merapi indonesia volcano case study

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The 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi

What is mount merapi.

Mount Merapi is a volcano located on the island of Java in Indonesia. Mount Merapi or ‘mountain of fire’ is part of the ring of fire. Mount Merapi has erupted 68 times since the sixteenth century and is the most active volcano in its region. It is one of 129 active volcanoes in Indonesia making up part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is located on the subduction zone of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. It is one of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia and has been erupting frequently since 1548. Since 1920 there have been 10 eruptions that have caused human fatalities. Typically, smoke can be seen emerging from the top of the volcano 300 days in the year.

What type of volcano is Merapi?

Mt Merapi is 9551ft tall and is an active composite volcano and has andesitic lava. It is cone-shaped with a narrow base and steep sides, which are made of alternate layers of lava and ash from previous eruptions. When eruptions occur they are usually violent and lava and ash are present. Until about 10,000 years ago eruptions have been effusive and lava was basaltic. However, now the eruptions have become much more explosive and often generate lava domes. The collapse of these domes has often caused pyroclastic flows and longer explosions.

When did Merapi erupt?

Between 25th-26th October 2010, Mt Merapi erupted three times; thousands were evacuated from a 20km radius around the slopes of the volcano. The column of smoke rose vertically to 1.5km and pyroclastic activity began to subside, 18 people were found dead. The deaths were due to burns and respiratory problems. Between 17th-29th October 2010, the evacuation zone remained, however, lava ejection with hot ash clouds fell down the slope and travelled 3km and pressure seemed to be decreasing behind the lava dome that had formed in the crater. The death toll was now at 30. From the 30th October, Mount Merapi exploded again, this time causing a fireball to rise 2km vertically into the air from the volcano. The magma continued to push its way into the lava dome and ash fell more than 30km away. This all caused raining sand to fall 10km away.

How big was the eruption?

The 2010 eruption was 4 on the volcanic explosivity index (VEI). This is slightly larger than the eruption of Eyjafjallajokull.

What were the impacts of the eruption of Mount Merapi? (social / economic / environmental – primary and secondary effects)

Negative social impacts.

200,000 people were made homeless by the eruption and 320,000 people were displaced. Emergency shelters had to be moved to 15km away. The danger area was extended to 20km from the mountain and 278,000 people living in the area had to flee their homes. Evacuation centres were overcrowded leading to poor sanitation, no privacy and serious disease risk. Many farmers lost their livelihoods. Lava flows closed many roads and others were closed off for safety reasons. 353 people were killed from the main eruption and the smaller ones that followed. 5000 people were killed due to the earthquake that occurred 50km South-West of Mt Merapi.

Positive Social Impacts

The volcano brings jobs in the form of the tourism industry. Medical use of hot spa water and mud can improve health.

Negative Economic Impacts

Vegetable prices increased because of damage to crops. Planes were grounded in Western Australia because of the risk of damage to aircraft from the ash cloud. Lava flows damaged ski lifts.

Positive Economic Impacts

The eruption brought volcanic tourism although eruptions can cause tourists to cancel visits. Mineral mining increased.

Negative Environmental Impacts

Ash, rock and lava deposited on the sides of the volcano were washed down into towns by rainfall creating a lahar. Sulphur dioxide was blown across Indonesia as far South as Australia. Ash from the volcano eventually led to more fertile soils in the area. Water supplies were contaminated with acidic lava and ash.

Positive Environmental Impacts

A conservation area has been set up around the volcano where it is unsafe to live. Geothermal energy is a renewable source of energy using steam from hot rocks near the surface. Breathing difficulties from the contaminated air (ash and acidic fumes). Global cooling followed slightly as the ash spread through the upper atmosphere.

What were the responses to the eruption of Mount Merapi?

210 evacuation centres were set up either as tents, in schools, churches, stadiums or government offices. 1600 people, either volunteers or military were part of the national aid response. International aid was offered from organisations such as the Red Cross.

Formal evacuation centres were eventually set up because building such as schools and government offices were needed for their official uses. 2682 people had to be moved to new safer houses permanently. The government is making money available to farmers to help replace their livestock. The government has set up a special task force to support people that have been affected by the volcano either by family issues, or because they have lost their jobs.

Prediction systems

The monitoring of Mt Merapi began in 1942 using Seismometers. Some of these volcano monitoring stations are still around today. The monitoring systems have been updated as technology and scientific understanding has progressed. During the 1950s and early 1960s many of the stations were deprived of equipment due to a lack of funds, yet by the 1970s considerable improvement occurred with the supply of new equipment. Other measurements on the volcano are magnetic measurements and tilt measurements. Small changes in local magnetic fields have been found to coincide with eruptions and tilt measurements show the inflation of the volcano as magma rises.

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• Published: 12 September 2018

Seismic imaging and petrology explain highly explosive eruptions of Merapi Volcano, Indonesia

• S. Widiyantoro 1 , 2 ,
• M. Ramdhan 3 , 4 ,
• J.-P. Métaxian 5 , 6 ,
• P. R. Cummins   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8826-3021 7 ,
• C. Martel 8 ,
• S. Erdmann 8 ,
• A. D. Nugraha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4844-8723 1 ,
• A. Budi-Santoso 9 ,
• A. Laurin 5 &
• A. A. Fahmi 5  

Scientific Reports volume  8 , Article number:  13656 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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• Applied physics
• Volcanology

Our seismic tomographic images characterize, for the first time, spatial and volumetric details of the subvertical magma plumbing system of Merapi Volcano. We present P- and S-wave arrival time data, which were collected in a dense seismic network, known as DOMERAPI, installed around the volcano for 18 months. The P- and S-wave arrival time data with similar path coverage reveal a high Vp/Vs structure extending from a depth of ≥20 km below mean sea level (MSL) up to the summit of the volcano. Combined with results of petrological studies, our seismic tomography data allow us to propose: (1) the existence of a shallow zone of intense fluid percolation, directly below the summit of the volcano; (2) a main, pre-eruptive magma reservoir at ≥ 10 to 20 km below MSL that is orders of magnitude larger than erupted magma volumes; (3) a deep magma reservoir at MOHO depth which supplies the main reservoir; and (4) an extensive, subvertical fluid-magma-transfer zone from the mantle to the surface. Such high-resolution spatial constraints on the volcano plumbing system as shown are an important advance in our ability to forecast and to mitigate the hazard potential of Merapi’s future eruptions.

