occupational therapy case study assignment

Case Studies for Contemporary OT Practice

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• Occupational Therapy - Case Study Guidelines

QMU Occupational Therapy - Case Study Guidelines

Case Study Guidelines

Introduction 

This is a brief guide to the content of a case study.  The individual selected for case study may be considered in terms of an Occupational Therapy Model/ Approach to practice and also the wider environments and networks that play a role in a person’s life. 

This guide is created with an individual in mind but may also be used for a group, community or population that you have worked with. RCOT have an interesting case study template: Royal Collage of Occupational Therapy  which they used for one of their influencing campaigns.  You may find it useful if you are presenting work you have done with a group, community or population rather than an individual service user.

Mandatory for all case studies

Anonymity and confidentiality of the service user(s), service provider and all staff involved must be maintained through out the case study .  You are advised to use pseudonyms, delete the name of service and any geographical locations.

Consider how your case study will demonstrate or include the points below:

• Identify a main focus (why are you writing this, what do you want to learn from this?)
• Wider context - How does this impact on the OT process?
• Service user involvement – How did you facilitate them to work in partnership with you? What was important to them?
• Critical engagement - Rationales for choices/ decisions made throughout the OT process must be detailed, and include a balanced critique (i.e. pro’s and con’s)
• Evidence - Support your work with literature and other resources available to you i.e. reading, useful placement resources, theory, policy and other documents
• How will you present your case study to your team? Consider different media (PowerPoint, video diary, photo’s, end products).
• Consider facilitating the person to present their case with you.

You are here

Case study template.

After starting her graduate degree, Valerie became more obsessed with food and would only allow herself to eat bread and bananas. She began to use marijuana. Now Valerie would spend her days in a smoke filled room scared to go out for fear of coming in contact with contaminated food. During this time she continued to see her doctor for stomach symptoms. One day, while traveling back from a doctor’s appointment, Valerie ran into Henry. Their relationship was soon rekindled, and Valerie stopped using marijuana. Valerie’s stress was substantially decreased now that she and Henry were spending so much time together, and gradually, Valerie became less and less worried about her food being contaminated, and her stomach symptoms ceased.

Within 2 years, Valerie & Henry were married. After 4 years of marriage, however, Valerie’s stomach problems started to come back. She began to make multiple appointments with her family physician, who could not discover any problems with her health. Valerie and Henry were not getting along, and Valerie became worried that he was injecting her food with poison and contaminating the milk she was drinking with deadly bacteria. Valerie & Henry were active members of their church; however, during this time, Valerie began to believe that there were members of the church who had infiltrated, and were trying to destroy their faith community. When Valerie told Henry about her concerns, Henry and Valerie’s pastor became worried about her, and consulted with Valerie’s physician. Henry and Valerie’s family physician informed Valerie that he was admitting her to hospital. Valerie was relieved that someone saw what was really going on; however, on admission, she realized she was on the psychiatric floor and was convinced the government was plotting against her.

After 6 months in a psychiatric facility, Valerie felt better and was discharged. She received a diagnosis of schizophrenia, and was prescribed medication. Valerie took her medication and was able to settle into an apartment. Valerie and Henry got back together for a short time. After 6 months, the side effects of the medication were so severe, she stopped taking them and she and Henry divorced. Two months later, she realized that Henry was spying on her through her apartment window, and she decided to escape by hitchhiking to Vancouver Island .

In Comox – a small town on Vancouver Island , she got a job as a receptionist in a saw mill. Valerie continued to experience paranoia about the food around her and now started to feel that her co-workers in the office were plotting against her. She would see them huddled together before and after work and felt they were mapping out their plan against her. Valerie had contact with a community mental health team and the occupational therapist was working with her to support her at home and work. The OT had met with Valerie’s employer and discussed the difficulty Valerie had been having with her medication and maintaining her focus and attention. Shortly after this meeting, Valerie was fired and she stopped seeing her mental health team. This created a downward spiral for Valerie who continued to live in Comox for another 2 years, taking odd jobs, and living in squalor. Isolation and despair drove her to leave BC and move back to Toronto .

