backing statement in an essay

Backing (argument)

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

An Introduction to Punctuation
Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
B.A., English, State University of New York

In the Toulmin model of argument , backing is the support or explanation provided for the warrant . The backing is often characterized by the word because .

Examples and Observations

"[Stephen] Toulmin's The Uses of Argument , which appeared in 1958, is mainly known for the model of argumentation presented in this book. This model represents the 'procedural form' of argumentation: the various steps that can be distinguished in the defense of a standpoint. According to Toulmin, the soundness of argumentation is primarily determined by the degree in which the warrant , which connects the data adduced in the argumentation with the claim that is defended, is made acceptable by a backing . . . . "What kind of backing is required, however, is dependent on the field to which the question at issue belongs. An ethical justification, for instance, requires a different kind of backing from a legal justification. Toulmin concludes from this that the evaluation criteria for determining the soundness of argumentation are 'field dependent.'" (Frans H. Van Eemeren, "Argumentation Theory: An Overview of Approaches and Research Themes," in Rhetorical Argumentation in Biblical Texts , edited by Anders Eriksson, et al. Continuum, 2002)
Different Kinds of Backing "Toulmin . . . emphasizes the difference between backing and warrant: backings can be categorical statements of fact just like data, while warrants always are general bridge-like statements . . .. A central point in Toulmin's book [ The Uses of Argument ] is that different kinds of backings occur in different fields of argument. Among Toulmin's examples of backings are statutes and acts of Parliament, statistical reports, appeals to the results of experiments and references to taxonomical systems. All can provide the backing that warrant the arguments as they are acceptable in particular fields." (Bart Verheij, "" Evaluating Arguments Based on Toulmin's Scheme." Arguing on the Toulmin Model: New Essays in Argument Analysis and Evaluation , edited by David Hitchcock and Bart Verheij. Springer, 2006)
Backing as Evidence " Initial Statement: It should be investigated whether Peter murdered George. Claim: Peter shot George. Backing: Witness W states that Peter shot George. [Here] . . . the backing statement is the kind of evidence you need to collect in a murder investigation. Of course, the witness may be lying, or what he says may not be true. But if he says that Peter shot George, that statement needs to be investigated in any proper investigation. It is relevant in that context." (Douglas N. Walton, Witness Testimony Evidence: Argumentation, Artificial Intelligence, and Law . Cambridge University Press, 2008)
What Is the Toulmin Model of Argument?
Warrants in the Toulmin Model of Argument
Data Definition and Examples in Argument
Argument (Rhetoric and Composition)
Definition and Examples of Conclusions in Arguments
Definitions and Examples of Debates
Definition and Examples of the New Rhetorics
testimony (rhetoric)
Premise Definition and Examples in Arguments
Informal Logic
Definition and Examples of Apologia in Rhetoric
Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition
What Is a Critique in Composition?
Proof in Rhetoric
What is Judicial Rhetoric?

Ai, ethics & human agency, collaboration, information literacy, writing process.

This article introduces the concept of backing within Stephen Toulmin's model of argumentation , highlighting its role in providing additional evidence or reasoning to support the warrant, thereby strengthening the overall argument. It explains how backing reinforces the logical connection between evidence and claim , making arguments more persuasive and understandable. By mastering the use of backing, you will be able to enhance the credibility of your arguments and effectively address counterarguments , improving both your writing and critical thinking skills.

Golden Gate Bridge under clear skies, supported by exaggerated beams, with cars crossing over.

Backing is a key part of building a strong argument, as defined by Stephen Toulmin in his model of argumentation. It’s the additional evidence or reasoning that supports the warrant, which is the logical link connecting your evidence to your main point or claim. In simpler terms, if your claim is what you’re trying to prove, and your evidence is the data or facts you use to support it, the warrant explains why your evidence actually supports your claim. Backing, then, strengthens that explanation, making your argument more convincing.

Consider a debate on the effects of social media on mental health among college students. If one side argues that high social media use leads to increased anxiety, citing studies that find a correlation between screen time and anxiety levels, they’re making a claim supported by evidence. The warrant here is the assumption that more screen time directly causes higher anxiety. To make their warrant stronger, the debaters can use backing, such as additional psychological studies showing specifically how social media algorithms designed to keep users engaged also contribute to increased anxiety. This backing helps ensure the audience understands and believes the connection between the evidence (screen time) and the claim (increased anxiety).

