problem solving and emotions

Emotional Regulation: 6 Key Skills to Regulate Emotions

For example, when a child commits a mistake, they might get scared and lie to their parents about it, or avoid confronting them for fear of punishment.

Their parents may eventually discover what they did and the child, in all probability will end up facing the same consequences that they were trying to avoid. In this instance, listening and responding to the ‘fear’ emotion proved futile to the child.

However, the same emotion (fear) would have proven helpful for someone being chased by a wild animal in the forest. In that situation, running to avoid confronting the savage beast would have been the correct decision.

It is therefore crucial to judge when to trust emotional triggers and act on them, and when not to; in other words, it is essential for us to understand how to regulate or control our emotions so we could use them optimally.

In this article, we will discuss the psychology of emotional regulation – what it means, how we can cultivate it, and what methods we can choose to implement emotional management in real life.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will not only enhance your ability to understand and regulate your emotions but will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is emotional regulation a definition, 6 most useful emotional regulation skills for adults, science-based emotion regulation strategies, what is emotional regulation disorder, 5 tips for fostering emotional regulation in children, what is dbt and how does it relate, 4 emotional regulation activities & exercises, useful therapy modalities, techniques for working with autism, 3 worksheets to implement the theory, examples of emotional self-regulation, games for group therapy settings, best books on emotional regulation, a take-home message.

“Emotional regulation refers to the process by which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express their feelings. Emotional regulation can be automatic or controlled, conscious or unconscious, and may have effects at one or more points in the emotion producing process.”

(Gross, 1998, p. 275).

The definition of emotional regulation encompasses both positive and negative feelings, along with how we can strengthen them, use them, and control them.

Emotional regulation involves three components:

Initiating actions triggered by emotions.
Inhibiting actions triggered by emotions.
Modulating responses triggered by emotions.

Ideally, the third component is the best way to make the most of the regulatory processes.

Every day, we face hundreds of emotion-provoking stimuli, and most of them require some action or response from our end. It is only natural for the mind to get hooked into some negative contemplation or unmindfully ignore emotions after getting bombarded with so many stimuli every day (Davidson, 1998).

Emotional regulation acts as a modifier; it helps us filter the most important pieces of information and motivates us to attend to it in a way that wouldn’t evoke stress or fear.

Studies on emotional regulation indicate that there is a significant positive correlation between emotion regulation and depression management. People with lower levels of anxiety show higher emotional control and social-emotional intelligence.

Research indicates that emotions are adaptive responses that have a deep-rooted basis in evolutionary biology (Levenson, 1999). The way we feel and interpret them affects how we think, how we decide, and how we coordinate our actions in day-to-day lives.

For example, a person who has poor emotion regulation strategies is more likely to fall prey to mood polarities; their actions and behavioral patterns would always be at the mercy of their emotions.

Quite the contrary, a well-regulated person, will have a better balance and judgment of their feelings and actions. Emotional regulation allows us to carefully judge which affective outcomes to embrace and which ones to avoid (Wegner, Erber, & Zanakos, 1993).

When we confront a provoking stimulus, the natural reaction of the brain is to activate the amygdala, a brain site that regulates the fight-or-flight responses (Lee, 2018; Van der Kolk, 1994). Emotional regulation processes allow us to buy time before we act on the fight or flight triggers.

Kris Lee, a Professor and the author of the book Mentalligence : A New Psychology of Thinking–Learn What It Takes to be More Agile, Mindful, and Connected in Today’s World says that with emotional regulation, we can allow the initial upsurge of emotions to settle down and zoom out of the situation before reacting to it.

The increased time gap between stimulus and response restores the mental faculties that involve rational thinking and reasoning. As a result, we can save ourselves from sudden emotional breakdowns or burnout.

Self-regulation is all about pausing between feeling and reactions – it encourages us to slow down for a bit and act after objectively evaluating a situation. For example, a student who yells at others and hits their friends for petty reasons surely has less emotional control than a child who, before hitting or yelling, tells the teacher about their problems.

Another huge aspect of emotional regulation is value engagement. When we react impulsively without paying much attention to what is going on inside, we might often deviate from our core values and act in a way that is opposite to them. With proper regulation and self-control, we gain the power to stay calm under pressure and prevent ourselves from acting against our core values and ethics.

Here are some skills that can help in cultivating emotional regulation and sustaining it during challenging times in life.

1. Self-awareness

Noticing what we feel and naming it is a great step toward emotional regulation. For example, when you feel bad, ask yourself – Am I feeling sad, hopeless, ashamed, or anxious ?

Give yourself some options and explore your feelings. Try to name the specific emotions that you can feel intensely within yourself at that very moment, and write it down if you want. You need not act or judge the cause and effect of your emotions at this stage; all you need is complete awareness of each feeling that is controlling your mind ‘right now.’

2. Mindful awareness

In addition to gaining thought awareness, mindfulness lets us explore and identify all aspects of the external world, including our body. Simple mindful exercises such as breath control or sensory relaxation can calm the storm inside and guide our actions in the right way.

3. Cognitive reappraisal

Cognitive reappraisal includes altering the way we think. It is an essential component of psychotherapies like CBT, DBT, and Anger Management, and calls for greater acceptance and flexibility.

Cognitive reappraisal skills may include practices such as thought replacement or situational role reversals, where we try to look into a stressful situation from a whole new perspective.

For example, we can replace thoughts like ‘My boss hates me’, ‘I am no longer needed here’, etc. with alternatives such as, ‘My boss is upset at this moment, I am sure I can make up for this’, or ‘I know I am hard working and honest, let me give it another try’, etc.. By doing so, we gain a broader and better perception of our problems and react to them with more positivity.

4. Adaptability

Emotional dysregulation lowers our adaptability to life changes. We become more prone to distractions and fail our coping mechanisms, which is why we often start resisting changes. A great exercise to build adaptability is objective evaluation.

For example, when you feel bogged down by stressful emotions that you want to avoid, and you might end up destructively reacting to them, take a moment to think what if your best friend was experiencing the same thing? What would you have suggested they do under these circumstances? Write your answers if you want to and try to think if you are following the same steps for yourself!

5. Self-compassion

Setting aside some time for ourselves every day is a great way to build emotional regulation skills. Reminding ourselves of our talents and virtues, and letting our minds land on a flexible space can immensely change the way we feel and react to our emotions.

Some simple self-compassion hacks involve:

Daily positive self-affirmations
Relaxation and breath control
Compassion meditation
Regular self-care
Gratitude journaling

6. Emotional support

Psychologists believe that we all have the innate capacity to build a robust emotional repertoire and save our mental energy from getting invested in negativity. We can seek emotional support within ourselves by practicing mindful self-awareness or can seek help outside by engaging in positive communication with others.

It is okay to see a therapist or professional when our inner coping fails; the sole focus is to create a positive emotional shield that can channelize our emotions to bring out the best in us.

You aren’t at the mercy of your emotions — your brain creates them – Lisa Feldman Barrett

Literary resources on emotional regulation have provided a myriad of solutions for emotional dysregulation. While all the self-regulation strategies are undoubtedly useful and practical, the problem arises when we have to choose the best plan for us (Gross, 2015; Ochsner, Silvers, & Buhle, 2012).

Most scientific research on emotional regulation focus on either a particular age group that could benefit from the strategy, or a specific situation in which it works the best (Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012). Little is said about the scientific methods that we could use for taming our feelings at all times.

Recent studies, however, have shed some light in this regard. Researchers nowadays agree that emotion regulation should not be constrained to a time frame or a group of individuals under a specific circumstance, and have proposed a few scientific strategies that could guide us at all times (Aldao, 2013; Gross, 2015).

1. Reappraisal

Reappraisal or cognitive reappraisal ensures long-term wellbeing and offers a permanent solution to emotional distress. Through re-evaluation, we do not aim to suppress or eliminate the negative emotions that cause pain forcefully, instead, we look for better ways of dealing with it (Davis, Senghas, Brandt, & Ochsner, 2010).

In addition to finding appropriate and positive substitutes of the problems, cognitive reappraisal also shifts our focus from the distress and reduces the impact of the negative emotion for a while (Troy, Shallcross, & Mauss, 2013).

2. Self-soothing

Self-soothing, in any form, can reduce the toxic effects of anger, sadness, and agony that negative experiences bring (Heiy & Cheavens, 2014). Scientists believe that self-soothing, as opposed to self-confrontation, guarantees better and quicker answers when it comes to managing thoughts and emotions.

We can practice several variations of self-soothing exercises, including:

Self-compassion and loving-kindness meditation.
Music meditation, where we set aside some minutes to listen to music and unwind ourselves with the relaxing sound.
Reminiscence therapy , which works great for resolving emotional conflicts involving other people. The practice involves merely sitting and trying to recollect all the good memories we have once had with the person we are now struggling with.
Breathing exercises, including breath control, breath counting, and simple breath relaxation.
Simple self-care such as a hot bath, a relaxing massage, cooking for yourself, etc.

3. Attentional control

Attentional control starts with reappraisal. It aims to divert our attention away from the negative emotion and allows us to look at it from a rewarding perspective.

For example, we can overpower the irresistible anger and shame that follows an insult or abuse from someone, by thinking of it as a lesson that taught you to avoid building connections with rude people.

By focusing more on what you learned from the conflict, you not only save yourself from the severe stress and agony, but you also gain a perspective of how you can avoid such interpersonal disputes later. As a result, you are successful in modulating your responses to the negative encounter and restoring your mental peace altogether (Gross & John, 2003).

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As the name indicates, emotional regulation disorder is a condition of impaired or dysfunctional ability to regulate and manage emotions optimally. Emotional Dysregulation (ED) is a term mental health specialists use for emotional responses that are weakly managed and deviate from the accepted range of positive reactions.

The emotional regulation disorder is often manifested by symptoms such as:

Sudden and unexplained anger outbursts that get displaced to someone who did not cause any harm. May include passive-aggressive patterns of behavior.
Somatoform symptoms such as chronic pain and illness not caused by any medical condition and remain unexplained by medical professionals.
Self-destruction or self-harming behavior, including extreme thoughts of suicide.
Difficulty in building and maintaining healthy social relationships in personal and professional fields.
Attentional dysregulation, including the inability to focus on meaningful work because the mind is too occupied with negative thoughts and emotions.
Hypersensitivity and poor self-control.

The worst part of Emotion Regulation Disorder is that it mostly comes in association with other mental health issues such as depression, stress, or extreme mood polarities, and therefore, management requires an overall intervention plan for addressing all the associated problems.

The most common intervention psychologists use for managing EDD is Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), in combination with some cognitive strategies and emotional support adjuncts.

The prognosis of Emotional Regulation Disorder is relatively good, considering the number of practical interventions that we could use. The best results are, however, seen when the person chooses to take charge of it soon and participates in a long-term treatment plan.

Emotional regulation is an absolute necessity for academic, social, and moral development in children. Parents often find it overwhelming to find the right way to teach emotional regulation to their children and help them deal with the inevitable stressors of everyday life.

Emotional perception and management are never the same for two people, which is why successfully training someone to regulate their emotions can be a difficult task. However, psychologists over the years have come up with some great solutions to this problem.

Here are some hacks that parents and carers can use to cultivate emotional regulation in youngsters (Toub, Rajan, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2016).

1. Model the right behavior

Children learn best through observation. Showing them what to do rather than verbally directing is sure to generate better results. For example, a child grows up with parents who treat each other with respect and resolve their conflicts without being abusive, will learn to be more emotionally balanced and resilient than a child who grows up with aggressive and abusive parents.

It is essential to show children that positivity is the ‘only’ way to deal with stressors, and the best way to do it is by practicing the same ourselves.

2. Delay response time

Encourage the child not to give immediate reactions. Whenever the kid gets angry or is sad, ask them to hold back for a while and react after that. The delay in response time allows the fight-or-flight response to settle down, and in all probability, the child would respond less intensely than they would otherwise have.

3. Work on the child’s emotional vocabulary

Self-expression works great for emotional regulation in children. Often, a child experiences something that they are unable to explain, and the frustration that follows leads to an unpleasant reaction that is not acceptable.

A useful strategy is to create a chart with all the emotions named in it, with examples or face illustrations of how the particular passion makes us feel. Being able to call the feelings they are experiencing makes a child more vigilant and aware of their innermost feelings, and reduces the chances of emotional outbursts.

4. Teach them about actions and consequences

When a child is aware of what their actions might bring to them, they will likely choose their steps carefully. Whether in the classroom or at home, we can engage in meaningful conversations with kids about what is an action and what could be its consequences. For example, teachers and parents could make a chart and list some activities with their potential impacts and ask the child to decide which actions they would choose.

5. Let them detect stress

The goal of fostering emotional regulation in children is to make them self-dependent as a person in the future. There are particular situations, people, or events that create stress in children, for example, going to school away from parents, getting scolded by teachers, or someone taking away their favorite toy.

If we could devote some time to help them identify the little things that bring unpleasant feelings in them, it can go a long way in making them aware of their stressors and provide them the strength to deal with their emotions effectively as they grow up.

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) is a cognitive and behavior-oriented psychotherapy that relies on active communication to address mental health issues. DBT is especially useful for treating personality disorders like BPD (Borderline Personality Disorder) where individuals lose track of their emotional control mechanisms.

The core principle of DBT is that the arousal levels in different stressful encounters vary from person to person. For example, the way an adolescent would react to their parent’s death would be different from how a 50-year-old person would respond to parental loss, and needless to mention, the consequences of these reactions would hugely differ too (Kleindienst et al., 2011).

Again, a person who is timid and shy would react differently to any abuse from an extravert and friendly person. By considering these individual differences, DBT makes the interventions precise and person-centered.

In its pure form, DBT is:

Supportive – in the way it helps individuals understand and manage their emotional experiences and reactions.
Cognitive – because it emphasizes thoughts and acknowledges the fact that our emotions arise from the way we think and interpret the contemplations.
Mutual – as it requires equal amounts of attention and effort from the client and the therapist. Much like CBT interventions, DBT also relies on collaborative exercises, activities, and homework that help in assessing progress.

The reason why DBT is suitable for dealing with emotional regulation disorder is that it lets individuals learn, acknowledge, and change their faulty thought patterns themselves (Siever & Davis, 1991). DBT doesn’t coerce solutions or rush to diagnosis; it operates on the belief that unless we can internalize the positive emotions and learn to use them ourselves, no therapy can be good enough to make us happier.

DBT skills for emotional management includes:

Learning and identification of negative and positive emotions .
Labeling and naming emotions.
Reducing emotional vulnerability and hypersensitivity.
Gaining awareness about how we are feeling at the present moment.
Understanding desirable actions and implementing them in real life situations.
Enhancing stress management and coping techniques (Bohus et al., 2004; Linehan, Armstrong, Suarez, Allmon, & Heard, 1991).

Below are four exercises that can be practiced by anyone. Breathing regulation exercises are useful in a variety of settings, and just being mindful of emotions in general can benefit any person.

1. Breathing exercises for emotional regulation

Three main breathing exercises help in modulating emotions:

Breath Counting – Where we sit calmly for a few seconds and slowly start counting. For example, you can count 5 to inhale and 7 to exhale. The goal of this exercise is to focus on our breathing and follow the counting as we inhale and exhale.
Breath Shifting – Here we place one hand on our chest and the other hand on our abdomen and notice how they rise and fall with each inhales and exhales. By doing so, we aim to see the difference between the chest and belly movement during breathing, and it helps in regaining focus into our bodies.
Breath Relaxation – Breath relaxation is the most basic breathing exercise and practically works well for any stress, anxiety, or emotional disorder. The practice is to sit back and take deep breaths with eyes closed, and continue doing so until we can feel the connection between our mind and body, and realize the stress and negativity are fading away with the deep breaths.

2. Exercise for emotional catharsis

The most significant problem of emotional dysregulation disorder is the inability to let go of emotions. Even after realizing the inappropriateness of irrational thoughts, they find it hard to eliminate them from the mind (Singer et al., 2012). Through emotional catharsis, which is a way of venting out the suppressed emotions, we can achieve the mental balance that we often seek.

The practice is simple and involves five easy steps:

Observing emotions as they are, without trying to change them at the first instance.
Trying to evaluate the experience and feelings that come with a particular emotion.
Acknowledging the fact that we are not our emotions. For example, if we are feeling sad, it doesn’t have to mean that we are depressed individuals. Emotions are just a state of mind; they come and go.
Naming the emotions aloud or writing them the way you feel it.
Talking about them to a friend, family, or therapist, without being afraid of judgment.

3. Mindfulness for emotions

We know that mindfulness is the art of living in the present moment. Practicing mindfulness helps us gaining awareness of our mind, body, and feelings. It builds a secure connection to the present and allows us to look at our thoughts and feelings from an objective and neutral perspective.

There are two types of mindfulness exercises that help in emotional regulation:

The ‘Acknowledgment’ Exercises – including careful observation, naming thoughts, and labeling emotions.
The ‘Implementation’ Exercises – including practices of thinking non-judgmentally, active and empathetic listening, effective communication, and self-expression.

4. Self-awareness techniques

Self-awareness, for the most of it, is a counterpart of mindfulness and is tied in with recognizing one’s own emotions and the ways they affect us.

A great way to manage unhealthy emotions through self-awareness is the thought naming exercise, where we make a list of all the thoughts that are dominating our mind this very moment, the people or circumstances that we think may be causing them, and name the emotions in one or two words.

We can practice this as a daily self-help practice, and make a chart like the one shown below:

Which therapy modalities are particularly useful for emotion regulation?

1. Emotional Regulation Therapy (ERT)

Emotion Regulation Therapy is a person-centered approach to dealing with affective regulation. It uses parts of CBT, DBT, Mindfulness, and other humanistic approaches to achieve the following goals:

Helping individuals identify, acknowledge, and describe their emotions.
Allowing unconditional self-acceptance that ultimately results in emotional regulation.
Preventing them from avoiding feelings and choosing actions that impact on their wellbeing.
Helping them learn better decision-making, constructive critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

ERT interventions operate on a four-dimensional model, as shown below. Studies have proved that administering ERT strategies to patients increase their chances of recovery from disorders such as GAD, PTSD, and severe depression (Fresco, Mennin, Heimberg, & Ritter, 2013).

