history of research on classroom management

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Classroom Management

Introduction, general overviews.

• Reference Works
• Behavioral Approaches to the Study of Classroom Management
• Ecological Approaches to the Study of Classroom Management
• Process-Product Studies of Classroom Management
• Teacher-Student Relationships and Classroom Management
• Early Theories and Models of Classroom Management
• Evidence-Based Programs of Classroom Management
• Social-Emotional Learning and Classroom Management
• Office Disciplinary Referrals (ODRs), Suspension, and Expulsion
• Culturally Responsive Classroom Management
• Parental Engagement and Classroom Management
• Classroom Management and the Law
• Teacher Preparation and Classroom Management
• Professional Development for Inservice Teachers

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Classroom Management by Carol Simon Weinstein , Nancy Jo Schafer LAST REVIEWED: 05 May 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 30 August 2016 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0155

Classroom management can be defined as the actions teachers take to establish and sustain an environment that fosters students’ academic achievement as well as their social, emotional, and moral growth. In other words, the goal of classroom management is not order for order’s sake, but order for the sake of learning. Teachers, administrators, parents, students, and the general public all view classroom management as a critical component of teaching, but becoming an effective classroom manager is not a simple endeavor. Research has documented the fact that problems with classroom management often lead to teacher stress, anxiety, burnout, and even the decision to leave the profession. Beginning teachers consistently perceive student behavior as one of their most serious challenges, and even experienced teachers can have difficulties—especially given today’s larger classes, increasing cultural and linguistic diversity, the inclusion of children with disabilities, and the narrowing of the curriculum to prepare for high-stakes standardized tests. Unfortunately, despite the complexity and importance of classroom management, teacher preparation programs tend to provide only minimal instruction in this area. Such neglect is at least partly due to the fact that research relevant to classroom management has been conducted by persons in different disciplines working within different research traditions; thus research reports appear in a wide variety of journals and may not even be identified as “classroom management research.” This situation can lead teacher educators to conclude (mistakenly) that a coherent body of research does not exist and can reinforce the view that classroom management is merely a set of tips passed down from teacher to teacher (like “Don’t smile until Christmas”). Another complicating factor is that the very term “classroom management” defies easy definition. For a long time, classroom management was equated with “discipline,” the ways teachers respond to problematic behavior. It is now generally recognized, however, that discipline is only one part of classroom management. In addition to correcting inappropriate behavior, classroom management includes a wide range of tasks designed to prevent inappropriate behavior—designing a physical setting that supports instructional goals, establishing positive teacher–student and teacher–parent relationships, building community among students, creating and enforcing expectations for behavior, and managing instruction in a way that helps students to stay engaged. This broader definition of classroom management is reflected in the references included in this bibliography.

The works in this section provide introductions to classroom management. Brophy 1999 summarizes the development of research-based knowledge of classroom management and examines the relationship between management styles and approaches to instruction. Brophy 2006 provides a comprehensive review of the history of research on classroom management as it developed across the 20th century. Marzano, et al. 2003 reviews research on classroom management and suggest specific evidence-based “action steps” that teachers can use to establish and maintain a positive learning environment. Shimahara 1998 explores classroom management in six countries, documenting the effects of the political, social, and cultural context. Wang, et al. 1993 examines three previous reviews of variables that have an effect on student achievement and show that classroom management has more impact on student achievement than any other variable.

Brophy, Jere. 1999. Perspectives of classroom management: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. In Beyond behaviorism: Changing the classroom management paradigm . Edited by H. Jerome Freiberg, 43–56. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Traces the evolution of research on classroom management and points out that most of these studies were conducted in classrooms featuring transmission approaches to teaching. Brophy contrasts these approaches with more recent social constructivist approaches and shows how established management principles can be adapted to social constructivist teaching.

Brophy, Jere. 2006. History of research on classroom management. In Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues . Edited by Carolyn M. Evertson and Carol S. Weinstein, 17–43. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Reviews the history of research on classroom management as it developed across the 20th century. Consider its substance, design, and methodology. Highlights major influences and trends and concludes that “the work on classroom management can be counted among the major success stories of educational research in the 20th century.”

