how to find subtopics for a research paper

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Subtopic in a Research Paper: How to Write Subtopics Well

Topic and Subtopics In Research Paper

A subtopic is a section of your topic that you are discussing in the same research paper. It is a phrase that identifies a section of your research project.  Also, it is part of the subject that you will be exploiting in the essay.

A subtopic is necessary for your essay to make your presentation of your ideas on the topic systematic. Thus, a good subtopic should support the main topic of the research paper and bolster its credibility.

Any essay with a subtopic will follow a standard format typically. Furthermore, the subtopic adds depth to your essay and break the topic into manageable chunks

Essay Subtopics Example

Before you develop your subtopic, you must understand what the entire essay topic is all about.

For you to make your topic more appealing, you have to break it into sections and promote effective delivery.

For example, if your topic is about ‘’ How to Maintain Food Security”, you should research and come up with findings that will support your arguments.

Under the topic, you have to create an outline that will specify the subtopics that will support the key topic.

For instance, they could be as follows:

Main topic: How to maintain food security

Introduction

• 1st Subtopic :  Identify fertile regions
• 2nd Subtopic :  Develop irrigation schemes
• 3rd Subtopic :  Create modern storage systems

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How to Write Subtopics in Research Paper

Subtopics are key pillars of your research paper. You should create a proper outline of these subtopics to make your paper easier to write.

In our guide to writing research papers , we gave steps on how to write paragraphs. These paragraphs carry the subtopics. What’s more, if your paper has good subtopics, it becomes understandable to the audience.

Base your subtopics on the thesis statement which is the critical issue you are trying to create. For that reason, make the appropriate heading as per the research subject. Use the following steps to come up with the subtopics of your research paper:

• Identify the thesis statements of your essay which can be more than a single sentence. More importantly, this statement should summarize that point that you are putting across in your research. Since the thesis is the basis of the paper, allow the subtopics to come from this section.
• Write an outline of your research paper that includes the introduction, body, and conclusion. Follow this simple rule; the introduction should carry the first heading while the conclusion should bear the final heading.
• Divide the body into manageable sections which we will refer to as subtopics. You will base these subtopics on the area of your topic that you want to capture. Besides, use a few words to write your subtopics.
• Lastly, check your outline and include the subtopics that you need to write about. For example, if you select a topic on “Population”, provide the relevant subtopics that will make your delivery easier. Let them support the main idea within your area of discussion.

Importance of Subtopics

1. better understanding.

When you include subtopics in your research paper, you will break the information into chewable levels and promote understanding.

Before one reads through the entire paper, scanning of the subtopics gives the hint of what you are discussing in the whole matter.

2. Improves Engagements

When one is reading your content that has subheadings, it becomes easier to concentrate on the content since the information will be flowing systematically.

A high performing content calls for better engagement where no one should struggle to figure out the direction of your topic.

3. Provides Clarity

Adding subtopics to your work provides clarity to the content. Besides, a subtopic is a great avenue that helps the audience to retain the given information more conveniently.

It is easier to remember certain concepts when broken into sections under meaningful subtitles well. It is a perfect method of connecting with your audience and winning their attention well.

4. Improves Comprehension

Subtopics improve literacy and comprehensions levels. Specifically, the titles assist one in reading speed, vocabulary acquisition, word recognition, and word knowledge.

The subtopics enhance the readability of the essay because the audience will be knowing what might be cooking in the next section in advance. If you did proper research, chances are high that one will end the essay to the end.

People Also Read: How to Write a Narrative Essay: a stepwise guide and length

Difference between Research Topic and Subtopic

A topic is a key idea of what the author will be building the main arguments about. The topic is the central idea in your writing. On the other hand, the subtopic is a section of the main topic that supports your argument to complete your discussion.

These two are part of writing but they are the difference between a research paper and an essay , especially when developing the paragraphs. We can illustrate that in the following example:

Supporting evidence

Features of a Good Topic

• Covers a specific subject: The right research topic must be specific. It should not appear too general. Also, you should settle for a topic that is too broad to tempt you to focus on different aspects.

The topic should be clear for the audience to understand the nature of your research.

Thus, it should have a single interpretation to prevent the audience from getting distracted. It should be directional and not ambiguous.

• Well Defined: The topic bears a direct definition without giving a double-barreled impression. Meaning, it should be well-phrased for one to understand with a single meaning.
• Relevant: The topic should be relevant and allow it to focus on timely issues. For example, if you select a topic on abortion, it could appear outdated. Instead, you should settle for other topics on women’s reproductive systems such as menstrual suppression. Develop a topic that has current importance.
• Follows the Assignment: The right topic should follow the guidelines of your assignment. Before you develop your essay topic, read and understand the assignment guidelines.
• Language: The topic language should be simple for everyone to understand. Use technical terms as appropriate. Besides, maintain the ethics of your writing to avoid using unethical sentences or terms. Avoid using a bias either willingly or unwillingly in your topic.
• Titling: The research problem should follow titling rules. For example, you can use a title case or a sentence case. You should understand the titling rules before writing the topic down.

People Also Read: Thesis Defense Steps: Full Guide How to Prepare and Present

FAQs on Subtopics

How to write subtopics in a research paper.

Begin by understanding the thesis testament. Create an outline that includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. Divide the topic into smaller sections which we refer to as the subtopics. Use a few words to serve as titles for the subtopics. Finally, use the titles of the subtopics in your outline.

What is a subtopic in an essay?

A subtopic is a section of a topic that complements the central idea of a topic. We use subtopics to expand the arguments in your topic for the readers to follow and understand what you are saying.

A subtopic is necessary as a convenient break to allow the writer to bring the point home. The right subtopic enhances the engagements of your essay to make it more exciting.

Topics and subtopics examples

When you are writing your essay or a research paper, you should create a topic and utilize subtopics to enhance delivery. Topics can vary based on the type of instruction that you will receive. However, be sure to make your topics relevant so that you do not deviate from what your professor wants.

Several topics exist for you to choose from depending on your field. The most common ones are:

Main topic: Effects of River Pollution

• 1st subtopic: Sources of River Pollution
• 2nd subtopic: Loss of aquatic life
• 3rd subtopic: Contamination of freshwater
• 4th subtopic: Communal diseases
• 5th subtopic: solution to river pollution.

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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Library Learning Commons

Innovating tomorrow by educating today

• Staff Resources
• Research Process
• Exploring Topics and Sub-Topics
• Evaluating Sources
• Organizing Ideas
• Developing Research Questions
• Find the Right Source
• Reading For Information
• Note-Taking
• Writing Non-Fiction
• Style Guides
• 1 Topic Web
• 1.1 Planners
• 2 Topic & Sub-Topic Planner
• 2.1 Planners
• 3 Sub-Topic Organizer
• 3.1 Organizers

Many topics that are suggested for research are quite broad and complex.  It is important to explore the topic by considering possible subtopics and connections between ideas.  This step will help you to select a specific focus and help you to develop questions for research.

For example, take a look at the following topic web and notice the many subtopics related to the broad topic of Global Warming:

If you would like to use a graphic organizer like the mindmap above to explore your topic, try one of the following online mind-mapping tools!