2. Cognitive Therapy

Cognitive Therapy interventions used in emotional regulation include:

Cognitive Distraction – which is an antecedent-focused strategy involving a careful shift of attention from the negative emotion to something pleasant (Gross, 1998). It is a practical approach where clients get positive stimuli from therapists or coaches to focus on when they feel low. Slowly, the individuals get conditioned to shift their attention the moment they catch themselves indulging in toxic emotions (Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky, 2008; Sheppes, Scheibe, Suri, & Gross, 2011).
Cognitive Reappraisal – As we discussed before, cognitive reappraisal is an intervention whose goal is to help us acknowledge the negative emotions at first, and then slowly replace it with other positive emotions that are less provoking.
Cognitive Labeling – Labeling is a neuro-linguistic process of identifying emotions as they arise. Studies have shown that when we can recognize and literally ‘name’ our feelings and have a complete awareness of the emotional boundaries, there is decreased activity in the amygdala, a part of the brain that regulates emotions (Hariri, Bookheimer, & Mazziotta, 2000; Lieberman et al., 2007).

3. MBCT (Group Therapy)

MBCT or Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy reduces the chances of relapse in people with emotional regulation disorders. It has proven benefits in treating cardiovascular conditions, hormonal deficits, and hypertension that comes with emotional imbalance.

MBCT is usually conducted in group settings, which makes it a preferred option for many people. The process mainly entails in forming a positive relationship with our innermost feelings.

For example, when someone is at the verge of relapsing depression, MBCT teaches them how they can overcome the blues by not trying to change themselves. Through mindfulness and meditation, MBCT reforms the way we feel about ourselves.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental conditions that interfere with a person’s social, emotional, and executive functioning.

As stated in DSM 5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Health Disorders), autism causes:

Impairment in communication and social interaction.
Repetitive behavioral patterns that may sometimes be aggressive or extreme.
Poor impulse control and judgment.
Muscular inflexibility, involuntary movements, and other sensory-motor disturbances.

The typical difficulty that most autistic individuals face is executive dysfunctioning, including impulse control problems, emotional management, self-expression, and anger management.

Psychological regulation strategies specifically created for helping people with ASD primarily focus on separating emotions from the self. It helps autistic individuals understand that they need not act on their feelings; they learn that simply acknowledging emotions can also be a way of responding, without hurting themselves or others.

Another significant aspect that ER strategies deal with is the social and communication deficits autistic people face. There is a 5-point scale that many mental health practitioners and special educators use for helping ASD clients. The scale is created visually to facilitate easy comprehension. The test is systematic and follows a step-by-step approach.

The test starts with the identification of the problem areas, for example, daily routine, self-care, communication, etc.

After identification, caregivers of the client rate each problem based on how much it affects them on a 5-point scale where 5 indicates the most severe issue, and 1 indicates the least severe problem.
After listing down and rating the troubles, parents or caregivers come up with a list of the environmental and social factors that they think might be causing the problems.
Finally, the therapist makes small cards with visual illustrations of each situation that parents earlier labeled as a potential stressor. The cards are presented to the autistic person one by one, and the therapist asks them to express in their way how they feel about it.
Other ER based strategies for helping ASD includes visual expression, media awareness, creative painting and crafts, and group activities.

There are three worksheets especially applicable to emotion regulation.

1. The Radical Acceptance Worksheet

Marsha Linehan, a famous American psychologist and the creator of Dialectical Behavior Therapy, adopted the concept of radical acceptance from Buddhist teachings and incorporated it in her works later.

The Radical Acceptance Worksheet is often used in DBT interventions as it helps in enhancing self-awareness and understanding the underlying causes of our emotional struggles. The worksheet consists of seven subjective questions, the answers to which suggest the level of emotional control and indicate possible thinking errors.

The sheet is illustrated below. Each question comes with clear, guided instructions, and there are no right or wrong answers here.

2. Emotion Regulation Worksheet

The Emotion Regulation Worksheet is a step-by-step approach to identifying our emotions in a clear and unbiased manner. Adapted from Linehan’s manual for treating Borderline Personality Disorder, this worksheet helps in delving deep into the causes and consequences of an intense affective response.

With simple questions that indicate functionality of the emotion, this self-help manual lets us gauge how powerful our emotions can be. The worksheet is shown below.

Find more information on the emotion regulation questionnaire here.

3. The PLEASE Worksheet

The Please Worksheet is standard in DBT interventions for emotional management and self-expression.

PLEASE is an anagram using five key concepts:

Physical health and illness
Mood changing substances
Eating habits
Exercise and Fitness

Through managing these aspects of life, the PLEASE Worksheet fosters emotional management and promotes healthy living. The exercise has questions dedicated to each of the five components, and results reflect how the areas affect our emotions and actions. The worksheet is briefly illustrated below.

Since it is usually a counterpart of therapy, the PLEASE Worksheet should ideally be used under professional supervision.

When was the last time you managed to express your vulnerabilities without hurting yourself or others?

Emotional regulation is not a skill that some of us have, and some of us don’t. It is a capacity that is inbuilt in us. We all manage to regulate our emotions in some circumstances and fail to manage them in others. There is no all or none principle that works with emotional regulation in human life.

For example, imagine your boss yelling at you for some mistake. How would you react? Would you yell at them back and resign from the job, or perhaps deal with it calmly and let go? Now, if the same situation happened at home, where you do something wrong, and your partner shouts at you, how would you answer back? Would you hold back your anger and be rational like you were at work, or would you get into a fight with your spouse?

In the above example, the same person (you) could regulate and redirect your emotions at work but fail to do the same at home. You could keep your nerves under control in one situation but lose your judgment in another. This is how emotional regulation can fluctuate in us. Our goal, at all times, should be to maintain a balance in our emotional reactions irrespective of the situation.

There are numerous examples of emotional self-regulation that we can find around us. For example, a person who is on a strict diet and attends a social gathering with all delicious delicacies around has the power to tame their urges and regulate the hunger emotions so they wouldn’t cheat their diet.

Leaders who manage large teams and have to make crucial decisions for their organization to maintain a sturdy mental balance that would help them maintain their leadership and success.

Self-regulation in adults or children come from rigorous self-observation, environmental learning, and focused self-awareness. To effectively manage our emotional reactions at work or home, here are some steps that we can all take.

Daily breathing and relaxation.
Healthy eating, sound sleep, and regular exercise.
Quality me-time and a stable self-care regime.
Frequent day-outs or trips with family and friends.
Effective communication with self and others, especially when the conversations are difficult or awkward.
Maintaining a sound work-life balance (Connelly et al., 2012).

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Emotional Regulation group activities often use fun games to make the sessions more exciting and motivating for clients. Group ER activities also work exceptionally well for differently abled people and young children. Some simple ER games used in group therapy settings are discussed below.

1. Traffic Light Game

This is mostly used for children where one participant plays the role of traffic police, and the others play car drivers who wait for the signal. When the traffic police hold the green card, the other kids move forward, and when they lifts the red card, they stop and remain where they are.

After the role play is over, the facilitator uses the metaphor to teach the kids that red cards are bad feelings that they should not chase. When they see those red cards, they should stop until the green (happy) cards come in.

Jenga is an everyday group activity used for adults and children to foster decision-making and rational planning of actions. The way participants stack the blocks and displace them one by one without breaking the whole stack creates mindful movement strategies that further help in emotional management and decision-making.

3. Follow the Leader Exercise

The purpose of this group activity is to teach that when we are not in charge of our decisions, the best idea is to stay silent and let the time pass. The game is played in a role-play format where each participant takes turns to act as the leader, and others act as their subordinates.

The leader, who is in charge of all decisions, gives orders and their employees have to follow them whether or not they want to. The activity trains them on how to follow the rules and stay calm when something does not go according to the way we want.

1. Handbook of Emotion Regulation – James J. Gross

The Handbook of Emotional Regulation is a comprehensive compilation of some of the most useful and scientifically-backed strategies for modulating emotions.

The detailed chapters of the book provide a vivid roadmap of how we can start identifying negative emotions and effectively overcome them in the long-run.

The concepts mentioned by author James Gross are futuristic, research-oriented, and has substantial implications for neuroscience, psychology, and overall health.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. Self-Regulation Interventions and Strategies: Keeping the Body, Mind, and Emotions on Task in Children with Autism, ADHD or Sensory Disorders – Teresa Garland

Author Teresa Garland has put in her years of research on emotional regulation in children in the book Self-regulation Intervention Strategies .

With over a thousand activities and fun exercises that can be blended in academic and other child-care settings, this book is the ultimate guide for parents and teachers who aim to raise emotionally balanced kids.

3. Emotion Regulation in Children and Adolescents: A Practitioner’s Guide – Michael A. Southam-Gerow

Emotion Regulation in Children and Adolescents is a practical manual or self-help guide for adolescents, young adults, and children, for promoting positive affective self-regulation.

With worksheets, activities, and objective assessments, this piece provides valuable knowledge on how we can confront and manage difficult emotions ourselves.

4. DBT Skills Workbook: Practical DBT Exercises for Learning Mindfulness, Interpersonal Effectiveness, Emotion Regulation, and Distress Tolerance – MCKAY M

As the name suggests, this book is dedicated to understanding and learning DBT skills that help in emotional management.

The book follows a holistic perspective and focuses on all areas of emotional balance, including tolerance, mindfulness, coping, and attention.

The way we interpret our emotions determine the way we react to it. Emotional regulation does not mean being happy all the time; neither does it guarantee to shield us from pain. With emotional management, we gain the ability to accept our feelings and overpower them.

Emotional regulation is all about moving on and not letting temporary setbacks stop us from reaching our goals. It is tied in with values, expressions, self-compassion, gratitude, and rational thinking, which accounts for the inner peace that emotion regulation brings with it. And as the saying goes, “Feelings are visitors, we should let them come and go.”

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

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Hi there! Of all the articles I reviewed on this topic for our Workplace Well Being project, this was my favourite. Would it be possible to receive a PDF of the article to print and post on our Well Being Board? Thanks for your consideration 🙂

Thank you for this article, I really liked it.

Just one note if I may. When you state: “Emotion Regulation Therapy is a person-centered approach to dealing with affective regulation. It uses parts of CBT, DBT, Mindfulness, and other humanitarian approaches to achieve the following goals: […]”I believe you ment “other HUMANISTIC approaches”, not humanitarian. Quite different indeed 😉

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very nice informative blog given by you . it is very usefull for me thank you

This was a highly informative article which managed to be comprehensive without being overwhelming. It offered specific techniques and paths to emotional regulation and even included a little neuroscience. I loved the worksheets and ordered the recommended DBT Workbook. I’m inspired and looking forward to improving my ability to better regulate my emotions. Thank you for such a wonderful article.

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3 Emotional Intelligence Exercises (PDF)

E9: Problem Solving

Introduction

In the previous exercises from this module we worked on recognizing certain situations that are triggering and causing us to feel overwhelming emotions. This is helpful because once we know that certain situation can be potentially problematic for us, then we can also work on doing something before the situation happens again - a type of preparation. This is exactly what we are going to be working on in this exercise. Getting prepared beforehand can give us a sense of control over the triggering situation that is about to happen. We will go through four steps that are going to help you solve the problematic situation before it happens.

Instructions

Step one: behavior analysis.

Take your time and try to remember what usually causes you to feel ineffectively overwhelmed. Is it an event with your family, a work situation, your kids or your friends? Next, write down the emotion that you are usually experiencing. Maybe you feel intensively angry, rejected or abandoned, or depressed and anxious. Try to remember how the situation usually takes place and what your ongoing fleeting feelings and thoughts are while the situation is happening.

Example : Event : My husband criticizes my looks. He makes a subtle comment that I should lose weight and that I should dress differently. Main emotion : Anger Other emotions and thoughts during the event : At first, I low-key agree with him and I think how fat and ugly I look. I've always hated my body. Before my anger strikes I feel ashamed and sad.

Step Two: What Can I Change?

What out of the three elements from the previous step can you change? Bear in mind that the change that you can potentially make should eventually improve your emotional health and your immediate overwhelming emotion.

Sometimes it's impossible to change the external event, but we can work on our thoughts and how we talk to ourselves internally during the situation. Pick two things out of the elements in the previous step that you think are the most suitable for you to try to change.

In the previous example, the person cannot control what her husband says to her. What she can work on though, is the messages she directs towards herself about her appearance. At the same time, she will also work on the feelings of shame and sadness that are occurring during the event.

Step Three: Brainstorming Alternatives

Now that you have identified the two aspects that you can and would like to change, it's time to brainstorm for alternative ideas. If you chose to work on the occurring thoughts, what else can you say to yourself about the situation? What can you remind yourself of in order to objectify the all-or-nothing thinking or the generalizations you make? Perhaps you want to change the event and do something differently than what you usually does.

In the example we presented, the alternative and objective thoughts that the woman can remind herself of would be: - "He has no right to make such aggressive comments and body shame me." - "Even though his tone was seemingly polite, it is not okay to say things like that to your significant other. It's still passive aggressive." - "I don't have to look a certain way unless I want to. My body serves me in great ways and I am grateful that I am physically healthy." - "There are many great aspects about me, I am sociable and charming." - "This trend to be thin will probably have a cultural shift and it will change. It's just a societal pressure and conditioning and I really am smarter than that!"

Step Four: Put the Solution into Action

After you have brainstormed for ideas about what you can do to change the aspects that are changeable, choose what works best for you and try to put the solution into action. Actively decide and remind yourself to act the way you decided to next time you find yourself in the situation.

For example: "Now that I've straightened some of the incorrect ways in which I am thinking about my body, I want to try and remind myself more often of what I actually believe in. Maybe next time this happens I can communicate to my husband what my thoughts are in a polite way and not get angry and make mean comments to hurt him back. I will assertively put boundaries about what is acceptable and what is not."

Use the worksheet to help you prepare for situations that you expect to be difficult.

DBT Emotional Regulation: Problem Solving

How should I know which aspect of the situation should I work on changing? I am not sure which one is the most suitable.

Start with the things you have control over. For example, our thoughts and the resulting feelings are usually something we can work on (trying to straighten the cognitive distortions present). You can benefit from the exercise about cognitive vulnerability that we previously worked on in this module. Sometimes the way in which other people consistently behave is out of our control. That is not to say that we shouldn't try to communicate our boundaries. You can also work on changing the way you behave in and do something differently. For example you can walk out of a situation that is harmful to you (if possible).

I can't think of alternatives, my brainstorming session is a little dry.

You can try asking somebody you trust and you know has your back about ideas about the situation. If you regularly put yourself down with the way you think about yourself and the way you interpret the events around you, then you can try thinking about what advice you would give a friend of yours who is in the same situation. Remember that the potential solution to the problem should eventually improve the situation for you and help you with the overwhelming emotion you usually experience. For example, in the body-shaming example we presented, if the woman shamed herself into losing a lot of weight, she would still end up with negative emotions, so that would not be the best solution for her.

What if I can't remember to try the solution I've come up with next time I find myself in the problematic situation?

It is okay if you need some time to get used to implementing the solution. Quality change doesn't come with little effort. If you don't remember to implement the solution the first time, just remind yourself that that is totally fine, be patient and try it again next time. Maybe the first couple of times you won't end up with the emotion you would eventually like to feel, but remember that this is a skill and it can be learned through practice.

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Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Sean is a fact-checker and researcher with experience in sociology, field research, and data analytics.

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From deciding what to eat for dinner to considering whether it's the right time to buy a house, problem-solving is a large part of our daily lives. Learn some of the problem-solving strategies that exist and how to use them in real life, along with ways to overcome obstacles that are making it harder to resolve the issues you face.

What Is Problem-Solving?

In cognitive psychology , the term 'problem-solving' refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems.

A problem exists when there is a goal that we want to achieve but the process by which we will achieve it is not obvious to us. Put another way, there is something that we want to occur in our life, yet we are not immediately certain how to make it happen.

Maybe you want a better relationship with your spouse or another family member but you're not sure how to improve it. Or you want to start a business but are unsure what steps to take. Problem-solving helps you figure out how to achieve these desires.

The problem-solving process involves:

Discovery of the problem
Deciding to tackle the issue
Seeking to understand the problem more fully
Researching available options or solutions
Taking action to resolve the issue

Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue is faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.

Problem-Solving Mental Processes

Several mental processes are at work during problem-solving. Among them are:

Perceptually recognizing the problem
Representing the problem in memory
Considering relevant information that applies to the problem
Identifying different aspects of the problem
Labeling and describing the problem

Problem-Solving Strategies

There are many ways to go about solving a problem. Some of these strategies might be used on their own, or you may decide to employ multiple approaches when working to figure out and fix a problem.

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that, by following certain "rules" produces a solution. Algorithms are commonly used in mathematics to solve division or multiplication problems. But they can be used in other fields as well.

In psychology, algorithms can be used to help identify individuals with a greater risk of mental health issues. For instance, research suggests that certain algorithms might help us recognize children with an elevated risk of suicide or self-harm.

One benefit of algorithms is that they guarantee an accurate answer. However, they aren't always the best approach to problem-solving, in part because detecting patterns can be incredibly time-consuming.

There are also concerns when machine learning is involved—also known as artificial intelligence (AI)—such as whether they can accurately predict human behaviors.

Heuristics are shortcut strategies that people can use to solve a problem at hand. These "rule of thumb" approaches allow you to simplify complex problems, reducing the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

If you find yourself sitting in a traffic jam, for example, you may quickly consider other routes, taking one to get moving once again. When shopping for a new car, you might think back to a prior experience when negotiating got you a lower price, then employ the same tactics.

While heuristics may be helpful when facing smaller issues, major decisions shouldn't necessarily be made using a shortcut approach. Heuristics also don't guarantee an effective solution, such as when trying to drive around a traffic jam only to find yourself on an equally crowded route.

Trial and Error

A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of potential solutions to a particular issue, then ruling out those that do not work. If you're not sure whether to buy a shirt in blue or green, for instance, you may try on each before deciding which one to purchase.

This can be a good strategy to use if you have a limited number of solutions available. But if there are many different choices available, narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique can be helpful before attempting trial and error.

In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. You are facing an issue in a relationship or your career when, out of nowhere, the solution appears in your mind and you know exactly what to do.

Insight can occur when the problem in front of you is similar to an issue that you've dealt with in the past. Although, you may not recognize what is occurring since the underlying mental processes that lead to insight often happen outside of conscious awareness .

Research indicates that insight is most likely to occur during times when you are alone—such as when going on a walk by yourself, when you're in the shower, or when lying in bed after waking up.

