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Education scholar Denise Pope has found that too much homework has negative effects on student well-being and behavioral engagement. (Image credit: L.A. Cicero)

A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.

“Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good,” wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .

The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students’ views on homework.

Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.

Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.

“The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students’ advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being,” Pope wrote.

Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.

Their study found that too much homework is associated with:

* Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.

* Reductions in health: In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.

* Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits: Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were “not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills,” according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.

A balancing act

The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.

Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as “pointless” or “mindless” in order to keep their grades up.

“This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points,” Pope said.

She said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.

“Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development,” wrote Pope.

High-performing paradox

In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. “Young people are spending more time alone,” they wrote, “which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities.”

Student perspectives

The researchers say that while their open-ended or “self-reporting” methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for “typical adolescent complaining” – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.

The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Media Contacts

Denise Pope, Stanford Graduate School of Education: (650) 725-7412, [email protected] Clifton B. Parker, Stanford News Service: (650) 725-0224, [email protected]

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August 16, 2021

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in

by Sara M Moniuszko

It's no secret that kids hate homework. And as students grapple with an ongoing pandemic that has had a wide-range of mental health impacts, is it time schools start listening to their pleas over workloads?

Some teachers are turning to social media to take a stand against homework .

Tiktok user @misguided.teacher says he doesn't assign it because the "whole premise of homework is flawed."

For starters, he says he can't grade work on "even playing fields" when students' home environments can be vastly different.

"Even students who go home to a peaceful house, do they really want to spend their time on busy work? Because typically that's what a lot of homework is, it's busy work," he says in the video that has garnered 1.6 million likes. "You only get one year to be 7, you only got one year to be 10, you only get one year to be 16, 18."

Mental health experts agree heavy work loads have the potential do more harm than good for students, especially when taking into account the impacts of the pandemic. But they also say the answer may not be to eliminate homework altogether.

Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold, says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health."

"More than half of students say that homework is their primary source of stress, and we know what stress can do on our bodies," she says, adding that staying up late to finish assignments also leads to disrupted sleep and exhaustion.

Cynthia Catchings, a licensed clinical social worker and therapist at Talkspace, says heavy workloads can also cause serious mental health problems in the long run, like anxiety and depression.

And for all the distress homework causes, it's not as useful as many may think, says Dr. Nicholas Kardaras, a psychologist and CEO of Omega Recovery treatment center.

"The research shows that there's really limited benefit of homework for elementary age students, that really the school work should be contained in the classroom," he says.

For older students, Kang says homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night.

"Most students, especially at these high-achieving schools, they're doing a minimum of three hours, and it's taking away time from their friends from their families, their extracurricular activities. And these are all very important things for a person's mental and emotional health."

Catchings, who also taught third to 12th graders for 12 years, says she's seen the positive effects of a no homework policy while working with students abroad.

"Not having homework was something that I always admired from the French students (and) the French schools, because that was helping the students to really have the time off and really disconnect from school ," she says.

The answer may not be to eliminate homework completely, but to be more mindful of the type of work students go home with, suggests Kang, who was a high-school teacher for 10 years.

"I don't think (we) should scrap homework, I think we should scrap meaningless, purposeless busy work-type homework. That's something that needs to be scrapped entirely," she says, encouraging teachers to be thoughtful and consider the amount of time it would take for students to complete assignments.

The pandemic made the conversation around homework more crucial

Mindfulness surrounding homework is especially important in the context of the last two years. Many students will be struggling with mental health issues that were brought on or worsened by the pandemic, making heavy workloads even harder to balance.

"COVID was just a disaster in terms of the lack of structure. Everything just deteriorated," Kardaras says, pointing to an increase in cognitive issues and decrease in attention spans among students. "School acts as an anchor for a lot of children, as a stabilizing force, and that disappeared."

But even if students transition back to the structure of in-person classes, Kardaras suspects students may still struggle after two school years of shifted schedules and disrupted sleeping habits.

"We've seen adults struggling to go back to in-person work environments from remote work environments. That effect is amplified with children because children have less resources to be able to cope with those transitions than adults do," he explains.

'Get organized' ahead of back-to-school

In order to make the transition back to in-person school easier, Kang encourages students to "get good sleep, exercise regularly (and) eat a healthy diet."

To help manage workloads, she suggests students "get organized."

"There's so much mental clutter up there when you're disorganized... sitting down and planning out their study schedules can really help manage their time," she says.

Breaking assignments up can also make things easier to tackle.

"I know that heavy workloads can be stressful, but if you sit down and you break down that studying into smaller chunks, they're much more manageable."

If workloads are still too much, Kang encourages students to advocate for themselves.

"They should tell their teachers when a homework assignment just took too much time or if it was too difficult for them to do on their own," she says. "It's good to speak up and ask those questions. Respectfully, of course, because these are your teachers. But still, I think sometimes teachers themselves need this feedback from their students."

©2021 USA Today Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.

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The Truth About Homework Stress: What Parents & Students Need to Know

• Fact Checked

Written by:

published on:

• December 21, 2023

Updated on:

• January 9, 2024

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Homework is generally given out to ensure that students take time to review and remember the days lessons. It can help improve on a student’s general performance and enhance traits like self-discipline and independent problem solving.

Parents are able to see what their children are doing in school, while also helping teachers determine how well the lesson material is being learned. Homework is quite beneficial when used the right way and can improve student  performance.

This well intentioned practice can turn sour if it’s not handled the right way. Studies show that if a student is inundated with too much homework, not only do they get lower scores, but they are more likely to get stressed.

The age at which homework stress is affecting students is getting lower, some even as low as kindergarten. Makes you wonder what could a five year old possibly need to review as homework?

One of the speculated reasons for this stress is that the complexity of what a student is expected to learn is increasing, while the breaks for working out excess energy are reduced. Students are getting significantly more homework than recommended by the education leaders, some even nearly three times more.

To make matters worse, teachers may give homework that is both time consuming and will keep students busy while being totally non-productive.

Remedial work like telling students to copy notes word for word from their text books will  do nothing to improve their grades or help them progress. It just adds unnecessary stress.

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Effects of homework stress at home

Both parents and students tend to get stressed out at the beginning of a new school year due to the impending arrival of homework.

Nightly battles centered on finishing assignments are a household routine in houses with students.

Research has found that too much homework can negatively affect children. In creating a lack of balance between play time and time spent doing homework, a child can get headaches, sleep deprivation or even ulcers.

And homework stress doesn’t just impact grade schoolers. College students are also affected, and the stress is affecting their academic performance.

Even the parent’s confidence in their abilities to help their children with homework suffers due increasing stress levels in the household.

Fights and conflict over homework are more likely in families where parents do not have at least a college degree. When the child needs assistance, they have to turn to their older siblings who might already be bombarded with their own homework.

Parents who have a college degree feel more confident in approaching the school and discussing the appropriate amount of school work.

“It seems that homework being assigned discriminates against parents who don’t have college degree, parents who have English as their second language and against parents who are poor.” Said Stephanie Donaldson Pressman, the contributing editor of the study and clinical director of the New England Center for Pediatric Psychology.

With all the stress associated with homework, it’s not surprising that some parents have opted not to let their children do homework. Parents that have instituted a no-homework policy have stated that it has taken a lot of the stress out of their evenings.

The recommended amount homework

The standard endorsed by the National Education Association is called the “10 minute rule”; 10 minutes per grade level per night. This recommendation was made after a number of studies were done on the effects of too much homework on families.

The 10 minute rule basically means 10 minutes of homework in the first grade, 20 minute for the second grade all the way up to 120 minutes for senior year in high school. Note that no homework is endorsed in classes under the first grade.

Parents reported first graders were spending around half an hour on homework each night, and kindergarteners spent 25 minutes a night on assignments according to a study carried out by Brown University.

Making a five year old sit still for half an hour is very difficult as they are at the age where they just want to move around and play.

A child who is exposed to 4-5 hours of homework after school is less likely to find the time to go out and play with their friends, which leads to accumulation of stress energy in the body.

Their social life also suffers because between the time spent at school and doing homework, a child will hardly have the time to pursue hobbies. They may also develop a negative attitude towards learning.

The research highlighted that 56% of students consider homework a primary source of stress.

And if you’re curious how the U.S stacks up against other countries in regards to how much time children spend on homework, it’s pretty high on the list .

Signs to look out for on a student that has homework stress

Since not every student is affected by homework stress in the same way, it’s important to be aware of some of the signs your child might be mentally drained from too much homework.

Here are some common signs of homework stress:

• Sleep disturbances
• Frequent stomachaches and headaches
• Decreased appetite or changed eating habits
• New or recurring fears
• Not able to relax
• Regressing to behavior they had when younger
• Bursts of anger crying or whining
• Becoming withdrawn while others may become clingy
• Drastic changes in academic performance
• Having trouble concentrating or completing homework
• Constantly complains about their ability to do homework

If you’re a parent and notice any of these signs in your child, step in to find out what’s going on and if homework is the source of their stress.

If you’re a student, pay attention if you start experiencing any of these symptoms as a result of your homework load. Don’t be afraid to ask your teacher or parents for help if the stress of homework becomes too much for you.

What parents do wrong when it comes to homework stress

Most parents push their children to do more and be more, without considering the damage being done by this kind of pressure.

Some think that homework brought home is always something the children can deal with on their own. If the child cannot handle their homework then these parents get angry and make the child feel stupid.

This may lead to more arguing and increased dislike of homework in the household. Ultimately the child develops an even worse attitude towards homework.

Another common mistake parents make is never questioning the amount of homework their children get, or how much time they spend on it. It’s easy to just assume whatever the teacher assigned is adequate, but as we mentioned earlier, that’s not always the case.

Be proactive and involved with your child’s homework. If you notice they’re spending hours every night on homework, ask them about it. Just because they don’t complain doesn’t mean there isn’t a problem.

How can parents help?

• While every parent wants their child to become successful and achieve the very best, it’s important to pull back on the mounting pressure and remember that they’re still just kids. They need time out to release their stress and connect with other children.
• Many children may be afraid to admit that they’re overwhelmed by homework because they might be misconstrued as failures. The best thing a parent can do is make home a safe place for children to express themselves freely. You can do this by lending a listening ear and not judging your kids.
• Parents can also take the initiative to let the school know that they’re unhappy with the amount of homework being given. Even if you don’t feel comfortable complaining, you can approach the school through the parent-teacher association available and request your representative to plead your case.
• It may not be all the subjects that are causing your child to get stressed. Parents should find out if there is a specific subject of homework that is causing stress. You could also consult with other parents to see what they can do to fix the situation. It may be the amount or the content that causes stress, so the first step is identifying the problem.
• Work with your child to create a schedule for getting homework done on time. You can set a specific period of time for homework, and schedule time for other activities too. Strike a balance between work and play.
• Understanding that your child is stressed about homework doesn’t mean you have to allow them not to try. Let them sit down and work on it as much as they’re able to, and recruit help from the older siblings or a neighbor if possible.
• Check out these resources to help your child with their homework .

The main idea here is to not abolish homework completely, but to review the amount and quality of homework being given out. Stress, depression and lower grades are the last things parents want for their children.

The schools and parents need to work together to find a solution to this obvious problem.

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By submitting my email address. i certify that i am 13 years of age or older, agree to recieve marketing email messages from the princeton review, and agree to terms of use., homework wars: high school workloads, student stress, and how parents can help.

Studies of typical homework loads vary : In one, a Stanford researcher found that more than two hours of homework a night may be counterproductive. The research , conducted among students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities, found that too much homework resulted in stress, physical health problems and a general lack of balance.

Additionally, the  2014 Brown Center Report on American Education , found that with the exception of nine-year-olds, the amount of homework schools assign has remained relatively unchanged since 1984, meaning even those in charge of the curricula don't see a need for adding more to that workload.

But student experiences don’t always match these results. On our own Student Life in America survey, over 50% of students reported feeling stressed, 25% reported that homework was their biggest source of stress, and on average teens are spending one-third of their study time feeling stressed, anxious, or stuck.

The disparity can be explained in one of the conclusions regarding the Brown Report:

Of the three age groups, 17-year-olds have the most bifurcated distribution of the homework burden. They have the largest percentage of kids with no homework (especially when the homework shirkers are added in) and the largest percentage with more than two hours.

So what does that mean for parents who still endure the homework wars at home?

Read More: Teaching Your Kids How To Deal with School Stress

It means that sometimes kids who are on a rigorous college-prep track, probably are receiving more homework, but the statistics are melding it with the kids who are receiving no homework. And on our survey, 64% of students reported that their parents couldn’t help them with their work. This is where the real homework wars lie—not just the amount, but the ability to successfully complete assignments and feel success.

Parents want to figure out how to help their children manage their homework stress and learn the material.

Our Top 4 Tips for Ending Homework Wars

1. have a routine..

Every parenting advice article you will ever read emphasizes the importance of a routine. There’s a reason for that: it works. A routine helps put order into an often disorderly world. It removes the thinking and arguing and “when should I start?” because that decision has already been made. While routines must be flexible to accommodate soccer practice on Tuesday and volunteer work on Thursday, knowing in general when and where you, or your child, will do homework literally removes half the battle.

2. Have a battle plan.

Overwhelmed students look at a mountain of homework and think “insurmountable.” But parents can look at it with an outsider’s perspective and help them plan. Put in an extra hour Monday when you don’t have soccer. Prepare for the AP Chem test on Friday a little at a time each evening so Thursday doesn’t loom as a scary study night (consistency and repetition will also help lock the information in your brain). Start reading the book for your English report so that it’s underway. Go ahead and write a few sentences, so you don’t have a blank page staring at you. Knowing what the week will look like helps you keep calm and carry on.

3. Don’t be afraid to call in reserves.

You can’t outsource the “battle” but you can outsource the help ! We find that kids just do better having someone other than their parents help them —and sometimes even parents with the best of intentions aren’t equipped to wrestle with complicated physics problem. At The Princeton Review, we specialize in making homework time less stressful. Our tutors are available 24/7 to work one-to-one in an online classroom with a chat feature, interactive whiteboard, and the file sharing tool, where students can share their most challenging assignments.