You can also click on the following organizer templates to create a ready-made mindmap:

Use the Topic Web to:

• identify layers of topics and sub-topics
• make connections between ideas
• narrow your topic and research focus

Revisit the Topic Web as you delve more deeply into resources and discover more layers to your topic.

• Topic Web Example

See a Topic Web Example .

Topic & Sub-Topic Planner

Use the Topic & Sub-Topic Planner to:

• show how your sub-topics support the ideas you have developed about your topic
• make sure that you have at least three pieces of supporting evidence for each of your sub-topics
• help prepare an outline for your final project
• Topic Sub-Topic Planner

• Sub-Topic Organizer

Use the Sub-Topic Organizer to:

• summarize your key points about each of your sub-topics
• help you to assess whether you have enough evidence to make compelling arguments about each of your sub-topics, or whether you need to look for more

Revisit this organizer at different stages of your research, to help you assess your own progress.

This information expires once printed. Please always refer to the online version for the most current information.

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How to create a helpful research paper outline

Last updated

21 December 2023

Reviewed by

You need to structure your research paper in an orderly way that makes it easy for readers to follow your reasoning and supporting data. That's where a research paper outline can help.

Writing a research paper outline will help you arrange your ideas logically and allow your final paper to flow. It will make the entire process more manageable and help you work out which details to include and which are better left out.

• What is a research paper outline?

Write your research paper outline before starting your first draft. The outline provides a map of how you will structure your ideas throughout the paper. A research paper outline will help you to be more efficient when ordering the sections of your thesis, rather than trying to make structural changes after finishing an entire first draft.

An outline consists of the main topics and subtopics of your paper, listed in a logical order. The main topics will become the sections of your research paper, and the subtopics reveal the content you want to include or discuss under the main topics.

Under each subtopic, you can also jot down items you don't want to forget to include in your research paper, such as:

Topic ideas

Paragraph ideas

Direct quotes

Once you start listing these under your main topics, you can focus your thoughts as you plan and write the research paper using the evidence and data you collected and any additional information.

• Why use an outline?

If your research paper does not have a clear, logical order, readers may not understand the ideas you're trying to share, or they may lose interest and not bother to read the whole paper. An outline helps you structure your research paper so readers can easily connect the content, ideas, and theories you're trying to prove or maintain.

• Are there different kinds of research paper outlines?

Different kinds of research paper outlines might seem similar but have different purposes. You can select an outline type that provides a clear road map and thoroughly explores each point. 

Other types will help structure content logically or with a segmented flow and progression of ideas that align closely with the theme of your research.

• The 3 types of outlines

The three outline formats available to research paper writers are:

Alphanumeric or topic outlines

Sentence or full-sentence outlines

Decimal outlines

Let’s look at the differences between each type and see how one may be more beneficial than another, depending on the nature of your research.

This type of research paper outline allows you to segment main headings and subheadings with an alphanumeric arrangement.

The alphanumeric characters of Roman numerals, capital letters, numbers, and lowercase letters define the hierarchy of main topic headings, subtopic headings, and third- and fourth-tier subtopic headings. (e.g., I, A, 1, a)

This method uses minimal words to describe the main and subtopic headings. You'll mostly use this type of research paper outline to focus on the organization of the content while allowing you to review it for unrelated or irrelevant information.

Full-sentence outlines

You will format this type of research paper outline as an alphanumeric outline, using the same alphanumeric characters. However, it contains complete sentences rather than a few words for each main and subtopic heading.

This formatting method allows the writer to focus on looking for inaccuracies and inconsistencies in each point before starting the first draft.

Instead of using alphanumeric characters to define main headings, subheadings, and third- and fourth-tier subheadings, the decimal outline uses a decimal numbering system.

This system shows a logical progression of the content by using 1.0 for the main section heading (and 2.0, 3.0, etc., for subsequent sections), 1.1 for the subheading, 1.1.1 for a third-tier subheading, and 1.1.1.1 for the fourth-tier subheading.

The headings and subheadings will be just a few words, as in the alphanumerical research paper outline. Decimal outlines allow the writer to focus on the content's overall coherence, increasing your writing efficiency and reducing the time it takes to write your research paper.

• How to write a research paper outline

Before you begin your research paper outline, you need to determine your topic and gather your information. Let’s look at these steps first, then dive into how to write your outline.

1. Determine your topic

You'll need to establish a topic or the main point you intend to write about.

For example, you may want to research and write about whether influencers are the most beneficial way to promote products in your industry. This topic is the main point around which your essay will revolve.

2. Gather information

You'll need evidence, data, statistics, and facts to prove or disprove that influencers are the best method of promoting products in your industry.

You'll insert any of these things you collect to substantiate your findings into the outline to support your topic.

3. Determine the type of essay you'll be writing

There are many types of essays or research papers you can write. The kinds of essays include:

Argumentative: Builds logic and support for an argument

Cause and effect: Explains relationships between specific conditions and their results

Analytical: Presents a claim on what is being analyzed

Interpretive: Informative and persuasive explanations on how something is perceived

Experimental: Reports on experimental results and the reasoning behind the results

Review: Offers an understanding and analysis of primary sources on a given topic

Definition: Defines what a term or concept means

Persuasive: Uses logic and reason to show that one idea is more justified than another

Narrative: Tells a story of personal experience from the author’s point of view

Expository: Shows an objective view of a subject by exploring various angles

Descriptive: Describes objects, people, places, experiences, emotions, situations, etc.

Once you understand the essay format you are writing, you'll know how to structure your outline. 

4. Include basic sections

You'll begin to structure your outline using basic sections. Your main topic headings for these sections may include an introduction, multiple body paragraph sections, and a conclusion.

Once you establish the sections, you can insert the subtopics under each main topic heading.

5. Organize your outline

For example, if you're writing an argumentative essay taking the position that brand influencers (e.g., social media stars on Instagram or TikTok) are the best way to promote products in your industry, you will argue for that particular position.

You'll organize your argumentative essay outline with a main topic section supporting the position. The subtopics will include the reasoning behind your arguments, and the third-tier subtopics will contain the supporting evidence and data you gathered during your research.

You'll add another main topic section to counter and respond to any opposing arguments. Once you've organized and included all the information in this way, this will provide the structure to start your argumentative essay draft.

6. Consider compare-and-contrast essays

A compare-and-contrast essay is a form of essay that analyzes the differences between two opposing theories or subjects. If you have multiple subjects that are the same or different in just one aspect, you can write a point-by-point outline exploring each subject in terms of this characteristic.

The main topic headings will list that one characteristic, and the subtopic headings will list the subjects or items that are the same or different in relation to this characteristic.

Conversely, if you have multiple items to compare, but they have many characteristics that are similar or different, you can write a block method outline. The main topic headings will contain the items to be compared, while the subtopic headings will contain the aspects in which they are similar or different.

7. Consider advanced organizers for longer essays

An advanced organizer is a sentence that introduces new topics by connecting already-known information to new information. It can also prepare the reader for what they may expect to learn from the entire essay, or each section or paragraph.