In Toronto , without money, Valerie lived between an abandoned car and local shelters. She went to soup kitchens, but was hungry and had little human contact. Somehow, she found a job taking out the garbage at a local restaurant and was able to find an apartment in a run down building in Toronto . With a little money, she began to drink heavily, alternating between cheap liquor and homemade beer. Valerie's paranoia and delusions shifted and she became convinced that aliens were inhabiting the people around her. She became increasingly distraught and one day was picked up by police and brought to the hospital.

Valerie's second hospital stay was longer than the first, but by the end, the voices had left and she was feeling like she would be able to manage on her own. Her psychiatrist set up regular appointments with her, and she was assigned to an Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) team who would visit her in the community. The occupational therapist talked to Valerie about activities that were meaningful to her, and she began to focus on music and writing (a passion from early university days). Valerie was prescribed new medications. At discharge, Valerie said that she could begin to see hope and wanted to make sure that she kept taking her medications. On discharge, she had plans to rebuild her life.

After just 1 month, Valerie gave up her medications after experiencing strong side effects. Once off her meds, she started missing her psychiatry appointments and moved to a different apartment building. The ACT team lost contact with her. Valerie had purchased a used guitar at Goodwill – she was now convinced that the music was taking over her mind, and she smashed it against the wall. Valerie withdrew from her small social circle she had begun to develop, was fired from her job, and with no money, was evicted from her apartment. Valerie returned to the streets. Thinking that aliens were going to infiltrate her body, she tried to jump from an overpass. Her shirt got caught on the fence and the police once again took her to the hospital.

Valerie was admitted to the same unit as her previous hospital admission. She was re-prescribed medications; however, was adamant about not wanting to be on medications because of the side effects. Valerie refused meds, and her parents were contacted to act as her substitute decision makers. Valerie had not seen her parents in 5 years and was very agitated during their visit. After a lengthy team meeting, her parents signed the community treatment order. Valerie was once again discharged into the community with the support of the ACT team.

With the community treatment order, Valerie reluctantly took her medication. Her new medication had fewer side effects than her previous meds. Shortly after taking her new medication, Valerie began to feel that she was in control of her body and mind. With the occupational therapist on the ACT team, Valerie made plans to focus again on music and writing. She started to create a story of her life, on audiotape, with the hope of educating others about schizophrenia. The audiotape found its way into the library, and Valerie was contacted to speak about her personal experience with schizophrenia. Five years later, Valerie continues to take her medication and now speaks to approximately 50-60 groups a year about her experience of schizophrenia. Valerie has a cat, and a small, comfortable apartment, and has made a few close friends in her neighborhood.

• Open access
• Published: 16 January 2024

Effects of school-based occupational therapy program for children with disabilities in elementary school in Korea: a case study

• Eun-Hwa Jeong 1  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  26 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

1051 Accesses

Metrics details

The purpose of this case study was to explore the effects of a school-based occupational therapy on children’s attention, school adaptation, sensory processing, and motor function for children in special classes in elementary school in Korea.

Case presentation

The subjects of this study were a 7-year-old boy with autism spectrum disorder and a 9-year-old girl with intellectual disability. The school-based occupational therapy program consisted of 10 sessions and was conducted once a week for an hour and a half. The program consisted of classroom activities, use of school facilities, emotional management, and activities based on sensory integration, and was conducted as individual and group programs according to sessions. As a result of the study, all improved when the pre- and post-scores of the two children’s attention assessment, school adjustment scale, sensory processing evaluation tool for the children in school and BOT-2-SF were compared.

Conclusions

Although the results from two cases cannot be generalized, the findings suggest the school-based occupational therapy program may help a positive effect on the school life of children with disabilities. Further investigation is necessary.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

It is difficult for children with disabilities to properly perform learning activities, school rules, and social interactions due to physical difficulties, difficulty in controlling emotions, impulsivity, and poor attention in school life [ 1 ]. Also, when accompanied by sensory processing disorder, difficulty in following instructions, learning, and controlling behavior can cause school adaptation problems [ 2 ].

Occupational therapists prepare students for and participate in important learning and developmental activities within the school environment through school-based occupational therapy [ 3 ]. Occupational therapists can help children with disabilities prepare for learning and carry out other related activities in schools. It provides academic and non-academic interventions, including social skills, academic and behavior management, and athletic participation [ 4 ].