4. Celebrate victories—and know when to surrender.

Students and parents can review completed assignments together at the end of the night -- acknowledging even small wins helps build a sense of accomplishment. If you’ve been through a particularly tough battle, you’ll also want to reach reach a cease-fire before hitting your bunk. A war ends when one person disengages. At some point, after parents have provided a listening ear, planning, and support, they have to let natural consequences take their course. And taking a step back--and removing any pressure a parent may be inadvertently creating--can be just what’s needed.

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Student Opinion

Should We Get Rid of Homework?

Some educators are pushing to get rid of homework. Would that be a good thing?

By Jeremy Engle and Michael Gonchar

Do you like doing homework? Do you think it has benefited you educationally?

Has homework ever helped you practice a difficult skill — in math, for example — until you mastered it? Has it helped you learn new concepts in history or science? Has it helped to teach you life skills, such as independence and responsibility? Or, have you had a more negative experience with homework? Does it stress you out, numb your brain from busywork or actually make you fall behind in your classes?

Should we get rid of homework?

In “ The Movement to End Homework Is Wrong, ” published in July, the Times Opinion writer Jay Caspian Kang argues that homework may be imperfect, but it still serves an important purpose in school. The essay begins:

Do students really need to do their homework? As a parent and a former teacher, I have been pondering this question for quite a long time. The teacher side of me can acknowledge that there were assignments I gave out to my students that probably had little to no academic value. But I also imagine that some of my students never would have done their basic reading if they hadn’t been trained to complete expected assignments, which would have made the task of teaching an English class nearly impossible. As a parent, I would rather my daughter not get stuck doing the sort of pointless homework I would occasionally assign, but I also think there’s a lot of value in saying, “Hey, a lot of work you’re going to end up doing in your life is pointless, so why not just get used to it?” I certainly am not the only person wondering about the value of homework. Recently, the sociologist Jessica McCrory Calarco and the mathematics education scholars Ilana Horn and Grace Chen published a paper, “ You Need to Be More Responsible: The Myth of Meritocracy and Teachers’ Accounts of Homework Inequalities .” They argued that while there’s some evidence that homework might help students learn, it also exacerbates inequalities and reinforces what they call the “meritocratic” narrative that says kids who do well in school do so because of “individual competence, effort and responsibility.” The authors believe this meritocratic narrative is a myth and that homework — math homework in particular — further entrenches the myth in the minds of teachers and their students. Calarco, Horn and Chen write, “Research has highlighted inequalities in students’ homework production and linked those inequalities to differences in students’ home lives and in the support students’ families can provide.”

Mr. Kang argues:

But there’s a defense of homework that doesn’t really have much to do with class mobility, equality or any sense of reinforcing the notion of meritocracy. It’s one that became quite clear to me when I was a teacher: Kids need to learn how to practice things. Homework, in many cases, is the only ritualized thing they have to do every day. Even if we could perfectly equalize opportunity in school and empower all students not to be encumbered by the weight of their socioeconomic status or ethnicity, I’m not sure what good it would do if the kids didn’t know how to do something relentlessly, over and over again, until they perfected it. Most teachers know that type of progress is very difficult to achieve inside the classroom, regardless of a student’s background, which is why, I imagine, Calarco, Horn and Chen found that most teachers weren’t thinking in a structural inequalities frame. Holistic ideas of education, in which learning is emphasized and students can explore concepts and ideas, are largely for the types of kids who don’t need to worry about class mobility. A defense of rote practice through homework might seem revanchist at this moment, but if we truly believe that schools should teach children lessons that fall outside the meritocracy, I can’t think of one that matters more than the simple satisfaction of mastering something that you were once bad at. That takes homework and the acknowledgment that sometimes a student can get a question wrong and, with proper instruction, eventually get it right.

Students, read the entire article, then tell us:

Should we get rid of homework? Why, or why not?

Is homework an outdated, ineffective or counterproductive tool for learning? Do you agree with the authors of the paper that homework is harmful and worsens inequalities that exist between students’ home circumstances?

Or do you agree with Mr. Kang that homework still has real educational value?

When you get home after school, how much homework will you do? Do you think the amount is appropriate, too much or too little? Is homework, including the projects and writing assignments you do at home, an important part of your learning experience? Or, in your opinion, is it not a good use of time? Explain.

In these letters to the editor , one reader makes a distinction between elementary school and high school:

Homework’s value is unclear for younger students. But by high school and college, homework is absolutely essential for any student who wishes to excel. There simply isn’t time to digest Dostoyevsky if you only ever read him in class.

What do you think? How much does grade level matter when discussing the value of homework?

Is there a way to make homework more effective?

If you were a teacher, would you assign homework? What kind of assignments would you give and why?

Want more writing prompts? You can find all of our questions in our Student Opinion column . Teachers, check out this guide to learn how you can incorporate them into your classroom.

Students 13 and older in the United States and Britain, and 16 and older elsewhere, are invited to comment. All comments are moderated by the Learning Network staff, but please keep in mind that once your comment is accepted, it will be made public.

Jeremy Engle joined The Learning Network as a staff editor in 2018 after spending more than 20 years as a classroom humanities and documentary-making teacher, professional developer and curriculum designer working with students and teachers across the country. More about Jeremy Engle

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Homework in High School: How Much Is Too Much?

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It’s not hard to find a high school student who is stressed about homework. Many are stressed to the max–juggling extracurricular activities, jobs, and family responsibilities. It can be hard for many students, particularly low-income students, to find the time to dedicate to homework. So students in the PBS NewsHour Student Reporting Labs program at YouthBeat in Oakland, California are asking what’s a fair amount of homework for high school students?

TEACHERS: Guide your students to practice civil discourse about current topics and get practice writing CER (claim, evidence, reasoning) responses.  Explore lesson supports.

Is homework beneficial to students?

The homework debate has been going on for years. There’s a big body of research that shows that homework can have a positive impact on academic performance. It can also help students prepare for the academic rigors of college.

Does homework hurt students?

Some research suggests that homework is only beneficial up to a certain point. Too much homework can lead to compromised health and greater stress in students. Many students, particularly low-income students, can struggle to find the time to do homework, especially if they are working jobs after school or taking care of family members. Some students might not have access to technology, like computers or the internet, that are needed to complete assignments at home– which can make completing assignments even more challenging. Many argue that this contributes to inequity in education– particularly if completing homework is linked to better academic performance.

How much homework should students get?

Based on research, the National Education Association recommends the 10-minute rule stating students should receive 10 minutes of homework per grade per night. But opponents to homework point out that for seniors that’s still 2 hours of homework which can be a lot for students with conflicting obligations. And in reality, high school students say it can be tough for teachers to coordinate their homework assignments since students are taking a variety of different classes. Some people advocate for eliminating homework altogether.

Edweek: How Much Homework Is Enough? Depends Who You Ask

Business Insider: Here’s How Homework Differs Around the World

Review of Educational Research: Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987-2003

Phys.org: Study suggests more than two hours of homework a night may be counterproductive

The Journal of Experimental Education: Nonacademic Effects of Homework in Privileged, High-Performing High Schools

National Education Association: Research Spotlight on Homework NEA Reviews of the Research on Best Practices in Education

The Atlantic: Who Does Homework Work For?

Center for Public Education: What research says about the value of homework: Research review

Time: Opinion: Why I think All Schools Should Abolish Homework

The Atlantic: A Teacher’s Defense of Homework

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Academic stress and academic burnout in adolescents: a moderated mediating model

Associated data.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

This study aims to investigate the relationship and mechanisms of action among academic stress, academic anxiety, academic self-efficacy, and academic burnout among adolescents.

A study of 929 Chinese adolescents (53.71% males, mean age = 11.94 years, SD = 0.77) was conducted using the Study Stress Questionnaire, Academic Anxiety Subscale, Junior Middle School Students’ Learning Weariness Scale, and the Academic Self-efficacy Questionnaire.

①Academic stress was significantly and positively correlated with academic anxiety and academic burnout, and significantly and negatively correlated with academic self-efficacy. ②Academic anxiety partially mediated the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout. ③Academic self-efficacy significantly moderated the direct effect of academic stress on academic burnout, and higher academic self-efficacy could buffer the negative effect of academic stress. ④Academic self-efficacy significantly moderated the second half of the mediated model’s path (academic anxiety → academic burnout), that is, low academic self-efficacy amplified the risk effect of academic anxiety on academic burnout.

Academic anxiety partially mediates the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout, and this mediating role is moderated by academic self-efficacy.

• - Academic stress can positively predict academic burnout.
• - This finding suggests that academic self-efficacy can reduce the association between academic stress and academic burnout and enhance the association between academic anxiety and academic burnout.
• - Helping people gain a deeper understanding of the factors associated to academic burnout.
• - Helping people to make more reasonable interventions to adolescents who have academic burnout.

Introduction

Academic burnout is a persistent, negative, learning-related psychological state that occurs primarily in students ( Zhang et al., 2007 ) and consists of three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, outside of study, and reduced personal achievement ( Lin and Huang, 2014 ). In China, academic tiresome is a more colloquial expression for academic burnout, and the three manifestations of academic tiresome included in academic tiresome cognition, academic tiresome emotion, and academic tiresome behavior, which are three dimensions similar to academic burnout ( Zhao, 2019 ). Also, academic burnout is measured by an instrument similar to academic tiresome ( Yavuz and Dogan, 2014 ).

Chinese adolescents currently suffer from more severe academic burnout. Results of a survey conducted by the China Care for the Next Generation Working Committee in 2020 showed that more than 30% of elementary school students were bored with school and more than 70% of adolescent students have academic burnout, and many students experienced severe burnout or even refused to go to school due to the home quarantine during the epidemic that interrupted the normal rhythm of school attendance for adolescents ( Sun et al., 2021 ; Swords et al., 2021 ). Regarding the impact of academic burnout on adolescents, current research has confirmed that academic weariness can lead to problematic behaviors such as absenteeism and school dropout ( Wang et al., 2019 ), which can severely affect the entire family ( Shen et al., 2012 ). In addition, some variables closely related to academic burnout are influential factors of adolescent mental health problems ( Cheraghian et al., 2016 ), such as academic burnout can predict adolescent depression ( Salmela-Aro et al., 2009 ) and neuroticism ( Murberg and Bru, 2007 ). Adolescents, especially junior high school students, as a group just entering adolescence, have significant and rapid development and transition in psychological functioning ( Gallagher et al., 2014 ). Chinese adolescents are prone to low academic control ( Jose and Weir, 2013 ), burnout ( Jiang et al., 2021 ), and school refusal behavior ( Boussand et al., 2021 ) due to the number of courses they take, the difficulty of the curriculum, the pressure to advance to higher education ( Dotterer et al., 2009 ; Lin, 2013 ), and high parental expectations ( Huang et al., 2018 ). Therefore, this study aims to investigate the causes and mechanisms of adolescents’ academic burnout and to provide theoretical and empirical support for solving the problem of academic burnout.

Academic stress and academic burnout

Previous studies have shown that students’ own poor learning foundation, low self-evaluation, and lack of interest and initiative in learning can lead to academic tiresome ( Li, 2009 ; Zheng, 2013 ). Academic stress, an important stressor for adolescents ( Ye et al., 2019 ; Nagamitsu et al., 2020 ), may be one of the factors influencing academic burnout. Although moderate stress can improve task performance ( Henderson et al., 2012 ; Lin et al., 2022 ) and productivity ( Kumari, 2021 ) in humans or animals, studies have shown that excessive academic stress not only causes negative cognitive attitudes toward academics ( Savarese et al., 2019 ), affects students’ academic students’ performance ( Khan et al., 2013 ), and reduces students’ academic performance ( Canup, 2016 ); behaviorally leading to bad habits such as academic procrastination ( Niazov et al., 2022 ), cell phone addiction ( Shen et al., 2021 ), and also emotionally inducing depression ( Jiang et al., 2021 ), reduced mental health ( Aloia and McTigue, 2019 ), and even suicidal tendencies ( Okechukwu et al., 2022 ). Thus, academic stress can affect adolescents in cognitive, behavioral, and emotional terms. Jessor et al. (2010) problem behavior theory states that problem behaviors (behavioral systems) can be directly influenced by individual internal personality factors (personality systems) as well as perceived external environmental factors (environmental perception systems). When an individual perceives academic stress, this perception can directly affect the adolescent’s behavioral system and produce burnout behaviors. The Transactional model of stress and coping (TSC) ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ) also argues that individuals cognitively assess stress after perceiving it. After feeling academic stress, adolescents may react negatively to this stress if they assess it as a threat ( Walburg, 2014 ), which, in turn, may lead to academic burnout. In addition, there are also studies that show that academic stress is one of the factors that lead to academic burnout ( Gonzálvez et al., 2018 ). Based on the above arguments, academic stress is one of the important factors that lead to students’ academic burnout. Therefore, this study will examine the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout in junior high school students and propose hypothesis H1: Academic stress in adolescents positively predicts academic burnout.

