most common place we see all of these traits working together is in the courtroom. Think of legal dramas and how sometimes lawyers appeal to the identities and emotions of the jurors, or how they attack the character of a witness, or when they argue that the evidence in the case itself is all that matters. Some people say that a trial is merely a war of competing narratives, but it could also be called a war of argumentation styles. Each case requires its own approach based on the people involved, the evidence, and the audience.

In academic writing , logos is the most important element. Any scholar wishing to publish based more on their name than on their evidence will find themselves in trouble eventually. Also, any academic writer wishing to appeal to the reader’s prejudices or desires will also find that their writing, however exceptional it may be, does not meet the required level of argumentation.

It is through sound reasoning and quality evidence, communicated clearly, that academic writers most often succeed. That is not to say there isn’t a place for compelling writing or the power of experience to support an argument. But, there must always be a foundation of solid evidence and reasoning in academic texts.

– Watch this brief video on how to use evidence in your academic writing for more on using sources to logically support your points.

For some more good tips on strong and weak arguments, be sure to check out our Writing Critically guide and Critical Writing webinar recording !

• Last Updated: Nov 9, 2023 11:22 AM
• URL: https://library.soton.ac.uk/academic_writing

Skills for Learning : Essay Writing

An essay is a piece of academic writing that answers a question or explores one specific topic. Essays are the most common form of assessment in universities. You will be expected to build an argument based on evidence gathered from information sources. Essays tend to have three main parts: the introduction, main body and conclusion.

We run interactive workshops to help you develop your essay writing skills. Find out more on the Skills for Learning Workshops page.

We have online academic skills modules within MyBeckett for all levels of university study. These modules will help your academic development and support your success at LBU. You can work through the modules at your own pace, revisiting them as required. Find out more from our FAQ What academic skills modules are available?

How to approach your essay

• Research your question
• Organise your ideas
• Choose your thesis statement
• Plan your paragraphs
• Write your first draft
• Edit your work
• The final proofread

Use the question you’ve been set to help you develop a plan for literature searching. For most topics, there will be many books and journal articles available. When searching Discover and subject databases , focus on keywords from the question. Download the Evidence Matrix Worksheet to help you.

• Evidence Matrix Worksheet

Look for instruction words and phrases. These provide clues as to what the question is asking you to do. The key words in the question might include ‘What?’, ‘When?’ or ‘Why?’, in addition to topic-specific terms. Download the Essay Planning Worksheet and Understanding Assignment Questions Worksheets to help you.

• Essay Planning Worksheet
• Understanding Assignment Questions Worksheet

After doing some research, you can begin to organise your ideas. Making an essay plan will help you to formulate an answer. You should plan before you start to write so that your answer is clear and logical. Try making a detailed list of your ideas using bullet points. Download the Essay Planning Worksheet for helpful methods to organise your thoughts.

You need to paraphrase and summarise information from published sources. Download the Paraphrasing and Summarising Information Worksheet to help you develop this skill.

• Paraphrasing and Summarising Information

Comparing information from different sources will help you include critical thinking in your essays. Download our Synthesising Sources in Writing Worksheet to help you with this. 

• Synthesising Sources in Writing Worksheet

An academic essay is usually an argument, where you give evidence to make a case. A thesis statement is a summary of your main argument. It is usually expressed in one sentence in the first paragraph of your essay. The purpose is to tell your reader how you are going to answer the question. An example thesis statement might be: ‘Coffee is more effective at improving energy levels than tea because it contains a greater amount of caffeine’.

Your essay should provide evidence to show that your thesis statement is valid. Keep referring to your thesis statement throughout and be sure to maintain one central argument. This approach will allow you to remain focused as you write.

The structure of your essay is very important. Each paragraph should contain one key idea, and each idea should link to the next. The order of the paragraphs should be logical. Think about grouping similar ideas together – you might structure chronologically or by theme.

Each paragraph should contribute to your overall argument. The PEAL model  (which stands for ‘Point, Evidence, Analysis, Link’) provides a basic structure for your paragraphs. With this approach, each paragraph is built around one clear point backed up with evidence. Before moving on to the next paragraph, you must explain the relevance of the point. Finally, link back to your main argument or forward to the next paragraph. PEAL is especially useful if you struggle to structure your academic writing. Download the PEAL Paragraph Structure Worksheet to help you develop this skill. 

• PEAL Paragraph Structure Worksheet

Use reporting verbs to explain and comment on your evidence. Download the Reporting Verbs Worksheet to help you with using these.

• Reporting Verbs Worksheet

Your first draft does not have to be perfect. In fact, it may look very different from the finished essay. The first draft is about having a go at answering the question. Certainly, you should not see your first attempt as the final piece. You will always gain more marks by editing your work before you submit your assignment. Try making notes in the margins of your first draft to remind you of what to add or change.

This is your opportunity to check your work thoroughly. Examine the content and structure of the essay. Have you answered the question and fulfilled the assignment brief? Is your answer structured logically? Are there problems with grammar and spelling? Leave yourself plenty of time before the deadline to edit your work. You may want to put the essay aside for a day or so. When you return to it, you’re more likely to notice issues that need resolving.

Check the structure of your work by making a reverse outline. Download the Reverse Outlines Worksheet to help you with this. 

• Reverse Outlines Worksheet

Top tips! Keep referring to the question to see if each paragraph contributes to your overall answer. Take a look at our editing and proofreading advice to help with the editing process.

The final read-through is when you check for spelling, typographical and formatting errors. It’s also wise to check your referencing (both in-text citations and the reference list) is consistent and accurate. Take time and care over this stage. Your tutor is sure to notice if you skip this important step.

Top tips! Don’t leave proofreading until the last minute! If you rush, you’ll miss obvious problems and your work will be less polished.

Find out more about proofreading .

If you haven't already done so, this is a good time to review any feedback you have received on previous work. Download the Feedback Action Plan Worksheet to help you with this.

• Feedback Action Plan Worksheet

Main features of an essay

Introduction

This tells the reader how you are going to answer the question. Give your reader a clear summary of what you are going to argue (your thesis statement) and what points you will make. Additionally, outline any methodologies or theoretical frameworks you will use. In short, show what you’re aiming to achieve with the essay. The main body of the essay will expand on these aims.

This is the analytical part of the essay, where you will demonstrate your knowledge. You should use critical thinking skills to form your own argument. Each paragraph should make a different point and contribute to answering the overall question. The paragraphs should be presented in a logical order. You must give evidence from your reading to back up your argument. This is the longest part of the essay and your opportunity to show what you know!

The conclusion is where you summarise how you have answered the essay question. Return to the key points established in the introduction. Explain how the main body of the essay has examined these points to create your argument. In many essays, the conclusion can also be used to put forward your own ideas for future research.

Artificial intelligence tools

Before using any generative artificial intelligence or paraphrasing tools in your assessments, you should check if this is permitted on your course.

If their use is permitted on your course, you must  acknowledge any use of generative artificial intelligence tools  such as ChatGPT or paraphrasing tools (e.g., Grammarly, Quillbot, etc.), even if you have only used them to generate ideas for your assignment or for proofreading.

• Essay X-ray tool

You might be unsure how to get started with writing your essay. Try using our interactive Essay X-ray tool for some ideas.

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Skills for Learning home

• Academic Integrity Module in MyBeckett
• Assignment Calculator
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• International Students' Academic Introduction
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• Essay Writing
• Higher Education Student Handbook

Some assignments, and most examination answers, will be required to be presented in the form of an essay.

An essay is a continuous piece of writing in which ideas, propositions, research and justifications are put forward and analysed in the form of a series of paragraphs.

The structure is different from that of a written report (see Report Writing below), which is separated into sections by numbers and headings: in the absence of such guidance for the reader of an essay, it is vitally important that the essay structure is planned so that each paragraph follows logically from the other and is wrapped up in an introductory paragraph/s and concluding paragraph/s.

The reader (lecturer/marker) needs to understand clearly:

• What is being said
• How what is said is justified

How do you know you have achieved both? Below are some suggested means of checking.

1. Do you understand the essay question? What is the proposition/hypothesis put forward for discussion/analysis? If you can rephrase the question for yourself then, yes. If not, ask for help.

2. Is there a structure? An outline is essential: What are you going to say, and what evidence will you bring in to support it?

3. Research: Key texts/sources: have you found out who the key (acknowledged experts) authors are on the topic under discussion? If not, the reader is not going to be convinced by what you say, because you are clearly not in possession of the key facts. Your reader (lecturer) is an informed reader i.e. in possession of the key facts.

4. Research: Relevance: the research process will provide you with a wide range of material. Having decided what you are going to say, which pieces of information/others’ research will best support your response to the question posed?

Beware of generalisations

Look at the following essay question and the attempt at beginning to answer it:

"Outline the difficulties facing the tourist industry today.

Travel broadens the mind.  Without experience of people and places we would be much less informed about the world. From the earliest times travel was seen as dangerous and heroic…"

The writer is being too general and begins to offer some sociological evidence, which has not been asked for in the question. He/she is also being too imaginative and what is said is irrelevant. A better beginning to the question might have been:

There are a number of significant problems facing the tourist industry today (Pryer, 2004).  Some of the most worrying concern the potential danger to the environment politically, physically and culturally; the place of tourism in the economy of many countries is also an issue.