It has been reported that 90% of occupational therapists in school-based occupational therapy practices perform sensory integration interventions based on ‘Ayres’ theory [ 4 ]. Sensory integration is a way to help children improve their adaptive ability to interact with their environment. Therefore, the fundamental purpose is to prevent non-adaptive behaviors or difficulties and improve the quality of life and performance by appropriately interacting with the environment and the body [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, when applying these sensory integration interventions to school-based occupational therapy, it is necessary to appropriately apply other intervention for improving school adaptation according to needs. And it is more reasonable to establish an intervention plan based on this after identifying students’ performance skills and non-adaptive behaviors [ 4 , 5 ].

School occupational therapists in Korea mainly provide intervention based on the medical model, focusing on improving children’s occupational performance problems by improving deficits in subcomponents such as cognitive, motor, and sensory. In previous studies, it was found that writing for learning skills, fine motor and visual motor integration were most often implemented as interventions of school-based occupational therapy [ 6 ]. However, most children with school adjustment problems need interventions for overall school performance, such as following rules and instructions, paying attention, and interacting with peers, rather than academic skills [ 7 ]. In other words, school-based occupational therapy requires occupational therapists to deal with non-adaptive behaviors that hinder children’s adaptation to school in the natural environment of the classroom. It can potentially lead to a positive impact on academic performance [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. In developed countries where school based occupational therapy was implemented before Korea, school occupational therapists emphasize that therapy services should be provided in natural environments such as classrooms, playgrounds, cafeterias, and hallways in order to achieve academic and functional goals [ 8 ].

The role of occupational therapists in schools and educational systems is to facilitate students’ ability to perform tasks or perform meaningful and purposeful activities as students. Therefore, it is necessary for occupational therapists to cooperate with teachers to evaluate students’ functional performance problems in the classroom and to provide necessary interventions to students by discussing effective programs. In this respect, this case study was to confirm the effectiveness of a school-based occupational therapy program that applied a client-centered approach. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the effects of a school-based occupational therapy intervention focusing on school adaptation on children’s the attention, school adaptation, sensory processing, and motor function for children in special classes in elementary school in Korea.

Participants

The subjects of this study were two children from a special class at Elementary School in Korea. Subject A was a 7-year-old male with autism, and subject B was a 9-year-old female with intellectual disability accompanied by autistic features. Subject A did not have social interaction including eye contact, frequently stared into space, and had a very short attention span. There were problems in that they often left their seats during class, showed stereotyped behaviors such as going around the classroom in a circle, and frequently made meaningless sounds such as shouting during class. In addition, he was unable to hold a pencil for writing and was unable to use a spoon for eating, so he had to eat with assistance. Subject B often expresses crying and anger when she is not allowed to do what he wants, and often leaves her seat during activities. These characteristics caused problems in peer relationships due to difficulties in controlling and expressing emotions during school life. In addition, problems with social interaction often occurred due to difficulties in conversations appropriate to the situation.

This study was designed to conduct pre- and post-tests on attention, motor function, school adaptation, and sensory processing function of each subject to confirm the effectiveness of the school-based occupational therapy program. This study used convenience sampling. Therefore, the criteria for selecting subjects were students from special classes at the elementary school where the experiment was conducted, who were able to participate in the study. Subjects in this study did not take any additional treatment or psychopharmacological medications.

The intervention program was implemented for 10 sessions from March to June 2022. During the intervention period, the intervention was conducted every Friday from 2:00 to 3:30 p.m.

The program was planned and executed by an intervention team composed of occupational therapists. The intervention goal for each subject was set by the elementary school special class teacher and the intervention team. The evaluation of attention, school adaptation, and sensory processing function was conducted by special class teachers. And The evaluation of motor function was conducted by the intervention team.

Pre- and post-assessments were conducted in sessions 1 and 10, respectively, and were included in the intervention session. Additionally, the evaluator and intervention provider were the same.