Mediating effect of academic anxiety

Academic anxiety is a negative emotional state that students experience more frequently in academic situations ( Gogol et al., 2017 ), encompasses anxiety about the school and learning environment and anxiety about academic activities (e.g., learning specific knowledge, exams, etc.) ( Levine, 2008 ), and is a mediating variable between academic stress and negative academic performance ( Nagpal and Sinha, 2016 ). On the one hand, as a typical negative academic emotion ( Pekrun et al., 2002 ), academic anxiety can directly predict the occurrence of academic burnout ( García-Fernández et al., 2011 ; Tao and Zhao, 2018 ; Pan and Zhang, 2021 ), and the higher the level of anxiety, the more individuals have manifestations of academic burnout, such as academic burnout ( Fernández-Castillo, 2021 ), school refusal ( Seçer and Ulaş, 2020 ), feelings of helplessness ( Raufelder et al., 2018 ), and poor academic performance ( Barbosa-Camacho et al., 2022 ). Processing efficiency theory states ( Eysenck et al., 1987 ; Eysenck and Calvo, 1992 ) that highly anxious individuals are more likely to use negative learning strategies during learning, devoting limited cognitive resources to activities that are irrelevant to the learning task at hand, and choosing to allocate their attention to more irrelevant stimuli ( Caviola et al., 2021 ). This is precisely in line with the behavioral manifestations of high academic burnout individuals, who appear to be mentally and behaviorally avoidant of the current learning task or learning process ( Zhu et al., 2022 ). Therefore, we hypothesize that academic anxiety can influence academic burnout. On the other hand, anxiety as a physiological and psychological response triggered by stressors ( Colich and McLaughlin, 2022 ), and stressful life events are a major stressor ( Young and Dietrich, 2015 ). The higher the academic stress of adolescents, the higher their anxiety levels ( Leung et al., 2010 ; Trevethan et al., 2022 ). Empirical studies have shown that adolescents increase academic stress ( Park et al., 2012 ; Sun et al., 2012 ) and thus anxiety levels ( Huberty, 2009 ) due to high homework loads, high expectations of teachers and parents, and lower academic performance. Therefore, we hypothesize that academic stress can influence academic anxiety. Regarding the emergence of this mechanism, the “context-process-outcome model” ( Roeser et al., 1996 ) states that situational factors tend to influence individuals’ behavior by affecting their internal psychological processes. While stress is a hypothetical state in response to situational stimuli ( Sarason, 1984 ), learning anxiety and academic burnout correspond to the psychological processes and outcomes of this model, respectively. We hypothesized that this mechanism of influence of academic stress would apply equally to academic burnout. For academic anxiety as a mediating variable, Fiorilli et al.'s (2020) study of school burnout in adolescents aged 13–17 showed that academic anxiety can mediate between trait emotional intelligence Trait emotional intelligence and school burnout. Dong and Liang et al. studied the causes of school burnout in junior high school students and found that academic stress was a mediating variable between anxiety and school burnout ( Dong et al., 2021 ). In summary, academic anxiety may act as a mediating variable in the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout; therefore, this study proposes hypothesis H2: academic anxiety plays a mediating role in the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout.

Moderating effect of academic self-efficacy

Academic self-efficacy (ASE) is the judgment and confidence in an individual’s ability to believe that he or she can successfully complete a specific academic task at a specific stage of learning ( Schunk, 1991 ) and is the degree of belief in achieving the desired academic level ( Weißenfels et al., 2022 ). Although academic anxiety affects the performance of academic burnout in middle school students, processing efficiency theory ( Michael, 1982 ; Eysenck and Calvo, 1992 ) suggests that the relationship between anxiety levels and behavioral performance can be influenced by control or self-regulatory systems, and academic self-efficacy has the potential to act as a moderating variable for academic anxiety and academic burnout. Firstly, academic self-efficacy may play a moderating role between academic stress and academic burnout. First, according to Bandura’s self-efficacy theory ( Bandura, 1977 ), individuals are able to be moderated by their self-efficacy when they face psychological and behavioral changes in response to stimuli, so individuals with high academic self-efficacy will have less burnout emotions and behaviors in response to academic stress. Second, studies on Chinese students have shown that self-efficacy can effectively regulate the relationship between stress and negative emotions such as depression, and stress and mental health ( Schönfeld et al., 2019 ); studies on self-efficacy regulation of stress and adolescent life satisfaction showed that adolescents with high academic self-efficacy showed higher life satisfaction in the face of stress ( Moksnes et al., 2019 ), whereas individuals with low self-efficacy showed higher life satisfaction in the face of stress. In addition, according to TSC ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ), academic self-efficacy can be used as a second evaluation mechanism for adolescents facing academic stress, and when academic self-efficacy is low, individuals are more likely to When academic self-efficacy is low, individuals are more likely to assess academic stress as a threatening factor and thus become academic burnout. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that academic self-efficacy can moderate the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout, and academic self-efficacy can buffer the reinforcing effect of academic stress on academic burnout.

Furthermore, academic self-efficacy is considered to be a predictor and protective factor for adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems ( Valle et al., 2006 ; Zee et al., 2017 ). Therefore, the relationship between academic anxiety as an internalized academic emotion ( Lahdelma et al., 2021 ) and academic burnout may also be moderated by academic self-efficacy. First, research has shown that self-efficacy moderates the relationship between anxiety and academic performance ( Barrows et al., 2013 ), and a decline in academic performance is one of the significant manifestations of academic burnout ( Fu et al., 2002 ). Second, according to the control value theory of academic emotions ( Pekrun, 2000 ; Pekrun et al., 2002 ), control cognition, which contains individuals’ expectations of the future ( Roseman, 1996 ), is the main source of students’ academic emotions, and self-efficacy, as a control factor of cognition ( Stenmark et al., 2021 ), can influence students’ academic emotions. Whereas in the academic life of adolescents, academic anxiety itself can affect academic performance and academic achievement ( Hooda and Saini, 2017 ), individuals with low academic self-efficacy increase their assessment of threat ( Putwain and Symes, 2012 ), further leading to academic burnout. Also according to the problem behavior theory ( Jessor et al., 2010 ), the environmental perception system can interact with the personality system to produce problem behaviors, and academic self-efficacy, as a structure in the Personal Belief part of the personality system, can interact with academic anxiety, which can lead to academic burnout. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that academic self-efficacy can regulate the relationship between academic anxiety and academic burnout and buffer the reinforcing effect of academic anxiety on academic burnout. Based on the above analysis, this study proposes hypothesis H3: academic self-efficacy plays a moderating role between academic stress and academic burnout; specifically, the academic burnout of adolescents with high academic self-efficacy is more influenced by academic stress than those with low academic self-efficacy; this study proposes hypothesis H4: academic self-efficacy plays a moderating role between academic anxiety and academic burnout; specifically, the academic burnout of adolescents with high academic self-efficacy is more influenced by academic stress than those with low academic self-efficacy. Specifically, adolescents with high academic self-efficacy were more affected by academic anxiety than adolescents with low academic self-efficacy. Based on the problem behavior theory and transactional model, this study constructed a moderated mediation model (see Figure 1 ) based on the above assumptions as a way to explore the effect of learning stress on academic burnout and its mechanism of action.

Moderated Mediating Model.

Materials and methods

Design and procedure.

We applied a survey design to achieve our research objectives. We used a whole-group sampling method and approached a junior high school in Shandong Province to collect data from their students, a sample of adolescents from this junior high school that was well represented. Participants were invited to provide their voluntary consent and then complete these measures. Participants did not provide any personal information that would allow researchers or organizations to identify them. Participants were led into the school’s microcomputer room by a schoolteacher and completed an electronic questionnaire on a computer after a trained master examiner read the instructions. All participation was voluntary, and each participant received a ballpoint pen as payment at the end of the test.

Participants

Using the whole-group sampling method, all students in grades 6 and 7 of a junior high school in Shandong Province, a total of 982 adolescents, were selected to complete the questionnaire survey, and a total of 929 valid questionnaires were returned, with a valid return rate of 94.60%. Among them, 499 (53.71%) were male and 430 (46.29%) were female; 488 were in the first grade and 441 were in the second grade, aged 11 to 15 (11.94 ± 0.77). These adolescents came from urban, rural and rural areas, and it can be confirmed that the sample drawn is highly representative of the adolescent population.

Academic stress

This study used the study stress questionnaire for middle school students ( Xu et al., 2010 ) to measure adolescents’ academic stress. Twenty-one questions were included in the scale, including 4 dimensions of parents’ pressure, self-pressure, teacher pressure, and sociality pressure. The scale consists of 21 questions, including 4 dimensions: parents’ pressure, self-pressure, teacher pressure, and sociality pressure. Sample questions include parents pressure “My parents nag me a lot and want me to be an outstanding person,” self pressure “I think that going on to higher education is my only way out,” and teacher pressure “When I cannot answer the teacher’s questions, the teacher will criticize me. When I cannot answer the teacher’s questions, the teacher will criticize me,” sociality pressure “When I am worried, I feel that I do not have a friend to talk to.” The scale is scored on a 5-point scale, with 1 point for “Completely Not Conforming” and 5 points for “Completely Conforming.” The total Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the scale was 0.95. We conduct confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on 21 items; the average variance extracted (AVE) of each second-order factor is between 0.480 and 0.607, and the composite reliability (CR) is between 0.781 and 0.903. The results of the model showed that Chi-square/df = 6.233, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.075, SRMR = 0.042, GFI = 0.882, AGFI = 0.851, CFI = 0.922, TLI = 0.911, indicating that the results of CFA had good fitting indicators.

Academic anxiety

In this study, the academic anxiety subscale of the Mental Health Diagnostic Test (MHT), adapted by Zhou Bucheng ( Zheng et al., 2004 ), was used to measure adolescents’ academic anxiety. The scale consists of 15 questions (e.g., “Do you always think about tomorrow’s homework when you go to bed at night?”). The scale is scored on a two-point scale, with “Yes” scoring one and “No” scoring zero, with higher scores indicating higher levels of anxiety. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this scale was 0.86. We conduct confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on 21 items; the average variance extracted (AVE) is 0.299, and the composite reliability (CR) is 0.852. The results of the model showed that Chi-square/df = 4.297, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.060, SRMR = 0.043, GFI = 0.946, AGFI = 0.926, CFI = 0.926, TLI = 0.11, indicating that the results of CFA had good fitting indicators.

Academic burnout

This study used Junior Middle School Students’ Learning Weariness Scale ( Zhao, 2019 ) to measure adolescents’ academic tiresome. The questionnaire has 17 items including 3 dimensions of academic tiresome cognition, academic tiresome emotion, and academic tiresome behavior. Sample questions such as academic tiresome cognition “I do not get any pleasure from studying,” academic tiresome behavior “I often try to avoid studying,” and academic tiresome emotion “Studying often makes me feel physically and mentally exhausted.” The scale was scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with all positive scores, one score for “Not at all” and five scores for “Fully,” and the higher the total score, the more serious the degree of academic burnout. The total Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the scale was 0.95. We conduct confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on 21 items; the average variance extracted (AVE) of each second-order factor is between 0.571 and 0.670, and the composite reliability (CR) is between 0.890 and 0.903, indicating that the aggregation validity is high. The results of the model showed that Chi-square/df = 7.114, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.081, SRMR = 0.046, GFI = 0.906, AGFI = 0.874, CFI = 0.938, TLI = 0.927, indicating that the results of CFA had good fitting indicators.

Academic self-efficacy

The academic self-efficacy questionnaire, developed by Pintrich and De Groot (1990) and revised in Chinese by Liang (2000) , is a 22-item scale containing two dimensions: self-efficacy of academic ability and self-efficacy of academic behavior. Sample questions such as “I believe I have the ability to do well in my studies” and “I always like to check whether I have mastered what I have learned through self-questioning when studying” are scored on a 5-point scale. The higher the total score, the stronger the academic self-efficacy. The total Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the scale was 0.94. We conduct confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on 21 items; the average variance extracted (AVE) of each second-order factor is between 0.448 and 0.634, and the composite reliability (CR) is between 0.853 and 0.950. The results of the model showed that Chi-square/df = 7.212, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.082, SRMR = 0.064, GFI = 0.865, AGFI = 0.834, CFI = 0.922, TLI = 0.912, indicating that the results of CFA had good fitting indicators.

Data analysis

First, the common method deviation test was performed using SPSS 22.0, and descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were performed for the main variables. The common method bias test calculated according to Harman’s one-way test showed that there were 10 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. The first principal component explained 29.89% of the total variance, which is below the critical value of 40%, so it can be concluded that there is no significant common method bias problem in this study. After that, Model 15 in SPSS macro program process v3.3 prepared by Hayes and Scharkow (2013) was used to perform the moderated mediation model test and Bootstrap method (2000 replicate samples with confidence interval set to 95%) was used to test the significance of the mediation effect.

Descriptive and correlation analyses

As shown in Table 1 , the results of descriptive statistics and correlation analysis showed that there was a significant positive correlation between academic stress, academic anxiety, and academic burnout, and a significant negative correlation between academic self-efficacy and academic stress, academic anxiety, and academic burnout.

Average, standard deviation, and correlation coefficient of each variable ( N = 929).

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001.

Mediation effect test

In the Process macro proposed by Hayes and Scharkow (2013) , the mediating effect of learning anxiety was tested using Model 4. The Bootstrap test (a statistical method for multiple repetition sampling) was chosen and set with repetitions of 2000 and 95% confidence intervals. The results showed that the predictive effect of academic stress on academic burnout was significant ( β = 0.38, t = 13.40, p < 0.001), and the predictive effect of academic stress on academic burnout remained significant when the mediating variable academic anxiety was introduced ( β = 0.32, t = 9.74, p < 0.001), academic stress had a significant predictive effect on academic anxiety ( β = 0.50, t = 17.98, p < 0.001), and academic anxiety had a significant positive predictive effect on academic burnout ( β = 0.12, t = 3.70, p < 0.001). The upper and lower limits of Bootstrap 95% confidence intervals for the direct effect of academic stress on academic burnout and the mediating effect of academic anxiety did not contain 0 (see Table 2 ), indicating that academic stress not only directly predicted academic burnout Academic anxiety partially mediates between academic stress and academic burnout, with a mediating effect value of 0.06 and 95% confidence interval of (0.03, 0.10), indicating that the mediating effect of academic anxiety was significant, accounting for 15.79% of the total effect and 18.75% of the direct effect value.

Total, direct and indirect effects.

Academic stress and academic burnout: testing for moderated-mediation

Model 15 in the process macro program prepared by Hayes was used to test for a moderating mediating effect. The results showed that equation 1 was significant overall ( F (1, 927) = 323.24, p < 0.001) and learning stress was a significant positive predictor of learning anxiety (β = 0.50, t = 17.98, p < 0.001). Equation 2 was significant overall ( F (5, 923) = 169.84, p < 0.001), with learning stress significantly and positively predicting academic burnout ( β = 0.13, t = 4.86, p < 0.001) and learning anxiety significantly and positively predicting academic burnout ( β = 0.07, t = 2.83, p < 0.01), thus learning anxiety mediated the relationship between learning stress and academic burnout. The interaction term between academic stress and academic self-efficacy was a significant negative predictor of academic burnout ( β = −0.08, t = −3.05, p < 0.01), and the interaction term between academic anxiety and academic self-efficacy was a significant positive predictor of academic burnout ( β = 0.05, t = 2.05, p < 0.05), indicating a significant moderating effect of academic self-efficacy. The results are shown in Table 3 .

The moderated-mediating effect of academic stress on academic burnout.