How to Apply Problem-Solving Strategies in Real Life

If you're facing a problem, you can implement one or more of these strategies to find a potential solution. Here's how to use them in real life:

Create a flow chart . If you have time, you can take advantage of the algorithm approach to problem-solving by sitting down and making a flow chart of each potential solution, its consequences, and what happens next.
Recall your past experiences . When a problem needs to be solved fairly quickly, heuristics may be a better approach. Think back to when you faced a similar issue, then use your knowledge and experience to choose the best option possible.
Start trying potential solutions . If your options are limited, start trying them one by one to see which solution is best for achieving your desired goal. If a particular solution doesn't work, move on to the next.
Take some time alone . Since insight is often achieved when you're alone, carve out time to be by yourself for a while. The answer to your problem may come to you, seemingly out of the blue, if you spend some time away from others.

Obstacles to Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is not a flawless process as there are a number of obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. These obstacles include:

Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people can make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Thus, they may not even try some potential options.
Functional fixedness : This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution.
Irrelevant or misleading information: When trying to solve a problem, it's important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. The more complex the problem, the easier it is to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.
Mental set: A mental set is a tendency to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

How to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

In the end, if your goal is to become a better problem-solver, it's helpful to remember that this is a process. Thus, if you want to improve your problem-solving skills, following these steps can help lead you to your solution:

Recognize that a problem exists . If you are facing a problem, there are generally signs. For instance, if you have a mental illness , you may experience excessive fear or sadness, mood changes, and changes in sleeping or eating habits. Recognizing these signs can help you realize that an issue exists.
Decide to solve the problem . Make a conscious decision to solve the issue at hand. Commit to yourself that you will go through the steps necessary to find a solution.
Seek to fully understand the issue . Analyze the problem you face, looking at it from all sides. If your problem is relationship-related, for instance, ask yourself how the other person may be interpreting the issue. You might also consider how your actions might be contributing to the situation.
Research potential options . Using the problem-solving strategies mentioned, research potential solutions. Make a list of options, then consider each one individually. What are some pros and cons of taking the available routes? What would you need to do to make them happen?
Take action . Select the best solution possible and take action. Action is one of the steps required for change . So, go through the motions needed to resolve the issue.
Try another option, if needed . If the solution you chose didn't work, don't give up. Either go through the problem-solving process again or simply try another option.

You can find a way to solve your problems as long as you keep working toward this goal—even if the best solution is simply to let go because no other good solution exists.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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The Power Of Emotions: Unveiling Their Impact On Critical Thinking

Table of Contents

Importance of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a crucial skill that allows individuals to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information in a logical and rational manner. It enables us to make informed decisions, solve problems effectively, and think independently. In today’s complex and fast-paced world, critical thinking has become increasingly important in various aspects of our lives, including education, work, and personal relationships.

Influence of Emotions on Critical Thinking

While critical thinking is often associated with rationality and logic, it is important to recognize the significant role that emotions play in our thought processes. Emotions are an integral part of being human, and they can greatly influence our thinking and decision-making abilities. Understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking is essential for developing a well-rounded approach to problem-solving and decision-making.

Emotions can impact critical thinking in several ways. They can shape our perception and interpretation of information, influence our biases and judgments, and even affect our creativity and problem-solving skills. Emotions can either enhance or hinder our ability to think critically, depending on how we manage and regulate them.

In this article, we will explore the concept of emotions and their influence on critical thinking. We will delve into the different types of emotions, how they are triggered and experienced, and their impact on decision-making, perception, and problem-solving. We will also discuss the importance of emotion regulation and how it can enhance critical thinking skills. Additionally, we will explore the connection between emotional intelligence and critical thinking abilities and provide tips for developing emotional intelligence to improve critical thinking skills.

By understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking, we can learn to harness the power of emotions to enhance our decision-making and problem-solving abilities. We can also develop strategies to regulate our emotions effectively, ensuring that they do not hinder our critical thinking processes. Ultimately, by cultivating emotional intelligence and balancing emotions with rationality, we can become more effective critical thinkers in all aspects of our lives.

In the following sections, we will delve deeper into the understanding of emotions, explore their relationship with critical thinking, discuss strategies for emotion regulation, and provide tips for developing emotional intelligence. We will also analyze real-life case studies and examples to illustrate the impact of emotions on critical thinking. Finally, we will provide practical techniques for balancing emotions and critical thinking and conclude with a summary of the importance of understanding and managing emotions in the pursuit of effective critical thinking.

So, let’s dive in and explore the fascinating world of emotions and their influence on critical thinking!

Understanding Emotions

Emotions play a significant role in our lives, influencing our thoughts, actions, and decision-making processes. Understanding emotions is essential for developing effective critical thinking skills. In this section, we will explore the definition and characteristics of emotions, how they are triggered and experienced, and the different types of emotions that exist.

Definition and Explanation of Emotions

Emotions can be defined as intense feelings that arise in response to specific situations or stimuli. They are complex psychological and physiological responses that involve subjective experiences, physiological changes, and behavioral expressions. Emotions are an integral part of the human experience and are closely tied to our thoughts and perceptions.

Different Types of Emotions and Their Characteristics

Emotions can be categorized into various types, each with its own unique characteristics. Some common types of emotions include happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. Each emotion has its own distinct set of physiological responses, such as changes in heart rate, facial expressions, and body language.

For example, happiness is often associated with positive experiences and is characterized by feelings of joy, contentment, and satisfaction. It is typically accompanied by a smile, relaxed facial muscles, and an overall sense of well-being. On the other hand, anger is an emotion that arises in response to perceived threats or injustices and is characterized by feelings of frustration, hostility, and the desire to retaliate. It is often accompanied by increased heart rate, clenched fists, and a tense facial expression.

How Emotions are Triggered and Experienced

Emotions can be triggered by various factors, including external events, internal thoughts, and physiological changes. External events, such as receiving good news or experiencing a traumatic event, can elicit emotional responses. Internal thoughts and interpretations of situations also play a significant role in triggering emotions. For example, perceiving a situation as threatening can lead to feelings of fear or anxiety.

Once emotions are triggered, they are experienced subjectively. Individuals may have different emotional responses to the same situation based on their personal experiences, beliefs, and values. The experience of emotions involves a combination of cognitive processes, physiological changes, and behavioral expressions. These experiences can vary in intensity, duration, and the way they are expressed.

Understanding emotions and their characteristics is crucial for developing effective critical thinking skills. Emotions can significantly influence our decision-making processes, perceptions, and problem-solving abilities. By gaining a deeper understanding of emotions, we can better navigate their impact on our critical thinking and make more informed and rational decisions.

In the next section, we will explore the relationship between emotions and critical thinking, examining how emotions can influence our decision-making, perception of information, and problem-solving abilities.

The Relationship Between Emotions and Critical Thinking

Emotions play a significant role in our daily lives, influencing our thoughts, actions, and decision-making processes. When it comes to critical thinking, emotions can have a profound impact on how we perceive and interpret information, make decisions, and solve problems. Understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking is crucial for developing effective thinking skills and making rational choices.

Exploring the Impact of Emotions on Decision-Making

Emotions can greatly influence our decision-making processes. When we are experiencing strong emotions such as fear, anger, or excitement, our ability to think critically may be compromised. These emotions can cloud our judgment and lead us to make impulsive or irrational decisions. On the other hand, positive emotions like happiness or enthusiasm can enhance our creativity and open our minds to new possibilities.

How Emotions Influence Perception and Interpretation of Information

Emotions can also shape how we perceive and interpret information. Our emotional state can affect our attention, memory, and reasoning abilities, leading us to focus on certain aspects of a situation while ignoring others. For example, if we are feeling anxious or fearful, we may be more likely to interpret ambiguous information in a negative or threatening way. This can hinder our ability to think critically and objectively analyze the facts.

The Role of Emotions in Problem-Solving and Creativity

Emotions can have a significant impact on problem-solving and creative thinking. While negative emotions can sometimes hinder our problem-solving abilities by narrowing our focus and limiting our options, positive emotions can enhance our creativity and innovative thinking. When we are in a positive emotional state, we are more likely to think outside the box, consider alternative solutions, and approach problems from different perspectives.

The Connection Between Emotions and Biases in Critical Thinking

Emotions can also contribute to biases in critical thinking. Our emotions can influence our beliefs, attitudes, and opinions, leading us to be more receptive to information that aligns with our emotional state and dismissive of contradictory evidence. This confirmation bias can hinder our ability to think critically and objectively evaluate information. Recognizing and managing our emotions is essential for overcoming biases and engaging in unbiased critical thinking.

Understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking is crucial for developing effective thinking skills and making rational choices. Emotion regulation, the ability to manage and control our emotions, is essential for enhancing critical thinking abilities. By learning strategies for managing emotions, such as deep breathing, mindfulness, and reframing techniques, we can improve our decision-making and problem-solving skills.

Cultivating Emotional Intelligence for Improved Critical Thinking

Emotional intelligence, the ability to understand and manage our own emotions and empathize with others, is closely linked to critical thinking abilities. Developing emotional intelligence can enhance our self-awareness, self-regulation, and empathy, all of which are essential for effective critical thinking. By practicing self-reflection, active listening, and empathy, we can cultivate emotional intelligence and improve our critical thinking skills.

Case Studies and Examples

Real-life examples can provide valuable insights into how emotions can impact critical thinking. By analyzing specific situations where emotions played a significant role in decision-making or problem-solving, we can gain a deeper understanding of the relationship between emotions and critical thinking. These case studies can serve as learning opportunities and help us develop strategies for managing emotions in similar situations.

Strategies for Balancing Emotions and Critical Thinking

Maintaining a balance between emotions and rationality is essential for effective critical thinking. Techniques such as recognizing and acknowledging our emotions, taking a step back to evaluate the situation objectively, and seeking different perspectives can help us balance our emotions and engage in logical and rational thinking. Incorporating emotional awareness into our critical thinking practices can lead to more informed and thoughtful decision-making.

In conclusion, emotions and critical thinking are closely intertwined. Emotions can greatly influence our decision-making, perception, and problem-solving abilities. By understanding the relationship between emotions and critical thinking and developing emotional intelligence, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and make more rational and informed choices. Managing and balancing our emotions is key to effective critical thinking and achieving success in various aspects of our lives.

Emotion Regulation and its Effect on Critical Thinking

Emotion regulation plays a crucial role in enhancing critical thinking skills. When emotions are not effectively managed, they can cloud judgment and hinder rational decision-making. On the other hand, when emotions are regulated and controlled, they can contribute to more accurate and effective critical thinking. In this section, we will explore the importance of emotion regulation and its effect on critical thinking.

The Importance of Regulating Emotions for Effective Critical Thinking

Emotions can have a significant impact on critical thinking. When we are overwhelmed by strong emotions such as anger, fear, or sadness, our ability to think critically may be compromised. These intense emotions can distort our perception of reality and lead to biased thinking. Emotion regulation is essential because it allows us to maintain a balanced and rational mindset, enabling us to make better decisions and solve problems more effectively.

Strategies for Managing and Controlling Emotions

To regulate emotions effectively, it is essential to develop strategies that help us manage and control our emotional responses. Here are a few techniques that can be helpful:

Self-awareness : Recognizing and acknowledging our emotions is the first step towards regulating them. Taking the time to understand what we are feeling and why can help us gain control over our emotional state.

Deep breathing and relaxation techniques : When we are experiencing intense emotions, taking deep breaths and engaging in relaxation techniques can help calm our minds and bodies. This can create space for clearer thinking and better decision-making.

Cognitive reappraisal : This technique involves reframing our thoughts and changing our perspective on a situation. By challenging negative or irrational thoughts, we can reduce the intensity of our emotional response and think more objectively.

Seeking support : Talking to a trusted friend, family member, or therapist can provide valuable support and perspective. Sharing our emotions and concerns with others can help us gain insight and find healthier ways to cope with challenging situations.

How Emotion Regulation Enhances Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills

Emotion regulation directly impacts our decision-making and problem-solving abilities. When we can effectively regulate our emotions, we are better able to:

Consider multiple perspectives : Emotion regulation allows us to step back from our initial emotional reactions and consider alternative viewpoints. This broader perspective enables us to make more informed decisions and find creative solutions to problems.

Evaluate evidence objectively : Emotions can bias our interpretation of information. By regulating our emotions, we can approach evidence more objectively, weighing its credibility and relevance without being swayed by our emotional biases.

Manage conflicts : Emotion regulation helps us navigate conflicts more effectively. By staying calm and composed, we can engage in constructive dialogue, listen to others’ perspectives, and find mutually beneficial solutions.

Maintain focus and attention : Emotion regulation helps us stay focused on the task at hand. By managing distractions and reducing emotional interference, we can concentrate better and think more critically.

In conclusion, emotion regulation is a vital skill for enhancing critical thinking. By managing and controlling our emotions, we can improve our decision-making, problem-solving, and overall critical thinking abilities. Developing strategies for emotion regulation, such as self-awareness, relaxation techniques, cognitive reappraisal, and seeking support, can significantly contribute to our success in critical thinking endeavors. So, let us strive to cultivate emotional intelligence and regulate our emotions to become more effective critical thinkers.

Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in our ability to think critically. It involves understanding and managing our emotions effectively, which in turn enhances our decision-making, problem-solving, and creativity skills. By cultivating emotional intelligence, we can significantly improve our critical thinking abilities. In this section, we will explore the concept of emotional intelligence, its link to critical thinking, and provide tips for developing emotional intelligence to enhance our critical thinking skills.

Definition and Explanation of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. It involves being aware of our emotions and using that awareness to guide our thoughts and actions. Emotional intelligence comprises several components, including self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills.

The Link Between Emotional Intelligence and Critical Thinking Abilities

Emotional intelligence and critical thinking are closely intertwined. When we have a high level of emotional intelligence, we are better equipped to think critically and make informed decisions. Here’s how emotional intelligence enhances our critical thinking abilities:

Self-Awareness: Emotional intelligence helps us become more aware of our own emotions, biases, and thought patterns. This self-awareness allows us to recognize when our emotions may be influencing our thinking and helps us approach problems and decisions with a more rational mindset.

Empathy: Emotional intelligence enables us to understand and empathize with the perspectives and emotions of others. This ability to see things from different viewpoints enhances our critical thinking by allowing us to consider alternative solutions and evaluate information from a broader perspective.

Self-Regulation: Emotional intelligence helps us regulate our emotions, preventing them from clouding our judgment. By managing our emotions effectively, we can approach critical thinking tasks with a clear and objective mindset, leading to more accurate analysis and decision-making.

Social Skills: Emotional intelligence also encompasses social skills, such as effective communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution. These skills are essential for critical thinking, as they enable us to engage in constructive discussions, consider diverse opinions, and work effectively with others to solve complex problems.

Tips for Developing Emotional Intelligence to Enhance Critical Thinking Skills

Developing emotional intelligence is an ongoing process that requires self-reflection and practice. Here are some tips to cultivate emotional intelligence and improve critical thinking skills:

Self-Reflection: Take time to reflect on your emotions, thoughts, and reactions in different situations. Identify any patterns or biases that may be influencing your critical thinking. Regular self-reflection helps you become more self-aware and better understand the impact of emotions on your thinking process.

Emotion Regulation Techniques: Learn and practice techniques for managing and regulating your emotions. Deep breathing exercises, mindfulness meditation, and journaling are effective methods for calming your mind and gaining control over your emotions. These techniques can help you approach critical thinking tasks with a clear and focused mindset.

Active Listening and Empathy: Practice active listening and empathy in your interactions with others. Pay attention to their emotions, perspectives, and concerns. This will enhance your ability to understand different viewpoints and think critically about complex issues.

Seek Diverse Perspectives: Actively seek out diverse perspectives and opinions. Engage in discussions with people who have different backgrounds, experiences, and beliefs. This exposure to diverse viewpoints will broaden your thinking and challenge your assumptions, leading to more robust critical thinking.

Continuous Learning: Engage in lifelong learning to expand your knowledge and skills. Read books, attend workshops, and take courses that focus on emotional intelligence, critical thinking, and related topics. Continuous learning helps you develop a growth mindset and stay updated with the latest research and practices in emotional intelligence and critical thinking.

By cultivating emotional intelligence, we can enhance our critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions. Developing self-awareness, empathy, self-regulation, and social skills enables us to approach critical thinking tasks with clarity and objectivity. Remember, emotional intelligence is a journey, and with consistent practice and effort, we can continuously improve our ability to think critically and make sound judgments.

In this section, we will explore real-life case studies and examples that demonstrate the impact of emotions on critical thinking. By analyzing these situations, we can gain a deeper understanding of how emotions can influence our decision-making and problem-solving abilities.

Real-life examples demonstrating the impact of emotions on critical thinking

Example 1: the impulsive purchase.

Imagine a scenario where you are shopping for a new smartphone. You have done thorough research, comparing different models and reading reviews. However, when you visit the store, you come across a flashy advertisement for a brand-new phone that promises to be the “best in the market.” Despite your initial research, you are swayed by the excitement and emotions triggered by the advertisement. As a result, you make an impulsive purchase without considering all the factors you had previously analyzed.

This example highlights how emotions can override critical thinking and lead to irrational decision-making. The excitement and desire for the latest technology can cloud our judgment and prevent us from making a well-informed choice.

Example 2: The Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that occurs when we seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore or dismiss evidence that contradicts them. Emotions play a significant role in this bias, as our emotional attachment to certain beliefs can prevent us from critically evaluating alternative perspectives.

For instance, imagine a political debate where two individuals hold opposing views. Despite being presented with well-reasoned arguments and evidence from the other side, both individuals remain steadfast in their beliefs. Their emotional attachment to their respective ideologies prevents them from critically analyzing the opposing viewpoints and considering alternative perspectives.

Analysis of how emotions affected critical thinking in specific situations

Situation 1: the job interview.

During a job interview, emotions can significantly impact our critical thinking abilities. For example, if a candidate is feeling nervous or anxious, they may struggle to articulate their thoughts clearly or think critically under pressure. On the other hand, if a candidate is overconfident, they may overlook important details or fail to consider alternative solutions.

In this situation, it is crucial to recognize and regulate emotions to ensure that they do not hinder our ability to think critically. By practicing emotional intelligence and maintaining a calm and composed mindset, candidates can enhance their critical thinking skills and make more informed decisions during the interview process.

Situation 2: The Negotiation

Emotions can also play a significant role in negotiations. For instance, if a negotiator becomes angry or frustrated during a negotiation, they may lose focus and make impulsive decisions that are not in their best interest. On the other hand, if a negotiator is too empathetic, they may give in to the demands of the other party without critically evaluating the situation.