Question terminology

Analyse key verbs used i.e. assess, explain, analyse, describe, narrate.  These verbs give you some idea of the approach to use in your answer.

For example: Look at the following essay questions, all on the same subject:

a) ‘Tourism today is quite unlike tourism in 1900’.  Justify this statement.

b) ‘Tourism today is quite unlike tourism in 1900’. Outline the main stages of changes in tourism since 1900.

c) ‘Tourists today are quite unlike the tourists of 1900’. Diagnose the main causes of change in tourists’ expectations in this century.

The key verbs here, (justify, outline, evaluate, diagnose) need to be looked at carefully because they indicate the approach you are expected to take when you prepare and write the essay.  (A dictionary can prove an invaluable help here.)  The other words in the question can provide the key to the subject matter you will need to include in your answer (i.e. tourism, change).

How to get started

Generating ideas - there are various methods of doing this.

Different people have different methods. For example:

• Blank sheet – Take a blank sheet of paper and write whatever occurs to you, anywhere on the sheet, as you think about the question.
• List – List your ideas as they occur.
• Spider/pattern – Draw a diagram with the subject of the essay written in a central circle or box.
• Mind Map – sketch out all the ideas in your mind and then work out how they are related to each other.

Next you will need to ask yourself what you need to find out. Your idea-generating session should have given you some idea of the areas to follow.  Your sources are likely to be books, people, magazines, journals, electronic resources and the media.

Making notes

Some topics require you to research more, some to think and analyse more. Only collect information that will be useful – don’t waste time compiling masses of information that will not be used.

First, analyse the question and decide what it wants you to do. Next, re-write it in an easily understandable form. Your notes will vary according to you and your style – make any that seem relevant to the subject area, at any time – put the information into a box, or special essay file. This practice can help produce originality.

When you get to this point, you need to start to think about the reader of your essay. What you say must be clear and easy to follow, not a mass of unrelated points. Facts are important but not alone, they should be used in an organised way. You are now at the stage where you will begin to group your material. There are various ways of doing this. For example:

• Single pieces of paper for single points, allocated to group headings later.
• Group headings established.
• Tree diagram or form of pattern diagram.

Once groups have been established, it is important that the sequence of ideas is organised. In other words, in what order will your information or comments come in the essay?

Paragraphing

When the material and ideas have been organised in sequence you can begin to write the essay.  Each paragraph should contain a controlling idea, or topic sentence which links and anticipates. Support sentences will expand on the idea in this sentence, by giving examples or re-emphasising the point in some way, so that the reader grasps the main point of the paragraph. “Signposting” words and phrases can be useful in the linking process, for example: “Developing this further…” (looking ahead), or “Such developments…” (referring back).

Drafting (writing up)

Write (or word process) your rough copy. This can be done in sections or written up in its entirety from the organised notes. Each person has their own preference. One useful method is the half-page system which leaves space for annotation and possible alteration to the sequencing of points.

Introductions and conclusions

The introduction and conclusion should be written after the main body paragraphs have been written and organised. This ensures that what the essay says is supported at either end.

An introduction should outline the basis of your essay, giving the reader an indication of what you will be writing about or discussing. A relevant quotation from a key source could provide a gripping start. So could a positive statement such as: “History is bunk” (H. Ford 1934) provided that you then proceed to justify the statement.

Henry Ford did not, which is why he is given credibility as an expert on cars, not history. For a 1,000-word essay an introduction of approximately 50-100 words would be appropriate.

A conclusion should pull an essay together. A positive finish is also a good idea. You may summarise your arguments in the concluding paragraph, drawing together the threads of an argument but also reminding the reader that your essay (hopefully) has proved the points you set out to make. A final paragraph for a 1,000-word essay would be 50-100 words in length.

A verdict or judgement in answer to the question set should be considered.

Style and presentation

Academic writing must be objective in its approach; that is, students are not simply asked for opinions (subjective), but to analyse, judge and propose, using evidence. For this reason, the use of the personal pronouns (I, we, you…) should be avoided. If necessary, the term ‘the author’ may also be used. You may, however, give supported judgements which use references, including examples of data to offer perceptive comment.

Essays should be presented word processed as directed on A4 paper. You should use clear, simple English. Slang and jargon should not be used and long, rambling sentences should be avoided. A good dictionary is the writer’s friend – spell checks cannot always be relied on. Your grammar (sentence structure, use of vocabulary…) should be considered carefully, as should punctuation. Together with research and planning, these areas make an impression on the reader.

Appendices are not usually necessary for an essay. However, you should make your sources clear at the end of the essay.

Quotations – It is important to show, by the use of speech marks ('t' or “t” - be consistent), when you are quoting what someone else said or wrote. Lengthy quotations are not generally appropriate to the short (approximately 1,000 word) essay and it is better to quote a reference for the reader to follow up if she/he wishes. Shorter, succinct quotations relating to a particular point can be very effective.

A guide to essay writing, including a number of helpful videos, is available in the Assignment Lifecycle.

Anonymous marking

Most work is now required to be submitted anonymously. Please follow any specific guidelines given in your assignment brief.

Assessment fairness and marking

Presentation of submitted work

The following instructions give you the University standard for presenting your written work for assessment: it is strongly recommended you follow these instructions as you are assessed on presentation in written assignments. Should a lecturing team require you to present your work in any format and style other than these instructions, they will directly inform you of this.

These instructions aim to ensure that all work you submit will be presented in a professional and consistent manner. Unless you are specifically instructed otherwise, all submitted work should be word-processed. Where necessary, some diagrams may have to be drawn by hand, but the majority of work should be produced using appropriate software.

Think very carefully before adding decorative features like WordArt, page borders or Clip Art to any piece of academic work. Such additions are unlikely to improve the work, and often serve only as a distraction. Therefore, generally, these are best avoided.

The use of colour is permissible, and may be particularly useful if you are presenting charts or diagrams. However, monochrome printing should normally be adequate for any work you are required to present.

Use Times New Roman size 12 for general text.  Use Arial size 14 for main headings and Arial size 12 for sub-headings.

Alignment and spacing

• Apart from main headings, please left align all text.
• All work is to be 1.5 line spaced, except for leaving one line space between sub-headings and text.
• Paragraphs should be separated from each other and from indented quotations by twice as much white space as there is between lines.
• Wherever possible, no gaps should be left on the page unless a chart means you have to. Only main headings or new tasks should start on a new page – not subheadings.
• Tables, charts and graphs should be centred on the page wherever possible and should be of approximately the same size wherever possible.
• Bullet points and numbers can use the pre-given Microsoft Word settings.

Headings and sub-headings should be in Arial font. Major headings should be in bold and centred; type these in size 14 upper and lower case letters; sub-headings should be typed in upper and lowercase letters, size 12, aligned to the left margin and bold.

All margins are to be 2.5 cms both sides.

Headers (unless this is an anonymous submission)

Insert a header that contains your name as per your ID card and course only: put this header in upper and lower case size 9 font and left align it; do not underline or put it in bold.

Page numbering

Page numbers to be size 12 and placed on the bottom right-hand corner in a footer.

Numbering paragraphs

Please think very carefully before numbering headings and paragraphs in reports as these often become confusing and adversely affect presentation. If you decide to use a numbering style, please use the Microsoft Word numbering tools, as these will present the numbers in the most suitable manner.

Numbering and titling tables and charts

Please number each table – ‘table 1’, ‘table 2’ etc. – and number each chart or graph as ‘figure 1’, ‘figure 2’ etc. Centre these numbers directly above the table or figure. It is good practice to give each table or chart a title. This title should be in Arial, size 12 and centred directly below the chart or table.

If the quotation is less than one line, then it should be included in the main text enclosed in either single or double speech marks (be consistent) – do not italicise this or place it in bold. If the quotation is more than one line then:

• Separate it from the main text with a double hard return (‘enter’) top and bottom and indented by 1 cm each side.
• It should not be placed within speech marks.
• Place it in size 12 font.

Do not  italicise  quotes or place them in  bold lettering.   Direct quotes must be acknowledged using either single or double speech marks (be consistent) otherwise you are vulnerable to an accusation of attempting to pass off a source’s words as your own paraphrasing summary. This could be interpreted as plagiarism (see below).

• List of references

These are to be single line spaced and must follow the University Standard exactly in both procedure and presentation. The Referencing Guide is available on both the Assignment Life Cycle (on Canvas) and the Library portal site. It is also included in CASE's Getting Started booklet (available on the Assignment Life Cycle, but also as paper copies in the Academic Skills Centre, 6th Floor, Link building).

Appendices should be kept to a minimum. When used, they should be titled and presented in a professional and consistent manner. Title each one 'Appendix A’ (with a description of the content), B, C, etc., and place this title in bold, Arial font 12 and place on the left margin.

Paper and printing

Use only white A4 paper and print on both sides.

Care must be taken when using other people’s work in your own. Otherwise you could face the very serious charge of plagiarism - stealing someone else’s ideas. Please note:

• When you use a direct quotation you must use quotation marks.
• If you summarise another writer’s views, you must cite the source correctly.
• If you paraphrase someone else’s thoughts, you must document the source.

Plagiarism Guide

Final thoughts

The last thing you should do before handing in your essay is to proofread it. It is often useful to let someone else read it and listen to their comments, as well as reading it through out loud to yourself.