After standardizing the study variables, the study divided the subjects into low ( Z ≦ -1 SD ) and high ( Z ≧ 1 SD ) subgroups according to the standardized scores controlling for academic self-efficacy for simple slope analysis. First, we explored how academic self-efficacy moderated the direct effect of academic stress on academic burnout. The results found (see Figure 2 ) that the predictive effect of academic stress on academic burnout was significant for adolescents when the level of academic self-efficacy was low ( simple slope = 0.23, SE = 0.04, p < 0.001) and insignificant for adolescents when the level of academic self-efficacy was high ( simple slope = 0.06, SE = 0.04, p = 0.10). This indicates that the lower the academic self-efficacy of middle school students, the greater the effect of academic stress on academic burnout, and conversely, at high levels of academic self-efficacy, the effect of academic stress on academic burnout was not significant.

Model of the test for simple slopes showing the moderating influence of academic self-efficacy of the association between academic stress and academic burnout.

The study further went on to analyze the moderating effect of academic self-efficacy on the relationship between academic anxiety and academic burnout in the second half of the mediated model path (see Figure 3 ). It was found that for middle school students with low academic self-efficacy levels, academic anxiety was not a significant predictor of academic burnout ( simple slope = 0.02, SE = 0.04, p = 0.58); for adolescents with high academic self-efficacy, academic anxiety was a significant positive predictor of academic burnout ( simple slope = 0.13, SE = 0.04, p = 0.0004). This suggests that the higher the academic self-efficacy of middle school students, the greater the effect of learning anxiety on academic burnout may be, and on the contrary, at low levels of academic self-efficacy, the effect of learning anxiety on academic burnout may not have a significant effect.

Model of the test for simple slopes showing the moderating influence of academic self-efficacy of the association between academic anxiety and academic burnout.

The bias-corrected bootstrap confirmed that the indirect relationship between academic stress and academic burnout through anxiety was moderated by academic self-efficacy. To be specific, with the improvement of self-efficacy, the indirect effect was stronger (low level of academic self-efficacy: β = 0.011, SE = 0.027, 95% CI = −0.040 to 0.065; medium level of academic self-efficacy: β = 0.038, SE = 0.015, 95% CI = 0.010 to 0.067; high level of academic self-efficacy: β = 0.064, SE = 0.017, 95% CI = 0.032 to 0.100). The results support the hypotheses developed in this research.

This study constructed a moderated mediation model based on the problem behavior theory and transactional model, administered to adolescent students in grades 6 and 7, examined the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout, and tested the mediating role of academic anxiety and the moderating role of academic self-efficacy. The results of the study both expand the application of the model and contribute to the understanding of the critical issue of how academic stress affects academic burnout among junior high school students, and provide important insights into how to intervene in adolescents’ academic burnout.

The relation between academic stress and academic burnout

Adolescents experience a variety of stressors, and academic stress is one of the most significant sources of stress ( Ang and Huan, 2006 ). The present study found that academic stress in adolescents can significantly influence academic burnout, and the findings support hypothesis H1, which is consistent with previous findings ( Kim and Jang, 2016 ; Gonzálvez et al., 2018 ; Jiang et al., 2021 ). In terms of the three components of academic burnout, this result also supports the problem behavior theory ( Jessor, 1987 ) and the transactional model ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ). On the one hand, in terms of the behavioral component of aversion, the problem behavior theory suggests that the stress perception system directly influences the occurrence of problem behaviors and that the perception of stress also directly influences academic burnout behaviors when adolescents are in a stressful learning environment. On the other hand, in terms of the emotional and cognitive components of academic burnout, the transactional model ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ) suggests that individuals may assess learning stress as a threatening factor ( Tadeo-Álvarez et al., 2019 ), resulting in academic burnout emotions and academic burnout cognitions ( Hodge-Windover, 2018 ). In summary, academic stress has a direct impact on the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects of academic burnout, which can increase the level of adolescents’ academic burnout.

The mediating role of academic anxiety

The present study also revealed the mediating role of academic anxiety between academic stress and academic burnout, that is, academic stress can influence academic burnout not only directly and directly but also indirectly through academic anxiety, and the findings support hypothesis H2. First, the present study found that academic stress can positively predict academic anxiety. The higher the academic stress of adolescents, the higher their anxiety levels will be, which is consistent with previous research findings ( Khng, 2017 ; Dube et al., 2018 ; Pan and Zhang, 2021 ). According to the transactional model, learning anxiety is also an emotional response that individuals make after assessing stress ( Stetler and Guinn, 2020 ). When the assessment of stress or the ability to regulate emotions is abnormal, individuals are prone to anxiety ( Bhat, 2017 ). Second, the present study also found that academic anxiety positively predicted academic burnout, consistent with previous research ( Fernández-Castillo, 2021 ). This is because negative academic emotions trigger more in negative actual performance (e.g., academic burnout), and a decrease in the level of academic anxiety in individuals will help them to stay motivated and active in their studies, contributing to a reduction in academic burnout ( Steel, 2010 ). It is evident that learning anxiety acts as a bridge between learning stress and academic burnout; the more learning stress adolescents are subjected to, the more likely they are to develop learning anxiety, and this anxiety subsequently leads to higher levels of academic burnout. This result supports the stress process model ( Pearlin et al., 1981 ). This model suggests that stress can affect individuals both directly and indirectly by increasing certain negative psychological resources such as anxiety ( Aneshensel and Avison, 2015 ). Here, academic anxiety, as a result of the perception of a stressful environment ( Haikalis et al., 2022 ), is able to mediate the process of academic stress and academic burnout. In summary, academic stress can indirectly influence academic burnout through the mediating role of academic anxiety.

The moderating role of academic self-efficacy

The present study also found that academic self-efficacy moderated both the “academic stress and academic burnout” and “academic anxiety and academic burnout” pathways. First, academic self-efficacy buffered the negative effects of academic stress on academic burnout, that is, as academic self-efficacy increased, the predictive effect of academic stress on academic burnout decreased. Previous research has shown that Problem solving can increase with stress from assignments and workload for individuals with low self-efficacy, whereas this association is not significant for individuals with higher self-efficacy ( Zhao et al., 2015 ), so the academic burnout of adolescents with low academic self-efficacy increases with academic stress The association was not significant for adolescents with high academic self-efficacy ( Zhao et al., 2015 ). Research has shown that levels of academic burnout are strongly related to life satisfaction and problem solving ( Lian et al., 2014 ; Xiaoman et al., 2021 ), and longitudinal studies of adolescents suggest that self-efficacy moderates the relationship between stress and life satisfaction, with life satisfaction significantly decreasing with increasing stress for individuals with low self-efficacy, whereas for individuals with high self-efficacy, life satisfaction is not significantly affected by stress ( Burger and Samuel, 2017 ). The cognitive theory of stress proposed by Lazarus suggests that individuals with high self-efficacy perceive stressful events as challenges rather than threats and respond with positive behaviors or psychological states ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ; Homburg and Stolberg, 2006 ; Peng et al., 2015 ). For the present study, individuals with high academic self-efficacy perceive academically stressful events as challenges rather than threats, and reduce levels of academic burnout and respond to academic stress with positive psychological and academic performance. Therefore, academic self-efficacy can act as a moderating variable to regulate the relationship between academic stress and academic burnout.

In the relationship between academic anxiety and academic burnout, academic self-efficacy, rather than buffering the effect of academic anxiety on academic burnout, enhanced the association, a result inconsistent with the expectation of Hypothesis 4, that is, the positive predictive relationship between academic burnout and academic anxiety became more pronounced as self-efficacy increased. The results are also inconsistent with some previous research, where a study of children and adolescents showed that math self-efficacy buffered the negative effects of anxiety on academic performance, with anxiety negatively predicting math test scores among individuals with low self-efficacy levels only, whereas for individuals with high self-efficacy, anxiety did not predict lower test scores ( Galla and Wood, 2012 ; Pérez Fuentes et al., 2020 ). However, there are studies that support this result, as Burns et al.'s (2021) study noted that science self-efficiency negatively moderated science anxiety and science achievement, and for students with high science self-efficiency, high anxiety for students with high science self-efficiency, science achievement was significantly lower than that of students with low anxiety, whereas for students with low science self-efficiency, science achievement was significantly higher for students with high anxiety than for students with low anxiety, with anxiety having a potentially motivating effect on students with low self-efficacy ( Burns et al., 2021 ). A study by Barrows et al. (2013) also found that self-efficacy did not mitigate the effects of test anxiety on test scores.

The enhancement effect produced by academic self-efficacy in this study can be explained in two ways: on the one hand, the Reverse risk-buffering model (RBSM) suggests that the protective effect of protective factors is undermined when risk factors are too high ( Vanderbilt-Adrian and Shaw, 2008 ), and learning anxiety, as a risk factor, may undermine the protective effect of academic self-efficacy on predictive and protective effects of adolescents’ internalizing problems ( Valle et al., 2006 ; Zee et al., 2017 ). On the other hand, Pekrun’s control-value theory of academic emotions suggests that self-efficacy is one of the sources of academic emotions ( Pekrun, 1998 ; Pekrun, 2000 ) and can moderate the relationship between academic emotions and academic outcomes by changing expectations ( Pekrun et al., 2002 ). And Pekrun et al. (2002) argued that excessive expectations can trigger anxiety in individuals when they mean facing possible failure. That is, individuals with high academic self-efficacy have high expectations for outcomes ( Doménech-Betoret et al., 2017 ) and the anxiety they generate when faced with complex or difficult tasks may make them feel that expectations are difficult to meet and thus create anxiety, whereas individuals with low academic self-efficacy have high levels of anxiety themselves and have low expectations for outcomes, so anxiety does not lead to further academic burnout. Therefore, for middle school students with high academic self-efficacy, the effect of learning anxiety on academic burnout may be greater.

Limitations and practical implications

In this study, a moderated mediation model was constructed to examine the mediating process of “academic stress → academic anxiety → academic burnout” and the moderating role of academic self-efficacy. The results showed that the mediating effect of academic anxiety between academic stress and academic burnout was significant, and the moderating effect of academic self-efficacy in the direct path and the second half of the mediating path was significant, which helps to understand the relationship between learning stress and academic burnout and its internal mechanisms. There are several limitations of this study that could be improved in further research. First, this study used a cross-sectional design and was unable to test the stability of this mechanism of action across time; future studies could be administered to these participants again after a certain period of time to explore the stability of this mechanism of action across time; second, all of the variables explored in this study were related to academics, and according to ecosystem theory ( Guy-Evans, 2020 ), home environment, teacher instruction, peer relationships etc., may all have an impact on students’ academic burnout, so future research could explore the impact of these variables on academic burnout. Third, although research in the field of managerial psychology has shown that stress has a positive U-curve with performance ( Jamal, 1984 ; AbuAlRub, 2004 ), studies of teachers have shown that stress negatively predicts teaching performance ( Kumari, 2021 ). The present study found that academic stress positively predicted academic burnout, a linear relationship, so future research could explore whether there is a nonlinear relationship between academic stress and academic burnout. Finally, the use of self-report questionnaires to collect data may have left subjects subject to social approbability, thus not accurately obtaining their true data, which needs to be improved in future studies.

Nevertheless, this study has strong practical implications. Because of the current high levels of academic burnout among some adolescents, this study can provide targeted suggestions and insights for preventing and intervening in adolescents’ academic burnout. The results of the study show that, first, we can reduce the level of academic burnout by reducing the academic stress of adolescents, such as reducing extracurricular assignments. Second, we can equip adolescents with ways to regulate their emotions and reduce academic boredom by reducing academic anxiety. In addition, according to the results of the study, academic self-efficacy is effective in boosting confidence and coping with external stress effectively, but if students have high levels of academic anxiety, instantly students with high academic self-efficacy will increase the expression of academic burnout as their anxiety level increases. Therefore, for adolescents with high academic self-efficacy, although they can cope with external pressure effectively, they need to pay attention to the regulation of their academic anxiety, so it is more important to provide them with emotional psychological guidance to alleviate their academic anxiety levels; for adolescents with low academic self-efficacy, they need to stimulate their academic self-efficacy as well as pay attention to their own internal emotional regulation. In conclusion, the intervention and prevention of academic burnout in junior high school students should not focus on one aspect only, but should be carried out in an integrated and systematic way from three aspects: academic stress, academic anxiety, and academic self-efficacy.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the ethics committee at Shandong Normal University. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin. Written informed consent was obtained from the minor(s)' legal guardian/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

XG: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, validation, resources, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, validation, and writing—original draft.

This study was financially supported by National College Students’ Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program of China [grant number: 202210445011]. Shandong Normal University Undergraduate Research Fund Project in 2023 [grant number: BKJJ2022083].

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge all the participants in the study.

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Mastering the Art of Homework: Expert Tips for a Stress-Free Study Session

2023-05-09 | By Orcam Staff

As students, parents, and teachers alike can attest, homework is a ubiquitous feature of modern education. But as much as homework is a fact of life for many students, the question of whether it causes stress remains a hotly debated topic. The importance of this topic cannot be overstated, as research has consistently shown that homework-related stress can have negative impacts on student mental health, academic performance, and overall well-being. 

In this article, we will explore the underlying causes of homework-related stress, its effects on students, and evidence-based strategies to alleviate homework-related stress and improve student well-being. By the end of this article, readers will have a clearer understanding of the issue at hand and practical tools to help manage the stress that homework can sometimes bring.

Homework is a common aspect of education that can cause stress for many students, parents, and teachers. The question of whether homework causes stress is a controversial topic. However, it is crucial to address this issue as research has consistently shown that homework-related stress can negatively impact students' mental health, academic performance, and overall well-being. One effective solution to alleviate homework-related stress is to learn how to make homework less frustrating. 

This article aims to explore the underlying causes of homework-related stress, its effects on students, and evidence-based strategies to improve student well-being. By the end of this article, readers will have gained a better understanding of the issue and practical tools to manage the stress that homework can bring.

Homework and Stress: Understanding the Causes and Effects

Homework policies: a contributing factor to student stress.

Homework can be a significant source of stress for students, leading to a range of negative effects on their mental health, academic performance, and overall well-being. Research has shown that homework policies that assign excessive amounts of homework or place unrealistic expectations on students can contribute to feelings of anxiety and stress.