Incorporating advanced organizers makes it easier for the reader to process and understand the information you are trying to convey. If you choose to use advanced organizers, depending on how often you want to use them throughout your paper, you can add them to your outline at the end of the introduction, the beginning of a section, or the beginning of each paragraph. 

• Do outlines need periods (full stops)?

If you're constructing alphanumerical or decimal topic outlines, they do not need periods because the entries are usually not complete sentences. However, outlines containing full sentences will need to be punctuated as any sentence is, including using periods.

• An example research paper outline

Here is an example of an alphanumerical outline that argues brand influencers are the best method of promoting products in a particular industry:

I.  Introduction

    A.  Background information about the issue and the position being argued.

    B.  Thesis statement: Influencers are the best way to promote products in this industry.

II.  Reasons that support the thesis statement

    A.  Reason or argument #1

           1.  Supporting evidence

           2.  Supporting evidence

    B.  Reason or argument #2

    C.  Reason or argument #3

          1.  Supporting evidence

          2.  Supporting evidence

III. Counterarguments and responses

       A.  Arguments from the other point of view

       B.  Rebuttals against those arguments

IV.  Conclusion

• How long is a thesis outline?

There is no set length for a research paper outline or thesis outline. Your outline can be as long as it needs to be to organize your thoughts constructively.

You can start with a short outline containing an introduction , background, methodology, data and analysis, and conclusion. Or you can break these sections into more specific segments according to the content you want to share.

Why make writing a research paper more complicated than it needs to be? Knowing the elements of an outline and how to insert them into a cohesive structure will make your final paper understandable and interesting to the reader.

Understanding how to outline a research paper will make the writing process more efficient and less time-consuming.

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Academic Research

Selecting a topic.

• Developing Search Terms
• Using Library Resources
• Searching the Internet
• Evaluating Sources

Library Help

If you’re having trouble, ask yourself:

• What do I care about? 
• What problems do I wish I could solve?
• What do I want to learn more about?

If you’re still having trouble coming up with a topic, try problematizing an issue or the existing state of things. This involves challenging underlying assumptions or the status quo and seeing the world as you believe it should be, rather than as it is.

Ask yourself:

• Who does the status quo benefit? 
• Who does it harm?
• If the status quo were to change, what would the world look like?
• How might that change happen? 

These last two questions are great questions to help guide your research!

How to Develop a Researchable Topic

Background Research

If you're still struggling to find a topic, there are some great resources to help you find your inspiration! Background research can help you select keywords and find interesting subtopics to explore!  Try googling topics about which you're interested, reading a few recent news articles, digging into Wikipedia, or using one of the library's tools below.

Non-peer reviewed. Full-text content.

• TOPICSearch This link opens in a new window Current events database that can be used to search journals, magazines, and newspapers. Covers recent content in health, politics, law, science, business, and more. Partial full text available.
• Global Newsstream This link opens in a new window Search national and regional newspapers from around the United States and world. Includes The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Financial Times, The Salt Lake Tribune, Deseret News, and more. 1977-present (available years vary by publication), no peer-reviewed content. Partial full text available.

Research Questions

Eventually, you will want to develop a research question. A research question is a guide to the type of information you would like to find about your topic. Ask yourself: What do I already know about my topic? What do I still need to find out?

Research questions are complex, open-ended, and arguable. They cannot be answered by a simple "yes" or "no," or by a simple fact. Think of "how?" or "why?" questions about your topic. For the topic "sexism on American college campuses," our research questions could be:

• How can universities better address sexism on their campuses?
• In what ways does sexism affect student success on college campuses?
• How does sexism on American college campuses affect students who identify as women or nonbinary?
• ...and so many more!

You may not have a fully-formulated research question in mind when you start searching—and that's okay! Let your research lead you to the important questions you have about your topic.

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The Subtopic Method

Ask these questions:

What is it? 

How do I do it?

You could choose to focus a topic by one, or even more than one, limiting subtopic. We'll use World War II as an example, a big topic that needs focusing. The limiting subtopics we'll look at are; chronological, geographical, biographical, event-based and technological. You may think of others that could apply to your topic.

Focusing Chronologically   World War two lasted from 1939 to 1945. In those 6 years much took place to change the lives of millions of people and to redefine the boundaries of many countries. You could pick a particularly crucial year, month, week, or even a day, like D-Day, the Allied invasion of Europe, and have much to write about. The library has reference books that detail the war day by day. Ask a librarian.

Focusing Geographically World War II affected almost every country in the world, even if fighting did not take place there. You could focus on the war in one geographical region, such as Europe or Asia where most of the actual fighting took place, or one country such as India and how, as a British Colony, it was affected. You could even pick a country to which you have a connection, by birth or  heritage, and find out how it was affected by the war. It may have affected your own family in some way.

  Focusing Biographically You may choose to look at the war through the focus of a particular person, or group of persons. You may look at how the war was experienced by an African-American or Japanese-American soldier, both of whom faced discrimination for different reasons.  What about from the experience of an American President, or a German or Italian dictator, a Japanese General? How about the mother of an American soldier, a German prisoner of war, an American nurse in a South Pacific naval base, an prisoner in a Japanese-American internment camp, or a survivor of a Nazi concentration camp? This an example of a history research project, but you will be able to find a biographical focus in other subject areas as well. Just try to find how your subject affects or was influenced by human beings.

Focusing on an Event You may want to look in depth at a particular event. D-day would also fall under this category. So would the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Battle of the Bulge (or any other major battle that influenced the flow of the war), the signing of a particular peace treaty, or the forming of an alliance. If you use this focus, you will want to look at the cause of the event and the effect it had, in addition to the event itself.  

Focusing Technologically If you are interested in science, technology, machines, or human ingenuity in general, you may choose this criteria. For World War II you could focus on a particular vehicle like German U-boats, submarines, B-52 bombers, Panzer tanks. You could look at the science of the atomic bomb. Or you could look at the coding used to relay secret messages and the methods of code-breaking that allowed strategic information to leak to the Allies (and incidentally gave rise to the development of modern computers). You may even be interested in the ingenious ways prisoners attempted (and sometimes succeeded) in breaking out of prisoner of war or concentration camps.

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How To Do Library Research

• Selecting a Topic

Guide Contents

• Introduction

Considerations

Writing about popular topics, picking your topic.

• Understanding Keywords
• Tips and Tricks
• Types of Information
• Publication Cycles
• Follow a Citation
• Finding and Using EBooks
• Finding Books
• Finding Articles
• Finding Statistics & Data
• Finding Primary Sources
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Selecting a topic can be the most difficult part of doing research. Defining and refining your topic is an ongoing process. Be prepared to change the focus of your topic as you gather more information. How you select your topic will depend also on what your instructor has specified.

These are some general guidelines to follow:

• Interesting: Select a subject you can get interested in.  Since you will be spending a considerable amount of time researching your topic, you will want it to be something that holds your interest and that of the reader.  

Broad topic : climate change  --> Focused topic : How have bottlenose dolphins adapted to climate change? 

Your research question should be opened ended, will guide you in further research, and will help you formulate your thesis. 