To overcome these challenges, it is important to develop emotional intelligence and practice emotion regulation techniques. By staying calm, managing emotions, and maintaining a rational mindset, negotiators can make more strategic decisions and achieve better outcomes.

In conclusion, these case studies and examples illustrate the impact of emotions on critical thinking. Emotions can either enhance or hinder our ability to think critically, depending on how we manage and regulate them. By understanding the influence of emotions on our decision-making processes, we can develop strategies to cultivate emotional intelligence and improve our critical thinking skills. It is essential to recognize the role of emotions in critical thinking and strive for a balance between emotions and rationality in order to make well-informed and effective decisions.

In the pursuit of effective critical thinking, it is crucial to find a balance between emotions and rationality. While emotions play a significant role in decision-making and problem-solving, they can also cloud judgment and lead to biased thinking. To ensure that emotions do not hinder the critical thinking process, it is essential to employ strategies for recognizing, managing, and balancing emotions. Here are some techniques to help achieve this balance:

Recognize and Acknowledge Emotions

The first step in balancing emotions and critical thinking is to recognize and acknowledge the emotions you are experiencing. Emotions can be powerful and can influence our thoughts and actions. By being aware of our emotions, we can better understand how they might be impacting our critical thinking processes. Take a moment to reflect on your emotions and identify any biases or preconceived notions they may be causing.

Practice Emotional Regulation

Emotional regulation is the ability to manage and control our emotions effectively. By practicing emotional regulation techniques, we can prevent our emotions from overwhelming our critical thinking abilities. Deep breathing exercises, mindfulness meditation, and journaling are just a few examples of strategies that can help regulate emotions. These techniques can help calm the mind and create a space for rational thinking.

Seek Different Perspectives

When faced with a challenging problem or decision, it is essential to seek different perspectives. Engaging with diverse viewpoints can help counteract the influence of emotions on critical thinking. By considering alternative viewpoints, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the situation and make more informed decisions. Engaging in discussions with others who may have different opinions can help challenge our own biases and emotional attachments.

Use Logic and Reasoning

To balance emotions and critical thinking, it is crucial to rely on logic and reasoning. Emotions can sometimes lead to impulsive or irrational decisions. By employing logical thinking and reasoning, we can evaluate information objectively and make sound judgments. When faced with a challenging situation, take a step back and analyze the facts and evidence at hand. This will help reduce the influence of emotions and ensure a more balanced approach to critical thinking.

Take Breaks and Self-Care

Taking breaks and practicing self-care is essential for maintaining a healthy balance between emotions and critical thinking. When we are stressed or overwhelmed, our emotions can become heightened, leading to biased thinking. By prioritizing self-care activities such as exercise, spending time with loved ones, or engaging in hobbies, we can reduce stress levels and promote emotional well-being. Taking breaks from intense critical thinking tasks allows us to recharge and approach problems with a fresh perspective.

Reflect and Learn from Mistakes

Balancing emotions and critical thinking is an ongoing process that requires self-reflection and learning from mistakes. It is essential to reflect on past experiences and identify how emotions may have influenced our critical thinking. By learning from these experiences, we can develop strategies to better manage emotions in the future. Embrace failures and mistakes as opportunities for growth and improvement.

In conclusion, balancing emotions and critical thinking is crucial for effective decision-making and problem-solving. By recognizing and acknowledging emotions, practicing emotional regulation, seeking different perspectives, using logic and reasoning, taking breaks and practicing self-care, and reflecting on past experiences, we can achieve a healthy balance between emotions and critical thinking. Developing these strategies will enhance our ability to think critically and make informed decisions, leading to personal and professional success.

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THE LEARNINGCOG BLOG

Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 10 – Problem Solving

This blog is part of a series of blogs exploring Emotional Intelligence. Looking at ways to be able to develop and enhance our own perceived levels of Emotional Intelligence.

What is Emotional Intelligence?

To gain a greater understanding you can read a previous blog What is Emotional Intelligence and How Can I develop it , for more detail. However, Emotional intelligence is all about how well you understand your own emotions and the emotions of others, and the ability to identify and manage them. Emotional Intelligence, also known as “Ei” or “EQ”, is now well established set of “Competencies” that contribute to performance, engagement and success.

Their are five key areas of Emotional Intelligence, Self Perception, Self Expression, Interpersonal, Decision Making and Stress Management. Each of these areas has three traits. We are going to discuss each of these traits in more detail with their own blog. We have previous looked at the area of Self Perception and now looking at Self Expression. This week we will be exploring the trait, Problem Solving.

What is Problem Solving and the relations to Emotional Intelligence?

Problem solving is the ability to identify and define problems as well as to generate an implement potentially effective solutions. In short, it involves effectively solving problems of the personal and interpersonal nature. Problem solving includes the ability to understand how emotions affect decision making. This trait is much more about your ability to solve a problem and not let it affect you and the people around you. To work through the problem in a calm and undressed manner. This may even be while the world around you is going crazy.

“We can not solve our problems with the same level of thinking that created them” – Albert Einstein

How much do you use the trait of Problem Solving?

Does it take a lot of emotional effort to solve a problem?

When Problem Solving is operating well:

Takes in enough information to make informed conclusions, but not so many details that you are overwhelmed
Keeps a clear head on the pertinent issues, without becoming frustrated
Generates motivation for others to act in a way that will achieve goals
Likely to take action

When Problem Solving is low:

May prefer others to make decisions for you
May struggle to keep a clear focus on the situation at hand
Much of their time and energy is spent worrying about decisions rather than trying to solve them
Prefers to deal with impractical problems rather than people

Developing skills around Problem Solving

During Learning Cog’s Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Masterclass, starting with ‘Self-Perception’, we explain how to assess you own emotional intelligence and how to develop your EQ awareness. Here in this blog we have added some areas to think about when developing Problem Solving.

Observation

Who do you know who is good in their problem solving?
What do they actually do to solve problems (list the steps)?
How do they go about finding out information about the problem, in order to get a complete picture?
When trying to solve the problem, how much time are they talking and how much time do they allow others to talk?

Self Coaching

What is your preferred approach to problem-solving? e.g. Avoid the problem, we looked at the last minute and grab the first answer that comes to mind, take a systematic approach
How do you respond when I have a problem?
When you deal with problems, either well or badly, what do people say about what you did?
Last time you handled a problem well, how did you feel, and what did you do that was key to successful outcome?

Thinking and Reflection

Here is an exercise for you to complete to help build your understanding of your own Problem Solving.

Exercise – Structured Problem Solving

Try this step-by-step guide to problem solving

Define the real problem: find out the real problem rather than the symptoms. e.g. Complaints from employees are symptoms, the underlying cause(s) is the real problem.
Set objectives: what objective do you want to achieve and how will you measure their successful achievement? Identify any constraints: Are any other parts of the organisation affected? Are there any time are financial are all the constraints?
Generates and prioritise options: how many different ideas have been generated? Prioritise them and select the ones you wish to develop further.
Choose and evaluate option: think about the possible effects of a particular option our solution. Choose the option which matches your objectives.
Implement: put your solution into action.
Monitor and evaluate: monitor progress, make adjustments if necessary. Have your objectives being met? What worked well that you can use next time?

It is important to actual do something when taking part in any self development. The practical is more important than the theory.

Distinguish between important and not so important problems, so you know how much time to spend on them.
Try to define and clarify what exactly the problem is.
Make an effort to understand how the problem developed, see the way it is affecting you and others and why.
Identify all the stakeholders in a problem and what their interest/needs are.
Practice differentiating important from not so important problems to develop the appropriate amount of energy to solving down.
Generate solutions to problems before making a decision.
Attempt to achieve a win/win solution, which meets the needs of all parties.
Use problem-solving and analysis tools and processes e.g. Force field analysis, pros and cons, fish bone technique, etc
When you have decided on the best way of dealing with the problem, go ahead and do it. It doesn’t work, try another possible solution.
Bank and the good times.
When you have done something really well take time to reflect on how well you did it and bank. To be able to use next time your are faced with a similar problem.

The more time you spend observing yourself and the people around you, the more you develop your Problem Solving. Give yourself time, it may feel mechanical, clumsy and awkward at first, but with practice it will become quick and easy and automatic. Why not get in touch and talk to us more about developing Emotional Intelligence in yourself, your Leadership Team or your whole business. [email protected]

Look out for the next blog on Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 11 – Reality Testing

Or read previous blogs:

What is emotional intelligence? and how can I develop it…

1 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 1 – Self Regard

2 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 2 – Self Actualisation

3 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 3 – Emotional Self Awareness

4 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 4 – Emotional Expression

5 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 5 – Assertiveness

6 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 6 – Independence

7 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 7 – Social Responsibility

8 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 8 – Empathy

9 Developing Emotional Intelligence – Part 9 – Interpersonal Relationships

Did you know we currently offer [Virtual] Emotional Intelligence testing and training?

Before the workshop you will be invited to take part in a pre-course activity which includes an online self-assessment producing a 20 page personal Emotional Intelligence Report.

An employee’s skills and qualifications are important for success within their role. An employee’s Emotional Intelligence is just as important, if not more so, for fulfilment within, or potentially beyond, their current role. The Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace workshop is designed to as part of an individual’s development in work settings. It helps individuals focus on the impact of emotional intelligence at work and offers suggestions for working more effectively in one’s role, with colleagues, managers and clients.

Understand the impact of Emotional Intelligence on themselves and the people around them
Quickly identify patterns in own and others Emotional Intelligence
Create a clear, organised understanding of their strengths and weaknesses in a constructive way.
Effectively measure where they currently are and wants to be by comparing results against sample groups of general population
Make instant connections between different subscales of Emotional Intelligence and help leverage EI strengths and improve EI weaknesses.
Create an action plan to develop key areas of Emotional Intelligence
Become a more effect member of the team and organisation – This virtual session is 4 hours with a 1 hour break. – All of our Virtual Learning workshops are conducted via Zoom . – Virtual learning begins at 10.30am through to 12.30pm and then again from 1.30pm to 3.30pm. – You will receive an electronic version of your Emotional Intelligence report, and workshop materials will be sent via post.

To discover more about Emotional Intelligence and how LearningCog can help you, head over to our dedicated Emotional Intelligence page.

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REVIEW article

The influences of emotion on learning and memory.

$\r\nChai M. Tyng$

Centre for Intelligent Signal and Imaging Research (CISIR), Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia

Emotion has a substantial influence on the cognitive processes in humans, including perception, attention, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem solving. Emotion has a particularly strong influence on attention, especially modulating the selectivity of attention as well as motivating action and behavior. This attentional and executive control is intimately linked to learning processes, as intrinsically limited attentional capacities are better focused on relevant information. Emotion also facilitates encoding and helps retrieval of information efficiently. However, the effects of emotion on learning and memory are not always univalent, as studies have reported that emotion either enhances or impairs learning and long-term memory (LTM) retention, depending on a range of factors. Recent neuroimaging findings have indicated that the amygdala and prefrontal cortex cooperate with the medial temporal lobe in an integrated manner that affords (i) the amygdala modulating memory consolidation; (ii) the prefrontal cortex mediating memory encoding and formation; and (iii) the hippocampus for successful learning and LTM retention. We also review the nested hierarchies of circular emotional control and cognitive regulation (bottom-up and top-down influences) within the brain to achieve optimal integration of emotional and cognitive processing. This review highlights a basic evolutionary approach to emotion to understand the effects of emotion on learning and memory and the functional roles played by various brain regions and their mutual interactions in relation to emotional processing. We also summarize the current state of knowledge on the impact of emotion on memory and map implications for educational settings. In addition to elucidating the memory-enhancing effects of emotion, neuroimaging findings extend our understanding of emotional influences on learning and memory processes; this knowledge may be useful for the design of effective educational curricula to provide a conducive learning environment for both traditional “live” learning in classrooms and “virtual” learning through online-based educational technologies.

Introduction

Emotional experiences are ubiquitous in nature and important and perhaps even critical in academic settings, as emotion modulates virtually every aspect of cognition. Tests, examinations, homework, and deadlines are associated with different emotional states that encompass frustration, anxiety, and boredom. Even subject matter influences emotions that affect one’s ability to learn and remember. The usage of computer-based multimedia educational technologies, such as intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) and massive open online courses (MOOCs), which are gradually replacing traditional face-to-face learning environments, is increasing. This may induce various emotional experiences in learners. Hence, emotional influences should be carefully considered in educational courses design to maximize learner engagement as well as improve learning and long-term retention of the material ( Shen et al., 2009 ). Numerous studies have reported that human cognitive processes are affected by emotions, including attention ( Vuilleumier, 2005 ), learning and memory ( Phelps, 2004 ; Um et al., 2012 ), reasoning ( Jung et al., 2014 ), and problem-solving ( Isen et al., 1987 ). These factors are critical in educational domains because when students face such difficulties, it defeats the purpose of schooling and can potentially render it meaningless. Most importantly, emotional stimuli appear to consume more attentional resources than non-emotional stimuli ( Schupp et al., 2007 ). Moreover, attentional and motivational components of emotion have been linked to heightened learning and memory ( Pekrun, 1992 ; Seli et al., 2016 ). Hence, emotional experiences/stimuli appear to be remembered vividly and accurately, with great resilience over time.

Recent studies using functional neuroimaging techniques detect and recognize human emotional states and have become a topic of increasing research in cognitive neuroscience, affective neuroscience, and educational psychology to optimize learning and memory outcomes ( Carew and Magsamen, 2010 ; Um et al., 2012 ). Human emotions comprise complex interactions of subjective feelings as well as physiological and behavioral responses that are especially triggered by external stimuli, which are subjectively perceived as “personally significant.” Three different approaches are used to monitor the changes in emotional states: (1) subjective approaches that assess subjective feelings and experiences; (2) behavioral investigations of facial expressions ( Jack and Schyns, 2015 ), vocal expressions ( Russell et al., 2003 ), and gestural changes ( Dael et al., 2012 ); and (3) objective approaches via physiological responses that include electrical and hemodynamic of the central nervous system (CNS) activities ( Vytal and Hamann, 2010 ) in addition to autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses such as heart rate, respiratory volume/rate, skin temperature, skin conductance and blood volume pulses ( Li and Chen, 2006 ). The CNS and ANS physiological responses (brain vs. body organs) can be objectively measured via neuroimaging and biosensors and are more difficult to consciously conceal or manipulate compared to subjective and behavioral responses. Although functional neuroimaging enables us to identify brain regions of interest for cognitive and emotional processing, it is difficult to comprehend emotional influences on learning and memory retrieval without a fundamental understanding of the brain’s inherent emotional operating systems.

The aim of this current article was to highlight an evolutionary approach to emotion, which may facilitate understanding of the effects of emotion on learning and memory. We initially present the terminology used in affective neuroscience studies, describe the roles of emotion and motivation in learning and memory, and outline the evolutionary framework and the seven primary emotional system. This is followed by the emotional-cognitive interactions in the various brain regions that are intimately involved in emotion and memory systems. This is performed to define the congruent interactions in these regions are associated with long-term memory (LTM) retention. We then discuss the emerging studies that further our understanding of emotional effects deriving from different modalities of emotional content. This is followed by a discussion of four major functional neuroimaging techniques, including functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), electroencephalography (EEG), and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). We then present the important factors for consideration in experimental design, followed by a description of psychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety, which are emotionally charged dysfunctions that are strongly detrimental to cognitive performance. Our review ends with concluding remarks on the current issues and future research possibilities with respect to the efficient enhancement of educational practices and technologies.

Emotions, Moods, Feelings, Affects and Drives

Subjective terms used in affective neuroscience include emotions, moods, feelings, affects and drives. Although emotion has long been studied, it bears no single definition. A review of 92 putative definitions and nine skeptical statements ( Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981 ) suggests a definition with a rather broad consensus:

Emotions describe a complex set of interactions between subjective and objective variables that are mediated by neural and hormonal systems, which can (a) give rise to affective experiences of emotional valence (pleasure-displeasure) and emotional arousal (high-low activation/calming-arousing); (b) generate cognitive processes such as emotionally relevant perceptual affect, appraisals, labeling processes; (c) activate widespread psychological and physiological changes to the arousing conditions; and (d) motivate behavior that is often but not always expressive, goal-directed and adaptive.

Although this definition may be adequate for everyday purposes, it does not encompass some important aspects of emotional systems such as how emotions operate to create subjectively experienced feelings and how they control personality dimensions. Accordingly, Panksepp (1998) suggested the following:

Emotions are the psychoneural processes that are influential in controlling the vigor and patterning of actions in the dynamic flow of intense behavioral interchanges between animals as well as with certain objects that are important for survival. Hence, each emotion has a characteristic “feeling tone” that is especially important in encoding the intrinsic values of these interactions, depending on their likelihood of either promoting or hindering survival (both in the immediate “personal” and long-term “reproductive” sense). Subjective experiential-feelings arise from the interactions of various emotional systems with the fundamental brain substrates of “the self,” that is important in encoding new information as well as retrieving information on subsequent events and allowing individuals efficiently to generalize new events and make decisions.

He went further to propose seven primary emotional systems/prototype emotional states, namely SEEKING, RAGE, FEAR, LUST, CARE, PANIC/GRIEF, and PLAY that represent basic foundations for living and learning.

Moods last longer than emotions, which are also characterized by positive and negative moods. In contrast, feelings refer to mental experiences that are necessarily valence, either good or bad as well as accompanied by internal physiological changes in the body, specifically the viscera, including the heart, lungs, and gut, for maintaining or restoring homeostatic balances. Feelings are not commonly caused emotions. Because the generation of emotional feelings requires a neural re-mapping of different features of the body state in the CNS, resulting from cognitive “appraisal” where the anterior insular cortex plays a key integrative role ( Craig and Craig, 2009 ; Damasio and Carvalho, 2013 ). Nonetheless, Panksepp (2005) has defended the view that emotional operating systems (caudal and medial subcortical brain regions) appeared to generate emotional experiences via localized electrical stimulation of the brain stimulation (ESB) rather dependent on changes of the external environment or bodily states. Affects are subjective experienced emotional feelings that are difficult to describe, but have been linked to bodily states such as homeostatic drives (hunger and thirst) and external stimuli (visual, auditory, taste, touch, smell) ( Panksepp, 2005 ). The latter are sometimes called “core affect,” which refers to consciously accessible elemental processes involving pleasure and arousal that span bipolar dimensions ( Russell and Barrett, 1999 ). In addition, a “drive” is an inherent action program that is responsible for the satisfaction of basic and instinctual (biologically pre-set) physiological needs, e.g., hunger, thirst, libido, exploration, play, and attachment to mates ( Panksepp, 1998 ); this is sometimes called “homeostatic drive.” In brief, a crucial characteristic shared by emotion, mood, feeling, affect and drive is their intrinsic valence, which lies on the spectrum of positive and negative valence (pleasure-displeasure/goodness-badness). The term emotion exemplifies the “umbrella” concept that includes affective, cognitive, behavioral, expressive and physiological changes; emotion is triggered by external stimuli and associated with the combination of feeling and motivation.