Marzano, Robert J., with Jana S. Marzano, and Debra J. Pickering. 2003. Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for every teacher . Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

After discussing the critical role of effective classroom management in student achievement, this very readable book addresses various aspects of classroom management, such as classroom rules and procedures, disciplinary interventions, and teacher-student relationships. Each chapter begins with a discussion of research, theory, and programs relevant to the particular topic and then suggests specific “action steps” that classroom teachers can take.

Shimahara, Nobuo K., ed. 1998. Politics of classroom life: Classroom management in international perspective . New York: Taylor & Francis.

Focusing mainly on the elementary level, this book examines classroom management in six countries: the United States, Britain, Sweden, Japan, China, and Israel. Argues that the ideology of classroom management and its strategies vary considerably across the cultures or countries where they have been developed.

Wang, Margaret C., Geneva D. Haertel, and Herbert J. Walberg. 1993. Toward a knowledge base for school learning. Review of Educational Research 63.3: 249–294.

A widely cited meta-analysis of learning factors gleaned from educational research experts, quantitative research synthesis, and handbook chapters, resulting in more than eleven thousand statistical relationships. Identifies classroom management as being first in a list of five factors that influence student achievement.

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Classroom Management as a Field of Inquiry

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• Revert Klattenberg 2  

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There are numerous publications on the subject of CM. Therefore, Chapter 2 concentrates on a review of studies seen as central to the field in general and, more importantly, to the current analysis of L2 teachers’ reproaches in particular. It highlights gaps in the extensive body of prior research and discusses how the current investigation is located within the broad field of CM research. The chapter includes a discussion of key findings, terminology and a focus on the institutional context of the subsequent empirical investigation - the L2 classroom.

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The terms behavioural approach and applied behavioural analysis are sometimes discussed separately in the relevant literature (e.g., Landrum & Kauffman, 2006). Since their methodological and theoretical foundations in educational psychology and behavioural analysis as well as their suggestions regarding teachers’ practices are very similar (e.g., Brophy, 2006; Merrett, 1981), only the term behavioural approach is used in this work.

In order to distinguish a language classroom from other learning environments (tutoring sessions, learning ‘in the wild’ etc.) it is, according to Collins and Munoz (2016), defined “as a physical space that serves as learning environment and is bounded in time; it is managed by a facilitator who normally has expertise in the FL and in FL pedagogy; and it is populated by groups of people who share the common purpose of learning/using the target L2” (p. 134).

See, for example, Hall and Smotrova (2013), Hazel and Mortensen (2017), Macías (2018), Mortensen and Hazel (2017), Ishino (2017, 2021), Ishino and Okada (2017), Waring (2013a, 2013b, 2013c, 2014), Waring and Hruska (2011), Waring et al. (2016) for related research.

Üstünel (2016) argues that research tends to take the following three positions regarding language alternation in L2 classrooms: (1) the role of L1 should be open, with no restrictions (see, e.g., recent work on ‘translanguaging’); (2) the L1 can be a resource, but its contribution to L2 learning should be clearly defined (see, e.g., Cook, 2001 for judicious use of L1); and (3) the L1 should be excluded from L2 classrooms as it may inhibit learning. According to Amir (2015), the third position can be traced back to Lambert and Tucker (1972) “who argued that ‘two languages should be kept rigidly separate’ in bilingual immersion classes” (Amir, 2015, p. 208), and it sparked the debate about language choice in L2 classrooms.

Language policing is not only done by teachers in response to learner-initiated language alternation but also by the pupils themselves, that is in form of self- and other-policing (see Amir & Musk, 2013 and Tholander & Aronsson, 2003 for a discussion of ‘subteaching’).