Try to be original and creative. Some topics have been overdone, and this leads to an overwhelming amount of information, making it difficult to focus a topic. Some topics that might be overdone include: mental health, first-generation college students, online education.   

Try to look at topics like these from a new perspective or angle. For example:      How do the experiences of first-generation college students compare based on socioeconomic status or race, ethnicity, culture, background? 

If a topic has made recent news headlines, think about what has made the issue controversial or newsworthy to get started on your research:

How can educators use online learning to regain some of the educational losses as a result of the pandemic? 

By starting with what makes an otherwise common topic newsworthy it is making your research relevant, timely, more manageable and will lead you to a more interesting research question or thesis statement.

Consult Hot Research Topics & Controversial Issues for ideas and new perspectives if you wish to write about current controversies.

• Get SubTopics
• Get Disciplines
• Develop thesis

All topics can be viewed from several angles. What are the smaller questions that will help create an answer to the primary question?

Who are the people affected by your study? age, ethnicity, gender, profession, company/industry

What are the components or aspects of the topic will you explore? causes, effects, diagnosis or treatment, problems, trends

Where does your topic fit? Is there a specific country, state, county, city, or country in which your topic fits geographically? Can the "where" be defined by a broader regional concept such as urban/rural, global/local? Can there where also define your population - such as college campuses, prisons, elementary schools?

When did the issue or event become important? a specific century/decade/specific time span are you going to need the most current information available? Historical information? Both?

Why is this topic important? What is significant about this issue? articulate the possible approaches and select the best one for your needs.

Which disciplines or occupations would be interested in the topic or analyze it in their literature?

Many research topics are interdisciplinary and the disciplinary focus will determine the appropriate tools to use to locate information.

For example, for the question:  How have dolphins adapted to climate change?  you could look within the following fields:

• environmental studies

Make sure you understand the basics of your topic. If it is new to you, familiarize yourself with the basic terms, people, events, statistics and foundational information.

Reference books such as encyclopedias and handbooks will offer short articles for exactly this purpose.

See the Encyclopedias page, the subject guide best related to your area , or ask at the Research Help desk to help you locate one.

Formulate a thesis that is consistent with the evidence you find. It should be of significance to the discipline and supportable by the evidence.

As you gather information, you will formulate new questions and possibly even change the focus of your research, so your thesis may change.

If the issue is a controversial one, your thesis should reflect the position you are taking. A strong research paper will reflect both sides of an argument, and researching this is an important part of gathering background information.

For further reading:

• Thesis sentence  (Excelsior OWL) 
• Formulating your Research Question (Vanderbilt Writing Center)

Once you have developed your thesis, you are reading to start searching in earnest and our search strategies page can get you started. Keep in mind that research in usually not a linear process - based on what you discover when you research, you may end up revising or even changing your thesis altogether.

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• Last Updated: Mar 14, 2024 2:40 PM
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Getting Started with Research

Developing a topic, where to find ideas for topics, finding too much, not finding enough.

• Background Research
• Library Resources
• Evaluating Sources
• Citing Your Sources
• Help Along the Way

"Like many students, Jennie thinks that once a project is assigned she should pick her topic right away. Then she can move on to finding sources and reading through them. And once she has all her sources, she can start writing her paper. However, the research process is a lot messier than that."

Watch this video to learn more!

Finding too much information? Your topic might be too big. To make it more manageable:

• First, consider what you know.
• Read about your topic in reliable internet sources, or read an encyclopedia article to find subtopics to explore. The link goes to a list of the library's encyclopedias and dictionaries that you can narrow to your topic area.
• Within an article database such as Academic Search Premier , explore the Subject: Thesaurus Terms list to get ideas on areas to explore.
• Who  do you want to talk about (e.g. Women, college students, Asian-Americans)?
• What  aspect of the topic interests you (e.g. legal, historical, a specific document or piece of literature)?
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Choosing a Topic

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This handout provides detailed information about how to write research papers including discussing research papers as a genre, choosing topics, and finding sources.

The first step of any research paper is for the student to understand the assignment. If this is not done, the student will often travel down many dead-end roads, wasting a great deal of time along the way. Do not hesitate to approach the instructor with questions if there is any confusion. A clear understanding of the assignment will allow you to focus on other aspects of the process, such as choosing a topic and identifying your audience.

A student will often encounter one of two situations when it comes to choosing a topic for a research paper. The first situation occurs when the instructor provides a list of topics from which the student may choose. These topics have been deemed worthy by the instructor; therefore, the student should be confident in the topic he chooses from the list. Many first-time researchers appreciate such an arrangement by the instructor because it eliminates the stress of having to decide upon a topic on their own.

However, the student may also find the topics that have been provided to be limiting; moreover, it is not uncommon for the student to have a topic in mind that does not fit with any of those provided. If this is the case, it is always beneficial to approach the instructor with one's ideas. Be respectful, and ask the instructor if the topic you have in mind would be a possible research option for the assignment. Remember, as a first-time researcher, your knowledge of the process is quite limited; the instructor is experienced, and may have very precise reasons for choosing the topics she has offered to the class. Trust that she has the best interests of the class in mind. If she likes the topic, great! If not, do not take it personally and choose the topic from the list that seems most interesting to you.

The second situation occurs when the instructor simply hands out an assignment sheet that covers the logistics of the research paper, but leaves the choice of topic up to the student. Typically, assignments in which students are given the opportunity to choose the topic require the topic to be relevant to some aspect of the course; so, keep this in mind as you begin a course in which you know there will be a research paper near the end. That way, you can be on the lookout for a topic that may interest you. Do not be anxious on account of a perceived lack of authority or knowledge about the topic chosen. Instead, realize that it takes practice to become an experienced researcher in any field.

For a discussion of Evaluating Sources, see Evaluating Sources of Information .

Methods for choosing a topic

Thinking early leads to starting early. If the student begins thinking about possible topics when the assignment is given, she has already begun the arduous, yet rewarding, task of planning and organization. Once she has made the assignment a priority in her mind, she may begin to have ideas throughout the day. Brainstorming is often a successful way for students to get some of these ideas down on paper. Seeing one's ideas in writing is often an impetus for the writing process. Though brainstorming is particularly effective when a topic has been chosen, it can also benefit the student who is unable to narrow a topic. It consists of a timed writing session during which the student jots down—often in list or bulleted form—any ideas that come to his mind. At the end of the timed period, the student will peruse his list for patterns of consistency. If it appears that something seems to be standing out in his mind more than others, it may be wise to pursue this as a topic possibility.

It is important for the student to keep in mind that an initial topic that you come up with may not be the exact topic about which you end up writing. Research topics are often fluid, and dictated more by the student's ongoing research than by the original chosen topic. Such fluidity is common in research, and should be embraced as one of its many characteristics.

The Purdue OWL also offers a number of other resources on choosing and developing a topic:

• Understanding Writing Assignments
• Starting the Writing Process
• Invention Slide Presentation

What Is A Subtopic In An Essay: Your Ultimate Weapon for Engaging Writing

By: Author Paul Jenkins

Posted on July 22, 2023

Categories Writing

You’ve been assigned an essay. You’ve chosen your main topic, but now you’re faced with breaking it down into subtopics. What are they? Why do you need them? How can they improve the quality of your essay?