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Introduction

Mt. Merapi is Indonesia’s most frequently erupting volcano, which forms part of the Modern Sunda Arc (MSA) 1 , 2 . Merapi experiences Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 1–2 eruptions roughly once every 6 years, a VEI 3 eruption once every few decades, and a VEI 4 eruption once in a century 3 . These eruptions pose a major threat to Yogyakarta, a cultural and university center with a total population of more than 3.5 million people located on the southern flank of the volcano and close to the active Opak Fault (Fig.  1a ).

Maps of the study area. ( a ) The main structural units of central Java: Central Java Province (CJP), Modern Sunda Arc (MSA), Sunda Shelf (SS), Kendeng Basin (KB), and Southern Mountain Arc (SMA) (modified from 1 ). Symbols: blue and yellow reverse triangles depict the distribution of seismographic stations of the DOMERAPI and BMKG networks, respectively, and red triangles represent volcanoes. The South-North (A-A’) line shows the location of vertical sections presented in Figs  3 and 4 . ( b ) Epicentral distribution of relocated events upon SIMULPS12 using a 3-D velocity structure and grid nodes used for tomographic inversions (crosses). Yellow reverse triangles depict the locations of the BMKG stations. Figures 1 – 3 were produced using the Generic Mapping Tools (GMT) by Wessel and Smith 34 .

Because of its frequent activity and high potential for destruction and fatalities, Merapi has been the focus of many studies by researchers worldwide. Many scientists were alarmed by the change in Merapi’s behavior from over two decades of VEI-1 and VEI-2 eruptions to the VEI-4 eruption in 2010 4 . Since the beginning of the 20 th century Merapi has experienced 22 eruptions, most of them involving lava dome production and collapse, resulting in pyroclastic flows. The 2010 eruption, in contrast, involved lava dome production at the extraordinary rate of 25 m 3 s −1 , a hundred times that of previous eruptions, as well as correspondingly larger gas emissions, seismic energy release, eruption plume height, and volume of erupted lava 4 . The distinctive character of the seismicity, gas emissions, and lava petrology of the 2010 eruption all suggest that the difference with respect to previous post-19 th century eruptions was the unusually rapid ascent of a large volume of volatile-rich magma sourced from depths >8 km 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 .

A large number of petrological studies have already proposed models for Merapi’s magma plumbing system, ranging from those that suggest the presence of many small magma reservoirs throughout the crust 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 to those that favor storage in one or more main zones 5 , 6 , 12 . Apart from quantitative differences and large uncertainties of the estimates for the depth distribution of the magma storage zones (for a summary see Supplementary Information and our later discussion), it is important to highlight that petrological estimates cannot unequivocally identify main storage zones or indeed constrain the full spatial or volumetric extent of magma storage zones in the crust. They can only identify depth ranges from which magma or magmatic cumulates have erupted.

Previous geophysical studies have either focused on the shallow system below Merapi at depths of <10 km 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , or relied on low-resolution (~15 km) seismic arrival time and ambient noise tomographic imaging to identify potential magma reservoirs 18 , 19 , 20 . This imaging revealed a strong and extensive low-velocity anomaly about 25 km NE of Merapi that extends from the surface to the mid-crust, and merges into a deeper anomaly inclined southwards towards the subducting slab. It is possible to interpret the mid-crustal part of this anomaly as a magma reservoir consisting of a solid matrix with pockets of partial melt 19 , but such a complicated reservoir involving considerable lateral transport begs the question of how large volumes of volatile-rich magma can be rapidly delivered to the surface to sustain the type of explosive eruption that occurred in 2010. Clearly, accurately imaging Merapi’s magma plumbing system throughout the crust is critical for forecasting and mitigating the hazard potential of future eruptions.

New, high-resolution seismic tomograms

DOMERAPI, a French-Indonesian collaborative project, deployed a seismograph network of 46 broad-band seismometers in the period from October 2013 to mid-April 2015, with an inter-station distance of ~4 km providing by far the densest coverage of seismographic stations ever used on Merapi (Fig.  1a ). The DOMERAPI data were combined with data of the permanent seismographic network of the Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics (BMKG) to provide better constraints on hypocenter estimates by extending spatial coverage of the data. This was crucial in achieving high precision hypocenter determinations 21 , since the DOMERAPI stations were placed around Mt. Merapi, while most seismic events occurred along the Java trench to the south of the study region (Fig.  1b ). All seismic events were relocated using a double-difference earthquake location algorithm 22 . The jointly processed DOMERAPI and BMGK data produced a new, high-quality catalog 21 comprising 358 events used to undertake the high-resolution tomographic imaging of Merapi presented here.

We have performed joint inversion of the arrival time data to image the Vp and Vp/Vs structure below Merapi in exceptional detail, from below the volcano’s summit to a depth of ~20 km below MSL. We have used the program SIMULPS12 23 , which applies an iterative, damped least squares algorithm to simultaneously calculate the 3-D Vp and Vp/Vs structures and hypocentral adjustments. The Vp/Vs structure was inverted for using S-P times instead of separate estimates of Vs and Vp, which is considered a more robust approach 24 given that the timing errors for S waves are usually larger than those for P waves.