A final check for grammar and punctuation errors is always time well spent, since grading is influenced by the appropriate use of standard English. All students at UCB can set up a Grammarly Premium account free of charge. You are strongly recommended to set up an account in order to proofread your work.

Your assignment feedback will inform you of the grading criteria applied. You have access to these to build in the appropriate features of strong work.

Further details about the presentation of your work are available in the Assignment Life Cycle.

Report writing

Any report, regardless of style, is very different from an essay. Reports are designed to be selective in information given, and the correct compilation and layout of a report is arguably as important as the material it contains.

Reports can be read whole or in part. They are often used as the basis for further research. Report writing skills are widely used in industry and are therefore well worth acquiring.

Basic styles in report writing

A report is a style of writing that is both systematic and objective in its presentation of information to the reader.

Some or all of these approaches may be used:

• Informative – the result of research, and predominantly the presentation of fact.
• Persuasive – recommending a course of action or maybe a change of opinion, reinforcement of an idea or concept.
• Explanatory – to present possible reasons for problems and situations.
• Historical – to record an event or verbal agreement.

Stages in report writing

1. Decide the task to be undertaken

2. Compile a plan of action and prioritise set tasks

3. Collect evidence or material

4. Organise, evaluate and analyse material

5. Write the report

6. Review and proofread draft script

7. Make amendments

8. Make final evaluation

Preparation

Careful thought and preparation is the key to presenting successful reports. It is well worth taking some time to think about what you aim to achieve from your efforts and also who the reader may be.

Plan of action

Often with report writing there are many tasks to be done. In group work it may be appropriate to allocate tasks between group members.  Whatever the situation, try to think ahead and plan your strategy, bearing in mind the time limit that you have to work within.

Collecting evidence/material

Information for a report can come from a variety of sources: questionnaires, books/periodicals, journals, personal interviews, internet sources. Evidence may be divided into either primary or secondary information – primary evidence is evidence that you have collected yourself and is characterised by being new and original. This is sometimes referred to as empirical research; secondary evidence is already published information from books, articles, specialist magazines or Internet sources.

Organisation and evaluation of material

1. Identify the main purpose of the report and state clearly what you hope to achieve by the end.

2. Choose a title which is appropriate and relevant and is closely linked to the main purpose of the report.

3. Plan the layout of your material. All reports should have an introduction, main body, divided into sections, a conclusion and, sometimes, recommendations. Information which is not directly relevant to your discussion but worthy of inclusion for follow-up purposes should be placed in the appendices.

4. Use clear headings and subheadings. Make the report as easy and interesting to read as possible.

5. Consider the use of diagrams and illustrations to clarify points raised and to make the report more interesting to the reader.

Writing the report

Your report should be structured as follows:

• Title page – The title must say something about the work, showing for whom the report was written, by whom and when, and it should also arouse the reader’s interest.
• Table of contents – Detail each stage of the report with headings and subheadings as required. Include a table of any diagrams or illustrations used in the main text.
• Summary/terms of reference – Description of the scope and purpose of the report.
• Introduction – To include methodology
• Main body/findings
• Conclusion/discussion
• Recommendations (where applicable)
• Appendices – List the contents of this section on a separate sheet.

Additional notes for guidance

• Avoid the FIRST PERSON singular or plural i.e.: ‘I’ or ‘we’. Instead use the passive tense for example:- ‘Evidence suggests…’ or ‘On investigation…’ or ‘This report was researched…’
• Choose your wording carefully.  Avoid colloquial expressions, e.g. ‘due to the fact that’ when no factual evidence is provided, archaic or foreign words or indeed any phrases the reader may be unfamiliar with. Technical jargon, abbreviations, slang and clichés should also be omitted, unless appropriate technical language is essential to meaning.
• If the tables, diagrams and illustrations you wish to use are directly relevant to your discussion include them in the main text.  If not, use them as supporting evidence in your appendices.
• Some lecturers who set scientific or practical reports may require a slightly different format.  If you are in any doubt about what is required from you, please ask the module leader concerned.
• As you research or read for your report, keep a note of all the books, newspapers and magazines, websites or journal articles that have helped you.  You should record all your included sources when you come to prepare your references (see below).
• If you are in any doubt about any aspect of your report, CASE will be happy to offer advice on request.
• Begin your report in good time so that amendments can be made prior to submission.
• Keep to the given word limit.  Part of the skill in report writing is to know what to leave out as well as include. You may lose marks if your report is too long or too short.
• Avoid plagiarism.  Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s words or ideas and passing them off as your own. See the section on plagiarism.

Further details about report writing are available in the Assignment Life Cycle.

Assignment Life Cycle

It is important that all UCB referencing conventions are followed. The UCB Referencing Guide is available on the HE Library Toolkit (on Canvas), and via the Library and CASE portal pages.

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Essay writing: essays.

• Argument and criticality

Purpose of Essays

The purpose of an essay is to present a logical, reasoned argument in response to a question/topic.

Why essays?

In all probability, you will be expected to write at least one essay during your degree. Why? Essays are an opportunity to demonstrate the advanced cognitive skills that students come to university to learn. To write an essay, you will need to read relevant academic literature and grasp the arguments being made - some of which you will find more convincing than others. You will then use your reading to develop a view on the essay question and express that view in the form of a coherent argument.

In writing an essay, you are not attempting to express the 'correct' answer to the question, but to demonstrate that you are familiar with a range of views and are able to develop and defend your own view. 

Stages of essay writing

Don't leave essay writing to the last minute! 

Writing an essay is a process that needs time and thought. It can be seen as a process consisting of the following stages: 

• Generating ideas
• Devising an argument and developing criticality
• Structuring your essay

These stages are addressed in the tabs of this guide.

General Guide to Writing an Essay

This video guides you through the various stages of writing an essay, from breaking down the assignment question to editing and proofreading before submission. 

• Writing an Essay
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Department of History

Essay writing and referencing, in this section:, essay writing checklist, referencing, presentation.

Here are some of the things you need to think about in preparing an essay. Few of them are iron rules. Good essays come in many forms, and a good essay writer will sometimes ignore some of these guidelines. But to become a good essay writer you would probably do well to start by following them.

Please remember that writing an essay involves skills of discussion and argument which differ from those that might be used in the informal setting of a seminar. In the first place, argument and analysis in essays will usually have to be more carefully structured than the comments you might make in a seminar or tutorial discussion. In essays, you should demonstrate awareness of more than one argument, acknowledge differences in the views of historians, and adopt a critical appreciation of evidence and its sources. You should also provide the necessary scholarly underpinning for your analysis by showing the sources of your information and arguments in bibliographies and footnotes.

On questions of presentation, footnoting, etc. you should follow the advice given from the department.

The Essay Question

• Have you really answered the question?
• Have you thought what might lie behind the question, e.g. if it asks 'Was the First World War the main cause of the Russian Revolution?', have you thought about what alternative explanations might be suggested?
• Is each paragraph clearly related to the overall question, raising a new topic and moving the argument forward?
• The ultimate test is that if you left the title off the top of your essay, could a friend guess the question from your answer?

Your Analysis

• Have you made an argument or is the essay simply relating what happened?
• Is your argument logical, coherent and clear?
• Are you contradicting yourself?
• Are you using appropriate evidence to back up each part of your argument?
• Are you aware of counter-arguments?
• Have you combined evidence and ideas from several different sources at each stage of the argument, or are you merely summarising what your sources say one by one?

Your Research

• Have you done enough reading? Six books/article/chapters is suggested for a short essay; ten or more for a long one.
• Are you up to date on the historical debate? Do not rely only on the older texts.
• Have you listed in the bibliography all the sources you used, and only those sources?

Why reference?

From reading academic articles and books, you should be familiar with the scholarly practice of making references in the text to other people's work and providing listings of relevant source material at the end of the text.

Why is this done?

• To enable someone reading the document to find the material you have referred to or consulted
• To demonstrate your width of reading and knowledge about a subject
• To support and/or develop points made in the text
• To avoid accusations of plagiarism: using somebody else's work without acknowledging the fact

Citation style

A citation style is a system for formatting references, whether in the main text of an essay, in the footnotes, or in the bibliography. It covers such things as the order of information in the citation style, the length of the citation, and the use of capitalisation and italics.

A common style used in the humanities is known as the MHRA style, so-called because it is administered by the Modern Humanities Research Association, a scholarly association based in the UK. Below are some examples of citations formatted in the MHRA style.

Tom McArthur, Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 59.

A chapter in an edited book:

Martin Elsky, ‘Words, Things, and Names: Jonson’s Poetry and Philosophical Grammar’, in Classic and Cavalier: Essays on Jonson and the Sons of Ben , ed. by Claude J. Summers and Ted-Larry Pebworth (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1982), pp. 31–55 (p. 41).

A journal article:

Robert F. Cook, ‘Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édifiant?’, Olifant , 14 (1989), 115–35 (pp. 118–19).

These examples are taken from the MHRA Style Guide, the third (2013) edition of which is available here . For a short summary of the guide, see pages 3 to 8. For more detail on referencing, see pages 58 to 82.

Another citation style often used by historians is the one in the Chicago Manual of Style , published by the University of Chicago Press and currently in its seventeenth edition. This style is subtly different from the MHRA style, as you can see by comparing these citations with the ones above:

Tom McArthur, Worlds of Reference: Lexicography, Learning and Language from the Clay Tablet to the Computer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 59.