Subtopics are like building blocks that support the structure of your essay and give depth to your argument or analysis. They help organize your ideas and make your writing more reader-friendly. But identifying and developing effective subtopics isn’t always easy; it requires careful thought, planning, and revision.

This article will guide you through understanding what a subtopic is, its role in an essay, how to identify and develop one successfully, common mistakes to avoid while using them, and tips for their effective use to boost the quality of your essay.

Let’s dive in!

Key Takeaways

• Subtopics support the structure and argumentation of an essay, adding depth and organization.
• Subtopics break down complex topics into manageable chunks and allow for exploration of different angles related to the main theme.
• Well-developed subtopics engage readers and enhance the overall quality of the essay.
• Subtopic transitions are crucial for maintaining coherence, guiding readers, and ensuring a seamless flow between ideas.

Understanding the Structure of an Essay

You’ve got to grasp that the structure of an essay isn’t just a random blend of words, it’s a well-planned framework that guides your thoughts and arguments.

Each piece has its place, with subtopics playing an essential role in this structure. They are like smaller chapters within your larger story, allowing you to dive deeper into specific aspects of your main topic.

There are some common subtopic misconceptions. Many believe that they must strictly adhere to the initial outline or plan they have established for their subtopics. However, one of the beauties of essay writing is subtopic flexibility. You can adjust them as needed based on how your argument or ideas evolve throughout the writing process.

Subtopics also provide clarity by breaking down complex topics into manageable chunks, making it easier for readers to understand and digest the information presented. They function as an opportunity to explore different angles related to your main theme.

So remember, when working on an essay, don’t underestimate the power and versatility of carefully chosen and well-developed subtopics. They’re not only structural elements but also tools for enhancing your overall argumentation strategy without saying ‘In conclusion’ at all.

Defining a Subtopic

Think you’re done after deciding on a main theme? Well, hate to break it to you, but you’ve only just scratched the surface. To truly delve into your essay and make your arguments compelling, you need to understand what a subtopic is.

A subtopic is essentially a specific aspect or component of your main topic. It allows for greater depth and exploration within your essay’s framework. Here are some key points about subtopics:

• They help organize ideas in an orderly manner.
• Subtopic placement can influence the flow of the entire essay.
• They provide room for thorough examination of different aspects of the main topic.
• Subtopic variations keep readers engaged by offering fresh perspectives.
• Each subtopic should be relevant to the overarching subject.

Remember this: while your main topic is like the trunk of a tree, holding everything together, each subtopic represents individual branches that extend from it. These branches add complexity and richness to the overall structure. So don’t limit yourself with just one idea; explore multiple facets through varied subtopics and elevate your essay writing skills.

The Role of a Subtopic in an Essay

In crafting a compelling piece of writing, the devil’s in the details–specific aspects of your main theme can add depth and richness to your argument. That’s where subtopics come into play. They help you explore different facets of your primary topic, giving readers a comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand.

There are some subtopic misconceptions to watch out for though. It’s easy to confuse subtopics as mere examples or illustrations of your main topic; in reality, they’re much more than that. Each subtopic should be able to stand on its own merit while still supporting and enhancing your central argument.

As you develop your essay, pay attention to how your subtopics evolve. The progression from one point to another must be logical and seamless, ensuring that each new piece builds upon what preceded it and sets up what’s coming next.

It’s essential not to underestimate the role subtopics play in an essay structure. Think of them as building blocks: individually they have their importance, but together they create something more substantial—the complete picture that is your essay. So take time to craft thoughtful, well-researched subtopics; it’ll make all the difference in delivering a persuasive argument.

How to Identify a Subtopic

Spotting a subtheme within your writing isn’t always straightforward, but did you know that 80% of readers find content more engaging when it’s structured with clear, identifiable sections? This statistic underscores the importance of mastering this skill. So, how do you identify a subtopic in an essay?

Firstly, look for ideas that support the main thesis. These are often your subtopics.

For instance, if your main topic is ‘The Impact of Technology on Education,’ a potential subtopic could be ‘Online Learning Platforms.’

Secondly, pay attention to the structure and format of your essay.

Paragraphs usually focus on one idea or argument which will likely be a subtopic.

Remember though, there can be limitations when identifying and using subtopics. You don’t want to stray too far from your main point or make your essay confusing. But don’t let these ‘subtopic limitations’ stifle creativity! Unleashing ‘subtopic creativity’ can help you explore different dimensions of the main topic and make your writing more compelling.

With practice and precision, you’ll soon become adept at creating essays filled with interesting subtopics that not only engage readers but also add depth to your work without losing sight of the overall theme.

How to Develop a Subtopic

Don’t you just love the thrill of diving deeper into your main theme? Let’s explore how to add layers to your writing by developing those juicy, engaging points that support your main idea. This process is all about expanding on a subtopic in an essay.

First things first, let’s dispel some Subtopic Misconceptions. You might think that a subtopic has to be rigid and strictly tied to the main topic, but that’s not entirely correct. Yes, it should support and relate to the main topic, but it can also veer off slightly to provide interesting insights or alternative perspectives. This is where Subtopic Flexibility comes into play.

Start by brainstorming potential angles related to your main topic. Jot down as many ideas as possible without worrying if they’re good or bad at this stage. Once you have a list, sift through them and choose the ones that are most relevant or intriguing.

Next, research each chosen subtopic thoroughly. Use reliable sources for information and ensure you understand it well enough to explain in simple terms. Then start crafting paragraphs around these points, ensuring they flow smoothly from one point to another.

Remember this: Good essays aren’t just about presenting facts; they’re about telling a compelling story using those facts!

The Relationship Between Main Topic and Subtopics

Weaving a tapestry of thought, the main topic and its supportive threads – the subthemes – dance together in an intricate choreography.

Your main topic serves as the foundation, a guiding star that lights your path throughout your essay. It’s like a tree trunk from which various branches, or subtopics, grow. Each branch represents different aspects or perspectives related to your primary theme.

Subtopic categorization is key in this process. You need to discern what relevant points can become subtopics, each one further exploring and expanding upon the central idea. This demands a careful balance; while you want to provide thorough investigation into your chosen subject matter, it’s crucial not to lose sight of your main topic.

However, there are also limitations when working with subtopics. Too many can confuse or overwhelm readers, diverting their focus from the core concept you’re trying to convey. Yet too few might leave them hungry for more information or clarity on certain points.

So remember: keep a clear delineation between your main topic and its supportive elements while maintaining coherence in presenting these ideas together in an effective manner.

As such balance is achieved, you’re well on your way to crafting compelling essays that captivate readers’ interest and understanding.

Examples of Subtopics in Different Essay Types

Let’s dive into some concrete examples of how this delicate dance between main themes and their support acts plays out in different types of written pieces, shall we?

Suppose you’re crafting an argumentative essay on climate change. Your main topic might be ‘The Impact of Human Activities on Climate Change.’ Subtopics can include various elements like greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, or waste management. Each subtopic delves deeper into your primary argument, offering evidence and examples to substantiate your claims.