Study Habits: The Key to Managing Homework-Related Stress

Some of the key causes of homework-related stress include academic pressure, lack of effective time management skills, and poor study habits. When students feel overwhelmed by their workload, it can lead to anxiety and feelings of being unable to cope. This can ultimately impact their academic performance and overall well-being.

Negative Impact of Academic Pressure on Student Mental Health and Well-Being

It's important to recognize that homework itself is not inherently stressful. Rather, it is the amount and type of homework assigned, as well as the expectations placed on students, that can contribute to stress. By implementing effective homework alternatives and strategies, such as project-based learning or flipped classrooms, educators can help alleviate homework-related stress and improve student engagement and performance.

Time Management: A Crucial Skill to Alleviate Homework Stress

To reduce homework stress, students can try to implement effective time management techniques, such as breaking down assignments into manageable tasks and creating a study schedule that prioritizes important assignments. They can also explore homework alternatives, such as online resources and study groups, that can help them better understand the material and complete their assignments more efficiently.

Overall, by understanding the causes and effects of homework-related stress, students, parents, and educators can work together to create a more supportive and less stressful learning environment.

Many students know all too well the feelings of anxiety, frustration, and even hopelessness that can come with excessive homework. But why exactly does homework cause stress? The answer lies in a number of factors, from the policies governing homework to the individual habits and well-being of each student.

The link between homework policies and student stress

One major source of homework-related stress is the policies and expectations surrounding homework. While homework is meant to help reinforce learning and promote academic success, too much homework or overly strict homework policies can lead to anxiety and burnout. When students feel overwhelmed by the sheer volume of homework, they may experience anxiety or even feelings of helplessness, leading to a vicious cycle of stress and poor academic performance.

The Role of study habits in Managing homework-related stress

But homework-related stress is not solely the result of external factors. Study habits and time management can play a significant role in how students experience homework-related stress. Students who struggle with effective study habits or who have difficulty managing their time may find themselves feeling overwhelmed by homework and unable to cope with the associated stress.

The Impact of academic pressure on student mental health and Well-being

Academic pressure is also a major contributor to homework-related stress. Whether from parents, teachers, or self-imposed expectations, students may feel intense pressure to perform well academically. This pressure can lead to a range of negative consequences, from burnout to anxiety and depression.

The relationship between homework, time management, and student stress

So, does homework cause anxiety or stress? The answer is yes, and the effects can be significant. When students experience high levels of stress related to homework, they may struggle to concentrate, retain information, and perform well academically. Over time, this can take a toll on their mental health and well-being.

In the next section, we will explore evidence-based strategies for managing homework-related stress, including homework alternatives and techniques for reducing anxiety and improving time management. By implementing these strategies, students can reduce the impact of homework-related stress on their lives and enjoy greater academic success and overall well-being.

The Psychology of Homework and Stress

Homework is a complex issue that goes beyond just completing assignments. The psychological impact of homework on students cannot be ignored. In this section, we will explore the educational psychology theories related to homework and stress.

Overview of Educational Psychology Theories Related to Homework and Stress a. Self-Determination Theory b. Control-Value Theory c. Cognitive Load Theory

Impact of Homework on Student Motivation and Engagement a. How homework can positively or negatively impact student motivation b. How different types of homework assignments affect student engagement

Homework Anxiety and Its Effects on Student Mental Health and Academic Performance a. How homework anxiety can lead to stress and negatively affect student mental health b. The relationship between homework anxiety and academic performance

Strategies to Alleviate Homework-Related Stress and Improve Student Well-being

After discussing the underlying causes and effects of homework-related stress, it's important to explore strategies that can help alleviate stress and promote student well-being. Here are some evidence-based strategies:

Alternatives to Traditional Homework Assignments

While homework has long been a staple of the education system, it may not always be the most effective way for students to learn. Here are some alternatives to traditional homework assignments:

Project-Based Learning: 

Instead of assigning daily homework, teachers can assign longer-term projects that allow students to explore a topic in-depth and demonstrate their understanding in creative ways.

Collaborative Learning: 

Group assignments can help students learn from one another and work together to achieve a common goal.

Flipped Classroom: 

In this approach, students watch lectures or read materials at home and use class time to work on assignments or projects, allowing for more individualized support from the teacher.

Time-Management Strategies to Reduce Homework-Related Stress

Effective time management can help students better balance their academic workload and reduce homework-related stress. Here are some strategies students can use:

Prioritize Tasks: 

Help students prioritize tasks by breaking down large assignments into smaller tasks and prioritizing tasks based on deadlines and importance.

Use a Planner: 

Encourage students to use a planner to keep track of assignments, deadlines, and extracurricular activities.

Take Breaks: 

Encourage students to take breaks and engage in physical activity or other hobbies to help reduce stress and increase focus.

Tips for Students on How to Make School Less Stressful

In addition to effective time management, there are other strategies students can use to make school less stressful:

Practice Mindfulness: 

Encourage students to practice mindfulness exercises such as deep breathing or meditation to help reduce stress and increase focus.

Get Enough Sleep: 

Getting enough sleep is crucial for student well-being and academic success. Encourage students to prioritize a consistent sleep schedule.

Seek Support: 

Encourage students to seek support from friends, family, or mental health professionals if they are feeling overwhelmed or anxious.

Strategies for Parents and Teachers to Support Students' Well-being and Academic Success

Parents and teachers can play a crucial role in supporting student well-being and academic success. Here are some strategies they can use:

Communicate: 

Encourage open communication between parents, teachers, and students to ensure everyone is aware of expectations and concerns.

Prioritize Playtime: 

Encourage parents to prioritize playtime and physical activity outside of school hours to help reduce stress and promote well-being.

Provide Support: 

Teachers can provide additional support to students who are struggling with homework by offering extra help sessions or alternative assignments.

By implementing these strategies, we can work towards reducing homework-related stress and promoting student well-being and academic success.

In conclusion, this article has explored the underlying causes and effects of homework-related stress on students, as well as evidence-based strategies to alleviate this stress and improve student well-being. It has been established that homework policies, study habits, academic pressure, and time management all play a significant role in contributing to homework-related stress. Moreover, it has been highlighted that homework-related stress can have a negative impact on student mental health, academic performance, and overall well-being.

To alleviate this stress and promote student well-being, there are various strategies that can be employed, such as alternatives to traditional homework assignments, time-management strategies, and tips for making school less stressful. Additionally, parents and teachers can play an important role in supporting students' well-being and academic success.

In conclusion, it is important for students, parents, and teachers to prioritize student well-being and to seek out additional resources on this topic. By taking steps to reduce homework-related stress, we can help ensure that students are better able to thrive academically, mentally, and emotionally.

Key Takeaways:

Homework can cause stress in students, which can negatively impact their mental health and academic performance.

Homework-related stress can stem from a variety of factors, including academic pressure, time management, and ineffective homework policies.

Alternatives to traditional homework assignments and time-management strategies can help reduce homework-related stress.

It's important for parents and teachers to prioritize student well-being and to seek out additional resources to support students in managing homework-related stress. 

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Just breathe: simple changes can reduce student stress and improve learning, say stanford researchers.

Busy days, long nights. That's how many middle- and high- school students might describe their schedules. Whether jobs, sports, extracurricular activities or academics is eating their time and occupying their minds, the pressure to do it all and do it all well is affecting teens up and down the economic and social spectrum.

Many teens, surveys show, end up suffering from little sleep, engaging in unhealthy behaviors like taking "study drugs," and experiencing overwhelming anxiety that extends to college and beyond. This results in less learning, not more, say Stanford Graduate School of Education researchers who have worked for more than a dozen years in high-achieving schools and now have a new book outlining ways in which schools, teachers and parents can create healthier and more enriching learning environments.

The book, Overloaded and Underprepared: Strategies for Stronger Schools and Healthy, Successful kids ,  was written by researchers at Challenge Success, a project founded at the Stanford GSE that partners with schools and families on well-being.

In an interview, excerpted below, two of the authors - Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at Stanford GSE and co-founder of Challenge Success, and Maureen Brown, executive director of Challenge Success - describe what they've learned during their work with over 130 schools since 2004, and highlight some simple changes that can be done to create systemic and lasting change.

What is the book about, in a nutshell?

Denise Pope: This book is about how to engage kids with learning and how to improve their health and well-being. It's not solely about how to reduce stress, though that is a part of it. The issue is that good educational practices are being pushed aside in a fast-paced culture that emphasizes test scores and grades. We're really talking about changing the pedagogy, changing forms of assessment, changing how you structure the school day and pace. We're talking about whole school reform.

Maureen Brown: We take what we've learned at Challenge Success and illustrate best practices that give schools and families research-based tools that they can use, in many cases immediately, to make change.

Who should read this book?

Pope: We started writing it for educators, to give a guide to those schools that couldn't physically partner with us at Challenge Success. The goal was to compile our best practices. But after a little bit of writing, I handed it to my husband (who isn’t an educator) just to see if it made sense. He came back and said, 'You know, I was really interested as a parent as to why a school would use a block schedule or why so many kids are cheating or what is the purpose of taking an Advanced Placement course.' So we realized it was actually a book for a much broader audience of people who were interested in the research on some of these practices.

Brown: For example, if parents don't understand the 'why' for certain policies or practices, they can't help advocate for real systemic change. The book gives parents the ability to ask the right questions at their schools to understand why their school is going down a certain path.

How are students overloaded today?

Pope: People assume with the new standards and requirements for college admission, that teachers need to cover more topics in class and that kids need to take more courses and do more activities in school and after school to meet expectations for success. This is a confusion between rigor and load. Rigor is real depth of understanding, mastery of the subject matter. That's what we want. Load is how much work is assigned. Many educators and many parents assume that the more work you assign and the more work students do, the better they will understand it. That is not necessarily the case. For example, we have teachers who teach AP classes and cut their homework load in half, and the kids end up doing as well on the exam. You don't have to do four hours of homework in order to learn something in depth or to retain it. But four hours of homework can be incredibly damaging physically and emotionally.

What can schools do to improve student well-being?

Pope: We like to differentiate between short-term change - immediate changes - that help kids learn to cope better and longer term change to help create a structure in the school to improve learning and well-being for everyone. Schools can do major things in both those categories.

For example, schools can change their schedule from eight, 42 minute classes in a row to a type of block schedule where fewer classes meet for longer periods each day. This changes the pace; it allows you to go more in-depth in the learning and allows you to schedule things like advisory and time for teachers and students to meet in small groups. You're catching kids who are falling through the cracks in that way, and you're changing the whole pace of the day for everyone - adults and kids.

Schools can also focus on classroom practices that include mindfulness. A teacher can include time for deep breathing, meditation or focusing. Research shows centering yourself before a test by doing breathing exercises or other meditation reduces stress and in the long-term actually helps you do better on assessments.

Is there one thing school leadership should do that would improve well-being?

Pope: A principal should work to get a multi-stakeholder team together: you want students, teachers, parents and counselors to discuss the specific problems they are seeing around well-being and disengagement with learning. School leaders can use our research as a framework for how to structure that team or task force to work through these problems and implement changes.

But it's not a one-size-fits all model, so solutions will vary from school to school.

Is there one thing teachers can do?

Pope: We were really careful to put things in the book that a teacher can do tomorrow, that  aren’t money or district dependent. For example, if you want to reduce stress but also ensure you’re getting deeper learning, you may try to use more formative assessments.  When you give a test and kids don't do well, and then you move on to the next unit, you haven’t helped them understand the material. If you allow or require students to turn in test corrections so they understand what they got wrong, you're enhancing learning and well-being. Better yet, if you use more authentic ways to check for understanding – for instance – performance assessments like essays or projects, students know they will have multiple opportunities to revise and improve their work instead of facing the stress of a high-stakes, timed, traditional test.

Brown: We are mindful that teachers are constantly asked to do one more thing and then two years later asked to undo what they've done. So we're not asking for that. We're talking about building in proven practices that should make teaching more effective and students more engaged. We talk about the importance of quality, ongoing professional development to help make these lasting changes.

Is there one thing parents can do?

Brown: Parents can listen, really listen, to what their kids are telling them, and they can commit to start making small changes at home. We’re not saying drop everything, but parents can start by looking at how scheduled their kids are: Are there a couple of activities that they could eliminate to allow for more free play and/or down time? Are the kids really excited about an activity or extracurricular; if not, why are they doing it?

Pope: When parents take a careful look at a student’s schedule, both in and out of school, they can determine whether it is a healthy schedule.  Is the child getting enough sleep? Have enough time to do homework and also spend time with friends and family? If not, something has to change.

What obstacles do schools face when trying to implement these changes?

Brown: Making change is really hard, whether it's a Fortune 500 company or a local middle school. What we see a lot is schools trying to take on too much too quickly without laying the groundwork for change and without really thinking through obstacles they might face and without getting the buy-in they need from teachers, students and parents. We think that when they spend a little time up front and go slow they have a much higher chance of success.

Also, schools are busy places and there are a lot of competing interests for time and financial resources. Just having dedicated time to bring a group together to have a conversation on what they need to be doing is really valuable.

Is there a typical school you're addressing for these changes?

Pope: All of the schools in our case studies are considered high-achieving schools - meaning most of the students go on to some form of post-secondary education - but the populations in those schools vary. Some schools have around 50 percent of their kids on free or reduced lunch, while others have a very small percentage on free or reduced lunch. Adolescents from across income levels experience stress. Our strategies are aimed at benefiting all children who are overburdened, stressed out, and disengaged with learning.

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School Stress Takes A Toll On Health, Teens And Parents Say

Patti Neighmond

Colleen Frainey, 16, of Tualatin, Ore., cut back on advanced placement classes in her junior year because the stress was making her physically ill. Toni Greaves for NPR hide caption

Colleen Frainey, 16, of Tualatin, Ore., cut back on advanced placement classes in her junior year because the stress was making her physically ill.

When high school junior Nora Huynh got her report card, she was devastated to see that she didn't get a perfect 4.0.

Nora "had a total meltdown, cried for hours," her mother, Jennie Huynh of Alameda, Calif., says. "I couldn't believe her reaction."

Nora is doing college-level work, her mother says, but many of her friends are taking enough advanced classes to boost their grade-point averages above 4.0. "It breaks my heart to see her upset when she's doing so awesome and going above and beyond."

And the pressure is taking a physical toll, too. At age 16, Nora is tired, is increasingly irritated with her siblings and often suffers headaches, her mother says.