Recent Evidence Regarding the Role of Emotion in Learning and Memory

The impact of emotion on learning processes is the focus of many current studies. Although it is well established that emotions influence memory retention and recall, in terms of learning, the question of emotional impacts remains questionable. Some studies report that positive emotions facilitate learning and contribute to academic achievement, being mediated by the levels of self-motivation and satisfaction with learning materials ( Um et al., 2012 ). Conversely, a recent study reported that negative learning-centered state (confusion) improve learning because of an increased focus of attention on learning material that leads to higher performances on post tests and transfer tests ( D’Mello et al., 2014 ). Confusion is not an emotion but a cognitive disequilibrium state induced by contradictory data. A confused student might be frustrated with their poor understanding of subject matter, and this is related to both the SEEKING and RAGE systems, with a low-level of activation of rage or irritation, and amplification of SEEKING. Hence, motivated students who respond to their confusion seek new understanding by doing additional cognitive work. Further clarification of this enhances learning. Moreover, stress, a negative emotional state, has also been reported to facilitate and/or impair both learning and memory, depending on intensity and duration ( Vogel and Schwabe, 2016 ). More specifically, mild and acute stress facilitates learning and cognitive performance, while excess and chronic stress impairs learning and is detrimental to memory performance. Many other negative consequences attend owing to overactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which results in both impaired synaptic plasticity and learning ability ( Joëls et al., 2004 ). Nonetheless, confounding influences of emotions on learning and memory can be explained in terms of attentional and motivational components. Attentional components enhance perceptual processing, which then helps to select and organize salient information via a “bottom-up” approach to higher brain functions and awareness ( Vuilleumier, 2005 ). Motivational components induce curiosity, which is a state associated with psychological interest in novel and/or surprising activities (stimuli). A curiosity state encourages further exploration and apparently prepares the brain to learn and remember in both children and adults ( Oudeyer et al., 2016 ). The term “surprising” might be conceptualized as an incongruous situation (expectancy violation) refers to a discrepancy between prior expectations and the new information; it may drive a cognitive reset for “learned content” that draws one’s attention.

Similarly, emotionally enhanced memory functions have been reported in relation to selective attention elicited by emotionally salient stimuli ( Vuilleumier, 2005 ; Schupp et al., 2007 ). During the initial perceptual stage, attention is biased toward emotionally salient information that supports detection by the salient input. Thus, stimulating selective attention increases the likelihood for emotional information to become encoded in LTM storage associated with a top-down control in sensory pathways that are modulated by the frontal and parietal cortices. This is an example of an indirect influence on perception and attention that regulates selective sensory processing and behavioral determination ( Vuilleumier, 2005 ). Because the human sensory systems have no capacity to simultaneously process everything at once, which necessitates attentional mechanisms. Top-down attentional processing obtains adequate attentional resource allocation to process emotional valence information for encoding and retrieval via cooperation with the brain regions such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and superior temporal sulcus, along with the primary visual cortex (helps to realize both emotion and conceptualization). Similarly, experimental studies have examined the phenomenon by using various attentional tasks, including filtering (dichotic listening and Stroop task), search (visual search), cuing (attentional probe, spatial cuing) and attentional blink [rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP)] paradigms ( Yiend, 2010 ). These investigations demonstrated biased attentional processing toward emotionally stimulating material content attended by increased sensory responses. One study reported that emotional stimuli induce a “pop-out” effect that leads to the attentional capture and privileged processing ( Öhman et al., 2001 ). Moreover, a study using the RSVP paradigm compared healthy subjects with a group of patients with bilateral amygdala damage. The results revealed that healthy subjects exhibited increased perception and attention toward emotional words compared to patients, indicating that the amygdala plays a crucial role in emotional processing ( Anderson and Phelps, 2001 ). In addition, functional neuroimaging showed that the insular cortex, the secondary somatosensory cortex, the cingulate cortex and nuclei in the tegmentum and hypothalamus are the brain regions that regulate attentional focus by integrating external and internal inputs to create emotional feeling states, thus modulating a motivational state that obtains homeostasis ( Damasio et al., 2000 ). All emotional systems associated with strong motivational components such as psychological salient bodily need states operate through the SEEKING system that motivates appetitive/exploratory behavior to acquire resources needed for survival ( Montag and Panksepp, 2017 ).

The distinction between emotion and homeostasis, is the process of regulation for continuously changing internal states via appropriate corrective responses that respond to both internal and external environmental conditions to maintain an optimal physiological state in the body. Homeostatic affects , such as hunger and thirst, are not considered prototype emotional states. Because homeostatic affects have never been mapped using ESB that arouse basic emotional responses ( Panksepp, 2005 , 2007 ). However, emotional prototypes can be thought of as evolutionary extensions/predictions of impending homeostatic threats; for example, SEEKING might be an evolutionary extension of intense hunger and thirst (the major sources of suffering that signal energy depletion to search for food and water intake) ( Watt, 2012 ). Homeostatic imbalances engage the mesolimbic motivational system via hypothalamic interactions with the extended trajectory of the SEEKING system [centrally including the lateral hypothalamus, ventral basal ganglia, and ventral tegmental area (VTA)]. It is the distributed functional network that serves the general function of finding resources for survival that gets hungry animals to food, thirsty animals to water, cold animals to warmer environments, etc. ( Panksepp, 1998 ). To summarize, both emotion and motivation are crucial for the maintenance of psychological and physiological homeostasis, while emotional roles are particularly important in the process of encoding new information containing emotional components. The latter increases attention toward salient new information by selectively enhancing detection, evaluation, and extraction of data for memorization. In addition, motivational components promote learning and enhance subsequent memory retrieval while generalizing new events consequent to adaptive physiological changes.

The Evolutionary Framework of Emotion and the Seven Primary Emotional Systems

Evolution built our higher minds (the faculty of consciousness and thoughts) on a foundation of primary-process of emotional mechanism that preprogrammed executive action systems (the prototype emotions) rely on cognitive processing (interpretation) and appraisal in the organisms attempt to decipher the type of situation they might be in; in other words, how to deal with emotionally challenging situations, whether it is a play situation or a threat situation (where RAGE and FEAR might be the appropriate system to recruit). Emotion offers preprogrammed but partially modifiable (under the secondary process of learning and memory) behavioral routines in the service of the solution of prototypical adaptive challenges, particularly in dealing with friend vs. foe; these routines are evolutionary extensions of homeostasis and embed a prediction beyond the current situation to a potentially future homeostatic benefit or threat. Thus, evolution uses whatever sources for survival and procreative success. According to Panksepp and Solms (2012) , key CNS emotional-affective processes are (1) Primary-process emotions; (2) Secondary-process learning and memory; and (3) Tertiary-process higher cognitive functions. Fundamentally, primary emotional processes regulate unconditioned emotional actions that anticipate survival needs and consequently guide secondary process via associative learning mechanisms (classical/Pavlovian and instrumental/operant conditioning). Subsequently, learning process sends relevant information to higher brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex to perform tertiary cognition process that allows planning for future based on past experiences, stored in LTM. In other words, the brain’s neurodevelopment trajectory and “wiring up” activations show that there is a genetically coded aversion to situations that generate RAGE, FEAR and other negative states for minimizing painful things and maximizing pleasurable kinds of stimulation. These are not learned- all learning (secondary-process) is piggybacked on top of the “primary-process emotions” that are governed by “Law of Affect” (see Figure 1 ). What now follows is an explanation of these CNS emotional-affective processing sub-levels and their inter-relationships.

FIGURE 1. Shows the nested hierarchies of circular emotional control and cognitive regulation for “bottom-up” influences and “top-down” regulations. The schematic shows conceptual relationships between primary processes of emotional system (lower brain function), as well as secondary processes of cognitive system and tertiary processing (higher brain function). Primary emotional processing for homeostatic, sensory and emotional affects facilitate secondary learning and memory processing via the “SEEKING” system that promotes survival and reproductive success (bottom-up instinctual influences). As secondary processes are continually integrated with primary emotional processing, they mature to higher brain cognitive faculties to generate effective solutions for living and subsequently exert top-down regulatory control over behavior. The primary emotional processing is mediated by complex unconditioned emotional responses (evolutionary “memories”) through “Law of Affect”; sometimes called “reinforcement principle” that explains how the brain emotional networks control learning. This bi-circular causation for higher brain functionality is coordinated by lower brain functions [adapted from ( Panksepp and Solms, 2012 )].

Primary-Process Emotions (Prototype Emotional States)

The emotional operating system is an inherited and genetically encoded circuitry that anticipates key survival and homeostatic needs. Thus, animals and humans share primary emotional network at the subcortical level, which includes the midbrain’s periaqueductal grey (PAG) and VTA, basal ganglia (amygdala and nucleus accumbens), and insula, as well as diencephalon (the cingulate and medial frontal cortices through the lateral and medial hypothalamus and medial thalamus). Subcortical brain regions are involved in three sub-components of affects: (1) core emotional feelings (fear, anger, joy and various forms of distress); (2) homeostatic drives/motivational experiences (hunger and thirst); and (3) sensory affects (pain, taste, temperature and disgust). Primary-process emotions are not unconscious. Strong emotion is intrinsically conscious at least in the sense that it is experienced even if we might mislabel it, or animal clearly is not able to attach a semantic label-these are simply not realistic standards for determining whether something is conscious or not conscious. Nonetheless, the emotional experiences guide behavior to promote survival and procreative success as well as mediate learning (‘ rewarding ’ and ‘ punishing ’ learning effects) and thinking at secondary and tertiary levels.

Secondary-Process Emotions (Learning and Memory)

Primary emotional systems guide associative learning and memory (classical/operant conditioning and emotional habit) processes via the mediation of emotional networks. This includes the basal ganglia (basolateral and central amygdala, nucleus accumbens, thalamus and dorsal striatum), and the medial temporal lobe (MTL) including hippocampus as well as the entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortices that responsible for declarative memories. Thus, secondary processes of learning and memory scrutinize and regulate emotional feelings in relation to environmental events that subsequently refine effective solutions to living.

Tertiary-Process Emotions (Higher Cognitive Functions)

Higher cognitive functions operate within the cortical regions, including the frontal cortex for awareness and consciousness functions such as thinking, planning, emotional regulation and free-will (intention-to-act), which mediate emotional feelings. Hence, cognition is an extension of emotion (just as emotion is an extension of homeostasis aforementioned). Tertiary processes are continually integrated with the secondary processes and reach a mature level (higher brain functions) to better anticipating key survival issues, thus yielding cognitive control of emotion via “top-down” regulation. In other words, brain-mind evolution enables human to reason but also regulate our emotions.

Psychologist Neisser (1963) suggested that cognition serves emotion and homeostatic needs where environmental information is evaluated in terms of its ability to satisfy or frustrate needs. In other words, cognition is in the service of satisfying emotional and homeostatic needs. This infers that cognition modulates, activates and inhibits emotion. Hence, emotion is not a simple linear event but rather a feedback process that autonomously restores an individual’s state of equilibrium. More specifically stated, emotion regulates the allocation of processing resources and determines our behavior by tuning us to the world in certain biased ways, thus steering us toward things that “feel good” while avoiding things that “feel bad.” This indicates that emotion guides and motivates cognition that promotes survival by guiding behavior and desires according to unique goal orientation ( Northoff et al., 2006 ). Therefore, the CNS maintains complex processes by continually monitoring internal and external environments. For example, changes in internal environments (contraction of visceral muscles, heart rate, etc.) are sensed by an interoceptive system (afferent peripheral nerves) that signals the sensory cortex (primary, secondary and somatosensory) for integration and processing. Thus, from an evolutionary perspective, human mental activity is driven by the ancient emotional and motivational brain systems shared by cross-mammalians that encode life-sustaining and life-detracting features to promote adaptive instinctual responses. Moreover, emotional and homeostasis mechanisms are characterized by intrinsic valence processing that is either a positive/pleasure or negative/displeasure bias. Homeostasis imbalance is universally experienced as negative emotional feelings and only becomes positively valenced when rectified. Hence, individuals sustain bodily changes that underlie psychological (emotional) and biological (homeostatic) influences on two sides, i.e., one side is oriented toward the survival and reproductive success that is associated with positively valenced emotional and physiologic homeostasis (anticipatory response) and the other responds to survival and reproductive failure associated with negatively valenced emotional and physiologic homeostasis (reactive response). Consequently, cognition modulates both emotional and homeostatic states by enhancing survival and maximizing rewards while minimizing risk and punishments. Thus, this evolutionary consideration suggests the brain as a ‘predictive engine’ to make it adaptive in a particular environment. Figure 2 demonstrates this cyclic homeostatic regulation.

FIGURE 2. Conceptually maps the homeostatic regulation of internal and external inputs that affect cognition, emotion, feeling, and drive: Inputs → Homeostasis ↔ Emotion ∗ ↔ Cognition. This lead to the experience of one’s self via overt behavior that is biased by a specific emotion stimulated by bodily changes that underlie psychological/physiological states. ∗ Represents emotion associated with a combination of feeling and motivation/drive; ↔ indicates a bi-directional interaction; and → indicates a one-directional relationship. Adapted from Damasio and Carvalho (2013) .

Panksepp (1998) identified seven primary emotional systems that govern mammalian brains as follows: SEEKING, RAGE, FEAR, LUST, CARE, PANIC/GRIEF, and PLAY. Here, we use UPPERCASE letters to denote unconditional emotional responses (emotional primes). These primary emotional neural networks are situated in the subcortical regions; moreover, the evidence demonstrates that decortication leaves primary emotional systems intact ( Panksepp et al., 1994 ). Hence, cortical regions are non-essential for the generation of prototype emotional states but are responsible for their modulation and regulation. The present article emphasizes SEEKING because it is the most fundamental of the primary emotional systems and is crucial for learning and memory. The SEEKING system facilitates learning because when fully aroused, it fills the mind with interest that then motivates the individual to search out and learn things that they need, crave and desire. Accordingly, SEEKING generates and sustains curiosity’s engagement for a particular purpose while also promoting learning via its mediation of anticipatory eagerness ( Oudeyer et al., 2016 ). In other words, the SEEKING system has been designed to automatically learn by exploring anything that results in acquired behavioral manifestations for survival operations, all the way from the mesolimbic-mesocortical dopamine system through to the prefrontal cortex (PFC); thus, it is intimately linked with LTM formation ( Blumenfeld and Ranganath, 2007 ). Consequently, it is the foundation of secondary learning and higher cognitive processes when compared with the remaining six emotional systems. However, this system is less activated during chronic stress, sickness, and depression, all of which are likely to impair learning and various higher cognitions. On the other hand, overactivity of this system promotes excessively impulsive behaviors attended by manic thoughts and psychotic delusions. Moreover, massive lesion of SEEKING’s neural network (midline subcortical regions-the PAG, VTA, nucleus accumbens (NAc), medial forebrain and anterior cingulate) lead to consciousness disorder, specifically akinetic mutism (AKM) syndrome that the patient appears wakeful, attentive but motionless ( Schiff and Plum, 2000 ; Watt and Pincus, 2004 ). In brief, the SEEKING system holds a critical position that optimizes the performance of emotion, motivation, and cognition processes by generating positive subjective emotional states-positive expectancy, enthusiastic exploration, and hopefulness. Because the seven primary emotional systems and their associated key neuroanatomical and key neurochemical features have been reviewed elsewhere ( Panksepp, 2011a , b ), they are not covered in this review.

Emotion–Cognition Interactions and its Impacts on Learning and Memory

Studies in psychology ( Metcalfe and Mischel, 1999 ) and neuroscience ( Dolcos et al., 2011 ) proposed that cognition and emotion processes are operated at two separate but interacting systems: (i) the “cool cognitive system” is hippocampus-based that is associated with emotionally neutral cognitive functions as well as cognitive controls; and (ii) the “hot emotional system” is amygdala-based that responsible for emotional processing and responses toward unconditioned emotional stimuli such as appetitive and fear-evoking conditions. In addition, an early view of a dorsal/ventral stream distinction was commonly reported between both systems. The dorsal stream encompasses the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and lateral parietal cortex, which are involved in the cool system for active maintenance of controlled processes such as cognitive performance and the pursuit of goal-relevant information in working memory (WM) amidst interference. In contrast, the hot system involves the ventral neural system, including the amygdala, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) as well as orbitofrontal (OFC) and occipito-temporal cortex (OTC), all of which encompass emotional processing systems ( Dolcos et al., 2011 ). Nonetheless, recent investigations claim that distinct cognitive and emotional neural systems are not separated but are deeply integrated and contain evidence of mediation and modulation ( Dolcos et al., 2011 ; Okon-Singer et al., 2015 ). Consequently, emotions are now thought to influence the formation of a hippocampal-dependent memory system ( Pessoa, 2008 ), exerting a long-term impact on learning and memory. In other words, although cognitive and affective processes can be independently conceptualized, it is not surprising that emotions powerfully modify cognitive appraisals and memory processes and vice versa. The innate emotional systems interact with higher brain systems and probably no an emotional state that is free of cognitive ramifications. If cortical functions were evolutionarily built upon the pre-existing subcortical foundations, it provides behavioral flexibility ( Panksepp, 1998 ).

The hippocampus is located in the MTL and is thought to be responsible for the potentiation and consolidation of declarative memory before newly formed memories are distributed and stored in cortical regions ( Squire, 1992 ). Moreover, evidence indicates that the hippocampus functions as a hub for brain network communications-a type of continuous exchange of information center that establishes LTM dominated by theta wave oscillations ( Battaglia et al., 2011 ) that are correlated with learning and memory ( Rutishauser et al., 2010 ). In other words, hippocampus plays a crucial role in hippocampal-dependent learning and declarative memories. Numerous studies have reported that the amygdala and hippocampus are synergistically activated during memory encoding to form a LTM of emotional information, that is associated with better retention ( McGaugh et al., 1996 ; Richter-Levin and Akirav, 2000 ; Richardson et al., 2004 ). More importantly, these studies (fear-related learning) strongly suggest that the amygdala’s involvement in emotional processing strengthens the memory network by modulating memory consolidation; thus, emotional content is remembered better than neutral content.