For our joint inversion of P-wave velocity and Vp/Vs ratios, we have used comparable ray coverage for P and S waves with 5042 phases each, to minimize the possibility that dissimilarities in resulting images are caused by effects of regularization related to differences in data sampling 23 . Figure  1b shows the grid nodes employed in the inversions, i.e. 10 km by 10 km around Merapi, while the vertical grid spacing is 5 km down to 30 km depth and coarser for deeper parts. For an initial reference velocity model we have used a 1D Vp model for central Java 18 with Vp values ranging from 4.3 km/sec at a depth of 3 km to 8.3 km/sec at a depth of 210 km (see Supplementary Fig.  1 ). The associated 1D Vs model was derived using a Vp/Vs ratio of 1.73 obtained from the Wadati diagram constructed using the combined DOMERAPI and BMKG data sets 21 .

Merapi’s magma plumbing system

Our tomographic inversions reveal two pronounced anomalies directly beneath Merapi. One anomaly is located at <4 km depth where we observe low Vp, high Vp/Vs and very low Vs (Fig.  3a–c ), which we term the Shallow Anomaly. A second anomaly is located at ~10–20 km depth, where we observe high Vp, very high Vp/Vs and very low Vs (Figs  2a–c and 3a–c ), which we term the Intermediate Anomaly. Interestingly, the Vp/Vs tomogram suggests that another anomaly may exist near the MOHO at ≥25 km depth with low Vp, high Vp/Vs and low Vs (Fig.  3a–c ), which we term the Deep Anomaly. However, we note that the resolution of this anomaly is not well constrained by our current tomographic imaging (Fig.  3d–e ) due to a lack of ray sampling (see Supplementary Fig.  5 ).

Map views of seismic velocity structure at 15 km depth below MSL. ( a ) Vp, ( b ) Vp/Vs, ( c ) Vs, ( d ) checkerboard recovery for Vp, ( e ) same as ( d ) but for Vp/Vs, and ( f ) checkerboard input model for Vp and Vp/Vs with input perturbations = +10% for both Vp and Vp/Vs. Notice that the recovery around Merapi (inside the blue box) is good owing to the DOMERAPI data; the area with poor resolution is dimmed. Here, Vp and Vs are plotted as perturbations relative to the 1D velocity model based on Koulakov et al . 18 and Vp/Vs is plotted as absolute values. The high Vp/Vs is interpreted as an intermediate magma reservoir under Merapi as further illustrated in Figs  3 and 4 .

South-North vertical sections across Merapi and Merbabu. ( a ) Vp, ( b ) Vp/Vs, ( c ) Vs, ( d ) checkerboard recovery for Vp, and ( e ) same as ( d ) but for Vp/Vs. The input pattern of the checkerboard test is shown in the inset in ( e ) with input perturbations of X = 10% for both Vp and Vp/Vs as in Fig.  2 . Vp and Vs are plotted as perturbations with X = 12% relative to the 1D model based on Koulakov et al . 18 and X = 5% for the checkerboard recovery for Vp and Vp/Vs; while Vp/Vs is plotted as absolute values.

While relocated earthquake hypocenters at 15–25 km depth to the south of Merapi are interpreted to be related to the Opak Fault, the hypocenters at 0–10 km depth are likely to be related to volcanic activity. We note that these shallow earthquakes cluster either between the Shallow and Intermediate Anomalies, or in the low Vp/Vs anomaly to the north of our proposed Merapi magma plumbing system (Fig.  4 ). We speculate that these earthquakes, as well as the low Vp/Vs itself, may be related to the presence of aqueous fluids exsolved from the magmatic system that have migrated into the country rock.

Schematic illustration of Merapi’s magma plumbing system inferred from our arrival time tomography analysis and published petrological data. ( a ) Vp and ( b ) Vp/Vs taken from Fig.  3a,b , respectively, with vertical exaggeration by a factor of 5 to emphasize vertical features. The tomogram in ( b ) shows an extensive high-Vp/Vs structure that extends from Merapi’s summit to the uppermost mantle with three main (shallow, intermediate, deep) anomalies at <4 km, at ~10–20 km, and at >25 km depth. We interpret the shallow anomaly as a fluid-rich zone, while we interpret the intermediate and deep anomalies to outline magma storage zones. We posit that the 2010 magma was sourced from the top of the intermediate reservoir (below the dashed line) at a depth just below 10 km and thus below the carbonate-dominated upper crust, with a volume of ≥1 km 3 (corresponding to the yellow ellipse). This estimate further constrains previous estimates based on phase-equilibrium experiments 6 . Magma in this zone has a temperature of ~925–950 °C, ~3–4 wt% H 2 O, and ~1000 ppm melt CO 2 5 , 6 , while magma deeper in the system may be significantly more volatile-rich and hazardous in case of ascent and eruption. We have assumed an average crustal density of 2242 kg/cm 3 (cf. 15 ) for the upper 10 km of the section, while we have estimated an average crustal density of 2900 kg/cm 3 for the crust below (cf. 33 , for intermediate-mafic crust). Open dots depict relocated hypocenters of earthquakes recorded during the DOMERAPI experiment projected from a distance up to 20 km on both sides of the vertical section.