Teens Talk Stress

When NPR asked on Facebook if stress is an issue for teenagers, they spoke loud and clear:

• "Academic stress has been a part of my life ever since I can remember," wrote Bretta McCall, 16, of Seattle. "This year I spend about 12 hours a day on schoolwork. I'm home right now because I was feeling so sick from stress I couldn't be at school. So as you can tell, it's a big part of my life!"
• "At the time of writing this, my weekend assignments include two papers, a PowerPoint to go with a 10-minute presentation, studying for a test and two quizzes, and an entire chapter (approximately 40 pages) of notes in a college textbook," wrote Connor West of New Jersey.
• "It's a problem that's basically brushed off by most people," wrote Kelly Farrell in Delaware. "There's this mentality of, 'You're doing well, so why are you complaining?' " She says she started experiencing symptoms of stress in middle school, and was diagnosed with panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder in high school.
• "Parents are the worst about all of this," writes Colin Hughes of Illinois. "All I hear is, 'Work harder, you're a smart kid, I know you have it in you, and if you want to go to college you need to work harder.' It's a pain."

Parents are right to be worried about stress and their children's health, says Mary Alvord , a clinical psychologist in Maryland and public education coordinator for the American Psychological Association.

"A little stress is a good thing," Alvord says. "It can motivate students to be organized. But too much stress can backfire."

Almost 40 percent of parents say their high-schooler is experiencing a lot of stress from school, according to a new NPR poll conducted with the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and the Harvard School of Public Health. In most cases, that stress is from academics, not social issues or bullying, the poll found. (See the full results here .)

Homework was a leading cause of stress, with 24 percent of parents saying it's an issue.

Teenagers say they're suffering, too. A survey by the American Psychological Association found that nearly half of all teens — 45 percent — said they were stressed by school pressures.

Chronic stress can cause a sense of panic and paralysis, Alvord says. The child feels stuck, which only adds to the feeling of stress.

Parents can help put the child's distress in perspective, particularly when they get into what Alvord calls catastrophic "what if" thinking: "What if I get a bad grade, then what if that means I fail the course, then I'll never get into college."

Then move beyond talking and do something about it.

Colleen pets her horse, Bishop. They had been missing out on rides together because of homework. Toni Greaves for NPR hide caption

Colleen pets her horse, Bishop. They had been missing out on rides together because of homework.

That's what 16-year-old Colleen Frainey of Tualatin, Ore., did. As a sophomore last year, she was taking all advanced courses. The pressure was making her sick. "I didn't feel good, and when I didn't feel good I felt like I couldn't do my work, which would stress me out more," she says.

Mom Abigail Frainey says, "It was more than we could handle as a family."

With encouragement from her parents, Colleen dropped one of her advanced courses. The family's decision generated disbelief from other parents. "Why would I let her take the easy way out?" Abigail Frainey heard.

But she says dialing down on academics was absolutely the right decision for her child. Colleen no longer suffers headaches or stomachaches. She's still in honors courses, but the workload this year is manageable.

Even better, Colleen now has time to do things she never would have considered last year, like going out to dinner with the family on a weeknight, or going to the barn to ride her horse, Bishop.

Psychologist Alvord says a balanced life should be the goal for all families. If a child is having trouble getting things done, parents can help plan the week, deciding what's important and what's optional. "Just basic time management — that will help reduce the stress."

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Teachers’ expectations help students to work harder, but can also reduce enjoyment and confidence – new research

Professor of Quantitative Methods in Education, University of Oxford

Scientia Professor and Professor of Educational Psychology, UNSW Sydney

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Lars-Erik Malmberg has received funding from Research Councils UK and The John Fell Fund (Oxford University) for the Learning Every Lesson Study (LEL)

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For many students, pressure and expectation are just another part of the school experience. There is pressure to perform certain tasks, conform to uniform standards and to achieve one’s full potential. Then there are the expectations – that students will do their homework, turn up on time, and perform to the best of their ability.

Pressure is even higher when expectations are accompanied by threats of repercussions, teacher disappointment, low grades, or being reprimanded. Indeed, researchers have found that “controlling behaviour” from teachers is linked with lower student interest .

Although much research has focused on students’ motivation and the role of positive and nurturing expectations by teachers, not much is known about how students experience “pressure expectations”. Nor do we know much about how these pressure expectations happen in real-time, such as the tasks students “have to do” and the things their teachers “want them to do” – from lesson to lesson, day to day.

Our latest research has looked at just this and found that teachers’ pressure expectations can lead to students working harder – but that this increased effort comes at a cost to some students.

Under pressure

In our study , we asked 231 students in year five and six classes in UK schools, to report on their learning experiences once in each lesson, each day for one week. In each lesson, students reported on why they were doing the task at hand. The response options were, “I enjoyed it”, “I chose to do it”, and “I was interested in it”. These would be classed as “autonomous motivation” in that students themselves wanted to carry out the task. Students could also select “I had to do it” and “my teacher wanted me to do it”. These would be classed as “pressure expectations”.

Students also reported on how hard they were working, and how confident they felt about what they learned. Teachers reported how involved they were with each student in their class, detailing how much time they spent with each student, and how much attention they gave each student.

We found the higher the pressure expectations in a lesson, the harder students worked in subsequent lessons. But our research also found that students reported enjoying these lessons less – and felt less confident in that particular subject.

Our research also showed that if students enjoyed their tasks in the previous lesson of a particular subject, it seems teachers picked up on this and relaxed their pressure expectations in the following lesson. But this actually went on to have the effect of students then reducing their subsequent effort – demonstrating a somewhat complex and dynamic relationship between teacher pressure expectations and students’ effort, enjoyment and confidence.

Breaking free

Of course, realistically, some students might need a little bit of a push at times to get started, to get tasks done, or to work harder. But as our results show, too much pushing can lead students to feel demotivated or less confident. In the long run, a reasonable balance between pressure and reassurance seems desirable, otherwise exhaustion and disaffection could take over – which can eventually lead to lower academic performance.

Indeed, research shows that teachers who place less emphasis on the realities of deadlines, task completion, and expectations, and place more emphasis on students’ perspectives – so getting to know students, their values and thoughts – are able to better identify students’ needs, interests and preferences and provide meaningful learning goals by using relevant and enriched activities.

Read more: Feedback from teachers doesn't always help pupils improve

So instead of relying on controlling language, teachers should aim to provide understandable goals, frame upcoming lessons clearly and explain things concisely. Teachers would also benefit from acknowledging negative feelings in the classroom – telling students it’s okay to feel tired or nervous.

Teachers can also look to provide supportive reassurance in everyday interactions with students, using praise and encouragement to help students reach their full potential. All of which hopefully will help students to feel more supported and enable them to achieve their full potential in the classroom.

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Should Kids Get Homework?

Homework gives elementary students a way to practice concepts, but too much can be harmful, experts say.

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Effective homework reinforces math, reading, writing or spelling skills, but in a way that's meaningful.

How much homework students should get has long been a source of debate among parents and educators. In recent years, some districts have even implemented no-homework policies, as students juggle sports, music and other activities after school.

Parents of elementary school students, in particular, have argued that after-school hours should be spent with family or playing outside rather than completing assignments. And there is little research to show that homework improves academic achievement for elementary students.

But some experts say there's value in homework, even for younger students. When done well, it can help students practice core concepts and develop study habits and time management skills. The key to effective homework, they say, is keeping assignments related to classroom learning, and tailoring the amount by age: Many experts suggest no homework for kindergartners, and little to none in first and second grade.

Value of Homework

Homework provides a chance to solidify what is being taught in the classroom that day, week or unit. Practice matters, says Janine Bempechat, clinical professor at Boston University 's Wheelock College of Education & Human Development.

"There really is no other domain of human ability where anybody would say you don't need to practice," she adds. "We have children practicing piano and we have children going to sports practice several days a week after school. You name the domain of ability and practice is in there."

Homework is also the place where schools and families most frequently intersect.

"The children are bringing things from the school into the home," says Paula S. Fass, professor emerita of history at the University of California—Berkeley and the author of "The End of American Childhood." "Before the pandemic, (homework) was the only real sense that parents had to what was going on in schools."

Harris Cooper, professor emeritus of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University and author of "The Battle Over Homework," examined more than 60 research studies on homework between 1987 and 2003 and found that — when designed properly — homework can lead to greater student success. Too much, however, is harmful. And homework has a greater positive effect on students in secondary school (grades 7-12) than those in elementary.

"Every child should be doing homework, but the amount and type that they're doing should be appropriate for their developmental level," he says. "For teachers, it's a balancing act. Doing away with homework completely is not in the best interest of children and families. But overburdening families with homework is also not in the child's or a family's best interest."

Negative Homework Assignments

Not all homework for elementary students involves completing a worksheet. Assignments can be fun, says Cooper, like having students visit educational locations, keep statistics on their favorite sports teams, read for pleasure or even help their parents grocery shop. The point is to show students that activities done outside of school can relate to subjects learned in the classroom.

But assignments that are just busy work, that force students to learn new concepts at home, or that are overly time-consuming can be counterproductive, experts say.

Homework that's just busy work.

Effective homework reinforces math, reading, writing or spelling skills, but in a way that's meaningful, experts say. Assignments that look more like busy work – projects or worksheets that don't require teacher feedback and aren't related to topics learned in the classroom – can be frustrating for students and create burdens for families.

"The mental health piece has definitely played a role here over the last couple of years during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the last thing we want to do is frustrate students with busy work or homework that makes no sense," says Dave Steckler, principal of Red Trail Elementary School in Mandan, North Dakota.

Homework on material that kids haven't learned yet.

With the pressure to cover all topics on standardized tests and limited time during the school day, some teachers assign homework that has not yet been taught in the classroom.

Not only does this create stress, but it also causes equity challenges. Some parents speak languages other than English or work several jobs, and they aren't able to help teach their children new concepts.

" It just becomes agony for both parents and the kids to get through this worksheet, and the goal becomes getting to the bottom of (the) worksheet with answers filled in without any understanding of what any of it matters for," says professor Susan R. Goldman, co-director of the Learning Sciences Research Institute at the University of Illinois—Chicago .

Homework that's overly time-consuming.

The standard homework guideline recommended by the National Parent Teacher Association and the National Education Association is the "10-minute rule" – 10 minutes of nightly homework per grade level. A fourth grader, for instance, would receive a total of 40 minutes of homework per night.

But this does not always happen, especially since not every student learns the same. A 2015 study published in the American Journal of Family Therapy found that primary school children actually received three times the recommended amount of homework — and that family stress increased along with the homework load.

Young children can only remain attentive for short periods, so large amounts of homework, especially lengthy projects, can negatively affect students' views on school. Some individual long-term projects – like having to build a replica city, for example – typically become an assignment for parents rather than students, Fass says.

"It's one thing to assign a project like that in which several kids are working on it together," she adds. "In (that) case, the kids do normally work on it. It's another to send it home to the families, where it becomes a burden and doesn't really accomplish very much."

Private vs. Public Schools

Do private schools assign more homework than public schools? There's little research on the issue, but experts say private school parents may be more accepting of homework, seeing it as a sign of academic rigor.

Of course, not all private schools are the same – some focus on college preparation and traditional academics, while others stress alternative approaches to education.

"I think in the academically oriented private schools, there's more support for homework from parents," says Gerald K. LeTendre, chair of educational administration at Pennsylvania State University—University Park . "I don't know if there's any research to show there's more homework, but it's less of a contentious issue."

How to Address Homework Overload

First, assess if the workload takes as long as it appears. Sometimes children may start working on a homework assignment, wander away and come back later, Cooper says.

"Parents don't see it, but they know that their child has started doing their homework four hours ago and still not done it," he adds. "They don't see that there are those four hours where their child was doing lots of other things. So the homework assignment itself actually is not four hours long. It's the way the child is approaching it."

But if homework is becoming stressful or workload is excessive, experts suggest parents first approach the teacher, followed by a school administrator.

"Many times, we can solve a lot of issues by having conversations," Steckler says, including by "sitting down, talking about the amount of homework, and what's appropriate and not appropriate."

Study Tips for High School Students

Tags: K-12 education , students , elementary school , children

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Should homework be banned? Back to question

Yes, homework should be banned, homework puts an undue amount of stress on students.

The Argument

Counter arguments, rejecting the premises.

• https://time.com/4547322/american-teens-anxious-depressed-overwhelmed/
• https://medium.com/open-letters-2017/why-homework-should-be-banned-95954d3ab2ae

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• Why Parents Should Not Make Kids Do Homework

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Classes should not necessitate homework in order to impart relevant information.

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Dealing with Homework Pressures

At the beginning of the school year , a second-grade teacher in Texas sent this letter home to her classroom parents:

After much research this summer, I am trying something new. Homework will only consist of work that your student did not finish during the school day. There will be no formally assigned homework this year.

Research has been unable to prove that homework improves student performance. Rather, I ask that you spend your evenings doing things that are proven to correlate with student success. Eat dinner as a family, read together, play outside, and get your child to bed early.

Thanks, Mrs. Brandy Young

A parent posted the letter on Facebook with a hearty thank you to the teacher. It went viral as parents nationwide expressed frustration at the amount of homework their children had, along with the stress it created in their homes.

Stephanie Donaldson-Pressman is a clinical director at the New England Center for Pediatric Psychology who contributed to a study published in the American Journal of Family Therapy regarding homework.

She has serious concerns about how much homework children have and its impact on them.

“One study found kindergartners were given 25 minutes or more of homework,” says Donaldson-Pressman. “Homework for kindergartners is supposed to be nonexistent. Children at this age need to be playing outside, experiencing the early stages of socialization, learning how to play, and how to share so they are finessing their motor skills. Family activities and play are more important than homework at this age.”

Donaldson-Pressman believes parents have a lot more control than they realize. Parents can set limits for how long their child does homework.

The National Education Association recommends only 10 minutes per grade level per night.

The same study that found kindergartners spend too much time on homework also found that first graders spent 25 to 30 minutes. By third grade, kids spent more than a half-hour per night. Donaldson-Pressman noted that in her practice, some third graders spent two to four hours on homework – and their parents can’t help them.

According to Donaldson-Pressman, the data shows that homework over the recommended time is not beneficial to children’s grades or GPA. Evidence actually suggests that it’s detrimental to their attitude about school, grades, self-confidence, social skills and quality of life.