In addition to amygdala-hippocampus interactions, one study reported that the PFC participates in emotional valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant) processing during WM ( Perlstein et al., 2002 ). Simons and Spiers (2003) also reviewed studies of interactions between the PFC and MTL during the memory encoding and retrieval processes underlying successful LTM. They demonstrated that the PFC is crucial for LTM because it engages with the active maintenance of information linked to the cognitive control of selection, engagement, monitoring, and inhibition. Hence, it detects relevant data that appears worthwhile, which is then referred for encoding, thus leading to successful LTM ( Simons and Spiers, 2003 ). Consistent findings were reported for recognition tasks investigated by fMRI where the left PFC-hippocampal network appeared to support successful memory encoding for neutral and negative non-arousing words. Simultaneously, amygdala-hippocampus activation was observed during the memory encoding of negative arousing words ( Kensinger and Corkin, 2004 ). Moreover, Mega et al. (1996) proposed two divisions for the limbic system: (i) the paleocortex division (the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, temporal polar and anterior insula), and (ii) the archicortical division (the hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex). The first component is responsible for the implicit integration of affects, drives and object associations; the second deals with explicit sensory processing, encoding, and attentional control. Although divided into two sub-divisions, the paleocortex and archicortical cortex remain integrated during learning. Here, the paleocortex appears to manage the internal environment for implicit learning while integrating affects, drives, and emotions. Simultaneously, the archicortical division appears to manage external environment input for explicit learning by facilitating attention selection with attendant implicit encoding. To some extent, the paleocortex system might come to exercise a supervisory role and link the ancient affective systems to the newer cognitive systems.

Amygdala–Hippocampus Interactions

The findings of previous studies suggest that the amygdala is involved in emotional arousal processing and modulation of the memory processes (encoding and storage) that contribute to the emotional enhancement of memory ( McGaugh et al., 1996 ; Richter-Levin and Akirav, 2000 ). Activation of the amygdala during the encoding of emotionally arousing information (both pleasant/unpleasant) has been reported that correlates with subsequent recall. Because of the interaction between basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA) with other brain regions that are involved in consolidating memories, including the hippocampus, caudate nucleus, NAc, and other cortical regions. Thus, BLA activation results from emotionally arousing events, which appear to modulate memory storage-related regions that influence long-term memories ( McGaugh, 2004 ). Memory consolidation is a part of the encoding and retention processes where labile memories of newly learned information become stabilized and are strengthened to form long-lasting memories ( McGaugh, 2000 ). Moreover, the amygdala transmits direct feedback/projection along the entire rostral-caudal cortices to the visual cortex of the ventral stream system, including primary visual (V1) and temporal cortices ( Amaral et al., 2003 ); furthermore, the amygdala activates the frontal and parietal regions during negative emotion processing that are involved in attention control. Consequently, during emotional processing, direct projections from the amygdala to sensory cortices enhance attentional mechanism might also allow the parallel processing of the attentional (fronto-parietal) system ( Vuilleumier, 2005 ). This suggests that amygdala activation is associated with enhanced attention and is a part of how salience enhances information retention.

In addition to attentional biases toward emotional content during memory encoding, emotionally arousing experiences have been found to induce the release of adrenal stress hormones, followed by the activation of β-noradrenergic receptors in the BLA, which then release epinephrine and glucocorticoids in the BLA, while enhancing memory consolidation of emotional experiences ( McGaugh and Roozendaal, 2002 ). Thus, there is evidence that the consolidation of new memory that is stimulated by emotionally arousing experiences can be enhanced through the modulating effects of the release of stress hormones and stress-activated neurotransmitters associated with amygdala activation. The BLA comprises the basal amygdala (BA) and lateral amygdala (LA), which project to numerous brain regions involved in learning and memory, including the hippocampus and PFC ( Cahill and McGaugh, 1998 ; Sharot and Phelps, 2004 ; McGaugh, 2006 ). However, stress and emotion do not always induce strong memories of new information. Indeed, they have also been reported to inhibit WM and LTM under certain conditions related to mood and chronic stress ( Schwabe and Wolf, 2010 ). Consequently, understanding, managing, and regulating emotion is critical to the development of enhanced learning programs informed by the significant impacts of learning and memory under different types of stress ( Vogel and Schwabe, 2016 ).

Prefrontal Cortex–Hippocampus Interaction

The PFC is located in the foremost anterior region of the frontal lobe and is associated with higher-order cognitive functions such as prediction and planning of/for the future ( Barbey et al., 2009 ). Moreover, it is thought to act as a control center for selective attention ( Squire et al., 2013 ), and also plays a critical role in WM as well as semantic processing, cognitive control, problem-solving, reasoning and emotional processing ( Miller and Cohen, 2001 ; Yamasaki et al., 2002 ). The PFC is connected to sub-cortical regions in the limbic system, including the amygdala and various parts of the MTL ( Simons and Spiers, 2003 ). Its involvement in WM and emotional processing are intimately connected with the MTL structures that decisively affect LTM encoding and retrieval ( Blumenfeld and Ranganath, 2007 ) in addition to self-referential processing ( Northoff et al., 2006 ). Structurally, the PFC is divided into five sub-regions: anterior (BA 10), dorsolateral (BA 9 and 46), ventrolateral (BA 44, 45, and 47), medial (BA 25 and 32) and orbitofrontal (BA 11, 12, and 14) ( Simons and Spiers, 2003 ).

The mPFC has been associated with anticipatory responses that reflect cognitive expectations for pleasant/unpleasant experiences (appraising rewarding/aversive stimuli to generate emotional responses) ( Ochsner et al., 2002 ; Ochsner and Gross, 2005 ). Specifically, increased mPFC activation has been noted during reappraisal and is associated with the suppressed subjective experience of negative emotions. Furthermore, an fMRI study revealed concurrent activation levels of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) with emotional valence when processing emotional stimuli: (i) activation was associated with positive valence, and (ii) deactivation was associated with negative valence ( Heinzel et al., 2005 ). Similarly, emotional and non-emotional judgment task using the International Affective Pictures System (IAPS) demonstrated increased activation of the mPFC, specifically both ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and dmPFC during emotional judgment when compared with non-emotional judgment. However, an inverse relationship was observed in the lateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC and DLPFC) during non-emotional judgment ( Northoff et al., 2004 ). These findings suggested reciprocal interactions between cognitive and emotional processing between dorsal and lateral neural systems when processing emotional and cognitive tasking demands ( Bartolic et al., 1999 ).

Other studies reported strong cognition-emotion interactions in the lateral prefrontal cortex with increased activity in the DLPFC, which plays a key role in top-down modulation of emotional processing ( Northoff et al., 2004 ; Comte et al., 2014 ). This indicates increased attentional control of regulatory mechanisms that process emotional content. For instance, one study reported that cognitive task appeared to require active retention in WM, noting that the process was influenced by emotional stimuli when subjects were instructed to remember emotional valence information over a delay period ( Perlstein et al., 2002 ). Their findings revealed increased activation in the right DLPFC in response to pleasant IAPS pictures, but with an opposite effect in response to unpleasant pictures (decreased activity in the right DLPFC). This could be interpreted as increased WM-related activity when processing positive emotional stimuli, thus leading to positive emotion maintenance of stimulus representation in WM. Furthermore, they observed that the DLPFC contributed to increased LTM performance linked to stronger item associations and greater organization of information in WM during pleasant compared to unpleasant emotion ( Blumenfeld and Ranganath, 2006 ).

Another study investigated the PFC’s role in emotional mediation, reporting that the right VLPFC provided cognitive resources for both emotional reappraisal and learning processes via two separate subcortical pathways: (i) a path through NAc appeared to greater reappraisal success (suppress negative emotion) and (ii) another path through the ventral amygdala appeared to reduced reappraisal success (boost negative experience). This result indicates the VLPFC’s role in the regulation of emotional responses (reducing negative appraisal and generating positive appraisal) by retrieving appropriate information from memory ( Wager et al., 2008 ). Certain characteristics of emotional content were found to mediate the encoding and retrieval of selective information by leading high levels of attention, distinctiveness, and information organization that enhanced recall for emotional aspects of complex events ( Talmi, 2013 ). Hence, this direction of additional attention to emotional information appears to enhance LTM with the pronounced effects deriving from positive emotions compared with negative emotions. Effects of emotion on memory was also investigated using immediate (after 20 s) and delayed (after 50 min) testing paradigm, has shown that better recall for emotionally negative stimuli during immediate test compared to delayed test because of attentional allocation for encoding while the delayed test demonstrated that the role of amygdala in modulating memory consolidation of emotional stimuli. Because selective attention drives priority assignment for emotional material ( Talmi et al., 2007 ). Meanwhile, the distinctiveness and organization of information can improve memory because unique attributes and inter-item elaboration during encoding serve as retrieval cues, which then lead to high possibilities for correct recall ( Erk et al., 2003 ). Consistent findings were also reported by ( Dolcos et al., 2004 ), who suggested an emotional mediation effect deriving from PFC activity in relation to cognitive functions such as strategic memory, semantic memory, and WM, which subsequently enhanced memory formation. Table 1 summarizes cognitive-emotional functions associated with each sub-region of the PFC and corresponding Brodmann areas. Taken together, these findings indicate that the PFC is a key component in both cognitive and emotional processing for successful LTM formation and retrieval.

TABLE 1. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) sub-regions, corresponding Brodmann areas, and associated cognitive-emotional functions.

Effects Deriving From Different Modalities of Emotional Stimuli on Learning and Memory

As discussed above, evidence indicates the neural mechanisms underlying the emotional processing of valence and arousal involve the amygdala and PFC, where the amygdala responds to emotionally arousing stimuli and the PFC responds to the emotional valence of non-arousing stimuli. We have thus far primarily discussed studies examining neural mechanisms underlying the processing of emotional images. However, recent neuroimaging studies have investigated a wider range of visual emotional stimuli. These include words ( Sharot et al., 2004 ), pictures ( Dolcos et al., 2005 ; Weymar et al., 2011 ), film clips ( Cahill et al., 1996 ), and faces ( González-Roldan et al., 2011 ), to investigate neural correlates of emotional processing and the impact of emotion on subsequent memory. These studies provided useful supplemental information for future research on emotional effects of educational multimedia content (combination of words and pictures), an increasingly widespread channel for teaching and learning.

An event-related fMRI study examined the neural correlates of responses to emotional pictures and words in which both were manipulated in terms of positive and negative valence, and where neutral emotional content served as a baseline (“conditioned stimuli”/no activating emotion with valence rating of 5 that spans between 1/negative valence-9/positive valence), even though all stimuli were consistent in terms of arousal levels ( Kensinger and Schacter, 2006 ). Subjects were instructed to rate each stimulus as animate or inanimate and common or uncommon . The results revealed the activation of the amygdala in response to positive and negative valence (valence-independent) for pictures and words. A lateralization effect was observed in the amygdala when processing different emotional stimuli types. The left amygdala responded to words while either the right and/or bilateral amygdala activation regions responded to pictures. In addition, participants were more sensitive to emotional pictures than to emotional words. The mPFC responded more rigorously during the processing of positive than to that of negative stimuli, while the VLPFC responded more to negative stimuli. The researchers concluded that arousal-related responses occur in the amygdala, dmPFC, vmPFC, anterior temporal lobe and temporo-occipital junction, whereas valence-dependent responses were associated with the lateral PFC for negative stimuli and the mPFC for positive stimuli. The lateralization of the amygdala’s activation was consistent with that in other studies that also showed left-lateralized amygdala responses for words ( Hamann and Mao, 2002 ) vs. right-lateralized amygdala responses for images ( Pegna et al., 2005 ). However, a wide range of studies suggest that lateralization likely differs with sex ( Hamann, 2005 ), individual personality ( Hamann and Canli, 2004 ), mood ( Rusting, 1998 ), age ( Allard and Kensinger, 2014 ), sleep ( Walker, 2009 ), subject’s awareness of stimuli ( Morris et al., 1998 ), stress ( Payne et al., 2007 ) and other variables. Hence, these factors should be considered in future studies.

Event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to investigate the modality effects deriving from emotional words and facial expressions as stimuli in healthy, native German speakers ( Schacht and Sommer, 2009a ). German verbs or pseudo-words associated with positive, negative or neutral emotions were used, in addition to happy vs. angry faces, as well as neutral and slightly distorted faces. The results revealed that negative posterior ERPs were evoked in the temporo-parieto-occipital regions, while enhanced positive ERPs were evoked in the fronto-central regions (positive verbs and happy faces) when compared with neutral and negative stimuli. These findings were in agreement with the previous findings ( Schupp et al., 2003 ; Schacht and Sommer, 2009b ). While the same neuronal mechanisms appear to be involved in response to both emotional stimuli types, latency differences were also reported with faster responses to facial stimuli than to words, likely owing to more direct access to neural circuits-approximately 130 ms for happy faces compared to 380 ms for positive verbs ( Schacht and Sommer, 2009a ). Moreover, augmented responses observed in the later positive complex (LPP), i.e., larger late positive waves in response to emotional verbs (both positive and negative) and angry faces, all associated with the increased motivational significance of emotional stimuli ( Schupp et al., 2000 ) and increased selective attention to pictures ( Kok, 2000 ).

Khairudin et al. (2011) investigated effects of emotional content on explicit memory with two standardized stimuli: emotional words from the Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW) and emotional pictures from the IAPS. All stimuli were categorized as positive, negative or neutral, and displayed in two different trials. Results revealed that better memory for emotional images than for emotional words. Moreover, a recognition test demonstrated that positive emotional content was remembered better than negative emotional content. Researchers concluded that emotional valence significantly impacts memory and that negative valence suppressed the explicit memory. Another study by Khairudin et al. (2012) investigated the effects of emotional content on explicit verbal memory by assessing recall and recognition for emotionally positive, negative and neutral words. The results revealed that emotion substantially influences memory performance and that both positive and negative words were remembered more effectively than neutral words. Moreover, emotional words were remembered better in recognition vs. recall test.

Another group studied the impacts of emotion on memory using emotional film clips that varied in emotion with neutral, positive, negative and arousing contents ( Anderson and Shimamura, 2005 ). A subjective experiment for word recall and context recognition revealed that memory, for words associated with emotionally negative film clips, was lower than emotionally neutral, positive and arousing films. Moreover, emotionally arousing film clips were associated with enhanced context recognition memory but not during a free word recall test. Therefore, clarifying whether emotional stimuli enhance recognition memory or recall memory requires further investigation, as it appears that emotional information was better remembered for recognition compared to recall. In brief, greater attentional resource toward emotional pictures with large late positive waves of LPP in the posterior region, the amygdala responds to emotional stimuli (both words and pictures) independent on its valence, leading to enhanced memory. Table 2 summarizes studies on the brain regions that respond to standardized stimuli as cited above, and also for pictures of emotional facial expression or Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA), Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW) for emotional words, as well as for the International Affective Digitized Sound System (IDAS) for emotional sounds.

TABLE 2. Comparison of different emotional stimulus categories.

Neuroimaging Techniques for the Investigation of Emotional-Cognitive Interactions

The brain regions associated with cognitive-emotional interactions can be studied with different functional neuroimaging techniques (fMRI, PET, and fNIRS) to examine hemodynamic responses (indirect measurement). EEG is used to measure brain electrical dynamics (direct measurement) associated with responses to cognitive and emotional tasks. Each technique has particular strengths and weaknesses, as described below.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging is a widely used functional neuroimaging tool for mapping of brain activation as it provides a high spatial resolution (a few millimeters). fMRI is an indirect measure of hemodynamic response by measuring changes in local ratios of oxy-hemoglobin vs. deoxy-hemoglobin, typically known as a blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) signal ( Cabeza and Nyberg, 2000 ). Dolcos et al. (2005) examined the effects of emotional content on memory enhancement during retrieval process using event-related fMRI to measure retrieval-related activity after a retention interval of 1 year. The researchers concluded that successful retrieval of emotional pictures involved greater activation of the amygdala as well as the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus than that of neutral pictures. Both the amygdala and hippocampus were rigorously activated during recollection compared to familiarity recognition, whereas no differences were found in the entorhinal cortex for either recollection or familiarity recognition. Moreover, a study investigates motivation effect (low vs. high monetary reward) on episodic retrieval by manipulating task difficulty, fMRI data reports that increased activation in the substantia nigra/VTA, MTL, dmPFC, and DLPFC when successful memory retrieval with high difficulty than with low difficulty. Moreover, reward-related of functional connectivities between the (i) SN/VTA–MTL and (ii) SN/VTA–dmPFC appear to increases significantly with increases retrieval accuracy and subjective motivation. Thus, Shigemune et al. (2017) suggest that reward/motivation-related memory enhancement modulated by networking between the SN/VTA (reward-related), dmPFC (motivation-related) and MTL (memory-related) network as well as DLPFC (cognitive controls) with high task difficulty.

Taken together, these findings indicate that the amygdala and MTL have important roles in the recollection of emotional and motivational memory. Another fMRI study reported that greater success for emotional retrieval (emotional hits > misses ) was associated with neural activation of the bilateral amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampus, whereas a higher success rate for neutral retrieval is associated with a greater activity in right posterior parahippocampus regions ( Shafer and Dolcos, 2014 ). Hence, fMRI has clearly revealed interactions between cognitive and emotional neural networks during information processing, particularly in response to emotion-related content. Such interactions appear to modulate memory consolidation while also mediating encoding and retrieval processes that underlie successful LTM formation and memory recall. More specifically, it appears that amygdala activation modulates both the hippocampus and visual cortex during visual perception and enhances the selection and organization of salient information via the “bottom-up” approach to higher cognitive functions directed at awareness. Although fMRI is widely used, it poses several limitations such as poor temporal resolution, expensive setup costs, plus the difficulty of having a subject hold still during the procedure in an electromagnetically shielded room (immobility). Furthermore, fMRI is slightly more metabolically sluggish, as BOLD signal exhibits an initial dip, where the increase of subsequent signal is delayed by 2–3 s and it takes approximately 6–12 s to reach to a peak value that reflects the neural responses elicited by a stimulus ( Logothetis et al., 2001 ). This means that fMRI having a coarse temporal resolution (several seconds) when compared with electrophysiological techniques (a few milliseconds) and also not a great technique for visualizing subcortical regions (mesencephalon and brainstem) due to metabolically sluggish compared to PET.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography is another functional neuroimaging tool that maps CNS physiology and neural activation by measuring glucose metabolism or regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF). PET uses positron-emitting radionuclides such as 18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) and positron-emitting-oxygen isotope tagged with water ([ 15 O] H 2 O), etc. This technique identifies different neural networks involving pleasant, unpleasant and neutral emotions ( Lane et al., 1997 ). It thus far appears that increased rCBF in the mPFC, thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain associated with pleasant and unpleasant emotional processing, while unpleasant emotions are more specifically associated with the bilateral OTC, cerebellum, left parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, and amygdala; moreover, the caudate nucleus is associated with pleasant emotions.