Martin Elsky, “Words, Things, and Names: Jonson’s Poetry and Philosophical Grammar,” in Classic and Cavalier: Essays on Jonson and the Sons of Ben , ed. Claude J. Summers and Ted-Larry Pebworth (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1982), 41.

Robert F. Cook, “Baudouin de Sebourc: un poème édifiant?”, Olifan t 14 (1989): 118–19.

Which citation style should you use? The History Department does not favour one particular style, but it does require that students:

• Use the same style throughout any given essay
• Use a recognised style for citations rather than inventing your own style – the MHRA and Chicago style guides are examples.
• Use footnotes for citations rather than in-text citations, such as the in-text citation style administered by the American Psychological Association (the APA style is widely used in the social sciences but rarely in the humanities)
• Include a bibliography at the end of each essay, ie. a list of the works you have cited in the course of the essay

The Department has no rules about how assessments should be presented and formatted. What is important is to ensure that your writing is clearly readable on a screen, which makes it easier for markers to focus on the merits of your argument and writing rather than be distracted by poor presentation. Please check with your tutor in case there are specific requirements for a particular module. If you aren’t sure where to begin, the following are suggested guidelines for how you might format and present your assessments:

• Your font should usually be font size 12 in a standard font (e.g., Arial, Calibri or Times New Roman).
• There should be standard margins (e.g., the default for Microsoft Word is 2.54cm) on all sides of the page.
• The line spacing for the text of your essay should be double-spaced.
• The line spacing for the footnotes should, however, be single-spaced.
• Work should be left aligned or justified, rather than centred or right aligned.
• Number each page of your essay.
• Title pages and/or coversheets are not required, but you should include the title or question at the beginning of the assessment.
• Numbers up to one hundred, when occurring in normal writing, should be written out in words rather than numerals.
• When there are many figures, it is better to use words only for numbers up to nine.
• Spell out 'per cent' rather than using the % sign in your text.
• Instead of (for example) '22nd of June 1941', the correct format for dates would be '22 June 1941'.

• 301 Academic Skills Centre
• Study skills online

Academic writing

Strategies and advice on how to communicate your ideas using an appropriate academic register

Introduction to academic writing

Producing written work as part of a university exam, essay, dissertation or another form of assignment requires an approach to organisation, structure, voice and use of language that differs from other forms of writing and communication.

Academic writing is a language that no one is born speaking. Understanding more about the conventions of your discipline and the specific features and conventions of academic writing can help you develop confidence and make improvements to your written work.

Academic writing is part of a complex process of finding, analysing and evaluating information, planning, structuring, editing and proofreading your work, and reflecting on feedback that underpins written assessment at university.

Here we focus on the key principles of academic writing as a way to communicate your ideas using appropriate language, structure and organisation. 

301 Recommends:

Our Academic Writing Essentials workshop will explore the challenges of writing in an academic register and provide a range of strategies that can be used to develop your academic voice. The workshop will cover the use of language, structuring your writing and critical writing to take a holistic view of the writing process from a blank page through to a completed piece of work.

Try out our Academic Writing Interactive Digital Workshop  to explore the key principles of good academic writing.

Our Paraphrasing workshop will explore the roles of paraphrasing, quoting and 'para-quoting' and provide strategies for formulating and referencing paraphrases.

Join our 301 Writing Club sessions which include three 25-minute blocks of silent writing time, plus time to share your writing goals and progress with others. This is not a workshop, please bring an piece of academic writing to work on.

Academic language

Academic writing is defined by conventions rather than rules. This means that they are flexible and adaptable at least some of the time.

The point is not for you and your peers to produce identical pieces of work, but to provide a shared framework of communication that allows specialists within a field to access information, ideas and concepts quickly and easily.

It goes without saying that academic writing uses a more formal register than everyday communication. The following are four important conventions to follow that will help you to hit the right level of formality in your writing:

Use formal language

Academic writing tends to adopt formal language derived from Latinate, rather than Anglo-Saxon roots. This distinction is particularly evident in the use of verbs in academic language.

In general, phrasal verbs are used when speaking (eg in presentations), whilst Latinate verbs are used in academic writing (eg essays). Phrasal language is more informal, whilst Latinate verbs sound 'posher' and more formal.

Phrasal verbs tend to come in two parts: they use a  verb  together with an  adverb  or preposition.

There is often a one-word equivalent, which usually comes from Latin root, reflecting the origins of formal English among educated Romans and the Church.

Examples include: 

Carry out = perform

Talk about = discuss

Look up to = respect

Why is this useful? Latinate verbs use fewer words, so can help you develop a more concise writing style.

Latinate verbs can also be more specific than their phrasal equivalents, for example, the phrasal verb 'set up' has several Latinate equivalents: 

Set up a room: I’m going to  arrange  the room for the meeting.

Set up an experiment: The experiment was  prepared.

Set up an organisation: The NSPCC was  established  in 1884.

You may wish to use a mixture of phrasal and Latinate verbs in your writing, and to tailor it to your assignment. For example, if writing a more informal blog post, you may want to use more phrasal language.

Some common examples of academic verb use include:

Carry out: Perform "The experiment was carried out/performed..."

Find out:   Investigate "The aim of this project is to find out/investigate…"

Leave out: Omit "Therefore this was left out of/omitted from the analysis..."

Awareness of how and when to use different registers of language can help to improve the level of formality of your writing. 

Avoid contractions and abbreviations

Academic writing tends to avoid the types of contractions and abbreviated language that you might use in other forms of communication.

In some cases, this is obvious, but in other cases, where abbreviations have become commonly used forms of words, it can be more difficult to spot.

For example:

Are not/is not: Aren't/isn't

Quotation: Quote

UK: United Kingdom

However, some commonly used abbreviations or acronyms relating to the discipline will often need to be used to enhance the clarity of your writing and reduce the word count.

In these cases, it is important to use the full form of the abbreviated name or phrase in the first instance, including the abbreviation in parentheses.

A key role has always been played by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)...

World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendations state...

The use of an Electrocardiogram (ECG) is recommended...

Certain extremely commonly used acronyms have become part of common usage and do not require further explanation within a text. For example, AIDS, laser, radar, scuba. 

Write objectively

Academic writing tends to strive for an appearance of objectivity.

Although you will no doubt have an informed opinion or theory that you are trying to get across in your writing, it is important to build a compelling objective case for your ideas using evidence and data.

Secondary sources should be used to build a foundation of background thinking, ideas and theories to support your approach.

All secondary sources (books, journals, webpages, conference presentations, films, audio recordings, etc.) should be referenced using the standard system recommended by your department.

A bibliography of all referenced works should be included at the end of your assignment, ordered alphabetically and formatted using the recommended standard system. 

Visit the  library referencing pages  for more information, examples and tutorials.

Primary sources include any information or data that you have found, collected or generated to illustrate your arguments or explore your hypotheses. Primary sources may include texts that you are analysing, survey responses, experimental data, artefacts and much more.

When writing about primary and secondary sources, it is usually better to avoid using the first person ('I' or 'we' forms), as your focus should be on an objective interpretation of that evidence. 

The first person is most commonly used to indicate where you are going beyond an objective analysis to put forward your own informed opinions, for example as part of a discussion section or conclusion. 

Some principles of using the first person include:

Avoid overusing the first person (I) and use passive forms where possible: "the experiment was conducted..."; "evidence suggests..."; "a sample was taken..."

Watch out for adjectives that imply a value judgement: fantastic, brilliant, rubbish, interesting, good, etc.

Avoid using cliched phrases: "a hot topic..."; "the other side of the coin..."; "at the end of the day..."; "the fact of the matter..."; "in the current climate..."

Avoid overstatement. Make cautious use or avoid the following altogether: extremely, very, really, always, never, a lot, the most, the least

Note: always check department guidelines   on the use of first-person forms in your writing.

301 Recommends: Manchester University Academic Phrasebank

The Academic Phrasebank is a repository of the most commonly-used phrases in published academic work, organised according to purpose and function. Explore the Phrasebank for ideas on how to express yourself using established academic language.

Paragraphs and flow

Paragraphs are the building blocks of your written work, and a good essay or assignment will organise the content clearly at a paragraph level.

However, in a piece of academic writing paragraphs can be tricky to structure due to the complexity of ideas that you are likely to be working with.

The following structure is not the only way to write a paragraph, but it is a common model that is used in academic writing to build sources and evidence into your writing in a critical and analytical way. 

Writing good paragraphs: structure

Most paragraphs of academic writing tend to follow a similar organisational structure:

The topic sentence:  States the main idea or area to be covered by the paragraph.

Explanation or definitions (optional):  Can be used to clarify any difficult or uncertain terminology introduced in the topic sentence.

Evidence and examples:  One or more sentences introducing key ideas, sources, quotes, case studies, evidence or data.

Comment:  Explores what the evidence means, how it can be summarised or whether it needs to be challenged.

Concluding sentence:  Relates the paragraph to your overall argument and links forward to the next paragraph.

The final sentence is often the most important part of a paragraph as it clarifies your interpretation of the topic area and identifies how it contributes to your overall argument.

Watch this short  study skills hacks video  for more information. 