If homework creates pressure or stress in your home, Donaldson-Pressman says you can help decrease the angst if you:

• Create a quiet place to do homework.
• Try to do homework at the same time every day.
• Set a timer for 10 minutes for a first-grader, and then have them stop. Fourth graders need to move on to something else after 40 minutes.

As a parent, you probably already know how important it is for children of all ages to get enough rest. Plus, you want them to have time to play, develop friendships outside of school hours and engage in family activities.

In addition to managing the homework situation, assessing your child’s activities and how much pressure kids feel to perform can help. Hopefully, these ideas can allow your family to enjoy more quality time together after a long day at work and school.

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Is Homework Necessary? Education Inequity and Its Impact on Students

The Problem with Homework: It Highlights Inequalities

How much homework is too much homework, when does homework actually help, negative effects of homework for students, how teachers can help.

Schools are getting rid of homework from Essex, Mass., to Los Angeles, Calif. Although the no-homework trend may sound alarming, especially to parents dreaming of their child’s acceptance to Harvard, Stanford or Yale, there is mounting evidence that eliminating homework in grade school may actually have great benefits , especially with regard to educational equity.

In fact, while the push to eliminate homework may come as a surprise to many adults, the debate is not new . Parents and educators have been talking about this subject for the last century, so that the educational pendulum continues to swing back and forth between the need for homework and the need to eliminate homework.

One of the most pressing talking points around homework is how it disproportionately affects students from less affluent families. The American Psychological Association (APA) explained:

“Kids from wealthier homes are more likely to have resources such as computers, internet connections, dedicated areas to do schoolwork and parents who tend to be more educated and more available to help them with tricky assignments. Kids from disadvantaged homes are more likely to work at afterschool jobs, or to be home without supervision in the evenings while their parents work multiple jobs.”

[RELATED] How to Advance Your Career: A Guide for Educators >> 

While students growing up in more affluent areas are likely playing sports, participating in other recreational activities after school, or receiving additional tutoring, children in disadvantaged areas are more likely headed to work after school, taking care of siblings while their parents work or dealing with an unstable home life. Adding homework into the mix is one more thing to deal with — and if the student is struggling, the task of completing homework can be too much to consider at the end of an already long school day.

While all students may groan at the mention of homework, it may be more than just a nuisance for poor and disadvantaged children, instead becoming another burden to carry and contend with.

Beyond the logistical issues, homework can negatively impact physical health and stress — and once again this may be a more significant problem among economically disadvantaged youth who typically already have a higher stress level than peers from more financially stable families .

Yet, today, it is not just the disadvantaged who suffer from the stressors that homework inflicts. A 2014 CNN article, “Is Homework Making Your Child Sick?” , covered the issue of extreme pressure placed on children of the affluent. The article looked at the results of a study surveying more than 4,300 students from 10 high-performing public and private high schools in upper-middle-class California communities.

“Their findings were troubling: Research showed that excessive homework is associated with high stress levels, physical health problems and lack of balance in children’s lives; 56% of the students in the study cited homework as a primary stressor in their lives,” according to the CNN story. “That children growing up in poverty are at-risk for a number of ailments is both intuitive and well-supported by research. More difficult to believe is the growing consensus that children on the other end of the spectrum, children raised in affluence, may also be at risk.”

When it comes to health and stress it is clear that excessive homework, for children at both ends of the spectrum, can be damaging. Which begs the question, how much homework is too much?

The National Education Association and the National Parent Teacher Association recommend that students spend 10 minutes per grade level per night on homework . That means that first graders should spend 10 minutes on homework, second graders 20 minutes and so on. But a study published by The American Journal of Family Therapy found that students are getting much more than that.

While 10 minutes per day doesn’t sound like much, that quickly adds up to an hour per night by sixth grade. The National Center for Education Statistics found that high school students get an average of 6.8 hours of homework per week, a figure that is much too high according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It is also to be noted that this figure does not take into consideration the needs of underprivileged student populations.

In a study conducted by the OECD it was found that “after around four hours of homework per week, the additional time invested in homework has a negligible impact on performance .” That means that by asking our children to put in an hour or more per day of dedicated homework time, we are not only not helping them, but — according to the aforementioned studies — we are hurting them, both physically and emotionally.

What’s more is that homework is, as the name implies, to be completed at home, after a full day of learning that is typically six to seven hours long with breaks and lunch included. However, a study by the APA on how people develop expertise found that elite musicians, scientists and athletes do their most productive work for about only four hours per day. Similarly, companies like Tower Paddle Boards are experimenting with a five-hour workday, under the assumption that people are not able to be truly productive for much longer than that. CEO Stephan Aarstol told CNBC that he believes most Americans only get about two to three hours of work done in an eight-hour day.

In the scope of world history, homework is a fairly new construct in the U.S. Students of all ages have been receiving work to complete at home for centuries, but it was educational reformer Horace Mann who first brought the concept to America from Prussia. 

Since then, homework’s popularity has ebbed and flowed in the court of public opinion. In the 1930s, it was considered child labor (as, ironically, it compromised children’s ability to do chores at home). Then, in the 1950s, implementing mandatory homework was hailed as a way to ensure America’s youth were always one step ahead of Soviet children during the Cold War. Homework was formally mandated as a tool for boosting educational quality in 1986 by the U.S. Department of Education, and has remained in common practice ever since.  

School work assigned and completed outside of school hours is not without its benefits. Numerous studies have shown that regular homework has a hand in improving student performance and connecting students to their learning. When reviewing these studies, take them with a grain of salt; there are strong arguments for both sides, and only you will know which solution is best for your students or school. 

Homework improves student achievement.

• Source: The High School Journal, “ When is Homework Worth the Time?: Evaluating the Association between Homework and Achievement in High School Science and Math ,” 2012. 
• Source: IZA.org, “ Does High School Homework Increase Academic Achievement? ,” 2014. **Note: Study sample comprised only high school boys. 

Homework helps reinforce classroom learning.

• Source: “ Debunk This: People Remember 10 Percent of What They Read ,” 2015.

Homework helps students develop good study habits and life skills.

• Sources: The Repository @ St. Cloud State, “ Types of Homework and Their Effect on Student Achievement ,” 2017; Journal of Advanced Academics, “ Developing Self-Regulation Skills: The Important Role of Homework ,” 2011.
• Source: Journal of Advanced Academics, “ Developing Self-Regulation Skills: The Important Role of Homework ,” 2011.

Homework allows parents to be involved with their children’s learning.

• Parents can see what their children are learning and working on in school every day. 
• Parents can participate in their children’s learning by guiding them through homework assignments and reinforcing positive study and research habits.
• Homework observation and participation can help parents understand their children’s academic strengths and weaknesses, and even identify possible learning difficulties.
• Source: Phys.org, “ Sociologist Upends Notions about Parental Help with Homework ,” 2018.

While some amount of homework may help students connect to their learning and enhance their in-class performance, too much homework can have damaging effects. 

Students with too much homework have elevated stress levels. 

• Source: USA Today, “ Is It Time to Get Rid of Homework? Mental Health Experts Weigh In ,” 2021.
• Source: Stanford University, “ Stanford Research Shows Pitfalls of Homework ,” 2014.

Students with too much homework may be tempted to cheat. 

• Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education, “ High-Tech Cheating Abounds, and Professors Bear Some Blame ,” 2010.
• Source: The American Journal of Family Therapy, “ Homework and Family Stress: With Consideration of Parents’ Self Confidence, Educational Level, and Cultural Background ,” 2015.

Homework highlights digital inequity. 

• Sources: NEAToday.org, “ The Homework Gap: The ‘Cruelest Part of the Digital Divide’ ,” 2016; CNET.com, “ The Digital Divide Has Left Millions of School Kids Behind ,” 2021.
• Source: Investopedia, “ Digital Divide ,” 2022; International Journal of Education and Social Science, “ Getting the Homework Done: Social Class and Parents’ Relationship to Homework ,” 2015.
• Source: World Economic Forum, “ COVID-19 exposed the digital divide. Here’s how we can close it ,” 2021.

Homework does not help younger students.

• Source: Review of Educational Research, “ Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Researcher, 1987-2003 ,” 2006.

To help students find the right balance and succeed, teachers and educators must start the homework conversation, both internally at their school and with parents. But in order to successfully advocate on behalf of students, teachers must be well educated on the subject, fully understanding the research and the outcomes that can be achieved by eliminating or reducing the homework burden. There is a plethora of research and writing on the subject for those interested in self-study.

For teachers looking for a more in-depth approach or for educators with a keen interest in educational equity, formal education may be the best route. If this latter option sounds appealing, there are now many reputable schools offering online master of education degree programs to help educators balance the demands of work and family life while furthering their education in the quest to help others.

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Motherlode | when homework stresses parents as well as students, when homework stresses parents as well as students.

Educators and parents have long been concerned about students stressed by homework loads , but a small research study asked questions recently about homework and anxiety of a different group: parents. The results were unsurprising. While we may have already learned long division and let the Magna Carta fade into memory, parents report that their children’s homework causes family stress and tension — particularly when additional factors surrounding the homework come into play.

The researchers, from Brown University, found that stress and tension for families (as reported by the parents) increased most when parents perceived themselves as unable to help with the homework, when the child disliked doing the homework and when the homework caused arguments, either between the child and adults or among the adults in the household.

The number of parents involved in the research (1,173 parents, both English and Spanish-speaking, who visited one of 27 pediatric practices in the greater Providence area of Rhode Island) makes it more of a guide for further study than a basis for conclusions, but the idea that homework can cause significant family stress is hard to seriously debate. Families across income and education levels may struggle with homework for different reasons and in different ways, but “it’s an equal opportunity problem,” says Stephanie Donaldson-Pressman , a contributing editor to the research study and co-author of “ The Learning Habit .”

“Parents may find it hard to evaluate the homework,” she says. “They think, if this is coming home, my child should be able to do it. If the child can’t, and especially if they feel like they can’t help, they may get angry with the child, and the child feels stupid.” That’s a scenario that is likely to lead to more arguments, and an increased dislike of the work on the part of the child.

The researchers also found that parents of students in kindergarten and first grade reported that the children spent significantly more time on homework than recommended. Many schools and organizations, including the National Education Association and the Great Schools blog , will suggest following the “10-minute rule” for how long children should spend on school work outside of school hours: 10 minutes per grade starting in first grade, and most likely more in high school. Instead, parents described their first graders and kindergartners working, on average, for 25 to 30 minutes a night. That is consistent with other research , which has shown an increase in the amount of time spent on homework in lower grades from 1981 to 2003.

“This study highlights the real discrepancy between intent and what’s actually happening,” Ms. Donaldson-Pressman said, speaking of both the time spent and the family tensions parents describe. “When people talk about the homework, they’re too often talking about the work itself. They should be talking about the load — how long it takes. You can have three problems on one page that look easy, but aren’t.”

The homework a child is struggling with may not be developmentally appropriate for every child in a grade, she suggests, noting that academic expectations for young children have increased in recent years . Less-educated or Spanish-speaking parents may find it harder to evaluate or challenge the homework itself, or to say they think it is simply too much. “When the load is too much, it has a tremendous impact on family stress and the general tenor of the evening. It ruins your family time and kids view homework as a punishment,” she said.

At our house, homework has just begun; we are in the opposite of the honeymoon period, when both skills and tolerance are rusty and complaints and stress are high. If the two hours my fifth-grade math student spent on homework last night turn out the be the norm once he is used to the work and the teacher has had a chance to hear from the students, we’ll speak up.

We should, Ms. Donaldson-Pressman says. “Middle-class parents can solve the problem for their own kids,” she says. “They can make sure their child is going to all the right tutors, or get help, but most people can’t.” Instead of accepting that at home we become teachers and homework monitors (or even taking classes in how to help your child with his math ), parents should let the school know that they’re unhappy with the situation, both to encourage others to speak up and to speak on behalf of parents who don’t feel comfortable complaining.

“Home should be a safe place for students,” she says. “A child goes to school all day and they’re under stress. If they come home and it’s more of the same, that’s not good for anyone.”

Read more about homework on Motherlode: Homework and Consequences ; The Mechanics of Homework ; That’s Your Child’s Homework Project, Not Yours and Homework’s Emotional Toll on Students and Families.

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Top 10 Stress Management Techniques for Students

Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

Akeem Marsh, MD, is a board-certified child, adolescent, and adult psychiatrist who has dedicated his career to working with medically underserved communities.

Most students experience significant amounts of stress. This can significantly affect their health, happiness, relationships, and grades. Learning stress management techniques can help these students avoid negative effects in these areas.

Why Stress Management Is Important for Students

A study by the American Psychological Association (APA) found that teens report stress levels similar to adults. This means teens are experiencing significant levels of chronic stress and feel their stress levels generally exceed their ability to cope effectively .

Roughly 30% of the teens reported feeling overwhelmed, depressed, or sad because of their stress.

Stress can also affect health-related behaviors. Stressed students are more likely to have problems with disrupted sleep, poor diet, and lack of exercise. This is understandable given that nearly half of APA survey respondents reported completing three hours of homework per night in addition to their full day of school work and extracurriculars.

Common Causes of Student Stress

Another study found that much of high school students' stress originates from school and activities, and that this chronic stress can persist into college years and lead to academic disengagement and mental health problems.

Top Student Stressors

Common sources of student stress include:

• Extracurricular activities
• Social challenges
• Transitions (e.g., graduating, moving out , living independently)
• Relationships
• Pressure to succeed

High school students face the intense competitiveness of taking challenging courses, amassing impressive extracurriculars, studying and acing college placement tests, and deciding on important and life-changing plans for their future. At the same time, they have to navigate the social challenges inherent to the high school experience.

This stress continues if students decide to attend college. Stress is an unavoidable part of life, but research has found that increased daily stressors put college-aged young adults at a higher risk for stress than other age groups.

Making new friends, handling a more challenging workload, feeling pressured to succeed, being without parental support, and navigating the stresses of more independent living are all added challenges that make this transition more difficult. Romantic relationships always add an extra layer of potential stress.

Students often recognize that they need to relieve stress . However, all the activities and responsibilities that fill a student’s schedule sometimes make it difficult to find the time to try new stress relievers to help dissipate that stress.