Using PET scanning demonstrated that emotional information enhances visual memory recognition via interactions between perception and memory systems, specifically with greater activation of the lingual gyrus for visual stimuli ( Taylor et al., 1998 ). The results also showed that strong negative emotional valence appeared to enhance the processing of early sensory input. Moreover, differences in neural activation appeared in the left amygdaloid complex (AC) during encoding, while the right PFC and mPFC responded during recognition memory. Similarly, Tataranni et al. (1999) identified CNS regions associated with appetitive states (hunger and satiation) ( Tataranni et al., 1999 ). Hunger stimulated increased rCBF uptake in multiple regions including the hypothalamus, insular cortex, limbic and paralimbic regions (anterior cingulate cortex, parahippocampal and hippocampal formation, the anterior temporal and posterior orbitofrontal cortex), as well as the thalamus, caudate, precuneus, putamen, and cerebellum. Satiation was associated with increased rCBF uptake in the bilateral vmPFC, the DLPFC, and the inferior parietal lobule. These results imply that (i) subcortical regions associated with emotion/motivation involved in hunger that signals distressing feeling (discomfort, pain and anxiety) for the regulation of food intake; and (ii) the PFC associated with inhibition of inappropriate behavioral response involved in satiation that signals excessive food consumption for a termination of meal.

In a study of emotional self-generation using PET noted that the insular cortex, secondary somatosensory cortex, and hypothalamus, as well as the cingulate cortex and nuclei in the brainstem’s tegmentum, including PAG, parabrachial nucleus, and substantia nigra maintained current homeostasis by generating regulatory signals ( Damasio et al., 2000 ). PET scanning has also been used for neuroanatomical mapping of emotions ( Davidson and Irwin, 1999 ), emotional processing ( Choudhary et al., 2015 ), and cognitive functions ( Cabeza and Nyberg, 2000 ). Although PET scanning has a relatively good spatial resolution for both the brain and bodily functions, it is costly and yields lower temporal resolution than does EEG and is invasive as opposed to fMRI. Moreover, PET tends to show better activation of more ancient brain regions in the mesencephalon and brainstem when compared to fMRI. Hence, it is generally reserved for the clinical diagnoses of cancers, neurological diseases processes (e.g., epilepsy and Alzheimer’s disease), and heart diseases.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Electroencephalography obtains high temporal resolution in milliseconds, portable, less expensive, and non-invasive techniques by attaching scalp electrodes to record brain electrical activity. Moreover, numerous studies reported that EEG is useful in mapping CNS cognitive and emotional processing. The technique offers a comprehensive range of feature extraction and analysis methods, including power spectral analysis, EEG coherence, phase delay, and cross-power analysis. One study examined changes in EEG oscillations in the amygdala during the consolidation of emotionally aroused memory processing that exhibited theta (4–8 Hz) activity ( Paré et al., 2002 ), indicating the facilitation of memory consolidation, improved retention of emotional content, and enhanced memory recall. This finding was later supported by the revelation of increased theta activity in the right frontal ( Friese et al., 2013 ) and right temporal cortices ( Sederberg et al., 2003 ) and consequently associated with the successful encoding of new information. Another study ( Buzsáki, 2002 ) revealed that theta oscillations were positively related to the activation of the hippocampus represent the active brain state during sensory, motor and memory-related processing. The theta waves are generated through an interaction between the entorhinal cortex, the Schaffer collateral (CA3 region) and the pyramidal cell dendrites (both CA3 and CA1 regions) that result in a synaptic modification underlie learning and memory. Thus, theta oscillation is thought to be associated with the encoding of new memories.

Increased gamma oscillation in the neocortex and right amygdala have been reported in response to emotionally arousing pictures during learning and memory tasks undertaken by 148 right-handed female participants ( Headley and Paré, 2013 ). A more detailed study by Müller et al. (1999) reported increased gamma potentials in the left frontal and temporal regions in response to images having a negative valence, whereas increased gamma-bands in the right frontal regions were observed in responses to images with positive valence for 11 right-handed male participants. During an emotionally positive experience, another study reported significantly increased EEG theta-alpha coherence between prefrontal and posterior parietal regions ( Aftanas and Golocheikine, 2001 ). They concluded the change was associated with heightened attention in association with improved performance in memory and emotional processing. Thus, we have a number of EEG investigations of left and right hemispheric activity while processing positive (pleasant) and negative (unpleasant) stimuli that revealed differences in regional electrophysiological activation. Nonetheless, EEG exhibits a relatively poor spatial resolution approximately 5 to 9 cm compared with fMRI and PET ( Babiloni et al., 2001 ). Thus, scalp EEG unable to measure activation much below cortex owing to the distortion of scalp potentials where different volume conduction effects of the cortex, dura mater, skull, and scalp resulting in imprecise localization of the electromagnetic field patterns associated with neural current flow. Subsequent studies have demonstrated that the EEG spatial resolution can be improved using high-resolution EEG (high-density electrode arrays to increase spatial sampling) with surface Laplacian estimation and cortical imaging (details discussion of this area is beyond the scope of this review, see ( Nunez et al., 1994 ) for theoretical and experimental study) or integrating multiple imaging modalities that provide complement information, for instance EEG-fMRI and EEG-fNIRS ( Dale and Halgren, 2001 ).

Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy is an emerging and relatively low-cost imaging technique that is also portable and non-invasive. It can be used to map the hemodynamic responses associated with brain activation. This technology measures cerebral changes in the concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) vs. deoxygenated hemoglobin (deoxy-Hb) using optodes (light emitters and detectors) placed on the scalp ( Villringer et al., 1993 ). It is limited to visualizations of cortical activity compared to the subcortical regions, and findings only imply increased brain activity associated with increased glucose and oxygen consumption. Elevations in cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery exceed quo oxygen consumption, thereby enabling changes in local cerebral blood oxygenation to be measured by optic penetration.

The number of studies that have implemented this investigative technique are associated with task performance ( Villringer et al., 1993 ), including exercise ( Perrey, 2008 ), cognitive workload ( Durantin et al., 2014 ), psychiatric disorders ( Ehlis et al., 2014 ), emotional processing ( Bendall et al., 2016 ), and aging ( Hock et al., 1995 ). One study used fNIRS to examine the relationship between subjective happiness and emotional changes ( Oonishi et al., 2014 ). The results revealed that the level of subjective happiness influenced the pattern of left-right PFC activation during the emotion-related task, showing increased oxy-Hb in the left PFC when viewing pleasant pictures, and increased oxy-Hb in the right PFC when viewing unpleasant pictures. Viewing unpleasant emotional stimuli accompanied increased in oxy-Hb levels in the bilateral VLPFC while also activating several regions in both the right VLPFC (BA45/47) and left VLPFC (BA10/45/46/47). However, another fNIRS study reported that viewing pleasant emotional stimuli was associated with decreased oxy-Hb in the left DLPFC (BA46/10) when affective images were presented for 6 s ( Hoshi et al., 2011 ). Thus, this study found an opposite pattern indicating left hemisphere involvement in positive/approach processing and right hemisphere involvement in negative/withdrawal processing ( Davidson, 1992 ; Davidson and Irwin, 1999 ). This inconsistent finding of frontal hemispheric asymmetric might result from the comparison of state-related changes rather than baseline levels of asymmetric. Thus, several issues should take into consideration: (i) methodological issues to assess hemispheric asymmetry, including requires repeat measures of anterior asymmetry for at least two sessions, stimulus content should comprise both positive valence and negative valence while maintaining at a similar level of arousal and with a baseline resting condition, appropriate selection of reference electrode and individual differences, etc; and (ii) conceptual issues is related to the fact that prefrontal cortex is an anatomically and functionally heterogeneous and complex region interacts with other cortical and subcortical structures during emotional processing ( Davidson, 2004 ). Another fNIRS study examined the relationship between PFC function and cognitive control of emotion ( Ozawa et al., 2014 ). This was done by presenting emotional IAPS pictures for 5.2 s, followed by the n -back task. The results revealed a significantly greater increase in oxy-HB in the mPFC and left superior frontal gyrus in response to negative pictures compared with neutral pictures. Meanwhile, no significant hemodynamic changes were observed during image presentation and the n -back task, indicating the need for further investigation.

Factors Affecting the Effect of Emotion on Learning and Memory

The preceding section described neuroimaging techniques used to examine brain responses to emotional stimuli during WM processing leading to LTM. This section presents six key factors that are recommended for consideration in the experimental design and appropriate protocol.

Individual Differences

A number of studies have reported numerous influences in addition to a range of individual differences in emotional processing. These include personality traits ( Montag and Panksepp, 2017 ), intellectual ability ( Brackett et al., 2004 ), and sex ( Cahill, 2003 ). Moreover, sex hormones and personality traits (e.g., extraversion and neuroticism) appear to influence individual responses to emotional stimuli as well as modulate emotional processing. Appropriate screening with psychological testing as well as balancing experimental cohorts in terms of sex can help reduce spurious results owing to individual differences.

Age-Related Differences

Studies have also shown that older adults are associated with the greater familiarity with psychological stress and emotional experiences, thus causing positivity biases in emotional processing and better emotional control than in younger adults ( Urry and Gross, 2010 ; Allard and Kensinger, 2014 ). Consequently, the age of participants in a sample population should be considered for both cognitive and emotional studies.

Emotional Stimulus Selection

The selection of emotional stimuli for experimental studies is generally divided into two streams: (1) discrete emotional, and (2) dimensional emotions of valence, arousal, dominance and familiarity ( Russell, 1980 ; Barrett, 1998 ). The latter include pictures from the IAPS database and words from the ANEW database, which are both available for non-commercial research. Appropriate selection of emotional stimuli is another important consideration that ensures experimental tasks are suitable for the investigation of emotional processing in learning and memory. Furthermore, the type of stimulus determines stimulus presentation duration, especially for experimental tasks involving the induction of emotions.

Self-assessment Techniques

There are numerous self-assessment techniques used to measure individual emotional states ( Bradley and Lang, 1994 ). The most widely used techniques are the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), the Semantic Differential (SD) scale, and the Likert scale. The SAM is a non-verbal pictorial assessment technique directly measures emotional responses to emotional stimuli for valence, arousal, and dominance. The SD scale consists of a set of bipolar adjective pairs for the subjective rating of image stimuli. The Likert’s “ x -point” scale allows participants to rate their own emotional responses. If a study does not seek to assess distinct emotional states but rather involves the assessment of two primary dimensions of emotion (positive and negative valence), then the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a recommended method ( Watson et al., 1988 ). Thus, selection of the most appropriate self-assessment technique is an important part of the experimental design but can also become an overwhelming task.

Selection of Brain Imaging Techniques

As mentioned above, the two major types of brain imaging techniques EEG (direct) and fMRI/PET/fNIRS (indirect) have respective advantages and disadvantages. To overcome these limitations, simultaneous or combined dual-modality imaging (EEG-fMRI or EEG-fNIRS) can now be implemented for complementary data collection. Although functional neuroimaging works to identify the neural correlates of emotional states, technologies such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) and connectivity maps might provide new opportunities to seek understanding of emotions and its corresponding psychological responses.

Neurocognitive Research Design

The neuroscience of cognition and emotion requires appropriate task designs to accomplish specific study objectives ( Amin and Malik, 2013 ). Environmental factors, ethical issues, memory paradigms, cognitive task difficulty, and emotional induction task intensity must be considered for this.

Numerous neuroimaging studies cited thus far have indicated that emotions influence memory processes, to include memory encoding, memory consolidation, and memory retrieval. Emotional attentional and motivational components might explain why emotional content exhibits privileged information processing. Emotion has a “pop-out” effect that increases attention and promotes bottom-up instinctual impact that enhances awareness. Significant emotional modulation affects memory consolidation in the amygdala, and emotional content also appears to mediate memory encoding and retrieval in the PFC, leading to slow rates of memory lapse accompanied by the accurate recall. Moreover, cognitive and emotional interactions also appear to modulate additional memory-related CNS regions, such as the frontal, posterior parietal and visual cortices. The latter are involved in attentional control, association information, and the processing of visual information, respectively. Therefore, higher-level cognitive functions such as learning and memory, appear to be generally guided by emotion, as outlined in the Panksepp’s framework of brain processing ( Panksepp, 1998 ).

Neuroimaging findings also indicate the involvement of the PFC in emotional processing by indirectly influencing WM and semantic memory ( Kensinger and Corkin, 2003 ). This is reflected by the involvement of the DLPFC in WM and the role played by VLPFC in semantic processing, both of which have been found to enhance or impair semantic encoding task performance when emotion is involved. Various parts of the lateral PFC (ventrolateral, dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortical regions) are suspected of having key roles that support memory retrieval ( Simons and Spiers, 2003 ). All of these findings suggest that PFC-MTL interactions underlie effective semantic memory encoding and thus strategically mediate information processing with increased transfer to the hippocampus, consequently enhancing memory retrieval. Accordingly, learning strategies that emphasize emotional factors are more likely to result in long-term knowledge retention. This consideration is potentially useful in the design of educational materials for academic settings and informed intelligent tutoring systems.

Based on numerous previous findings, future research might take emotional factors more seriously and more explicitly in terms of their potential impact on learning. By monitoring the emotional state of students, the utilization of scientifically derived knowledge of stimulus selection can be particularly useful in the identification of emotional states that advance learning performance and outcomes in educational settings. Moreover, functional neuroimaging investigations now include single and/or combined modalities that obtain complementary datasets that inform a more comprehensive overview of neuronal activity in its entirety. For example, curiosity and motivation promote learning, as it appears cognitive network become energized by the mesolimbic-mesocortical dopamine system (generalized motivational arousal/SEEKING system). In addition, the identification of emotional impact on learning and memory potentially has direct implications for healthy individuals as well as patients with psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, autism, mania, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) ( Panksepp, 2011a ). To emphasize, depression and anxiety are the two most commonly diagnosed psychiatric disorders associated with learning/memory impairment and pose negative consequences that (i) limit the total amount of information that can otherwise be learned, and (ii) inhibit immediate recall as well as memory retention and retrieval of newly learned information. Depression and anxiety are also associated with negative emotions such as hopelessness, anxiety, apathy, attention deficit, lack of motivation, and motor and mental insufficiencies. Likewise, neuroscience studies report that decreased activation of the dorsal limbic (the anterior and posterior cingulate) as well as in the prefrontal, premotor and parietal cortices causes attentional disturbance, while increased neural activation in the ventral paralimbic region (the subgenual cingulate, anterior insula, hypothalamus and caudate) is associated with emotional and motivational disorders ( Mayberg, 1997 ).

Concluding Remarks, Open Questions, and Future Directions

Substantial evidence has established that emotional events are remembered more clearly, accurately and for longer periods of time than are neutral events. Emotional memory enhancement appears to involve the integration of cognitive and emotional neural networks, in which activation of the amygdala enhances the processing of emotionally arousing stimuli while also modulating enhanced memory consolidation along with other memory-related brain regions, particularly the amygdala, hippocampus, MTL, as well as the visual, frontal and parietal cortices. Similarly, activation of the PFC enhances cognitive functions, such as strategic and semantic processing that affect WM and also promote the establishment of LTM. Previous studies have primarily used standardized emotional visual, or auditory stimuli such as pictures, words, facial expression, and film clips, often based on the IAPS, ANEW, and POFA databases for emotional pictures, words and facial expressions, respectively. Further studies have typically focused on the way individuals memorize (intentional or incidental episodic memory paradigm) emotional stimuli in controlled laboratory settings. To our knowledge, there are few objective studies that employed brain-mapping techniques to examine semantic memory of learning materials (using subject matter) in the education context. Furthermore, influences derived from emotional factors in human learning and memory remains unclear as to whether positive emotions facilitate learning or negative emotions impair learning and vice versa. Thus, several remaining questions should be addressed in future studies, including (i) the impact of emotion on semantic knowledge encoding and retrieval, (ii) psychological and physiological changes associated with semantic learning and memory, and (iii) the development of methods that incorporate emotional and motivational aspects that improve educational praxes, outcomes, and instruments. The results of studies on emotion using educational learning materials can indeed provide beneficial information for informed designs of new educational courses that obtain more effective teaching and help establish better informed learning environments. Hence, to understand how emotion influence learning and memory requires understanding of an evolutionary consideration of the nested hierarchies of CNS emotional-affective processes as well as a large-scale network, including the midbrain’s PAG and VTA, basal ganglia (amygdala and NAc), and insula, as well as diencephalon (the cingulate and medial frontal cortices through the lateral and medial hypothalamus and medial thalamus) together with the MTL, including the hippocampus as well as the entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortices that responsible for declarative memories. Moreover, the SEEKING system generates positive subjective emotional states-positive expectancy, enthusiastic exploration, and hopefulness, apparently, initiates learning and memory in the brain. All cognitive activity is motivated from ‘underneath’ by basic emotional and homeostatic needs (motivational drives) that explore environmental events for survival while facilitating secondary processes of learning and memory.

Author Contributions

CMT drafted this manuscript. CMT, HUA, MNMS, and ASM revised this draft. All authors reviewed and approved this manuscript.

This research work was supported by the HiCoE grant for CISIR (Ref No. 0153CA-002), Ministry of Education (MOE), Malaysia.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Ministry of Education (MOE), Malaysia for the financial support. We gratefully thank Frontiers in Psychology, Specialty Section Emotion Sciences reviewers and the journal Associate Editor, for their helpful input and feedback on the content of this manuscript.

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Keywords : emotional valence, arousal, learning, memory, prefrontal cortex (PFC), medial temporal lobe (MTL), amygdala, neuroimaging

Citation: Tyng CM, Amin HU, Saad MNM and Malik AS (2017) The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory. Front. Psychol. 8:1454. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01454

Received: 29 November 2016; Accepted: 10 August 2017; Published: 24 August 2017.