Combining this new high-resolution Vp/Vs tomography with results from petrological studies leads us to propose a magma plumbing system with two main magma reservoirs that are connected by subvertical, crustal-scale fluid-rich zones (Fig.  4b ). The shallow (<4 km), high Vp/Vs, low Vp anomaly within and below Merapi’s edifice could outline the presence of magma and/or fluids in intensely fractured/porous media 14 , 16 , 17 . Our seismic data cannot determine the type of liquid present, but we concur with published geophysical and petrological studies that have provided overwhelming evidence for the presence of fluids and the absence of stored magma 5 , 6 , 13 , 14 . Short-term ponding of magmas - i.e. for hours, days or weeks - at shallow (<3 km) depth prior to eruptions has, however, been proposed by 9 , 25 , 26 . The intermediate, high Vp/Vs anomaly concurs with several petrological studies that locate Merapi’s pre-eruptive magma reservoir in the upper- to middle crust, while the exact location of the reservoir remained highly debated 5 , 6 , 7 , 12 , 27 , 28 (details are reported in the Supplementary Information) and the size of the reservoir unconstrained. Amphibole and clinopyroxene mineral barometry has been used to estimate the depth of Merapi’s main pre-eruptive magma reservoir 5 , 8 , 27 , 29 , but the reliability of these estimates has recently been called into question 6 , 12 , 30 , 31 (cf. Supplementary Fig.  6 ). Phase-equilibrium experiments 6 provide more robust constraints, and suggest that most magma erupted in 2010 and in other eruptions of the last ~100 years was sourced from a depth of 4–15 km (Fig.  4b ). Melt inclusion hygrobarometric estimates similarly indicate intermittent magma storage depths of 6–14 km. GPS ground deformation data were used to suggest that magma erupted in 1996–1997 was sourced from a similar, but possibly shallower depth at 8.5 ± 0.5 km below and ~2 km east of Merapi’s summit 13 .

The main magma source depth (4–15 km) inferred from petrological studies thus coincides with the uppermost part of the Intermediate Anomaly at 10–20 km depth inferred from our tomography (Fig.  4b ), which we interpret as a melt-rich zone that serves as Merapi’s main, pre-eruptive magma reservoir. While the size of this anomaly is close to the level of resolution of our tomographic imaging, its volume is almost certainly orders of magnitudes larger than the total volume of erupted products in 2010 (and prior eruptions) 4 , and the magma source size inferred for Merapi’s 1996–1997 eruption using GPS ground deformation data which are on the order of 1–10 × 10 6  m 3 (cf. 4 , 13 ; close to the yellow ellipse in Fig.  4b ). This highlights that only a small part of the magma system has been tapped during historic eruptive events including the 2010 eruption, approximately at the top of the intermediate reservoir.

The Deep Anomaly is less well-constrained in extent, but nevertheless also provides the first evidence for the location of this reservoir. The high Vp/Vs signal suggests that melt and/or fluids are present in this zone, while the weakness of the Vp anomaly may reflect poor ray path coverage. Petrological and geochemical studies had suggested that such a deep magma reservoir exists 5 , 6 , 11 , 12 , but previous estimates on its depth remained unconstrained 6 or were based on untenable amphibole barometric constraints 5 , 11 , 12 (details are shown in the Supplementary Information).

The subvertical, high Vp/Vs signal from the surface to around MOHO depth may highlight that magma storage zones are present throughout the crust as has been invoked by some studies (e.g. 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ). Such a distribution of magma parcels throughout the crust is possible, but most of them would have to be inactive reservoirs, as most magma erupted in 2010, but also in other eruptions of previous decades, has a crystal cargo that is texturally and compositionally strongly bimodal, indicating evacuation from one or two main zones (e.g. 5 , 6 ). We therefore suggest instead that the crustal-scale, subvertical anomaly outlines an extensive fluid-rich zone and thus fluid fluxing in the system 6 , 11 , 29 . This interpretation is in keeping with petrological studies that have highlighted that Merapi’s system is H 2 O- and CO 2 -rich, and that deep to shallow degassing during magma ascent plays a key role in the system. If it is correct that the subvertical, high Vp/Vs anomaly outlines fluid-rich zones, it would provide unequivocal evidence that melts sourcing the system reached volatile saturation around MOHO depth, where the anomaly starts (Fig.  4b ). To our knowledge, this is the first time that a fluid-fluxed zone has been seismically imaged from the mantle to the surface in great detail, i.e. showing an offset from below to above the Intermediate Anomaly and side branches above the northern edges of the intermediate and the deep reservoir, respectively. Compared with previous models based on lower-resolution seismic tomographic imaging (e.g. 18 ), our model highlights that magma has a much more direct path from reservoirs at depth to the surface, which may facilitate the type of rapid ascent that led to the explosiveness of the 2010 eruption.

Spatial constraints to reinforce forecasting and hazard assessment of future eruptions at Merapi

Unequivocal spatial and volumetric constraints on magma reservoirs throughout the crust and the connections between them is crucial for understanding the explosivity of the major eruption of Merapi on 26 October 2010 and its future hazard potential. Petrological studies 5 , 6 , 7 of the 2010 eruption products all agree that its unusual explosivity was due to a much larger and much more rapid supply of magma than in previous eruptions. Our results suggest that the magma involved in the 26 October 2010 eruption evacuated the system at or near the top of the Intermediate Anomaly, while we follow others (e.g. 5 , 6 , 10 ) in the suggestion that other eruptions at least within the last ~100 years were also sourced from this depth (as their eruptive products have equivalent mineral assemblages and closely comparable mineral and glass inclusion compositions), and thus that the magma erupted in 2010 had similar initial volatile contents as magmas of previous eruptions, but was less efficiently degassed in the reservoir and en route to the surface 5 , 7 , 26 , 29 . Our imaging, however, highlights that a large reservoir extends for a further ~10 km below historic magma source levels (Fig.  4b ). A key implication of this is that a large volume of magma with a higher volatile content than that which explosively erupted in the 2010 VEI-4 event is present in Merapi’s plumbing system.