The term style refers to “general patterns of behaviour … [that are not necessarily regarded as] a personal characteristic, but as a characteristic of the system that teacher and students form together” (van Tartwijk et al., 1998, p. 609). This emphasis on style is particularly apparent in Wubbels and colleagues’ (see, e.g., Wubbels et al., 2012 for a collection of research) works which draw on conceptualisations of teaching behaviour that are based on a dimensional mode (somewhat similar to Wright’s 2005 core concerns in CM-for-SLA).

See, for example, Ädel (2011), Dippold (2014), Oliveira (2009) for studies drawing on politeness theory ; Hall and Smotrova (2013), Lo (2019), Park (2016), Piirainen-Marsh (2011), Reddington (2018), Tadic and Box (2019) for CA-based accounts and Klattenberg (2020b) for a combination of politeness theory and CA.

See also, for example, Füssenich (1981) and Mazeland (1983, 1984, 1985) for early micro-analytical research corroborating these findings in the German speaking context.

See McHoul (1990) for repair in classroom discourse and Kendrick et al. (2020) for findings confirming sequence organisation as a crucial part of the “underlying infrastructure for human interaction” (p. 134).

Unlike McHoul (1978), Mehan (1979b), however, also describes pupils exerting control over the interaction in that they get “ the floor ” (p. 140; emphasis in original) by “recognizing the completing of interactional sequences and the completion of instructional topics” (p. 145) and hold the floor by “interjecting … comment … on a … [fellow pupils’] reply” (p. 151). His data also show that pupils can introduce “ news ” (p. 152; emphasis in original) which refers to that fact that in order for a pupils “contribution to change the course of a lesson once it is in progress, it must not only be placed in the proper juncture, and be relevant to previous discussion, it must make an ‘interesting’ … or ‘original’ contribution” (p. 152; see also Füssenich, 1981 and Tyagunova, 2017). These findings on pupils’ exerting control over the turn-taking and sequence organisation appeared to have been overlooked. Learner initiatives as a locus of empirical investigation started to generate academic attention many years after Mehan’s initial work (see the discussion of ‘learner initiatives’ in the review of CA kick-starters and subsequent research in Section  2.3.2 ).

In the L2 literature, the three three-part interactional structure is often discussed with reference to Sinclair’s and Coulthard’s (1975) earlier work. Based on a discourse analytic approach, they establish the same pattern but refer to it as the initiation (I), response (R), feedback (F) structure, a term that is frequently used interchangeably with IRE in the relevant literature (see also McHoul, 1978 for question (Q)- answer (A)- comment (C) “utterance triad”, p. 191; Hall & Walsh, 2002 for “Initiation-Response-Follow-up”; cited in Jacknick, 2011, p. 39). Sinclair’s and Coulthard’s (1975) study itself and its discourse analytic methodology have, however, been criticised for tending to oversimplify classroom interaction. Seedhouse (2013), for example, argues that “DA cannot portray the flow of the interaction because it is essentially a static approach which portrays interaction as consisting of fixed and unidimensional coordinates on a conceptual map” (p. 1; emphasis added).

See also, Asbrand and Martens (2018) who discuss Luhmann (2002) on the general “ Unfreiwilligkeit ” (‘involuntariness’, p. 108) of pupils’ participation in classroom discourse and on the complementary but asymmetrical teacher and learner roles in classroom discourse leading to authority, situational control and speaking time being distributed unevenly, to the advantage of the teacher. See also Hellermann (2003) on classroom discourse being “designed to minimize audience participation” (p. 81); Paoletti and Fele (2004) on “[t]eachers exercise[ing] their unequal conversational rights while the students try to understand what they are supposed to be doing” (p. 70); and finally, Tyagunova (2017) for the IRE as one of the main sequential resources for maintaining teacher control in the classroom.

This entitlement to impose actions can be both “ distal if [it] … relate[s] to relatively distant future events such as implementing decisions, or proximal if … [it] relates to immediate events, such as initiating, maintaining, or closing local sequences of conversational action and attributing the next turn of talk” (Clifton, 2019, p. 6; emphasis added).