Writing good paragraphs: unity

A paragraph will usually discuss only one idea as outlined in the first sentence, the  topic sentence . If you find a paragraph drifting away from this controlling idea, it is time to split it into more than one paragraph:

The opening sentence of paragraph should outline the main idea (topic sentence).

Every supporting sentence should directly explain, refer back to, or build on the main idea using specific evidence and examples where possible.

Use the final sentence(s) to refer back to the topic sentence and lead into the following paragraph.

Writing good paragraphs: flow 

The skill of structuring your writing and building effective connections between paragraphs is one that will allow you to develop and sustain a compelling argument in your written work.

By setting out your ideas and evidence with a natural flow, you will make your work much more readable.

This important technique will help you work towards higher levels of attainment in assignments and help to improve the quality of your everyday writing.

Paraphrasing and quoting

When you are producing a piece of writing at university, you will often want to talk about what someone else has written about the topic.

There are four distinct ways of doing this.

Quoting:  directly including in your work the published words or other data you have found in a source

Paraphrasing:  expressing in your own words the ideas, arguments, words or other material you have found published elsewhere

Para-quoting:  paraphrasing an idea or area but retaining one or more important words and phrases from the original in quotation marks

Summarising:  providing a top-level overview of a single larger area of work or multiple sources

There are many reasons for quoting or paraphrasing in your own work, but essentially these techniques allow you to show your understanding of current knowledge about the topic you are studying and respond to that knowledge in your work.

Remember that you will need to cite and reference all of the sources that have informed your work.

It is a complex linguistic skill to incorporate others’ work smoothly and efficiently into your own by quoting or paraphrasing.

Skilful use of sources and selective quoting and paraphrasing are important elements of the critical writing process, which is in greater detail on the critical thinking pages – see  Legitimation Code Theory  for more ideas.

It is also a key skill of academic writing that will help to ensure that your work does not include elements of plagiarism.

For more information on unfair means and plagiarism, including suggestions on how to avoid it, see the following  resource .

As with other aspects of working with sources, it is important to  follow your department's specific guidelines about these skills.

When to quote and when to paraphrase

You should direct quote

if you are referring to a formal definition in which the specific language is important

if you are quoting an opinion (with which you do not necessarily agree)

if you are reporting direct speech, eg the reactions or experience of someone actually involved

if you wish to highlight specific features of the author's writing style

 You should paraphrase

to elaborate on or explain a concept or definition to your reader

to engage critically with an opinion or source and demonstrate that you understand it fully

to summarise the reactions or experience of one or more individual

if the general concept is more important than the specific language used

Writing to a word count

If you find you often go over the word count on an assignment, there are several possible causes and solutions.

In this online resource, we will think about the purpose of the word count, the reasons why we might go over it, and strategies to tackle it.

Why is there a word count?

Word counts are part of the challenge of academic writing for several reasons:

To suggest a level of detail: with one topic, you could write a 100-word summary, 1,000-word essay, 10,000-word dissertation, or a 100,000 word PhD thesis. The word count gives an indication of the level of depth you are expected to go into

To ensure fairness: each student has the same number of words to show the marker what they know. 

To test your communication skills: being able to keep within a word count requires a concise writing style and excellent communication skills – it helps you get straight to the point.

To demonstrate your critical thinking skills: to stay within word counts, you need to focus on what is most important and select the best examples and case studies. It puts critical thinking into practice

As a matter of practicality: markers only have a finite amount of time to mark work.

Why do we go over the word count?

First of all, it is important to remember that being over the word count is better than having a blank page. The ideas are down on the page but might need refining. There are several reasons why you might have exceeded the word count: 

Still developing an effective structure: Do you have a clear plan and have you stuck to it? If not, can you map out an overall structure for your essay and identify areas where you have departed from it?

Fear of missing out on something important: try to be selective with examples and arguments. What is your mission statement or key argument, and how does each section help you make it?

Waffling (using 200 words when 100 will do): work on developing a concise academic writing style. Even if you’re not over the word count, this leaves you more words for your critical analysis and discussion

Writing to a word count involves careful planning and organisation to make sure that you get your main points across. The following points might help you to stay within the parameters that you are aiming for:

• Plan what your key points are, and what percentage of your word count to spend on each. Are any sections disproportionately long?
• Avoid repeating arguments – try reading your work backwards (paragraph by paragraph, not word by word). This can make it easier to spot ideas that are repeated, as you are viewing each paragraph individually rather than your argument as a whole
• Use topic sentences at the start of each paragraph. This can help you (and the marker) to identify what key point you are trying to make. Are there any paragraphs that are making the same point? Can you link them?
• It might be tempting to show all of the reading you have done, but select the most important case studies, and explain why you have chosen them. This can be evidence of critical thinking (eg whilst many studies have examined X, a key paper is Y because…)
• Are you using 200 words where 100 will do? One way of testing this is to calculate your  Fog Index  to find out how clear and concise your writing is.

Remember: Having a more concise academic writing style gives you more words to use on things that are important, eg critical analysis and discussion. It’s not just about cutting the odd word here and there to get you under the word count.

The following are some simple tips to make sure you stay within your word count:

Find out what counts towards your word count (for references, footnotes, abstract, captions, tables, text boxes…)

Consider combining related sections or cutting irrelevant sections.

Focus on condensing your key arguments.

Use a concise academic writing style, eg avoid excessive hedging, remove redundant adjectives.

Lie about your word count.

Cut sections just to meet the word count.

Focus on removing individual words – this will be extremely time consuming and will make little impact on your overall count.

Use contractions to meet the word count (eg isn't, doesn't, shouldn't) – this is not academic.

Useful resources

Internal resources.

University of Sheffield Library –  R esearch and Critical Thinking Resources

Digital Learning - Using Turnitin  (login required)

English Language Teaching Centre (ELTC) –   P araphrasing

External Resources

Manchester University –  Academic phrasebank

UCL Institute of English –  Word count

Gunning Fog Index Calculator –  Online tool

Purdue Online Writing Lab –  Quoting, paraphrasing and summarising

Wisconsin Writing Centre –  Paraphrasing vs. quoting

Using English for academic purposes –  Writing paragraphs

Related information

Academic Skills Certificate

Dissertation planning

Scientific writing and lab reports

Essay Structure and Planning

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The essay writing process

The following guide has been created for you by the  Student Learning Advisory Service . For more detailed guidance and to speak to one of our advisers, please book an  appointment  or join one of our  workshops . Alternatively, have a look at our  SkillBuilder  skills videos. 

The purpose of an essay is to demonstrate you can:

• extend your knowledge through reading/research
• use this knowledge to present clear, plausible arguments
• apply academic conventions (e.g. referencing)

Developing the skills needed to write good essays

Planning and writing an essay requires a wide range of skill, such as:

• effective reading
• critical thinking
• note-taking
• editing and proof-reading
• following academic conventions e.g. referencing

This guide aims to describe the overall process of essay writing, however, to develop the individual skills you need, seek advice from the Student Learning Advisory Service (SLAS) . SLAS provide workshops, study guides and one-to-one advice for students wishing to develop the skills they need to write good essays. 

The process involves

1.    preparing a schedule.

Use a yearly or monthly time planner to draw up a schedule that allows time to consider the question, research, write and proof-read your answer. Inevitably, the research and writing stages will account for up to 80% of the schedule, but you must allocate enough time to proof-read your work, including checking your references, before submission.

2.    Considering the question

You cannot proceed with answering an essay question without fully understanding it, see video guide  or study guide on considering the question. Ask yourself: What are you being asked to do? What is the main subject of the question? What aspect of it are you being asked investigate? Does it set any limitations on the scope of your answer? Does the question ask you to demonstrate key module knowledge on specific theories or processes. Above all, is there an ‘instruction verb’ in the question asking you to ‘discuss’, or ‘justify’, or ‘compare’. Do as the instruction verb tells you; a list of their meanings is at the end of this guide.

3.    Conducting your research

Where to begin: Based on a clear understanding of the question, create a list of all the ideas, theories, processes and examples that you already know something about (from past reading, lectures and seminars) that might relate to the question. Identify those which you know to be particularly relevant and begin your research there.

Reading: Identify key reading material by surveying book titles, contents pages, introductions, index pages and journal summaries to determine whether the material may contain the information you need. Skim read (fast reading intended purely to get the general gist of the content) marking any chapters, or pages that seem to contain information relevant to the question. Narrow the search further by ‘scanning’ those sections (reading more slowly but not in detail) to pinpoint key paragraphs or sentences that relate directly to the question. You can now read those sections in detail.

Note-taking: As you read, include in your notes: The bibliographic details of the source, the main points the author is making, key examples or evidence given, and any critical observations you may have (e.g. the author has not examined alternative viewpoints) which later you can use to demonstrate that you have critically evaluated your evidence. Finally, be sure to clearly distinguish between the author’s words and your own (using quotation marks as a minimum) so that you can never confuse the two.

4.    Writing (drafting and editing)

Essay plan:

Before you start writing, group your research material according to themes or different aspects of the question. Identify the key arguments or points that emerge relating to each one, and the evidence that supports them. Now you can jot down a plan which shows: the logical order in which you will address different aspects of the question, the key point that you wish to make about each one, and the evidence you will include to support it.