Intervention

The school-based occupational therapy program of this study was constructed based on the framework of sensory integration theory and the school-based occupational therapy model. There were two students in the group, three occupational therapists and one special education teacher running the sessions. The teacher only participated in goal setting, and direct intervention was conducted by occupational therapists. According to the purpose of each session, an individual program suitable for the intervention goal and a group program in which two children participated were conducted. The goal of this school-based occupational therapy program was to improve school adjustment, including learning activities, school rules, and interactions, by mediating each child’s problems. The intervention goal of subject A was to improve attention, and provide an experience of school assignments during activities for school adaptation. The intervention goal of subject B was to improve school adaptation and self-expression skills through school assignment experiences (Table  1 ).

Assessments

Attention assessment.

In this study, sub-items of the Korea-Child Behavior Checklist (K-CBCL) were used to evaluate the subject’s attention. K-CBCL is a standardized child and adolescent behavior assessment tool that translated the Child Behavior Checklist developed by Achenbach and Edelbrock (1983) into Korean [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. The Cronbach alpha value of K-CBCL was 0.62-0.86. It is evaluated for children between the ages of 4 and 17, and is divided into a social ability scale and a problem behavior syndrome scale. The social ability scale consists of 13 items of 3 categories (sociality, academic performance, and total social ability). The problem behavior syndrome scale consists of 117 questions in 13 categories (deterioration, physical symptoms, anxiety/depression, social immaturity, thinking problems, attention problems, delinquency, aggression, internalization problems, externalization problems, total problem behavior, sexual problems, and emotional instability). Each item is on a 3-point scale (0 points; never, 1 point; occasionally or infrequently, 2 points; frequent or severe), with a score ranging from 0 to 234 points. Scoring and interpretation of results can be done by creating a profile to ensure that it falls within the clinical range [ 10 , 11 ]. In this study, 11 items of attention problem among the subscales of the Problem Behavior Syndrome scale were evaluated to evaluate children’s attention. It is interpreted that the higher the score, the lower the attention.

School adjustment scale

The school life adjustment scale consists of 4 areas: class attitude, friendship, positive personal behavior, and school rules, with a total of 20 questions [ 12 ]. The scale was a 4-point Likert scale of not at all (1 point), a little not (2 points), a little bit yes (3 points), and very yes (4 points). In this study, a total of 10 questions were evaluated by reorganizing them into questions suitable for school life adjustment of children in special classes. It is interpreted that the higher the score, the higher the adaptation to school life.

Sensory processing assessment tool for schools

A sensory processing assessment tool for schools was developed to evaluate behaviors related to sensory processing difficulties in school life of school-age children [ 13 ]. The evaluation items consisted of 42 items in the general learning activity area, and the detailed areas consisted of tactile processing, movement processing, visual processing, auditory processing, olfactory processing, and multisensory processing. In addition, the arts and sports activity area consist of 15 questions, and the meal time and break time activity area consists of 21 questions, totaling 78 questions [ 13 ]. The scale consists of three-point scales of 1 (not so), 2 (normal), and 3 (very so). The score can be calculated by summing the total score for each area and the total score. A higher score indicates difficulty in sensory processing.

Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency-2-SF

The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2-SF (BOT-2-SF) was used to measure children’s motor skills. In its short form, the assessment includes 14 items from eight subtests, reflecting different motor domains: (a) fine motor precision(drawing lines through crooked paths, folding papers), (b) fine motor integration(copying a square, copying a star), (c) manual dexterity(transferring pennies), (d) bilateral coordination(jumping in place—same sides synchronized, tapping feet and fingers—same sides synchronized), (e) balance(walking forward on a line, standing on one leg on a balance beam), (f) speed and agility(stationary hops), (g) upper-limb coordination(dropping and catching a ball with both hands, dribbling a ball with alternating hands), (h) strength(knee push‐ups, sit ups) [ 14 ]. The raw score of each item was converted according to the inspection manual, and the total score was obtained by adding the scores of these items.

According to the characteristics of this study, the pre- and post-change values ​​of each subject were presented in a table and graphed. Attention assessment and school life adjustment scale were compared to check changes in variables related to each subject’s list of problems by comparing changes in all items. The analysis of the sensory processing evaluation for school aimed to identify the intervention effect on detailed factors by confirming the change in each area and the total score. BOT-2-SF compared the change in conversion score and total score for each item of the subject.