Similar to morality and epistemics , the deontic dimension of talk-in-interaction has generated academic interest in various fields of research. In his deontic logic, von Wright (1951) argues that “[t]here are the deontic modes or modes of obligation. These are concepts such as the obligatory (that which we ought to do), the permitted (that which we are allowed to do), and the forbidden (that which we must not do)” (p. 1). Studying “deontic modal language” (Charlow & Chrisman, 2016, p. 2) has also been a research interest in linguistics. In English, specific auxiliary verbs (e.g., must , can , may , should , ought ), adverbs (e.g., necessarily , possibly ) and utterance constructions (e.g., Have a coffee ) have been described as being “used to express deontic modal notions” (p. 2). CA inspired studies strive to “explicate how … [deontic] facets of the participants’ momentary relationship pertain to the organization of action ” (Stevanovic & Peräkylä, 2014, p. 186; emphasis added). That is, when used in the field of CA, deontics (i.e., deontic order) involve “a web of oriented-to relations between people -  relations that have to do with rights and obligations in requesting for, deciding about, and performing actions in the world” (p. 190; emphasis added). CA research can draw on the broader concept of deontic modality but, as with any other turn feature of talk-in-interaction, “the mere existence of a deontic modal verb in an utterance is not enough to make the utterance count as an instance of deontic authority [and a display of orientation to the deontic order]” (Stevanovic, 2013, p. 19).

Within the extensive research fields concerned with morality (e.g., philosophy, sociology, psychology), the CA perspective can be described as being aimed at tracing how the moral order “is interactionally accomplished and shaped … and [CA] pursues how moral concerns become relevant in and through the social organization of interaction” (Bergmann, 1998, p. 279; see also Niemi, 2016). Bergmann (1998) summarises research on morality (from a non-discursive perspective) by arguing that “traditional approaches to the study of moral discourse were either themselves engaged in a moral discourse by discussing morality within a normative frame of reference, or they have treated the practical morality of everyday life in a scientistic manner by decontextualizing it and implicitly ascribing to it a quasi-theoretical status . Most of these approaches have furthermore either placed morality within the individual person, as conscience or faith, or they have restricted morality in its actual appearance to customs and rituals” (p. 283; emphasis added). Bergmann (1998) then highlights the CA perspective on morality, compared to a more philosophical approach, by stating that the latter often “ascribes morality a theory-like status with logically interconnected and hierarchically organized statements of an evaluative or normative kind. But the idea of extracting a grammar of moral judgments from single isolated sentences inevitably leads to a decontextualized notion of morality, which leaves out the most salient feature of the ‘lived morality’ of everyday life— its practical character . If one wants to get access to the actual practices in which morality comes to life, one has to abandon the philosophical idea of an independent logic of moral language” (p. 281; emphasis added).

Epistemology is a vast field that can be described in general terms as “the systematic consideration, in philosophy and elsewhere, of knowing: when knowledge is valid, what counts as truth, and so on” (Packer & Goicoechea, 2000, p. 227). In his introduction to a special issue on The Field of Epistemic Discourse Analysis , van Dijk (2013) argues that particularly “relevant for the epistemic analysis of text and talk is that one of the three major sources of knowledge is (reliable) discourse, traditionally and strangely called ‘hearsay’ in epistemology” (p. 497). He then continues by demonstrating how knowledge is approached by cognitive psychology, artificial intelligence, social psychology, (macro) sociology, cognitive anthropology and, perhaps most importantly for the current study, linguistics. Regarding the latter, van Djik (2013) summarises research endeavours by saying that “[l]inguistics, especially in its functional paradigms, has dealt with knowledge first of all in terms of (old/given and new/salient) information and its distribution in sentence structure” (p. 498). Through the use of a modal expression, speakers can then also directly “mark their own statements as more or less true” (p. 498). The field has, however, often ignored how participants “ manage knowledge in talk interaction and communication” (p. 498; emphases added). CA-inspired research on epistemics provides valuable insights into this area.