10 Stress Management Techniques for Students

Here you will learn 10 stress management techniques for students. These options are relatively easy, quick, and relevant to a student’s life and types of stress .

Get Enough Sleep

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Students, with their packed schedules, are notorious for missing sleep. Unfortunately, operating in a sleep-deprived state puts you at a distinct disadvantage. You’re less productive, may find it more difficult to learn, and may even be a hazard behind the wheel.

Research suggests that sleep deprivation and daytime sleepiness are also linked to impaired mood, higher risk for car accidents, lower grade point averages, worse learning, and a higher risk of academic failure.

Don't neglect your sleep schedule. Aim to get at least 8 hours a night and take power naps when needed.

Use Guided Imagery

David Malan / Getty Images

Guided imagery can also be a useful and effective tool to help stressed students cope with academic, social, and other stressors. Visualizations can help you calm down, detach from what’s stressing you, and reduce your body’s stress response.

You can use guided imagery to relax your body by sitting in a quiet, comfortable place, closing your eyes, and imagining a peaceful scene. Spend several minutes relaxing as you enjoy mentally basking in your restful image.

Consider trying a guided imagery app if you need extra help visualizing a scene and inducting a relaxation response. Research suggests that such tools might be an affordable and convenient way to reduce stress.

Exercise Regularly

One of the healthiest ways to blow off steam is to get regular exercise . Research has found that students who participate in regular physical activity report lower levels of perceived stress. While these students still grapple with the same social, academic, and life pressures as their less-active peers, these challenges feel less stressful and are easier to manage.

Finding time for exercise might be a challenge, but there are strategies that you can use to add more physical activity to your day. Some ideas that you might try include:

• Doing yoga in the morning
• Walking or biking to class
• Reviewing for tests with a friend while walking on a treadmill at the gym
• Taking an elective gym class focused on leisure sports or exercise
• Joining an intramural sport

Exercise can help buffer against the negative effects of student stress. Starting now and keeping a regular exercise practice throughout your lifetime can help you live longer and enjoy your life more.

Take Calming Breaths

When your body is experiencing a stress response, you’re often not thinking as clearly as you could be. You are also likely not breathing properly. You might be taking short, shallow breaths. When you breathe improperly, it upsets the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in your body.

Studies suggest this imbalance can contribute to various physical symptoms, including increased anxiety, fatigue, stress, emotional problems, and panic attacks.

A quick way to calm down is to practice breathing exercises . These can be done virtually anywhere to relieve stress in minutes.

Because they are fast-acting, breathing exercises are a great way to cope with moments of acute stress , such as right before an exam or presentation. But they can also help manage longer-lasting stress such as dealing with relationships, work, or financial problems.

Practice Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR)

Another great stress management technique for students that can be used during tests, before bed, or at other times when stress has you physically wound up is progressive muscle relaxation ( PMR ).

This technique involves tensing and relaxing all muscles until the body is completely relaxed. With practice, you can learn to release stress from your body in seconds. This can be particularly helpful for students because it can be adapted to help relaxation efforts before sleep for a deeper sleep.

Once a person learns how to use PMR effectively, it can be a quick and handy way to induce relaxation in any stressful situation, such as bouts of momentary panic before a speech or exam, dealing with a disagreement with your roommate, or preparing to discuss a problem with your academic advisor.

Listen to Music

A convenient stress reliever that has also shown many cognitive benefits, music can help relieve stress and calm yourself down or stimulate your mind depending on what you need in the moment.

Research has found that playing upbeat music can improve processing speed and memory. Stressed students may find that listening to relaxing music can help calm the body and mind. One study found that students who listened to the sounds of relaxing music were able to recover more quickly after a stressful situation.

Students can harness the benefits of music by playing classical music while studying, playing upbeat music to "wake up" mentally, or relaxing with the help of their favorite slow melodies.

Build Your Support Network

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Having emotional support can help create a protective buffer against stress. Unfortunately,  interpersonal relationships can also sometimes be a source of anxiety for students. Changes in friendships, romantic breakups, and life transitions such as moving away for college can create significant upheaval and stress for students.

One way to combat feelings of loneliness and make sure that you have people to lean on in times of need is to expand your support network and nurture your relationships.

Look for opportunities to meet new people, whether it involves joining study groups or participating in other academic, social, and leisure activities.

Remember that different types of relationships offer differing types of support . Your relationships with teachers, counselors, and mentors can be a great source of information and resources that may help you academically. Relationships with friends can provide emotional and practical support.

Widening your social circle can combat student stress on various fronts and ensure you have what you need to succeed.

Eat a Healthy Diet

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You may not realize it, but your diet can either boost your brainpower or sap you of mental energy. It can also make you more reactive to the stress in your life. As a result, you might find yourself turning to high-sugar, high-fat snacks to provide a temporary sense of relief.

A healthy diet can help combat stress in several ways. Improving your diet can keep you from experiencing diet-related mood swings, light-headedness, and more.

Unfortunately, students are often prone to poor dietary habits. Feelings of stress can make it harder to stick to a consistently healthy diet, but other concerns such as finances, access to cooking facilities, and time to prepare healthy meals can make it more challenging for students.

Some tactics that can help students make healthy choices include:

• Eating regularly
• Carrying a water bottle to class
• Keeping healthy snacks such as fruits and nuts handy
• Limiting caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol intake

Find Ways to Minimize Stress

One way to improve your ability to manage student stress is to look for ways you cut stress out of your life altogether. Evaluate the things that are bringing stress or anxiety into your life. Are they necessary? Are they providing more benefits than the toll they take on your mental health? If the answer is no, sometimes the best option is just to ditch them altogether.

This might mean cutting some extracurricular activities out of your schedule. It might mean limiting your use of social media. Or it might mean learning to say no to requests for your time, energy, and resources. 

While it might be challenging at first, learning how to prioritize yourself and your mental well-being is an important step toward reducing your stress.

Try Mindfulness

When you find yourself dealing with stress—whether it's due to academics, relationships, financial pressures, or social challenges—becoming more aware of how you feel in the moment may help you respond more effectively.

Mindfulness involves becoming more aware of the present moment. Rather than judging, reacting, or avoiding problems, the goal is to focus on the present, become more aware of how you are feeling, observe your reactions, and accept these feelings without passing judgment on them.

Research suggests that mindfulness-based stress management practices can be a useful tool for reducing student stress. Such strategies may also help reduce feelings of anxiety and depression.

A Word From Verywell

It is important to remember that stress isn't the same for everyone. Figuring out what works for you may take some trial and error. A good start is to ensure that you are taking care of yourself physically and emotionally and to experiment with different stress relief strategies to figure out what works best to help you feel less stressed.

If stress and anxiety are causing distress or making it difficult to function in your daily life, it is important to seek help. Many schools offer resources that can help, including face-to-face and online mental health services. You might start by talking to your school counselor or student advisor about the stress you are coping with. You can also talk to a parent, another trusted adult, or your doctor.

If you or a loved one are struggling with anxiety, contact the  Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline  at 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our  National Helpline Database .

American Psychological Association. Stress in America: Are Teens Adopting Adults' Stress Habits?

Leonard NR, Gwadz MV, Ritchie A, et al. A multi-method exploratory study of stress, coping, and substance use among high school youth in private schools . Front Psychol. 2015;6:1028. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01028

Acharya L, Jin L, Collins W. College life is stressful today - Emerging stressors and depressive symptoms in college students . J Am Coll Health . 2018;66(7):655-664. doi:10.1080/07448481.2018.1451869

Beiter R, Nash R, McCrady M, Rhoades D, Linscomb M, Clarahan M, Sammut S. The prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and stress in a sample of college students . J Affect Disord . 2015;173:90-6. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.10.054

Hershner SD, Chervin RD. Causes and consequences of sleepiness among college students . Nat Sci Sleep . 2014;6:73-84. doi:10.2147/NSS.S62907

Gordon JS, Sbarra D, Armin J, Pace TWW, Gniady C, Barraza Y. Use of a guided imagery mobile app (See Me Serene) to reduce COVID-19-related stress: Pilot feasibility study . JMIR Form Res . 2021;5(10):e32353. doi:10.2196/32353

Cowley J, Kiely J, Collins D. Is there a link between self-perceived stress and physical activity levels in Scottish adolescents ? Int J Adolesc Med Health . 2017;31(1). doi:10.1515/ijamh-2016-0104

Paulus MP.  The breathing conundrum-interoceptive sensitivity and anxiety .  Depress Anxiety . 2013;30(4):315–320. doi:10.1002/da.22076

Toussaint L, Nguyen QA, Roettger C, Dixon K, Offenbächer M, Kohls N, Hirsch J, Sirois F. Effectiveness of progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing, and guided imagery in promoting psychological and physiological states of relaxation . Evid Based Complement Alternat Med . 2021;2021:5924040. doi:10.1155/2021/5924040.

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American Psychological Association. Manage stress: Strengthen your support network .

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By Elizabeth Scott, PhD Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

Academic Pressure: Causes, Effects, and Coping Strategies

Raising children to be successful is a priority for many parents and guardians. This involves regularly planning their future and doing what it takes to get there academically. While this can be productive and encourage kids to aim high, the cycle of always looking ahead in one’s academic life can be harmful. Many young adults go through a tremendous amount of academic pressure to get good grades, get into a prestigious college, and prepare for a successful career. Here, we’ll examine academic pressure, its causes and effects, and some of the most effective coping strategies.

What is Academic Pressure?

Academic pressure is “the tension, discomfort, and other emotions caused by the pressure from school, family, and society in the learning process [ * ].”

From an early age, children are highly encouraged or sometimes even required by parents, guardians, or educators to think ahead and achieve academic milestones. This pattern of constantly anticipating the next step can be stressful for students, thus resulting in tension, discomfort, and other negative emotions.

While it is common for young students to be motivated by mild academic pressure, many also have negative experiences with such pressure, especially if it is in excess. Part of a young person’s development through adolescence is learning how to balance the demands of life, and academic pressure can end up hindering one’s growth.

Causes of Academic Pressure on Students

There are several causes of academic pressure on students, including the following:

• Pressure from parents or guardians. Though this is usually well-intentioned, it is quite common for parents and guardians to be one of the sources of a student’s academic pressure. Parents and guardians often want the best for their children and, in turn, place extra pressure on them to excel in school.
• Pressure from heavy coursework. A student may also feel academic pressure from heavy coursework. It can be stressful to handle many difficult assignments from different classes all at once. The demands of each class may vary but can contribute to academic stress and pressure.
• Pressure from poor organization and time management. Students are still honing their skills in adolescence, so it is not uncommon to find teenagers who cannot manage their time or organize their priorities very well.
• Pressure from exams. Tests, exams, and any kind of assessment can put a lot of pressure on young people to perform well.
• Pressure from the self. Living in a culture focused on performance also creates intense competition, which can manifest as academic pressure in adolescents who internalize it.
• Pressure from other external sources. Many external factors can influence how much academic pressure a student experiences, such as the increasingly competitive nature of getting accepted into a good university. For instance, a student may observe that their friends excel in their studies, which can pressure them to perform well academically.

Signs That a Student is Experiencing Excessive Academic Pressure

Academic pressure is not necessarily a bad thing. It can be beneficial in pushing students to rise to challenges in the academic world. However, it can be detrimental in excess. Here are the signs that a student is experiencing excessive academic pressure:

• Extreme competitiveness
• Obsession with grades
• Working constantly
• Changes in appetite
• Difficulty sleeping
• Inability relaxing
• Abusing stimulants (e.g., caffeine, prescription medications, etc.)
• Refusal to socialize
• Loss of interest in previously enjoyed pastimes

Effects of Academic Pressure on Students

Exactly how does academic pressure affect students? Here are the various ways:

Physical Health

A student may notice the following changes in their physical health following bouts of academic pressure:

• Loss in appetite
• Frequent headaches
• Gastrointestinal issues

These physical symptoms indicate excessive stress and should be addressed immediately [ * ].

Mental Health

Academic pressure can also affect one’s mental health. Excessive academic pressure can cause the following:

• Poor sleep quality
• Substance use
• High levels of stress and burnout
• Depersonalization

Social and Relationships

Studies have found that academic pressure significantly affects adolescents’ problem behavior through parent-child conflict while also affecting subjective well-being [ * ]. This results in deviant behavior such as disruptions in sleep cycles, experimenting with sexual activity, and substance use.

Too much academic pressure may also lead to detrimental effects on students’ relationships. Some develop a highly competitive nature, which may cause friction with peers. Isolating oneself to strive for academic excellence may also lead to feelings of loneliness.

Coping Strategies for Academic Pressure

Excessive academic pressure may have negative effects, but there are coping strategies students can use to combat it.

• Arrange a study group: This can be especially helpful if a student isn’t motivated by a subject. It helps to reward oneself after completing each section of the module or chapter.
• Work in a café or library:  The home or school environment can sometimes get distracting. Working somewhere quiet, like a nearby café or library, can help one focus and get work done.
• Request for assignments early:  If students can get ahead of their work, then it may save them the trouble of stressing over assignments that pile up later on.
• Avoid comparing to others: It is easier said than done, but students should try not to judge themselves based on their friends’ and classmates’ goals and achievements. Adolescents can set their own goals and take pride in their hard work.
• Keep health in check:  Maintaining good sleeping, eating, and exercise habits can significantly lower stress levels and help combat academic pressure.
• Maintain balance:  A balanced lifestyle is essential to succeeding while maintaining physical and mental well-being. Aside from keeping healthy, students can do things like spend time with friends, engage in their favorite hobbies, and make time to rest. Forming these habits now will be useful for life after school.
• Remember what matters:  Parents and guardians can shape how academic pressure affects their children by focusing on what really matters. Adolescents who believe their parents or guardians value character traits more than achievement tend to show better mental health outcomes and lower risk-taking behaviors.

The Bottom Line

Excessive levels of academic pressure on students can lead to issues such as depression, anxiety, stress, and physical conditions like fatigue. While mild academic pressure is healthy and helpful, other negative effects of academic pressure on students are not to be underestimated. Using tools such as stress management worksheets can be helpful, but it is also important to address the root cause of academic pressure. The students of today are the future of tomorrow, so necessary steps must be taken to ensure their well-being.

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