We presume that the size and the location of the main reservoir (i.e. the Intermediate Anomaly) is a long-term feature, which may be as old as or older than volcanic activity at Merapi. We highlight that we have no direct evidence or constraints for this hypothesis, but posit that pre-historic eruptions, which were commonly explosive 27 , could have been fueled by magmas from deeper levels, which should be studied in detail. Magma derived from deeper levels of the Intermediate Anomaly in the future could cause considerably more explosive and more destructive future eruptions than that from the shallowest levels if it is rapidly transported to the surface. Merapi’s basaltic andesitic magma from the top of the intermediate reservoir is moderately H 2 O- and CO 2 -rich (~3–4 wt% melt H 2 O, 1000 ppm melt CO 2 ) 6 , 28 , 29 . The volatile composition of magma stored at deeper levels of the intermediate reservoir remains unconstrained, but it may be CO 2 -rich (e.g. with >2000 ppm melt CO 2 ) if the magma follows an open-system degassing path (e.g. as proposed by Nadeau et al . 11 and Preece et al . 29 ) and/or H 2 O-rich (with up to ~6–8 wt% melt H 2 O) if the magmas follow a closed-system or disequilibrium degassing path (cf. 6 , 32 ) in which case it could fuel extremely hazardous eruptions.

Our work demonstrates that high-resolution geophysical surveys are extremely powerful tools for spatially characterizing active volcanic systems such as Merapi’s, and that they are crucial in assessing hazard potential and targets for specific monitoring. Our study was carried out within the multi-disciplinary DOMERAPI project, which was designed to intimately couple geophysical and petrological insights on Merapi’s magma plumbing system; our interpretation of data shows how important this approach is for robustly characterizing such systems.

Data Availability

The DOMERAPI data used in this study are available at http://www.fdsn.org/networks/detail/YR_2013/ with citation information https://doi.org/10.15778/RESIF.YR2013 .

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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the French Agence Nationale pour la Recherche for funding the DOMERAPI ANR project (ANR- 12-BS06-0012) and BMKG for providing data used in this study. The DOMERAPI data were acquired using instruments belonging to the French national pool of portable seismic stations RESIF-SISMOB (CNRS-INSU). This study was supported in part by the Indonesian Directorate General of Higher Education (DIKTI) research funding 2015–2017 and Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) through a WCU research grant 2016–2017 awarded to SW. We thank N. Rawlinson for reviewing an early version of this manuscript and A. Rahman for producing the final draft of Figure 4.

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S.W., J.-P.M., P.R.C., C.M., S.E. conceived the study; M.R. conducted the tomographic imaging and arrival time picking; S.W., J.-P.M., A.N.D. supervised the tomographic imaging and arrival time picking; J.-P.M., A.N.D. supervised the data acquisition and preparation; C.M., S.E. conducted the petrological interpretation; A.B.-S., A.L., A.A.F. performed the data acquisition and preparation; S.W., P.R.C., J.-P.M., C.M., S.E. contributed to the writing of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the preparation of the manuscript.

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Widiyantoro, S., Ramdhan, M., Métaxian, JP. et al. Seismic imaging and petrology explain highly explosive eruptions of Merapi Volcano, Indonesia. Sci Rep 8 , 13656 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31293-w

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Mount Merapi is a volcano located on the island of Java, Indonesia, in a densely populated area.  The Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 began on 25 October 2010 when  the volcano began erupting with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 4. Several more eruptions continued up until 30 November 2010. Mount Merapi’s  explosive eruptions released ash plumes, lahars, pyroclastic flows, and sulphur dioxide.  As a result, over 300,000 people had to evacuate and over 300 people lost their lives. 

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Mount Merapi is a volcano located on the island of Java, Indonesia, in a densely populated area. The Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 began on 25 October 2010 when the volcano began erupting with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 4. Several more eruptions continued up until 30 November 2010. Mount Merapi’s explosive eruptions released ash plumes, lahars, pyroclastic flows, and sulphur dioxide. As a result, over 300,000 people had to evacuate and over 300 people lost their lives.

Where is the location of Mount Merapi?

Mount Merapi is located in central Java, Indonesia, South East Asia . Java is bordered by the Indian Ocean and the Java Sea.

What caused the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010?

The Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 was caused by the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the Eurasian plate . The volcano lies on a destructive plate margin at a subduction zone , which is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Mount Merapi eruption happened when the denser plate edge, the Indo-Australian plate, sunk (subducted) beneath the less dense plate edge, the Eurasian plate. When this happens, the denser plate’s movement causes an increase in the temperature and pressure, which ultimately leads to the release of water from the rocks. This results in a decrease in the melting point of the rock above and magma rising to the surface, causing eruptions.

As with earthquakes, volcanoes happen when tectonic plates move at fault lines. We have two explanations, one on Earthquakes and one on Volcanoes , for you to check out!

Impacts of the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010

The 2010 Mount Merapi eruption had numerous devastating effects on the environment, economy, and people. Let’s take a look at these impacts in more detail.

Environmental impacts of the Mount Merapi eruption 2010

The ash plumes, lahars, pyroclastic flows, and sulphur dioxide released from Mount Merapi caused various short-term and long-term environmental problems, such as the destruction of ecosystems and housing and an increase in the greenhouse effect.

The ash plumes from the 2010 Mount Merapi eruption reached altitudes of 18km and fell up to 30km away from the peak of the volcano. The layer of ash on the ground was 2-4cm thick and damaged 200 hectares of forest. In the long term, the volcanic ash in the atmosphere can increase the greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight onto the earth.

A positive long-term effect of the release of ash plumes is the fertilization of soil, which can benefit the farmers in the affected area.

Lahars and pyroclastic flows

Multiple explosions with lahars and pyroclastic flows occurred between 26 October and 30 November. Cangkringan and Kemalang were the most affected areas, where rice fields, farms, infrastructure, rivers, and soil were damaged . Significant damage was even observed two years later.

Sulphur dioxide

At higher altitudes, sulphur dioxide reacts with the environment and can cause acid rain and cooling of the climate by reflecting the sunlight. A sulphur dioxide cloud 12,000-15,000m above the Indian Ocean was observed on 9 November 2010 by the Volcanic Ash Advisory Center in Darwin, Australia. However, t his was not enough to create an observable difference in global temperature.

In 1991, Mount Pinatubo released so much sulphur dioxide that it had a minor impact on the global temperature.