A group of authors have heavily criticised CA-based work on epistemics (Heritage’s studies in particular) in a special issue entitled The epistemics of Epistemics . They argue that there is an Epistemic Program which “involves a significant departure from prior work in CA … [and a] conceptual apparatus [which] is overbuilt and overgeneralized [and cognitivist]” (Lynch & Macbeth, 2016, p. 494). In a subsequent rebuttal, Heritage (2018b) and others very clearly demonstrate that “the practices of social interaction can be examined for their participation in orders of conversational organization, such a turn-taking, repair, sequencing and so on … epistemics is such an order … and that orientations to, and the management of, states of knowledge in both absolute and relative terms are abiding and ubiquitous features of human interaction, as indeed was promulgated by Harold Garfinkel and Erving Goffman, the intellectual grandfathers of … [the] field” (p. 44).

See also Chapter  8 for an analysis of T1’s multimodal Gestalt contextualising reproachful meaning in beginning phase of the sequence.

See also Klattenberg (2020a) for a detailed discussion of address terms as reproaches as well as Sections  5.2.1 and 7.2.4 for a discussion of sequential reproach resources in the current data.

In terms of the overall sequential trajectory, it is located in second position to the reproach source.

See Klattenberg (2020a) for an analysis of address terms as reproaches in the L2 classroom which corroborates these findings.

The term present in Günthner’s (1996) argument can be seen as an additional reference to reproaches being ‘direct actions’.

See also Jakonen (2016) for “in English please” (p. 18) as a similar reproach design (i.e., language policing) which “makes it quite clear that the targeted, just-prior talk has not in fact been conducted in that language” (p. 18).

See Niemi (2016) on Sacks’ membership categorisation analysis and the moral order. See also Heller (2017) on category-bound activities in the classroom.

Goffman (1971) argued that expectancies need to be flexible because otherwise “public life would become hopelessly clogged with the commission of minor territorial offenses and their adjudication” (p. 108).

See also, for example, Mortensen’s and Hazel’s (2011) discussion of the CA approach to analysing L2 classroom tasks “as a sequentially unfolding process and as an independent social practice” (p. 55).

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Klattenberg, R. (2021). Classroom Management as a Field of Inquiry. In: Conversation Analysis and Classroom Management. J.B. Metzler, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-64682-3_2

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A Systematic Review of Studies on Classroom Management from 1980 to 2019

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This review study aims to reveal trends in classroom management research by employing a two-stage analysis of articles indexed by the Web of Science. The bibliometric analysis results indicated the descriptive statistics of the articles, the most productive countries and authors, the most popular articles, journals, and keywords, annual scientific production, growth of the top three journals by year, and the pioneer and influencer researchers in classroom management. The content analysis results showed the changes in the selection of methods, purposes, and participants for nearly three decades of classroom management research. This review concluded that interest in classroom management has been constantly growing, but research on classroom management is not prevalent worldwide.

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About the authors

Robert Marzano is the CEO of Marzano Research Laboratory in Centennial, CO, which provides research-based, partner-centered support for educators and education agencies—with the goal of helping teachers improve educational practice.

As strategic advisor, Robert brings over 50 years of experience in action-based education research, professional development, and curriculum design to Marzano Research. He has expertise in standards-based assessment, cognition, school leadership, and competency-based education, among a host of areas.

He is the author of 30 books, 150 articles and chapters in books, and 100 sets of curriculum materials for teachers and students in grades K–12.

The late Debra J. Pickering consulted with schools and districts nationally and internationally as vice president of field services for Marzano Research Laboratory. She passed away in 2020.

In addition to her work with schools, Pickering coauthored (with Robert Marzano) educational books and manuals, including  Dimensions of Learning ,  Classroom Instruction That Works ,  Classroom Management That Works , and  Building Academic Vocabulary .

With a combination of theoretical grounding and more than three decades of practical experience, Pickering worked with educators to translate theory into practice. In later years her work continued to focus on the study of learning and the development of resources for curriculum, instruction, and assessment to help all educators meet the needs of all students.

Pickering had a master's degree in school administration and a doctorate in curriculum and instruction, with an emphasis in cognitive psychology.

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