Essay structure: Essays comprise three main elements:

• Introduction (5%-10% of wordcount) should briefly set the overall scene or context for the question, before introducing the specific topic that will be discussed, or argument that will be made, and the key theories or processes that will be used in that process. Finally, it will set out (signpost) how you will go about answering the question and the order your discussion will take.
• Main body (80-90% of wordcount) comprises a series of paragraphs - blocks of text several sentences long, each of which: make a key point about a different aspect of the question; elaborates upon and supports that key point with the introduction and analysis of evidence from your research. As each point is made in each paragraph an overall argument in response to the question is built. This can be declared in your introduction, and reiterated in your conclusion, and it is why sometimes it is advisable to write your introduction once you can see how your argument is developing.
• Conclusion (5%-10% of wordcount) summarises the key points you have made in your essay and reminds the reader of the key evidence you used to support it. It is advisable to draw all these points together to make a final, overall conclusion that directly answers the question.

Writing process

Where to begin: You may begin by writing the main body paragraphs. As you write ask yourself: Is it clear what aspect of the question each paragraph is addressing? Is my reasoning and evidence convincing? Am I answering the question? Have I included the necessary ingredients (evidence, examples and analysis) to support the points I am making? Are the paragraphs (points) in the right order to make clear the progression of discussion and are the sentences within the paragraphs in the right order?

Drafting (Editing and revising): Your first drafts may focus on improving the content and structure of your essay. Once all the important ingredients are there, including your introduction and conclusion, you can focus on improving the flow and clarity of your writing by, for example, improving the linking phrases between paragraphs, ensuring that the first sentence of each paragraph clearly indicates its content, and that the meaning of every sentence is clear.

5.    Proof-reading

Mistakes cost marks. Check your essay for spelling but be aware that spellcheck is not fool-proof, and may not spot errors involving ‘to’, ‘two’ and ‘too’, for example. Generally you should be using the 3rd person (‘this essay will show’, rather than, ‘I will show’) so check this and all other aspects of your grammar and punctuation. Above all, check that your referencing is complete and accurate, and that you have met all presentation requirements relating to, for example, fonts, type-size, line-spacing, and wordcount.

Final proofreading tips:

• Read your work aloud – you may detect mistakes (e.g. repetition or overlong sentences) that your eyes do not spot.
• You may find proof-reading a hard copy easier than online, but make sure you accurately transfer corrections onto digital copies.
• Use a ruler to go through your essay line by line to help you focus.

Proof-read more than once, each time focussing on a different element (e.g. referencing, or grammar and punctuation). 

SkillBuilder videos on all aspects of essay writing

See the following essay writing videos on the step by step process of completing an academic essay, each video can be viewed on its own if you are interested in one topic point only.

Assignment Survival Kit

The Assignment Survival Kit is a useful tool to help you plan the stages of your essay project. This is especially useful if you struggle with time management. If you experience any difficulties using the tool, please email [email protected] .

Basic essay structure

Improve your writing

Organise your essays to demonstrate your knowledge, show your research and support your arguments

Essays are usually written in continuous, flowing, paragraphed text and don’t use section headings. This may seem unstructured at first, but good essays are carefully structured.

How your assignment content is structured is your choice. Use the basic pattern below to get started.

Essay structure

An essay consists of three basic parts:, introduction.

The essay itself usually has no section headings. Only the title page, author declaration and reference list are written as headings, along with, for example, appendices. Check any task instructions, and your course or unit handbook, for further details.

Content in assignment introductions can vary widely. In some disciplines you may need to provide a full background and context, whereas other essays may need only a little context, and others may need none.

An introduction to an essay usually has three primary purposes:

• To set the scene
• To tell readers what is important, and why
• To tell the reader what the essay is going to do (signposting)

A standard introduction includes the following five elements:

• A statement that sets out the topic and engages the reader.
• The background and context of the topic.
• Any important definitions, integrated into your text as appropriate.
• An outline of the key points, topic, issues, evidence, ideas, arguments, models, theories, or other information, as appropriate. This may include distinctions or contrasts between different ideas or evidence.
• A final sentence or two which tells the reader your focal points and aims.

You should aim to restrict your introduction to information needed for the topic and only include background and contextual information which helps the reader understand it, or sets the scene for your chosen focal points.

In most essays you will have a considerable range of options for your focus. You will be expected to demonstrate your ability to select the most relevant content to address your focal points.

There are some exceptions. For example, if an assignment brief specifically directs the essay focus or requires you to write broadly about a topic. These are relatively rare or are discipline-specific so you should check your task instructions and discipline and subject area conventions.

Below are examples of an opening statement, a summary of the selected content, and a statement at the end of the introduction which tells the reader what the essay will focus on and how it will be addressed. We've use a fictional essay.

The title of our essay is: 'Cats are better than dogs. Discuss.'

To submit this essay you also would need to add citations as appropriate.

Example of opening statements:

People have shared their lives with cats and dogs for millenia. Which is better depends partly on each animal’s characteristics and partly on the owner’s preferences.

Here is a summary of five specific topics selected for the essay, which would be covered in a little more detail in the introduction:

• In ancient Egypt, cats were treated as sacred and were pampered companions.
• Dogs have for centuries been used for hunting and to guard property. There are many types of working dog, and both dogs and cats are now kept purely as pets.
• They are very different animals, with different care needs, traits and abilities.
• It is a common perception that people are either “cat-lovers” or “dog-lovers”.
• It is a common perception that people tend to have preferences for one, and negative beliefs about and attitudes towards, the other.

Example of closing statements at the end of the introduction:

This essay will examine both cats’ and dogs’ behaviour and abilities, the benefits of keeping them as pets, and whether people’s perceptions of their nature matches current knowledge and understanding.

Main body: paragraphs

The body of the essay should be organised into paragraphs. Each paragraph should deal with a different aspect of the issue, but they should also link in some way to those that precede and follow it. This is not an easy thing to get right, even for experienced writers, partly because there are many ways to successfully structure and use paragraphs. There is no perfect paragraph template.

The theme or topic statement

The first sentence, or sometimes two, tells the reader what the paragraph is going to cover. It may either:

• Begin a new point or topic, or
• Follow on from the previous paragraph, but with a different focus or go into more-specific detail. If this is the case, it should clearly link to the previous paragraph.

The last sentence

It should be clear if the point has come to an end, or if it continues in the next paragraph.

Here is a brief example of flow between two summarised paragraphs which cover the historical perspective:

It is known from hieroglyphs that the Ancient Egyptians believed that cats were sacred. They were also held in high regard, as suggested by their being found mummified and entombed with their owners (Smith, 1969). In addition, cats are portrayed aiding hunters. Therefore, they were both treated as sacred, and were used as intelligent working companions. However, today they are almost entirely owned as pets.

In contrast, dogs have not been regarded as sacred, but they have for centuries been widely used for hunting in Europe. This developed over time and eventually they became domesticated and accepted as pets. Today, they are seen as loyal, loving and protective members of the family, and are widely used as working dogs.

There is never any new information in a conclusion.

The conclusion usually does three things:

• Reminds your readers of what the essay was meant to do.
• Provides an answer, where possible, to the title.
• Reminds your reader how you reached that answer.

The conclusion should usually occupy just one paragraph. It draws together all the key elements of your essay, so you do not need to repeat the fine detail unless you are highlighting something.

A conclusion to our essay about cats and dogs is given below:

Both cats and dogs have been highly-valued for millenia, are affectionate and beneficial to their owners’ wellbeing. However, they are very different animals and each is 'better' than the other regarding care needs and natural traits. Dogs need regular training and exercise but many owners do not train or exercise them enough, resulting in bad behaviour. They also need to be 'boarded' if the owner is away and to have frequent baths to prevent bad odours. In contrast, cats do not need this level of effort and care. Dogs are seen as more intelligent, loyal and attuned to human beings, whereas cats are perceived as aloof and solitary, and as only seeking affection when they want to be fed. However, recent studies have shown that cats are affectionate and loyal and more intelligent than dogs, but it is less obvious and useful. There are, for example, no 'police' or 'assistance' cats, in part because they do not have the kinds of natural instincts which make dogs easy to train. Therefore, which animal is better depends upon personal preference and whether they are required to work. Therefore, although dogs are better as working animals, cats are easier, better pets.

Download our basic essay structure revision sheet

Download this page as a PDF for your essay structure revision notes

Better Essays: Signposting

Paragraphs main body of an assessment

Essay writing: Introductions

• Introductions
• Conclusions
• Analysing questions
• Planning & drafting
• Revising & editing
• Proofreading
• Essay writing videos

Jump to content on this page:

“A relevant and coherent beginning is perhaps your best single guarantee that the essay as a whole will achieve its object.” Gordon Taylor, A Student's Writing Guide

Your introduction is the first thing your marker will read and should be approximately 10% of your word count. Within the first minute they should know if your essay is going to be a good one or not. An introduction has several components but the most important of these are the last two we give here. You need to show the reader what your position is and how you are going to argue the case to get there so that the essay becomes your answer to the question rather than just an answer.

What an introduction should include:

• A little basic background about the key subject area (just enough to put your essay into context, no more or you'll bore the reader).
• Explanation of how you are defining any key terms . Confusion on this could be your undoing.
• A road-map of how your essay will answer the question. What is your overall argument and how will you develop it?
• A confirmation of your position .