The changes in the pre- and post-scores of each subject’s attentions, school adaptation, sensory processing, and motor function are shown in the Table  2 . There was a positive change in scores for attention, school adaptation, and sensory processing of all subjects. Subject A was not performed in the BOT-2-SF because He had difficulty following instructions due to his symptoms. Subject B had a positive score change in the BOT-2-SF.

The change in scores for all items of each subject’s attention assessment is shown in Fig.  1 . Subject A had positive score changes in the items of hyperactivity, maladaptive daydreaming, impulsiveness, tension, and anxious gestures. Subject B had positive score changes in hyperactivity, stupor, maladaptive daydreaming, and poor motor function.

Results of attention assessment

A1: acting younger than one’s age, A2: attention problems, A3: hypercactivity, A4: stupor, A5: maladaptive daydreaming, A6: impulsiveness, A7: tension, A8: anxious gestures, A9: poor schoolwork, A10: poor motor function, A11: stare blankly into space

Gray means no change in pre-post scores

The change in scores for all items of each subject’s school life adjustment scale is shown in Fig.  2 . Subject A had positive score changes in the following items: ‘The student has relationships with several friends.’, ‘The student has appropriated physical contact with peers.’, ‘The student uses school facilities carefully.’, ‘The student is orderly when using the bathroom.’, ‘The student greets the teacher well.’ Subject B had positive score changes in the following items: ‘The student has relationships with several friends.’, ‘The student induces the other person’s interest in an appropriate way.’, ‘The student is good at controlling his mood.’, ‘The student uses school facilities carefully.’, ‘The student greets the teacher well.’

Results of school adjustment scale

SA1: The student listens attentively to the teacher’s assignment instructions or explanations. SA2: The student has relationships with several friends. SA3: The student has appropriated physical contact with peers. SA4: The student responds appropriately to praise, blame, and punishment. SA5: The student induces the other person’s interest in an appropriate way. SA6: The student is good at controlling his mood. SA7: The student keeps their school hours and class hours well. SA8: The student uses school facilities carefully. SA9: The student is orderly when using the bathroom. SA10: The student greets the teacher well. Gray means no change in pre-post scores

The results of each subject’s sensory assessment tool for schools are shown in Table  3 . According to the total score, there was a positive score change for sensory processing in both subjects. Negative score changes appeared in the arts and sports activity area of ​​subject A, but positive changes in the pre- and post-scores of the two subjects were found in all other evaluation items.

Discussion and conclusion

This study explored the effects on children’s attention, school adaptation, sensory processing, and motor function through a school-based occupational therapy program consisting of classroom activities, use of school facilities, emotional management, and activities based on sensory integration. The concept of school adjustment is understood as a complex concept consisting of several sub-variables. In summarizing various studies, learning activities, school rules, peer relationships, and teacher relationships are classified as sub-variables [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. In this study, a school-based occupational therapy program aimed at school adaptation was constructed, and the occupational therapy team and the special class teacher cooperated to identify each child’s problems. And it was composed of individual and group programs according to the session.

As a result of this study, both children showed positive change in attention. Both children showed improvement in hyperactivity and maladaptive daydreaming items. This is influenced by handicrafts and physical activities aimed at improving attention, based on previous studies that sensory integration-based activities can cause self-regulation and attention improvement [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Subject A showed a decrease in scores in the items of impulsivity, tension, and anxious gestures. ASD children like subject A are known to show high correlations with lack of sociability, negative emotions, and anxiety [ 20 ]. These factors manifest in the form of self-injurious behavior, aggression, and lack of self-control that negatively affect school life. Therefore, the results of this study can be supported based on previous studies that the process of regulating and processing senses in children with autism can affect the regulation of behavior and emotions [ 20 , 21 ] In addition, it is thought that not only sensory integration-based programs but also programs implemented for school assignment experience and adaptation to school facilities improved adaptability to activities and places. Subject B showed a positive score change in motor dullness in the attention assessment. Also, subject B showed improvement in the BOT-SF score. These results are considered to have been helpful through the group session applied physical activity, gross motor activity, and sensory integration-based physical activity.