Social impacts of the Mount Merapi eruption 2010

The social impacts of the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 included the loss of lives, homes, livelihood, forced evacuation, and increased physical and psychological health problems.

Many of those who evacuated stayed in refugee camps where the public toilets were unhygienic. Additionally , the sulphur dioxide released from the eruption caused irritation to human skin, eyes, and respiratory tracts . Many people at the refugee shelters suffered from headaches, acute respiratory infection, and high blood pressure .

A lot of the refugees were farmers who lost their livelihoods because the ash from the volcanic eruption caused damage to crops . This also made people fearful of food shortages. Many were forced to become miners and sell sand from the eruption or take up other jobs initiated by the government, such as cleaning up the volcanic ash. However, some suffered from psychological trauma from the eruption, which made it more difficult for them to work.

Psychological distress

A survey was conducted two years after the disaster to determine the psychological distress of those affected in Cangkringan and Pakem. It demonstrated that those living in the Cangkringan district experienced the most distress in relation to the environmental impact of the eruption.

Economic impacts of the Mount Merapi eruption 2010

The total economic impact from the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 was estimated at £450 million. This was mainly due to the impact on farming, tourism, and manufacturing.

Farming and plantation

As we mentioned above, many farmers lost their livelihoods due to the ash from the eruption. There was significant damage to rice, fruits, and vegetables, and as a result, the economic loss from agriculture was estimated at £13 million .

Tourism and flights

As you can imagine, the eruption had a big impact on tourism . Compared to the previous year, the number of tourists in 2010 dropped by approximately 30 percent for domestic tourists and 70 percent for international tourists. Certain flights that travelled through the ash clouds also experienced engine failure. Around 2500 flights were cancelled for safety reasons.

Although tourism has increased since the eruption, it has been impacted by a decreased level of trust and security.

If you’re interested, you can read up on British Airways Flight 009. The plane, a Boeing 747-200, flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and experienced engine failure in all four engines!

Responses to the Mount Merapi eruption of 2010

Mount Merapi is an active volcano , meaning the people of Java have experienced several eruptions over the years. So, what mitigation (preventative) strategies existed before the 2010 Mount Merapi eruption, and what changed after the eruption? Let’s have a look.

Mitigation strategies before the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010

The main mitigation strategies aimed at reducing the potential impact of volcanic eruptions have largely relied on monitoring and warning.

Seismological monitoring

A mechanical seismograph was installed 9km from Mount Merapi in 1924. A tiltmeter (a device that measures small variations in the vertical level) is also used to monitor any changes in the volcano. Observations at the beginning of 2010, such as earthquakes and changes in the dome, suggested that the volcano was going to erupt.

Evacuation drills

Police and the military were prepared to provide trucks and buses ordering people to leave. Temporary shelters were also ready for evacuees.

Indigenous warning signs

Many communities rely on their traditional warning signs of volcanic eruptions. This includes ash plumes, the movement of monkeys and other animals down the volcano, minor earthquakes, and lightning storms from the ash. Many people also rely on their spiritual connection to the volcano , so if they don’t see these signs, they are not likely to listen to advice to evacuate based on scientific monitoring.

Mitigation strategies after the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010

A significant reason for the consequences of the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 is the forgotten danger of living next to the volcano. Previously, many people would ignore the smoke coming from the volcano. Civilians have now become more reactive , and the government and non-governmental organizations have also implemented strategies to limit the future consequences of eruptions.

People have now become more aware of the potential dangers of living near a volcano and pay more attention to possible eruptions. Training has also been given to communities for more organised evacuation.

The government relocated 2500 families to safer areas . However, some people are still hesitant to move due to limited education, the requirement to adapt to new jobs, and not being directly affected by the eruptions in 2010.

Enhanced warning system

Many people have now been given handheld radios , which can give them updated information about the volcano. Representatives are also given information by the government monitoring centres , which speeds up the spreading of information. This is an improvement from the previous methods, which were slow and involved various sources of information.

Improved infrastructure

Roads and bridges have been improved for a smoother evacuation process .

Mount Merapi facts

Here are some interesting facts about Mount Merapi:

• Mount Merapi means Mountain of Fire in Indonesian.
• It is a stratovolcano, meaning it has layers of lava and ash.
• It has been erupting since the sixteenth century and is Indonesia’s most active volcano.
• Over 11,000 people live on the sides of Mount Merapi.
• During the 2010 eruption, the volcano’s shape changed: it lost 38m in height.

Mount Merapi Eruption 2010 - Key takeaways

• Mount Merapi began erupting with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 4 on 25 October 2010 and had several more eruptions until 30 November.
• The Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 was caused by the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the Eurasian plate.
• The eruption from Mount Merapi had short-term and long-term environmental consequences, such as the destruction of farming, forest, housing, infrastructure, and an increase in the greenhouse effect.
• The social impacts of the eruption included the loss of lives, homes, livelihood, forced evacuation, and an increase in physical and psychological health problems.
• The total economic impact from the eruption of Mount Merapi in 2010 was estimated at £450 billion. This was mainly due to the negative impacts on farming, tourism, and manufacturing.
• Before the eruption in 2010, the main mitigation strategies in Indonesia (to reduce the potential impact of volcanic eruptions) included largely relying on monitoring and warnings, including traditional warning signs.
• The improved mitigation strategies (after the 2010 eruption) include creating more awareness through education, improved infrastructure for evacuation, relocation, and better warning systems (like using handheld radios).

Frequently Asked Questions about Mount Merapi Eruption 2010

--> how did mount merapi erupt.

Mount Merapi erupted in 2010 by releasing ash plumes, lahar, pyroclastic flows, and sulphur dioxide. The 2010 eruptions were the most explosive eruptions within the previous 100 years.

--> What caused the Mount Merapi eruption?

The Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 was caused by the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the Eurasian plate. The volcano lies on a destructive plate margin at a subduction zone, which is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Mount Merapi eruption happened when the denser plate edge, the Indo-Australian plate, sunk (subducted) beneath the less dense plate edge, the Eurasian plate. When this happens, the denser plate’s movement causes an increase in the temperature and pressure, which ultimately leads to the release of water from the rocks. This results in a decrease in the melting point of the rock above and magma rising to the surface, causing eruptions.

--> How many times has Mount Merapi erupted?

Mount Merapi has been erupting since the sixteenth century. Since 1548, the volcano has had 68 historic eruptions.  

--> How often does Mount Merapi erupt?

Mount Merapi tends to erupt every five to ten years.

--> Why did Mount Merapi erupt?

The Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 was caused by the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the Eurasian plate. The volcano lies on a destructive plate margin at a subduction zone, which is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. 

When in 2010 did Mount Merapi begin and stop erupting?

Mount Merapi began erupting on 25 October 2010 and lasted until 30 November 2010.

What was the Volcanic Explosivity Index of the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010?

Mount Merapi erupted in 2010 with a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of 4.

Where is Mount Merapi located?

The volcano is located on the island of Java, Indonesia. It lies on the destructive plate margin between the Indo-Australian plate and the Eurasian plate.

What did the eruptions release?

The eruptions released ash plumes, lahar, pyroclastic flows, and sulphur dioxide.

What caused the Mount Merapi eruption in 2010? 

The Mount Merapi eruption in 2010 was caused by the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the Eurasian plate. The volcano lies on a destructive plate margin at a subduction zone, which is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Mount Merapi eruption happened when the denser plate edge, the Indo-Australian plate, sunk (i.e., subducted) beneath the less dense plate edge, the Eurasian plate. When this happens, the denser plate’s movement causes an increase in the temperature and pressure, which ultimately leads to the release of water from the rocks. This results in a decrease in the melting point of the rock above and magma rising to the surface, causing eruptions.

What were the environmental impacts caused by ash plumes?

Ash plumes had the following environmental impacts:

• Volcanic ash in the atmosphere can increase the greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight onto the earth.
• 200 hectares of forest were damaged. 
• A positive impact of the release of ash plumes is the fertilisation of soil, which can benefit the farmers in the affected area.

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The role of natural disasters in the semiotic transformations of culture: the case of the volcanic eruptions of Mt. Merapi, Indonesia

This study examines the entanglements of natural disasters and cultural changes from an ecosemiotic point of view. Taking the case of Mt. Merapi’s periodic eruptions and the locals’ interpretations of such constant natural hazards, it is based on empirical data gathered through longitudinal qualitative fieldworks on the local communities surrounding this volcano. In order to adapt to the constant natural hazards in their environment, disaster prone societies develop unique sign systems binding cultural and natural processes. This study shows that traditionally, unique sensorial-environmental sign systems have formed the basis of communication between human and environment, allowing the locals to perceive the eruption as a communication involving them and local environmental agencies. Recently, the eruptions have triggered the adoption of new livelihoods of local people, as well as the acceptance of new scientific signs for the interpretation of the activities of the volcano. The latter has been accompanied by significant cultural changes, including the adoption of the idea of progress and the transformation of the previous entanglements of local culture and its natural environment. The study concludes that natural disasters, entangled with ongoing social transformations, may play a fundamental role as triggers of semiotic change in a community. Such semiotic change can in turn modify the interpretation of the natural disaster itself, and in that way shift the way humans perceive and interact with their environment.

Funding source: Eesti Teadusagentuur

Award Identifier / Grant number: PRG314

Funding source: European Regional Development Fund

Award Identifier / Grant number: 2014-2020.4.01.16-0027

Research funding: This work was supported by the European Social Fund’s Doctoral Studies and Internationalisation Programme DoRa (Archimedes Foundation), the University of Tartu ASTRA Project PER ASPERA, which is financed by the (European Union) European Regional Development Fund; and an Estonian Research Council Grant “Semiotic Fitting as a Mechanism of Biocultural Diversity: Instability and Sustainability in Novel Environments” (PRG314). The 2019 fieldwork was funded by the Archimedes Foundation through the Dora Plus sub-activity 1.2 Doctoral Student Mobility (University of Tartu). The 2013 fieldwork was funded by the Department of Communication Universitas Islam Indonesia.

Conflict of interest: No potential conflict of interest is reported by the author.

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Report on Merapi (Indonesia) — 15 November-21 November 2023

Smithsonian Institution / US Geological Survey Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 15 November-21 November 2023 Managing Editor: Sally Sennert.

Please cite this report as: Global Volcanism Program, 2023. Report on Merapi (Indonesia) (Sennert, S, ed.). Weekly Volcanic Activity Report, 15 November-21 November 2023. Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey.

Weekly Report (15 November-21 November 2023)

7.54°S, 110.446°E; summit elev. 2910 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted).

Geological Summary. Merapi, one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta. It is the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain extending NNW to Ungaran volcano. Growth of Old Merapi during the Pleistocene ended with major edifice collapse perhaps about 2,000 years ago, leaving a large arcuate scarp cutting the eroded older Batulawang volcano. Subsequent growth of the steep-sided Young Merapi edifice, its upper part unvegetated due to frequent activity, began SW of the earlier collapse scarp. Pyroclastic flows and lahars accompanying growth and collapse of the steep-sided active summit lava dome have devastated cultivated lands on the western-to-southern flanks and caused many fatalities.

Source: Balai Penyelidikan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Kebencanaan Geologi (BPPTKG)

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Volcanic crisis communication: The case of the Mt. Merapi eruption emergency response

Communications in Humanities and Social Sciences

This study aims to explore the local government&#39;s implementation of volcanic crisis communication during the emergency response to the eruption of Mount Merapi in Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. This research used a case study method with a qualitative-descriptive approach and data were collected through interviews, field observations, and documentation. The results of study showed that the implementation of volcanic crisis communication can be explained in terms of information sources, message production and distribution, communication channels, and the affordability and speed of information. During the emergency response period, the Regional Disaster Management Agency has implemented a volcano crisis communication model based on the established standard operating procedures; however, several field findings showed a number of weaknesses in its implementation, such as in the flow of information and communication, which was still very bureaucratic and inflexible, and the lack of c...