Background information

It is good to start with a statement that fixes your essay topic and focus in a wider context so that the reader is sure of where they are within the field. This is a very small part of the introduction though - do not fall into the trap of writing a whole paragraph that is nothing but background information.

Beware though, this only has to be a little bit wider, not completely universal. That is, do not start with something like "In the whole field of nursing...." or "Since man could write, he has always...". Instead, simply situate the area that you are writing about within a slightly bigger area. For example, you could start with a general statement about a topic, outlining some key issues but explain that your essay will focus on only one. Here is an example:

The ability to communicate effectively and compassionately is a key skill within nursing. Communication is about more than being able to speak confidently and clearly, it is about effective listening (Singh, 2019), the use of gesture, body language and tone (Adebe et al., 2016) and the ability to tailor language and messaging to particular situations (Smith & Jones, 2015). This essay will explore the importance of non-verbal communication ...

The example introduction at the bottom of this page also starts with similar, short background information.

Defining key terms

This does not mean quoting dictionary definitions - we all have access to dictionary.com with a click or two. There are many words we use in academic work that can have multiple or nuanced definitions. You have to write about how you are defining any potentially ambiguous terms in relation to  your  essay topic. This is really important for your reader, as it will inform them how you are using such words in the context of your essay and prevent confusion or misunderstanding.

Stating your case (road mapping)

The main thing an introduction will do is...introduce your essay! That means you need to tell the reader what your conclusion is and how you will get there.

There is no need to worry about *SPOILER ALERTS* - this is not a detective novel you can give away the ending! Sorry, but building up suspense is just going to irritate the reader rather than eventually satisfy. Simply outline how your main arguments (give them in order) lead to your conclusion. In American essay guides you will see something described as the ‘thesis statement’ - although we don't use this terminology in the UK, it is still necessary to state in your introduction what the over-arching argument of your essay will be. Think of it as the mega-argument , to distinguish it from the mini-arguments you make in each paragraph. Look at the example introduction at the bottom of this page which includes both of these elements.

Confirming your position

To some extent, this is covered in your roadmap (above), but it is so important, it deserves some additional attention here. Setting out your position is an essential component of all essays. Brick et al. (2016:143) even suggest

"The purpose of an essay is to present a clear position and defend it"

It is, however, very difficult to defend a position if you have not made it clear in the first place. This is where your introduction comes in. In stating your position, you are ultimately outlining the answer to the question. You can then make the rest of your essay about providing the evidence that supports your answer. As such, if you make your position clear, you will find all subsequent paragraphs in your essay easier to write and join together. As you have already told your reader where the essay is going, you can be explicit in how each paragraph contributes to your mega-argument.

In establishing your position and defending it, you are ultimately engaging in scholarly debate. This is because your positions are supported by academic evidence and analysis. It is in your analysis of the academic evidence that should lead your reader to understand your position. Once again - this is only possible if your introduction has explained your position in the first place.

An example introduction

(Essay title = Evaluate the role of stories as pedagogical tools in higher education)

Stories have been an essential communication technique for thousands of years and although teachers and parents still think they are important for educating younger children, they have been restricted to the role of entertainment for most of us since our teenage years. This essay will claim that stories make ideal pedagogical tools, whatever the age of the student, due to their unique position in cultural and cognitive development. To argue this, it will consider three main areas: firstly, the prevalence of stories across time and cultures and how the similarity of story structure suggests an inherent understanding of their form which could be of use to academics teaching multicultural cohorts when organising lecture material; secondly, the power of stories to enable listeners to personally relate to the content and how this increases the likelihood of changing thoughts, behaviours and decisions - a concept that has not gone unnoticed in some fields, both professional and academic; and finally, the way that different areas of the brain are activated when reading, listening to or watching a story unfold, which suggests that both understanding and ease of recall, two key components of learning, are both likely to be increased . Each of these alone could make a reasoned argument for including more stories within higher education teaching – taken together, this argument is even more compelling.

Key:   Background information (scene setting)   Stating the case (r oad map)    Confirming a position (in two places). Note in this introduction there was no need to define key terms.

Brick, J., Herke, M., and Wong, D., (2016) Academic Culture, A students guide to studying at university, 3rd edition. Victoria, Australia: Palgrave Macmillan.

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School of Social and Political Science

Essay writing.

There are no precise rules governing what makes a first class essay at undergraduate level and you are expected to improve this skill as you progress through your degree.

Nevertheless, there are certain criteria that distinguish good essays from weak ones. Of the factors listed below, planning and presentation are a necessary feature of all written work but it is what you achieve in relation to relevance, substance and argument which will affect your grade the most.

You should note that although all of the factors below are important in all essays, the significance of the criteria may vary from essay to essay, depending on the nature of the question.

All essays should be researched and planned in advance.

Work out what you want to say and how you want to say it before the essay is written.

Bad essays tend to be written at the last minute, on the basis of inadequate research and with no forethought about structure and argument.

Does the essay answer the question?

A good essay answers the question fully and concisely. All discussion in a good essay is relevant to the question. Bad essays answer the question not at all or only partially, and/or include a lot of irrelevant material.

Some guidelines to follow are:

• make sure you understand and focus on the topic set
• think about the question, and how to answer it
• when planning, writing and reviewing your essay, check the relevance of the material you want to use
• try to plan out what you want to say, and leave time for editing and if necessary redrafting

Knowledge and sources

Is the essay based on relevant reading?

A good essay displays a knowledge of relevant material gained from a variety of sources. This will include knowledge of both empirical facts (where appropriate) and the debates about them in the reading. 

There is a difference, however, between knowing facts and using them to help make an argument. Carefully select only those facts which back up and challenge your argument and then weigh them up.

Bad essays include little and/or misleading material, are based purely on one source, or consist of a mass of factual material without any analysis.

Some things to think about:

• demonstrate that you have read and understood the material relevant to the subject
• don’t be intimidated by the literature - authors often disagree and they can’t all be right, be critical, but respectful
• remember that the essay is an opportunity to express an informed opinion – yours

Are different views discussed in a detached way?

• try to identify and understand different points of view - do not present only one side of an argument
• have respect for positions you do not agree with
• do not prejudge issues
• be prepared to alter or modify your opinions
• aim to assess the strengths and weaknesses of arguments in the literature

Presentation

Is the essay legible, logical, grammatical and fluent?

• be clear and concise, avoid jargon, keep within the prescribed length
• write clearly and simply, avoid using language which is either colloquial or grandiose
• identify key ideas and arguments, and construct your essay around them write your essay with an introduction, a middle and a conclusion
• set out the issues you discuss, and how the discussion is structured
• sum up the main points at the end use separate sections and sub-headings
• where appropriate make sure your discussion flows, try reading your work aloud to make sure it makes sense
• check for spelling and grammar, and don't just rely on an automatic spell-check

Are sources cited correctly and fully?

• always give sources for the evidence and arguments you present
• use the system of referencing recommended above and always include a full bibliography (or references cited)

Full information on the lunch-time study skills sessions and other resources for study and learning may also be found via the  TLA website .

You must avoid plagiarism, which is the reproduction without acknowledgement of the whole or part of the work of another author.

Referencing and avoiding plagiarism

References are an integral part of an essay and allow you to show your intellectual debts.

You should include references systematically, to indicate the sources of the arguments and evidence presented in your work.

Referencing style

Give references as a matter of course for all quotations, but also for any important points or arguments that are based on your reading.

Most subject areas in SPS prefer the Harvard system, but check your course handbook or look in Learn for details of the appropriate referencing style to use. There can be exceptions, for example, in Canadian Studies.

You can also look at the  University’s referencing guidance  or try out  Cite Them Right , an online referencing tool.

Listing your references

An essay will normally be followed either by a list of References Cited, or a Bibliography. 

References Cited designates a complete list, in alphabetical order, of only those sources cited in the essay. 

A Bibliography, again alphabetical, will normally include both works cited and any other works you have used in preparing your essay.

You may want to check with course organisers about which (if either) is preferred.

Avoiding prejudicial language

Avoid prejudicial language. You should avoid such overtly sexist terms as the use of ‘man’ or ‘he’ when you mean to include both sexes.

Alternatives are available, such as ‘people’ for ‘man’ and ‘s/he’ or ‘they’ instead of ‘he’.

In general you should be sensitive to the assumptions embedded in language. For example, unqualified reference to ‘white’ and ‘black’ people may reflect unwarranted assumptions about the homogeneity of very diverse populations.

Talk of ‘the poor’ or ‘the unemployed’ ignores the flows of people into and out of poverty or unemployment.

Be careful not to pigeon-hole people into categories such as ‘the disabled’ or ‘the elderly’. Try to avoid expressions which may be patronising or offensive.

Pay attention to spelling and grammar. Poor spelling creates an unfavourable impression and bad grammar may make it difficult for the reader to understand your arguments.

Accuracy and clarity are important aspects of effective communication and you should take steps to recognise and remedy any problems you have with spelling and grammar.

If you have (or suspect you have) a particular difficulty, such as dyslexia, make sure you draw this to the attention of your Director of Studies as soon as possible, so that due allowance can be made.

Student Disability Service

You can also seek advice and support from the Student Disability Service .

The University's  Centre for Teaching, Learning and Assessment  runs lunchtime sessions in study skills in the first semester.

These cover note-taking, essay-writing, tutorial work and preparing for exams, as well as other more general problems.

For details, check the notice-boards or get in touch with the Centre.