Both children showed positive results on the school adjustment scale. After the intervention, both subjects had relationships with various friends, showed a tendency to use school facilities carefully, and greeted teachers better. In particular, subject A came to have proper physical contact with friends and was found to keep order better when using the bathroom. On the other hand, subject B showed improved emotional regulation. It may be due to the method in which this program identified problems of each subject through a client-centered approach and operated in individual and group sessions. These results are considered to have been induced by the effect of intervention programs aimed at adaptive behaviors for school life, such as school rules, social skills, and use of school facilities, rather than specific academic skills.

The total score of the two children’s sensory processing assessment tool for schools showed a positive change, but there were some differences in the scores of the detailed items. Subject A had relatively improved eye contact during classroom interaction, attention to visual stimuli, and recognition of visual stimuli. In addition, performance improved when lifting and moving the food tray, food or drink did not spill easily while eating, and hyperactivity decreased during breaks. Therefore, it was confirmed that the adaptation behavior in school life was improved. These results can be inferred that various sensory stimuli through fine and gross motor activities influenced visual processing and attention [ 22 ]. In addition, it is thought that the meal utensil training and school facility use program influenced the improvement of subject A’s adaptive behavior during meal and break time activities. Subject B showed some improvement in the movement processing score due to reduction in hyperactivity during class activities, improvement in postural control, improvement in both-handed task performance, and improvement in pencil grip. In addition, it showed improvement in visual processing scores by improve attention on visual stimuli and improved spatial arrangement organization during writing. And there was improvement in music and physical activity. These results are supported by previous studies that in the process of receiving and processing various sensory stimuli, motor function, self-regulation ability, and concentration are improved, which affects the performance of activities, cognitive function, and communication function [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ].

Children with disabilities in special classes have different characteristics for each disease, and there are differences in school adaptation according to age, school type, and severity. Therefore, it can be considered to operate a school-based occupational therapy program by grouping and operating according to the child’s characteristics, age, or intervention goal, or dividing individual and group sessions as in this study. However, in Korea, occupational therapists often provide treatment support services in treatment rooms based on existing medical models rather than supporting students’ school life in a cooperative team with teachers in a school environment. In order for children to adapt to school, it is necessary for teachers to focus on the child’s educational aspects and for occupational therapists to cooperate based on the goal of improving children’s occupational skills [ 23 ]. In this regard, active efforts are needed for school occupational therapy through the development of educational programs and establishment of systems to enable interdisciplinary cooperation.

This study conducted a single group program as a case study, and it is very limited to generalize. Additionally, the effects of exogenous variables such as children’s maturation and development cannot be ruled out regarding the results of this study. Therefore, there is a need to expand randomized controlled trials using the school-based occupational therapy intervention program applied in this study. It could be a school-based occupational therapy program targeting all children in special classes or a group of children with a diagnosis different from the subjects of this study. There is also a need to standardize the procedures of school-based occupational therapy programs by organizing the process of evaluation-intervention-outcome and developing a protocol in which this process is progressively repeated.

Occupational therapists working at school need to cooperate with teachers to evaluate students’ functional performance problems in school and provide necessary interventions for students’ school adjustment. At this time, it can be effective that combined intervention of individual and group programs under the intervention goal of school adjustment. In addition, activities based on sensory integration can be helpful to improve non-adaptive behaviors such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and reduced attention in children with disabilities. It is hoped that this study will emphasize the need for occupational therapy services in the educational field, thereby building a system for collaboration with teachers and demonstrating the expertise of occupational therapists in the school life of children with disabilities.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

This work was supported by the 2022 Far East University Research Grant (FEU2022S05).

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Dept. of Occupational Therapy, College of Health Science, Far East University, 76-32, Daehak-gil, Gamgok-myeon, Eumseong-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do, 27601, Republic of Korea

Eun-Hwa Jeong

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Eun-Hwa Jeong: Conceptualization, Study design, Analysis, Writing-original draft, Writing-review & editing.

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This study was conducted under mutual cooperation agreement between institutions (No.0002604 − 0001036). Ethical approval was sought and provided by Institutional Review Board of Far East University. This study performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

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Jeong, EH. Effects of school-based occupational therapy program for children with disabilities in elementary school in Korea: a case study. BMC Psychol 12 , 26 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01520-3

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Received : 13 June 2023

Accepted : 04 January 2024

Published : 16 January 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01520-3

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