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Copyright © 2017 Tyng, Amin, Saad and Malik. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Aamir S. Malik, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Problem Solving and Emotion Coping Styles for Social Anxiety: A Meta-analysis of Chinese Mainland Students

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Published: 28 June 2023

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Zehua Dong 1 ,
Ming Ming Chiu 2 ,
Shuqi Zhou 3 &
Zihong Zhang 4

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Studies of how positive and negative coping styles affect social anxiety show mixed results. Hence, our two meta-analyses determined the overall effect sizes of problem solving-focused coping (PSC) styles and emotion-focused coping (EFC) styles on social anxiety in mainland China (PSC: k = 49 studies, N = 34,669; EFC: k = 52, N = 36,531). PSC was negatively linked to social anxiety (− .198), and EFC was positively linked to social anxiety (.223). In years with more national income, PSC’s and EFC’s effect sizes were larger. PSC’s effect sizes were smaller among rural students (vs. urban students), larger among older students (university, high school, middle school), and larger in cross-sectional (vs. longitudinal) studies. When using SAD (vs. others) social anxiety measures, PSC effect sizes were larger, but EFC effect sizes were smaller. EFC effect sizes were larger in studies with convenience (vs. representative) samples. Gender, single child status, and coping style measurement showed no moderation effects. These findings suggest that using problem solving-focused coping styles rather than emotion-focused may reduce social anxiety, so future experimental studies can test this idea more rigorously.

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The data of this research used is presented in Table 1 in the manuscript. Inquiries about the specific data used in this study can be directed to the corresponding author.

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This study was supported by the Zhejiang Research Institute of Education Science (GH2023268).

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Jing Hengyi School of Education; Chinese Education Modernization Research Institute of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China

Special Education and Counseling, Analytics\Assessment Research Centre, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Ming Ming Chiu

College of Foreign Languages, Donghua University, Shanghai, China

Institute of Curriculum and Instruction, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

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ZD wrote the introduction, literature review, did the analysis, wrote up method, results, and discussion parts. MMC gave feedbacks and revised the paper. SZ gave feedbacks and finalized the paper. ZZ participated in the coding process. All authors contributed to the article and approved the manuscript.

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Dong, Z., Chiu, M.M., Zhou, S. et al. Problem Solving and Emotion Coping Styles for Social Anxiety: A Meta-analysis of Chinese Mainland Students. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-023-01561-6

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Emotional Intelligence

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify and manage one’s own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. Emotional intelligence is generally said to include a few skills: namely emotional awareness, or the ability to identify and name one’s own emotions; the ability to harness those emotions and apply them to tasks like thinking and problem solving; and the ability to manage emotions, which includes both regulating one’s own emotions when necessary and helping others to do the same.

The Roots of Emotional Intelligence
How to Cultivate Emotional Intelligence

The theory of emotional intelligence was introduced by Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer in the 1990s, and further developed and brought to the lay public by Daniel Goleman . The concept, also known as emotional quotient or EQ, has gained wide acceptance. However, some psychologists argue that because EQ cannot be captured via psychometric tests (as can, for example, general intelligence ), it lacks true explanatory power.

The emotionally intelligent are highly conscious of their own emotional states, even negative ones—from frustration or sadness to something more subtle. They are able to identify and understand what they are feeling, and being able to name an emotion helps manage that emotion . Because of this, the emotionally intelligent have high self-confidence and are realistic about themselves.

A person high in EQ is not impulsive or hasty with their actions. They think before they do. This translates into steady emotion regulation , or the ability to reduce how intense an emotion feels. Taking anger or anxiety down a notch is called down-regulation . The emotionally intelligent are able to shift gears and lighten mood, both internally and externally.

Such people are especially tuned into the emotions that others experience. It’s understandable that sensitivity to emotional signals both from within oneself and from one's social environment could make one a better friend, parent, leader , or romantic partner. Being in tune with others is less work for others.

This person is able to recognize and understand the emotions of others, a skill tied to empathy. The person with a high EQ can hear and understand another person’s point of view clearly. The empathic are generally supportive of the people in their lives, and they easily modulate their emotions to match the mood of another person as well.

This is a subject of active debate within the field. Some personality psychologists argue that emotional intelligence can be more parsimoniously described by traits such as agreeableness , and even charisma . A highly charismatic person, for example, is socially adept and can quickly read a room.

We are naturally drawn to a person with high EQ. We are comfortable and at ease with their easy rapport. It feels as though they can read social cues with superhuman ability. Perhaps they can even mind-read how other people feel to some extent. This effortlessness is welcome in all domains of life—at home, in social settings, and at work. Who wouldn’t want a boss who understood how you are feeling and what you are trying to accomplish?

Yes, you can. You can start by learning to identify the emotions you are feeling as well as understanding them. If you are able to name the emotion you are feeling, you have a better chance of understanding what you are feeling. You can also learn to better regulate your emotions just by stopping and thinking before you act and judge. These skills will help you martial inner resolve and stick to what really matters in life.

While some studies have found a link between emotional intelligence and job performance, many others have shown no correlation whatsoever, and the lack of a scientifically valid scale makes it difficult to truly measure or predict how emotionally intuitive a person may be on the job or in other areas of life.

These people are able to mobilize and utilize their emotions, and they are motivated to manage tasks and problem-solve obstacles. They are connected to who they are and what they value in life, which are foundational for prioritizing and reaching any objective or goal. Knowing what matters is crucial for productivity .

In recent years, some employers have incorporated emotional intelligence tests into their application and interview processes, on the theory that someone high in emotional intelligence would make a better leader or coworker . However, it is not clear if these measures are accurate or even useful.

Testing for EQ in the workplace, for example, is difficult because there is no validated psychometric test or scale for emotional intelligence as there is for the general intelligence factor—and many argue that emotional intelligence is therefore not an actual construct, but a way of describing interpersonal skills.

Emotions don't make us more rational and objective, but they make us feel as though we are.

Do you find it hard being vulnerable and intimate with your partner? That’s totally normal. Here are four clear gateways to greater intimacy.

Unlock career success and deeper connections! Discover 10 strategies for mastering emotional intelligence, a crucial skill for personal and professional growth.

Observing your own emotional waves, and the emotional waves of others, can be extremely helpful in difficult situations.

Being comfortable in solitude may be a sign of emotional maturity that has been overlooked and an aspect of well-being that has been under-appreciated.

We’re all told how we’re supposed to be humble. Does that mean we’re never supposed to speak up? How are we supposed to translate this value into our everyday lives?

Most performance reviews are more about the reviewer than the direct report. Here are 6 strategies to enhance your reviews to be more effective.

How is neuroscientific research affirming that the pleasure of sound and rhythm is linked to the internal rhythms of our heartbeat, our breathing, and our pulse?

Here are 5 easy ways you can become better at leaving the past in the past.

New research suggests that people seek a polyamorous lifestyle because they want to live authentically according to their non-monogamous nature.

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At any moment, someone’s aggravating behavior or our own bad luck can set us off on an emotional spiral that threatens to derail our entire day. Here’s how we can face our triggers with less reactivity so that we can get on with our lives.

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Nurturing Independence and Resilience in Your Children: A Parent's Guide

Posted: May 10, 2024 | Last updated: May 10, 2024

Acknowledging achievements: Celebrating milestones in your child's journey towards independence Emphasizing effort over outcome: Praising perseverance and hard work Encouraging reflection: Helping children recognize their progress and growth]]>

Celebrate Independence Milestone

Creating a nurturing home environment: Providing stability and emotional support Establishing clear expectations: Setting boundaries while allowing room for growth and exploration Offering unconditional love: Being a source of comfort and encouragement for children]]>

Foster a Supportive Environment

Leading by example: Demonstrating resilience in the face of challenges Normalizing failure: Emphasizing that setbacks are a natural part of the learning process Practicing positive self-talk: Encouraging optimism and a growth mindset]]>

Model Resilience

Exposing children to new experiences: Broadening their horizons and expanding their comfort zones Encouraging participation in extracurricular activities: Nurturing talents and interests outside of academics Supporting exploration: Allowing children to pursue passions and discover their strengths]]>

Provide Opportunities for Growth

Validating feelings: Creating a safe space for children to express emotions Teaching coping strategies: Equipping children with tools to manage stress and anxiety Encouraging empathy: Fostering compassion and understanding towards others]]>

Cultivate Emotional Intelligence

Teaching life skills: Equipping children with practical knowledge for independence Gradual release of responsibility: Guiding children as they learn to take on tasks independently Celebrating milestones: Recognizing and celebrating moments of self-reliance]]>

Promote Self-Reliance

Cultivating critical thinking: Encouraging children to find solutions to everyday challenges Embracing creativity: Thinking outside the box to overcome obstacles Teaching perseverance: Instilling a "can-do" attitude in the face of adversity]]>

Foster Problem-Solving Abilities

Providing opportunities for choice: Empowering children to make decisions Supporting autonomy: Allowing children to experience consequences of their choices Building confidence: Celebrating successes and learning from mistakes]]>

Encourage Decision-Making Skills

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IMAGES

Manage Your Emotions For The Best Problem Solving
Coping Skills for Stress and Uncomfortable Emotions
[Infographic] 4 Powerful Mindful Steps to Deal with Difficult Emotions
Problem and Emotion-Focused Coping PowerPoint Presentation Slides
Scaling Emotions and Problem Solving with Kids
Problem-Solving Strategies: Definition and 5 Techniques to Try

VIDEO

Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Resolution
Mastering Decision-Making: Balancing Logic and Intuition! 🤔💡 #shortvideo #statssaga #shorts
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Groundbreaking Solutions Tackling Issues That Often Went Unnoticed By Many (New Pics)
Healthy Brains need Rest, Uplifting Emotions & Motivation

COMMENTS

The Most Effective Emotion Regulation Strategy
For instance, a 2010 meta-analysis of emotion regulation strategies found the regular use of problem-solving had the largest negative association (r = − 0.31) with mental illness; in contrast ...
Coping Skills for Stress and Uncomfortable Emotions
Engage in problem-solving. Establish healthy boundaries. Walk away and leave a situation that is causing you stress. Work on managing your time better. Recap. Whether emotion-focused or problem-focused, healthy coping skills should help calm stress without avoiding the issue. The right coping skill often depends on the situation and your ...
Emotional Regulation: 6 Key Skills to Regulate Emotions
The most significant problem of emotional dysregulation disorder is the inability to let go of emotions. Even after realizing the inappropriateness of irrational thoughts, they find it hard to eliminate them from the mind (Singer et al., 2012). ... Helping them learn better decision-making, constructive critical thinking, and problem-solving ...
Problem Solving : Dialectical Behavior Therapy
Remember that the potential solution to the problem should eventually improve the situation for you and help you with the overwhelming emotion you usually experience. For example, in the body-shaming example we presented, if the woman shamed herself into losing a lot of weight, she would still end up with negative emotions, so that would not be ...
Emotions in Problem Solving
Abstract. Emotions are important part of non-routine problem solving. A positive disposition to mathematics has a reciprocal relationship with achievement, both enhancing the other over time. In the process of solitary problem solving, emotions have a significant role in self-regulation, focusing attention and biasing cognitive processes.
Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles
Problem-solving is a vital skill for coping with various challenges in life. This webpage explains the different strategies and obstacles that can affect how you solve problems, and offers tips on how to improve your problem-solving skills. Learn how to identify, analyze, and overcome problems with Verywell Mind.
9
Consistent with the classic juxtaposition of reason and emotion, moods and emotions have long been assumed to interfere with problem solving. Recent advances in psychology's understanding of the interplay of feeling and thinking suggest a more complex story: Positive as well as negative moods and emotions can facilitate as well as inhibit ...
The Power Of Emotions: Unveiling Their Impact On Critical Thinking
The Role of Emotions in Problem-Solving and Creativity. Emotions can have a significant impact on problem-solving and creative thinking. While negative emotions can sometimes hinder our problem-solving abilities by narrowing our focus and limiting our options, positive emotions can enhance our creativity and innovative thinking.
The role of emotions in complex problem-solving.
The assumption that positive affect leads to a better performance in simple cognitive tasks has become well established. We address the question whether positive and negative emotions differentially influence performance in complex problem-solving in the same way. Emotions were induced by positive or negative feedback in 74 participants who had to manage a computer-simulated complex problem ...
The Influences of Emotion on Learning and Memory
Abstract. Emotion has a substantial influence on the cognitive processes in humans, including perception, attention, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem solving. Emotion has a particularly strong influence on attention, especially modulating the selectivity of attention as well as motivating action and behavior.
How to Use Emotions for Problem Solving
1 The benefits of emotions for problem solving. Emotions can enhance your problem-solving skills in several ways. First, they can motivate you to engage with the problem and persist until you find ...
Managing Emotions During Team Problem Solving: Emotional Intelligence
Participants then completed a problem-solving task, individually and as a team member, and afterwards reflected on the conflict resolution tactics used to achieve the team outcome. In line with expectations, emotional intelligence indicators were positively linked with team performance and were differentially linked to conflict resolution methods.
10 Useful Tips for Emotional Problem Solving
Create a comfortable space just to be and relax (like the patio) and spend some time there —not specifically to solve the problem du jour but to relax or even space out for a little while. Again ...
Enriching problem-solving followed by instruction with explanatory
Pleasurable emotions during complex problem-solving. In contrast to interest that motivates trying new problem-solving and reasoning strategies, happiness is linked to attachments to learning strategies that have proved rewarding in the past (Silvia, Citation 2008). Working on the preparatory task across two attempts (40-45 minutes) should ...
Temporal change of emotions: Identifying academic emotion ...
Emotions play an important role in clinical problem-solving. As an illustration, whether positive or negative, mild emotions can impair clinical problem-solving performance (McConnell et al., 2016).Studies of medical students found that low-performers experienced more emotions than high-performers, especially negative emotions such as anxiety, frustration, and boredom (Artino et al., 2011 ...
Developing Emotional Intelligence, Problem Solving
Problem solving includes the ability to understand how emotions affect decision making. This trait is much more about your ability to solve a problem and not let it affect you and the people around you. To work through the problem in a calm and undressed manner. This may even be while the world around you is going crazy.
Frontiers
Emotion has a substantial influence on the cognitive processes in humans, including perception, attention, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem solving. Emotion has a particularly strong influence on attention, especially modulating the selectivity of attention as well as motivating action and behavior.
Problem Solving and Emotion Coping Styles for Social Anxiety ...
Studies of how positive and negative coping styles affect social anxiety show mixed results. Hence, our two meta-analyses determined the overall effect sizes of problem solving-focused coping (PSC) styles and emotion-focused coping (EFC) styles on social anxiety in mainland China (PSC: k = 49 studies, N = 34,669; EFC: k = 52, N = 36,531). PSC was negatively linked to social anxiety (− .198 ...
(PDF) Emotions in Problem Solving
Abstract. Emotions are important part of non-routine problem solving. A positive disposition to mathematics has a reciprocal relationship with achievement, both enhancing the other over time. In ...
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify and manage one's own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. Emotional intelligence is generally said to include a few skills ...
Full article: Social problem-solving, coping strategies and
In their model, which integrates problem-solving and coping, D'Zurilla and Nezu (Citation 2007) distinguish three components: (1) a stressful situation, (2) emotional distress and (3) problem-solving coping. A stressful situation can be a social problem (e.g. a conflict of values/interests) or a major negative life event (e.g. divorce or death).
Nurturing Independence and Resilience in Your Children: A Parent ...
The changing role of parents: promoting children's resilience and independence Independence's significance enabling kids to overcome obstacles in life Developing resilience in kids: Giving them ...
Exploring Suicide Risk and Protective Factors Among Medical School
Suicide is a serious but preventable public health problem. The university population is a vulnerable group for the development of emotional disorders, and medical school applicants in particular have higher levels of anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation than students in other fields. It is a cross-sectional, observational, and descriptive study where suicide risk, depression, anxiety ...

Emotional Regulation: 6 Key Skills to Regulate Emotions

This Article Contains:

1. Self-awareness

2. Mindful awareness

3. Cognitive reappraisal

4. Adaptability

5. Self-compassion

6. Emotional support

You aren’t at the mercy of your emotions — your brain creates them – Lisa Feldman Barrett

1. Reappraisal

2. Self-soothing

3. Attentional control

Download 3 Free Emotional Intelligence Exercises (PDF)

Download 3 Free Emotional Intelligence Tools Pack (PDF)

1. Model the right behavior

2. Delay response time

3. Work on the child’s emotional vocabulary

4. Teach them about actions and consequences

5. Let them detect stress

1. Breathing exercises for emotional regulation

2. Exercise for emotional catharsis

3. Mindfulness for emotions

4. Self-awareness techniques

1. Emotional Regulation Therapy (ERT)

2. Cognitive Therapy

3. MBCT (Group Therapy)

1. The Radical Acceptance Worksheet

2. Emotion Regulation Worksheet

3. The PLEASE Worksheet

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

1. Traffic Light Game

3. Follow the Leader Exercise

1. Handbook of Emotion Regulation – James J. Gross

2. Self-Regulation Interventions and Strategies: Keeping the Body, Mind, and Emotions on Task in Children with Autism, ADHD or Sensory Disorders – Teresa Garland

3. Emotion Regulation in Children and Adolescents: A Practitioner’s Guide – Michael A. Southam-Gerow

4. DBT Skills Workbook: Practical DBT Exercises for Learning Mindfulness, Interpersonal Effectiveness, Emotion Regulation, and Distress Tolerance – MCKAY M

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E9: Problem Solving

Introduction

Instructions

Step Two: What Can I Change?

Step Three: Brainstorming Alternatives

Step Four: Put the Solution into Action

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Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles

What Is Problem-Solving?

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Problem-Solving Strategies

Trial and Error

How to Apply Problem-Solving Strategies in Real Life

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Influence of Emotions on Critical Thinking

Understanding Emotions

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Different Types of Emotions and Their Characteristics

How Emotions are Triggered and Experienced

The Relationship Between Emotions and Critical Thinking

Exploring the Impact of Emotions on Decision-Making

How Emotions Influence Perception and Interpretation of Information

The Role of Emotions in Problem-Solving and Creativity

The Connection Between Emotions and Biases in Critical Thinking

Cultivating Emotional Intelligence for Improved Critical Thinking

Case Studies and Examples

Strategies for Balancing Emotions and Critical Thinking

Emotion Regulation and its Effect on Critical Thinking

The Importance of Regulating Emotions for Effective Critical Thinking

Strategies for Managing and Controlling Emotions

How Emotion Regulation Enhances Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Skills

Definition and Explanation of Emotional Intelligence

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