Subtopic pitfalls often occur when these smaller divisions are not adequately researched or lack cohesion with the main theme. For instance, if you suddenly introduced a subtopic about animal extinction in your climate change essay without linking it back to human activities’ impact, it could confuse your readers.

As for subtopic evolution, consider a compare-and-contrast essay comparing online learning and traditional classroom education. You might start with basic comparisons (costs, flexibility), but as you research further, your subtopics may evolve to cover aspects such as student engagement levels or learning outcomes based on teaching methods used.

Remember always to ensure that each subtopic strengthens and complements the overarching thesis of your essay rather than diverting from it.

Importance of Coherence and Flow Between Subtopics

Ensuring a smooth and logical transition between your main points can significantly boost the clarity and impact of your argument. This is where subtopic selection plays a crucial role in essay writing.

Each subtopic should build on the previous one, establishing a clear thread that ties your ideas together. Think of it as building blocks; each subtopic should stack neatly on top of each other, forming a strong structure that supports your thesis or central idea.

Subtopics are not just independent thoughts thrown randomly into an essay; they should be carefully chosen to maintain continuity and strengthen your overall argument. Subtopic relevance is equally important. Irrelevant or weakly connected subtopics can disrupt the flow of your essay, confusing readers and diluting your message.

It’s like driving down a road with unnecessary detours – it’s frustrating and distracts from reaching the destination efficiently. So remember, when crafting an essay, pay close attention to the coherence and flow between subtopics.

A well-structured piece with logically connected ideas not only simplifies comprehension but also leaves a lasting impression on readers’ minds without them having to unravel complex knots of disjointed information.

Balancing Between the Use of Subtopics and Overcomplication

Navigating the labyrinth of your paper’s structure, it’s crucial not to lose your reader in an overcomplicated maze of points. Subtopics are essential for organization and flow but beware of subtopic pitfalls such as unnecessary detail or tangential information that may confuse rather than clarify. The key is balance.

Consider subtopics as a way to break down complex ideas into manageable parts:

Understand the main message: What’s the core idea you want to convey?

Avoid adding extraneous details that might muddle your central point.

Gauge relevance: Do each subtopic directly relate to your main topic?

Cut any unrelated subtopics that don’t contribute constructively.

Monitor depth: How much detail does each subtopic need?

Don’t delve too deep – save some mysteries for further exploration.

Subtopic integration should be seamless, linking one concept to another without jarring transitions or abrupt shifts in focus. Each section should build upon its predecessor, leading logically towards your conclusion while maintaining interest and comprehension.

The artistry lies in creating a clear path through intricate arguments without oversimplifying or overwhelming. Balance between meticulous detailing and overarching simplicity ensures a compelling read, where every element serves purposeful progression towards the overall thesis.

Ensuring Each Subtopic is Fully Explored

After understanding how to strike a balance between the use of subtopics and overcomplication, it’s time to delve into our next important aspect – Ensuring each subtopic is fully explored.

One common pitfall in essay writing is ‘Subtopic Misconceptions’. You might think that skimpy information suffices for a subtopic. However, leaving your audience with more questions than answers isn’t the aim. Each subtopic should be thoughtfully developed; presenting ideas, arguments or facts that support your main topic.

To help grasp this concept better, let’s look at an example:

As you can see, full exploration involves delving into the details and complexities of each point under your subtopic.

Now onto ‘Subtopic Evolution’. As you write more essays and improve your skills, you’ll notice that your ability to explore subtopics evolves too – they become richer in detail and connect better with the main topic. Keep practicing!

So remember, give each subtopic the attention it deserves for a well-rounded essay!

The Role of Transitions in Connecting Subtopics

Moving on, let’s dive into the pivotal role transitions play in connecting your various points and ideas. Transitions act as bridges between your thoughts, ensuring a smooth flow from one subtopic to another. They are essential for maintaining coherence and providing a logical structure to your essay.

Consider these four key points:

Subtopic Significance: Transitions highlight the importance of each subtopic by subtly reminding readers of its relevance to the overall thesis.

Flow Maintenance: Crafty use of transitions keeps your audience engaged, guiding them seamlessly through different sections.

Subtopic Limitations: A well-placed transition can also indicate limitations or contrast within subtopics, offering a broader perspective.

Recapitulation: Transitions often recap the previous point before introducing a new one, reinforcing understanding.

Remember that overusing transitions can make your writing appear mechanical and disrupt the natural flow of ideas. Aim for balance – use them where necessary but don’t force it just to include more. Your choice of words plays an integral part in determining how effectively you connect your thoughts.

Transitions aren’t mere decorative elements; they’re crucial tools that help illustrate relationships among various arguments within an essay while keeping it fluid and engaging for readers.

Revising and Refining Your Subtopics

Surprisingly, nearly 60% of writers overlook the importance of revising their work, yet it’s in this critical stage that you can refine your points and arguments to enhance clarity and impact. A good essay isn’t merely written; it’s rewritten. This is where subtopic relevance comes into play.

Start by reevaluating your subtopics’ relevance to your main topic. Are they directly related? If not, you may need to revise them or even find new ones. Additionally, assess each subtopic’s strength — weak or vague points could undermine your argument.

Next, consider the question of subtopic variation. Is there enough diversity among your supporting ideas? While repetition can emphasize a point, too much can lead to redundancy and dull reading. Experiment with different types of evidence or perspectives for a more compelling essay.

Revising also gives you a chance to fine-tune transitions between paragraphs and ensure coherence in your writing. Don’t forget about grammar and punctuation – small mistakes can distract from an otherwise excellent essay.

Refining your subtopics might seem like extra work now but remember: it will significantly improve the overall quality of your essay later on. Mastering revision techniques helps maintain focus while providing varied and insightful content for readers.

Common Mistakes in Utilizing Subtopics

Despite your best efforts, it’s easy to stumble when using supporting ideas in your writing, and some common mistakes could detract from your masterpiece. The most prevalent of these errors are Subtopic Misplacement and Incomplete Subtopics.

Subtopic misplacement happens when you don’t structure your essay coherently. You might introduce a subtopic too early or late, which can confuse readers. On the other hand, incomplete subtopics leave gaps in information that fail to convincingly back up your main argument.

Here is a quick guide on avoiding these pitfalls:

Always remember that each subtopic should be a solid pillar supporting your central idea. They need to be well-researched and presented at appropriate points within the body of the essay.

So, keep an eye out for these common mistakes as you draft and revise – they’re easily avoidable with careful planning and thorough research. Your essays will shine brighter without them!

The Impact of Subtopics on Essay Quality

In your writing journey, you’ll quickly discover how much the quality of your work soars when you properly utilize supporting ideas. For instance, imagine crafting a piece about climate change: if you include well-researched and timely sections on melting polar ice caps, rising ocean temperatures, and the increase in extreme weather events, your argument that urgent action is needed becomes undeniably compelling.