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Kurniawan Saputro

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a case study on the communication strategies used by the information volunteers of Jalin Merapi during the Mt. Merapi disaster in Indonesia 2010. Design/Methodology/Approach – 18 information volunteers are interviewed to find out about their strategies in organising crisis communication, and follow-up interviews are conducted with several donors and media professionals to understand the wider context. The questions cover how the information is sourced, published, and verified and the reasons behind their decisions. The concept of mediated suffering helps to analyse how their strategies construct with whom, with what subject, and how the media users engage with the survivors. Finding – This study finds that information volunteers of Jalin Merapi focused on the overlooked survivors and issues of Mt. Merapi disaster based on their observation of the mainstream media’s coverage of the previous disaster in 2006. The needs of the refugees, rather than the availability of donor’s aid, were foregrounded to encourage the wider public to donate. And access to connect directly with the survivors was provided to enhance the efficacy of aid and to facilitate repeat donations. Research limitations/implications – Further empirical studies in other disaster contexts are called for to assess whether similar or different strategies are employed in participatory crisis communication. Originality/value – This study presents a rare case of participatory crisis communication in a disaster. The perspective of the media audience helps situate the findings in the context of the wider media environment and in the context of collective action as often seen in response to disaster.

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Eko Teguh Paripurno

This study aims to find a communication model of contingency plan for disaster risk management of Sinabung Volcano eruption, in North Sumatera. The object of the research is communication and coordination across the government, non-government organization, and community. This study used planning theory, the concept of communication planning, and types of disaster management plan as tools for analysing. Descriptive qualitative is used as the method. Data collection was obtained from the focus group discussion (FGD), in-depth interviews, observation, and study documentation. There are three stages in descriptive qualitative research that is data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion. An analysis was conducted qualitatively on the program and competence actors. The results found the communication model of disaster risk management through documents of contingency planning to overcome the threat of Mount Sinabung eruption. During the emergency response period a core model was used...

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The study titled, Crisis Management: a Case Study of the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO), was conducted to ascertain how NADMO communicates crisis and its management. The researchers employed the qualitative research methodology for the study.The findings of the study revealed that NADMO lacks the necessary equipment for crisis detection and depends on other organisations updates on crisis. Also, the organisation does not have a Crisis Communication Plan which spells out the responsibilities of all stakeholders involved in crisis management and communication. Based on these findings, the researchers conclude there was the need for NADMO which is a state institution responsible for managing disaster to be provided with the necessary equipment and also trained in communicating, managing and controlling emergency situations so that they would be able to perform their mandate, which is disaster management. The researchers recommended among others that NADMO should put in place a Crisis Communication Plan detailing the roles to be played by all stakeholders who are responsible for managing disasters. This would go a long way to justify the existence of the organisation and also minimise miscommunication. Also, NADMO should provide state-of-the art equipment for the regional, district and zonal offices to enable them detect crisis on time and activate crisis communication with speed and efficiency.

Caroline Nabuzale, PhD

Jurnal Komunikasi: Malaysian Journal of Communication

Atwar Bajari

Indonesia is a country that is prone to disasters. To this relation, the government has created the National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB) and the Regional Disaster Management Agency (BPBD) in almost all provinces. However, the magnitude of the potential for disaster causes the government to feel the need for community support in disaster mitigation efforts. Community participation is absolutely necessary. It is in this context that the emergence of the community, in this case, the Garda Caah, is important. With the motto &quot;Hope for the best, prepare for the worst,&quot; this community tries to help residents in flood prevention efforts and minimize the impact of flooding by providing immediate and continuous information. The aspect of managing communication and information is the most important part of this community. This study uses a qualitative method with a case study approach. The data collection techniques were carried out by interview, focus group discussion, and obs...

Observing the Volcano World

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Increased exposure to volcanic hazard, particularly at vulnerable small islands, is driving an urgent and growing need for improved communication between monitoring scientists, emergency managers and the media, in advance of and during volcanic crises. Information gathering exercises undertaken on volcanic islands (Guadeloupe, St. Vincent and Montserrat) in the Lesser Antilles (eastern Caribbean), which have recently experienced – or are currently experiencing – volcanic action, have provided the basis for the compilation and publication of a handbook on Communication During Volcanic Emergencies, aimed at the principal stakeholder groups. The findings of the on-island surveys point up the critical importance of (1) bringing together monitoring scientists, emergency managers, and representatives of the media, well in advance of a volcanic crisis, and (2), ensuring that procedures and protocols are in place that will allow, as far as possible, effective and seamless cooperation and coordination when and if a crisis situation develops. Communication During Volcanic Emergencies is designed to promote and encourage both of these priorities through providing the first source-book addressing working relationships and inter-linkages between the stakeholder groups, and providing examples of good and bad practice. While targeting the volcanic islands of the eastern Caribbean, the source-book and its content are largely generic, and the advice and guidelines contained therein have equal validity in respect of improving communication before and during crises at any volcano, and have application to the communication issue in respect of a range of other geophysical hazards.

Ragnhild Lund , Marita Vos

The complexity of current disasters creates a challenge for crisis communication. This paper aims at identifying gaps in communication in disaster management experienced in practice in order to facilitate learning from those situations. The research was conducted using a qualitative online open-ended questionnaire. It shows that despite the developments in the discipline, communication as an integral part of decision making in disaster management needs to be further developed. The paper provides a practical-oriented overview of the communication constraints in complex crisis situations, which has not been provided so far. This research is part of an international project developing performance indicators for a quality measurement system for crisis communication.

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