• Study and research support
• Academic skills

Quick Guide to Essay Writing

A quick guide to essay writing exploring the reasons why tutors ask students to write essays.

• Quick Guide to Essay Writing (PDF 2.09 MB) Download

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Winners of the 2024 Writing Contests

The winners of the 2024 Writing Contests have now been named.

Thank you to all who submitted work! All entries were read by at least two judges with entrants names removed, to ensure a fair process. The awards ceremony will be held on Friday, April 26, at 1 p.m. , in the Greenberg Center.  Please see the list of winners below:

Melvin Goldstein Awards for Papers on Film/Art Using Interdisciplinary Approaches

First Place: Warren Parton Second Place: MaKenna Sweeney Third Place (tie): Christopher Hinson, Kendall Grenolds

Joseph Doyle Prize for Best Critical Essay Written in an Introductory Class

First Place (tie): Indiana Pellegrino, Diana Isaacs Second Place: Emma Walsh Honorable Mention: Camille Henri

Phyllis B. Abrahms Awards in Drama

First Place: MaKenna Sweeney Second Place: Kendall Grenolds Third Place: Brendan C. McGee

Phyllis B. Abrahms Awards in Poetry

First Place: Alexa Schwartz Second Place: Shelby Barrett-Whitmore Third Place: Kendall Grenolds Honorable Mentions: MaKenna Sweeney, Sophie Lee

Phyllis B. Abrahms Awards in Fiction

First Place: Kyle Mieczkowski Second Place: Kaitlyn Hirtle Third Place: Sequoia Hornsby Honorable Mention: Isabella Ruiz

Phyllis B. Abrams Awards in the Personal Essay

First Place (tie): Shelby Barrett-Whitmore, Alexa Schwartz Second Place: Gianna Balsamo

Joseph Doyle Prize for Critical Essays on American Literature

First Place: Indiana Pellegrino          Second Place: Joshua Weiner

Melvin Goldstein Awards for Papers on Literature Using Interdisciplinary Approaches

First Place: Alyssa Archambault Honorable Mentions: Warren Parton, Joshua Weiner

Phyllis B. Abrahms Awards for Critical Essays on Literature Other than American Literature

First Place: Roz Green Second Place (tie): Warren Parton, Albert Vargas

Minerva Nieditz Awards for Metaphysical Poetry

First Place: Nell Shore Sirotin Second Place: Nawilda Vasquez Third Place: Isabella Ruiz

Joseph Doyle Prize for Best Personal Essay Written in an Introductory Class

First Place: Sequoia Hornsby Second Place: Diana Isaacs

Congratulations to all of those who will receive awards!

This year, winners will receive:

Questions? Please email Ben Grossberg at [email protected] .

Watch CBS News

What is Eid al-Fitr? 6 questions about the holiday and how Muslims celebrate it, answered

By Ken Chitwood

Updated on: April 9, 2024 / 8:03 AM EDT / The Conversation

Ken Chitwood  is a senior research fellow, Muslim Philanthropy Initiative at Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis and journalist-fellow at the Dornsife Center for Religion and Civic Culture at the  University of Southern California Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences .

Eid al-Fitr, one of Islam's principal festivals, will be celebrated April 9, 2024, according to the Fiqh Council of North America . At the middle of June, Muslims will celebrate Eid al-Adha. Ken Chitwood, a scholar of global Islam, explains the two Islamic festivals.

1. What is Eid?

Eid literally means a "festival" or "feast" in Arabic. There are two major eids in the Islamic calendar per year – Eid al-Fitr earlier in the year and Eid al-Adha later.

Eid al-Fitr is a three-day-long festival and is known as the "Lesser" or "Smaller Eid" when compared to Eid al-Adha, which is four days long and is known as the "Greater Eid."

2. Why is Eid celebrated twice a year?

The two Eids recognize, celebrate and recall two distinct events that are significant to the story of Islam.

Eid al-Fitr means "the feast of breaking the fast." The fast, in this instance, is Ramadan , which recalls the revealing of the Quran to Prophet Muhammad and requires Muslims to fast from sunrise to sundown for a month.

3. How do Muslims celebrate Eid al-Fitr?

Eid al-Fitr features two to three days of celebrations that include special morning prayers. People greet each other with "Eid Mubarak," meaning "Blessed Eid" and with formal embraces. Sweet dishes are prepared at home and gifts are given to children and to those in need. In addition, Muslims are encouraged to forgive and seek forgiveness. Practices vary from country to country.

In many countries with large Muslim populations, Eid al-Fitr is a national holiday. Schools, offices and businesses are closed so family, friends and neighbors can enjoy the celebrations together. In the U.S. and the U.K., Muslims may request to have the day off from school or work to travel or celebrate with family and friends.

In countries like Egypt and Pakistan, Muslims decorate their homes with lanterns, twinkling lights or flowers. Special food is prepared and friends and family are invited over to celebrate.

In places like Jordan, with its Muslim majority population, the days before Eid al-Fitr can see a rush at local malls and special "Ramadan markets" as people prepare to exchange gifts on Eid al-Fitr.

In Turkey and in places that were once part of the Ottoman-Turkish empire such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Azerbaijan and the Caucasus, it is also known as the, "Lesser Bayram" or "festival" in Turkish.

4. How do Muslims celebrate Eid al-Adha?

The other festival, Eid al-Adha, is the "feast of the sacrifice." It comes at the end of the Hajj , an annual pilgrimage by millions of Muslims to the holy city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia that is obligatory once in a lifetime, but only for those with means.

Eid al-Adha recalls the story of how God commanded Ibrahim to sacrifice his son Ismail as a test of faith. The story, as narrated in the Quran, describes Satan's attempt to tempt Ibrahim so he would disobey God's command. Ibrahim, however, remains unmoved and informs Ismail, who is willing to be sacrificed.

But, just as Ibrahim attempts to kill his son, God intervenes and a ram is sacrificed in place of Ismail. During Eid al-Adha, Muslims slaughter an animal to remember Ibrahim's sacrifice and remind themselves of the need to submit to the will of God.

5. When are they celebrated?

Eid al-Fitr is celebrated on the first day of the 10th month in the Islamic calendar.

Eid al-Adha is celebrated on the 10th day of the final month in the Islamic calendar.

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and dates are calculated based on lunar phases. Since the Islamic calendar year is shorter than the solar Gregorian calendar year by 10 to 12 days, the dates for Ramadan and Eid on the Gregorian calendar can vary year by year.

6. What is the spiritual meaning of Eid al-Fitr?

Eid al-Fitr, as it follows the fasting of Ramadan, is also seen as a spiritual celebration of Allah's provision of strength and endurance.

Amid the reflection and rejoicing, Eid al-Fitr is a time for charity, known as Zakat al-Fitr. Eid is meant to be a time of joy and blessing for the entire Muslim community and a time for distributing one's wealth.

Charity to the poor is a highly emphasized value in Islam. The Quran says ,

"Believe in Allah and his messenger, and give charity out of the (substance) that Allah has made you heirs of. For those of you who believe and give charity – for them is a great reward."

This piece incorporates materials from an article first published on Aug. 28, 2017. The dates have been updated. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license.

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‘We’ve got hope with Pope:’ Businesses, former players share excitement of new UK hire

LEXINGTON, Ky. (WKYT) - Mark Pope’s hiring has had fans and former players talking all Friday long.

It all comes after what’s been a whirlwind of a week for Kentucky Basketball.

“Whether they wanted Cal back or not, everybody including Mitch Barnhart thought we had a coach...and then all of a sudden we didn’t,” said Cameron Mills, who played guard for UK from 1994 to 1998.

Many of those who followed the frenzy weren’t put at ease when Mark Pope emerged as a top candidate.

“I was surprised on Sunday night when that all was breaking - and I was equally surprised Thursday evening,” said former WKYT Sports Director Rob Bromley.

But initial hesitation transformed into hype as Pope’s hire sank in for Big Blue Nation.

“I’m ecstatic, man. I’m an old school Cats fan,” said Rick Paynter, owner of The Kentucky Shop. “I was at the ‘97 championship when we lost, even met Mark Pope at the ‘97 Championship when I was 12″

It’s also gotten businesses to find some fun ways to back the new Big Blue head coach. Rick Paynter and The Kentucky Shop are riding the wave of excitement with new shirts that read “We’ve got hope with Pope!” flying off the shelves.

“It’s been a crazy day, we’ve sold several thousand,” Paynter said. “So, we’ve got to go over and print some now.”

Pope wasn’t the highest scoring player, but former teammate Mills says he was among the hungriest.

“We hated him, because he outworked us all. He made us all look bad,” Mills said. “He’s the guy that will run through the wall first and then you can go through it easily, that’s who he is.”

“You could tell how much he wanted to be here,” Bromley said. “How much he enjoyed being a Wildcat, and I think that’s an important thing. You really got to want this job.”

Now that he’s coming back to Lexington, Mills says his fellow Untouchables from 1996 are behind him all the way.

“This is a meat grinder, and you have to handle it,” said Mills. “Mark Pope is ready to handle that meat grinder because he is one of the mentally toughest people I’ve ever been around.”

Pope’s introductory press conference is open to the public and is set for 4:30 p.m. Sunday at Rupp Arena.

Copyright 2024 WKYT. All rights reserved.

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