Misusing subtopics can significantly downgrade this quality. If you’re not careful with subtopic misuse, it can lead to an unorganized mess instead of a rich tapestry of interconnected ideas. It’s essential to use each subtopic as a stepping stone towards proving your thesis statement.

On the flip side, utilizing subtopic creativity can elevate your essay significantly. By choosing interesting and unexpected angles for each point of discussion within your main topic, readers are more likely to remain engaged throughout the text. This approach also allows deeper exploration into the subject matter.

Remember that every detail counts in essay writing – including thoughtful and effective usage of subtopics. With these considerations in mind, harnessing the power of well-structured subtopics will undoubtedly improve the overall quality and impact of your written work.

Tips for Effective Use of Subtopics in Your Essay

Utilizing supporting ideas effectively can transform your written piece from good to great, and there are several strategies you can employ to ensure their maximum impact.

One of the most common Subtopic Misconceptions is that subtopics are only used to break up long texts. However, they serve a more significant purpose – they function as guideposts that steer your reader through your argument logically.

The placement of these subtopics also plays a crucial role in navigating your essay’s flow. A well-placed subtopic contributes to the coherence and cohesion of your essay, ensuring each argument relates back to the main topic seamlessly.

An effective way to use subtopics is by introducing them at the beginning of each paragraph. This gives readers an idea of what to expect in the following sentences, providing clarity and direction. Furthermore, don’t forget that each subtopic should be a supporting point for your main thesis.

Remember that using too many or too few subtopics can either overwhelm or confuse your readers respectively. Striking a balance is key: enough detail to support your argument but not so much it drowns out the main point.

So use those guideposts wisely and watch how they elevate your writing!

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How to Find a Topic for Your Research Paper

Last Updated: September 12, 2023 References

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. This article has been viewed 94,205 times.

Sometimes, finding a topic for a research paper can be the most challenging part of the whole process. When you're looking out at a field brimming with possibilities, it's easy to get overwhelmed. Lucky for you, we here at wikiHow have come up with a list of ways to pick that topic that will take you from the more vague brainstorming all the way to your specific, perfectly focused research question and thesis.

Review your course materials.

• If your textbook has discussion questions at the end of each chapter, these can be great to comb through for potential research paper topic ideas.
• Look at any recommended reading your instructor has suggested—you might find ideas there as well.

Search hot issues in your field of study.

• Think about current events that touch on your field of study as well. For example, if you're writing a research paper for a sociology class, you might want to write something related to race in America or the Black Lives Matter movement.
• Other instructors in the same department or field might also have ideas for you. Don't be afraid to stop in during their office hours and talk or send them an email, even if you've never had them for a class.

Go for a walk to get your brain going.

• If you want to walk with a friend and discuss topic ideas as you walk, that can help too. Sometimes, you'll come up with new things when you can bounce your ideas off someone else.

Ask your family or friends for input.

• People who aren't really familiar with the general subject you're researching can be helpful too! Because they aren't making many assumptions, they might bring up something you'd overlooked or not thought about before.

Free-write on topic ideas to find your passion.

• Having a personal interest in the topic will keep you from getting bored. You'll do better research—and write a better paper—if you're excited about the topic itself.

Read background information on your favorites.

• Ideally, based on your background research, you'll be able to choose one of the topics that interests you the most. If you still can't narrow it down, keep reading!
• Even though you wouldn't want to use them as sources for your actual paper, sources like Wikipedia can be excellent for getting background information about a topic.

Identify important words to use as keywords.

• For example, if you've chosen environmental regulations as a topic, you might also include keywords such as "conservation," "pollution," and "nature."

Do preliminary research using your keywords.

• Your results might also suggest other keywords you can search to find more sources. Searching for specific terminology used in articles you find often leads to other articles.
• Check the bibliography of any papers you find to pick up some other sources you might be able to use.

Limit a broad topic.

• For example, suppose you decided to look at race relations in the US during the Trump administration. If you got too many results, you might narrow your results to a single US city or state.
• Keep in mind how long your research paper will ultimately be. For example, if there's an entire book written on a topic you want to write a 20-page research paper on, it's probably too broad.

Expand a topic that's too narrow.

• For example, suppose you wanted to research the impact of a particular environmental law on your hometown, but when you did a search, you didn't get any quality results. You might expand your search to encompass the entire state or region, rather than just your hometown.

Do more in-depth research to fine-tune your topic.

• For example, you might do an initial search and get hundreds of results back and decide your topic is too broad. Then, when you limit it, you get next to nothing and figure out you've narrowed it too much, so you have to broaden it a little bit again.
• Stay flexible and keep going until you've found that happy medium that you think will work for your paper.

Formulate the question you'll answer in your paper.

• For example, your research question might be something like "How did environmental regulations affect the living conditions of people living near paper mills?" This question covers "who" (people living near paper mills), "what" (living conditions), "where" (near paper mills), and "why" (environmental regulations).

Build a list of potential sources.

• At this point, your list is still a "working" list. You won't necessarily use all the sources you find in your actual paper.
• Building a working list of sources is also helpful if you want to use a source and can't immediately get access to it. If you have to get it through your professor or request it from another library, you have time to do so.

Develop your thesis.

• For example, suppose your research question is "How did environmental regulations affect the living conditions of people living near paper mills?" Your thesis might be something like: "Environmental regulations improved living conditions for people living around paper mills."
• As another example, suppose your research question is "Why did hate crimes spike in the US from 2017 to 2020?" Your thesis might be: "A permissive attitude towards racial supremacy caused a spike in hate crimes in the US from 2017 to 2020."
• Keep in mind, you don't have to prove that your thesis is correct. Proving that your thesis was wrong can make for an even more compelling research paper, especially if your thesis follows conventional wisdom.

Expert Q&A

• If you've been given a list of topics but you come up with something different that you want to do, don't be afraid to talk to your instructor about it! The worst that will happen is that they'll make you choose something from the list instead. [11] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Research paper

How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

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Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

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Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

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Want to know the fastest and easiest ways to convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius? We've got you covered! Check out our guide to the best ways to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (or vice versa).

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Finding a Paper Topic

What are the blogs talking about, what current awareness sources should i know about, what's being discussed in the academic journals, what have other dissertations or papers covered, how do i find a faculty advisor, refining your topic, getting help, how to use this guide.

This guide is aimed at law students, primarily LL.M.s, beginning the process of finding and narrowing a topic for a research paper.

Paper topic ideas may come from your lectures or course readings. Topics might come from your previous studies, work history or life experience. But, sometimes your initial subject idea is too broad, or you are interested in multiple subject areas. This guide will walk you though sources which will help you gain a sense of legal developments (if any) on your subject. It will also list sources that help you begin to find the academic conversation happening on a topic.

By browsing, searching, and reading broadly in these sources, you will hopefully find a topic that is deeply interesting to you. Enough so that you will stay engaged and motivated during the entirety of the writing process.

For HLS LL.M.s, this guide will provide links to sources from the Graduate Program which will help you determine if your topic is sufficiently narrow. It concludes with suggestions about how to identify possible HLS faculty supervisors.

Once you have decided on your topic, it is an appropriate time to request a research consult with a librarian. They can assist you by identifying targeted research sources and search strategies.

Using Blogs for Paper Topics

Blogs can be helpful to see what is "hot" in a particular field of law on a more current basis than traditional scholarly sources such as books or law review articles. You can browse them by topic area or run searches for some of your initial ideas.

Blog/Blawg Directories

• Justia's Blawg Search This is one of the largest aggregators of legal blogs. Browse by topic or search and reset the order of results by date to find the newest discussions.
• Legal Blogs via Westlaw (HLS only) Westlaw provides searchable access to over 200 law-related blogs. Topics cover almost all areas of US law, international law, and good coverage of Canadian law.
• Law Professor Blogs Network This is a collection of approximately 100 blogs authored by law professors.

Specialized News Databases

Legal news sites will alert you to interesting litigation and policy developments. Like browsing blogs, legal news sources can help you identify legal developments that might serve as a good topic.   

• Lexis Legal News Hub (HLS only) Legal news from multiple publishers including Law360.
• Law.com (HLS only) Very current, short news items about legal developments in law and the legal industry.
• Bloomberg Law News and Topic Selection Page (HLS Only) This page links to Bloomberg news offerings, and uniquely, coverage of “circuit splits”. A circuit split is when federal appellate courts are reaching different outcomes on the same topic of law. Current circuit splits can make interesting paper topics.

Legal Updates from Law Firms

Law firms often post public entries of interest to potential clients. These marketing materials are usually well crafted and cover new developments. The following sites aggregate this content for collective searching.

• vLex Justis current news The home screen offers a combination of news and updates from major law firms from LexBlog, JD Supra, and Mondaq. Use the International News option for coverage of 100 countries.

Google Scholar

Using Google can be a good starting point, but using Google Scholar is a more efficient way to find academic content. Even better, using Harvard Google Scholar will (usually) allow you to link through to content available to you through Harvard Library subscriptions.

• Harvard Google Scholar Using Google Scholar with your HarvardKey allows you to make the most of provided links, granting access to full text available through Harvard Library subscriptions.
• Google Alerts

Working Papers Repositories

After browsing widely through current awareness services for ideas, hopefully you’re starting to have a few possible topics. Digging into working papers is a good next step in comparing your topic options. Working paper repositories host collections of scholarly articles. They include those not yet published or in final form. The benefit of searching in working paper repositories is to gain a sense of the current academic conversation on a topic.

• SSRN (Social Science Research Network) SSRN is one of the most heavily used working paper sites for law professors. It is a public site but using this Harvard-affiliated access through HOLLIS will allow you to set up an individual account and subscribe to email alerts.
• Law Commons This open access working paper site is easy to browse by topic, author, and institutional affiliation.
• NBER Working Papers The National Bureau of Economic Research hosts working papers related to finance, banking, and law and economics.
• EconPapers (RePEc)
• OSF Preprints Multidisciplinary repository more global in scope than those listed above.

Law Journal Articles

As you explore possible topics, beyond searching through current sources, it's important to explore the published literature on the topic. This is the stage where you are both refining your topic and beginning your research.

There are many sources to find law journal articles. Below are some of the main collections of legal literature and good starting points. Be aware that these collections are very large. Putting in one or two search terms may result in large result lists, so consider searching with multiple keywords, phrases, etc. For assistance with advanced search techniques, please Ask a Librarian .

• Hein Online Law Journal Library (Harvard Key) Provides pdf format for law review articles in 3200 law journals. For most, coverage is from inception. Includes a good collection of non-U.S. journals.
• Lexis+ Law Reviews and Journals (HLS Only)
• Westlaw Law Reviews & Journals (HLS Only)
• LegalTrac Topic Finder (HLS) LegalTrac is an index (descriptions of articles) and has some full text. It is included here for its topic finder tool which allows you to put in some general topics, and then refine the terms to generate a list of linked articles.

Academic Articles, Books and Book Chapters

It is beyond the scope of this guide to cover specialized sources for non-U.S. and International law and legal literature. Neither does this guide cover sources for law-related literature, such as the literature of political science, economics, gender studies, etc. To find academic journal content across disciplines, the best starting point is to use HOLLIS.

• HOLLIS Catalog and Articles Beyond finding the books, ebooks, and journals owned by the Harvard Library system, using HOLLIS in its default mode (Catalog & Articles) allows you to find articles from many subscription sources. Before settling on a paper topic, running some searches in HOLLIS is a must.

Dissertations, Theses and Papers

As you refine your topic ideas, it is often helpful to browse the titles of dissertations and papers by SJDs, LLMs, or JD students, either generally, or those which touch on your subject area. This can help you understand how people have framed their research topic in a discrete, specific way. See additional sources for student-authored works in  HLS Dissertations, Theses and Third Year Papers .

• HLS LL.M. Papers in HOLLIS To refine these search results by topic, faculty advisor, seminar or date, click Add a New Line.
• HLS SJD Dissertations
• Proquest Dissertations and Theses (Harvard Key) This database includes dissertations and theses from many academic institutions but has not included HLS SJD dissertations or LL.M. papers in recent years.

Tips on Finding a Faculty Advisor

LL.M. written work requires faculty supervision. The following sources will help you identify HLS faculty members by research interests. You can also view HOLLIS records of LL.M. papers to identify the HLS professors who supervised papers in your subject area.

• HLS Faculty Directory The directory can be searched by keyword or filtered by area of interest and by categories of appointment. Directory pages usually include courses taught, publications, and research interest area. Note that some professors are here for only part of the year. Faculty supervisors must have a teaching appointment in the semester in which the paper is to be turned in.
• HLS Course Catalog This is the best source to determine who is currently teaching in your topic subject area.
• HLS Faculty Bibliography This is a collective list of publications of the HLS faculty covering recent years.
• HLS Programs of Study Programs of study are course grouping suggestions for students who want to focus their academic and career development within a field of law. Each program lists HLS faculty members associated with that field of law.

Tips for Refining a Topic

As you’ve browsed blogs, news, law reviews and other LL.M. papers, you have hopefully arrived at some topic ideas that are original and will hold your continued interest as you write the paper. It is also important to refine your paper topic to a discrete, narrow idea. Resources to help you make sure your topic is sufficiently narrow are included in the HLS Graduate Program Writing Resources Canvas Site . See especially: 

• The Six-Point Exercise in the module “Developing Your Proposal and Drafting Your Paper”
• Worksheets for Senior Thesis Writers and Others in the module “Recommended Materials on Writing”
• Archetypal Legal Scholarship: A Field Guide, 63 J. Legal Educ. 65 (2013) HLS Prof. Minow's article defines the different types of papers in the legal literature. It is helpful to read her framework as you finalize your paper topic.
• Academic Legal Writing Law Review Articles, Student Notes, Seminar Papers, and Getting on Law Review UCLA Prof. Eugene Volokh's book is a good resource as you begin a writing project. Specifcally, the section on Choosing a Claim is worth scanning before finalizing your topic.
• This publicly available excerpt from a prior edition of Volokh's book contains the chapter on Choosing a Claim. See the section beginning on page 25.

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• Last Updated: Apr 12, 2024 4:50 PM
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