Synonymous Terms

In contemporary discourse , the term “backing” may be used synonymously with

Support This term emphasizes the role of backing as a pillar that upholds the warrant, ensuring that the leap from evidence to claim is not just a leap of faith but a step built on solid ground.
Justification Justification highlights the reasoning aspect of backing, focusing on how it rationalizes the warrant’s applicability to the claim, thereby reinforcing the argument’s logical structure.
Foundation Similar to architectural foundations, this term underscores the fundamental importance of backing in providing a stable base for the warrant, without which the argument might collapse under scrutiny.

Related Concepts

Citation – How to Connect Evidence to Your Claims
Counterarguments
Interpretive Framework
Paraphrasing – How to Paraphrase with Clarity & Concision

Why, in Toulmin’s model of argument, is backing necessary?

The need for backing is crucial in arguments where the warrant , the assumption that links evidence to a claim , may not be self-evident or could invite skepticism. For instance, people around the globe may debate the impact of caffeine consumption on academic performance. They might argue that caffeine improves concentration, citing studies that show increased alertness and cognitive function after caffeine intake as evidence . The warrant in this context is that short-term increase in alertness directly translates to better academic performance.

Critical audiences — people who have been educated, inculcated, in Information Literacy Perspectives & Practices — may push back on the idea that alertness causes or is correlated with academic performance. Perhaps, they might argue, alertness needs to be measured across the landscape of a day, from the morning when a writer is fresh, to the evening, before bedtime.

In short, educated audiences tend to be critical. They use various critical, interpretive frameworks to analyze a situation, including rhetorical reasoning and textual analysis.

As a result, speakers and writers engage in backing: they offer additional evidence to further justify, clarify , and exemplify the warrant . They, might, for example, provide a review of research. They might cite research studies that investigated a link between caffeine’s immediate effects on cognitive functions and the long-term This additional layer of justification helps to address potential doubts and reinforces the argument’s credibility , making the transition from evidence to claim smoother and more convincing.

Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

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The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

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Elements of Argument

9 Toulmin Argument Model

By liza long, amy minervini, and joel gladd.

Stephen Edelston Toulmin (born March 25, 1922) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Toulmin devoted his works to analyzing moral reasoning. He sought to develop practical ways to evaluate ethical arguments effectively. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components, was considered Toulmin’s most influential work, particularly in the fields of rhetoric, communication, and computer science. His components continue to provide useful means for analyzing arguments.

Visual representation of the Toulmin argument model

The following are the parts of a Toulmin argument (see Figure 9.1 for an example):

Claim: The claim is a statement that you are asking the other person to accept as true (i.e., a conclusion) and forms the nexus of the Toulmin argument because all the other parts relate back to the claim. The claim can include information and ideas you are asking readers to accept as true or actions you want them to accept and enact. One example of a claim is the following:

My grandfather should wear a hearing aid.

This claim both asks the reader to believe an idea and suggests an action to enact. However, like all claims, it can be challenged. Thus, a Toulmin argument does not end with a claim but also includes grounds and warrant to give support and reasoning to the claim.

Grounds: The grounds form the basis of real persuasion and include the reasoning behind the claim, data, and proof of expertise. Think of grounds as a combination of premises and support. The truth of the claim rests upon the grounds, so those grounds should be tested for strength, credibility, relevance, and reliability. The following are examples of grounds:

Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty. Hearing aids raise hearing quality.

Information is usually a powerful element of persuasion, although it does affect people differently. Those who are dogmatic, logical, or rational will more likely be persuaded by factual data. Those who argue emotionally and who are highly invested in their own position will challenge it or otherwise try to ignore it. Thus, grounds can also include appeals to emotion, provided they aren’t misused. The best arguments, however, use a variety of support and rhetorical appeals.

Warrant: A warrant links data and other grounds to a claim, legitimizing the claim by showing the grounds to be relevant. The warrant may be carefully explained and explicit or unspoken and implicit. The warrant answers the question, “Why does that data mean your claim is true?” For example,

A hearing aid helps most people hear better.

The warrant may be simple, and it may also be a longer argument with additional sub-elements including those described below. Warrants may be based on logos, ethos or pathos, or values that are assumed to be shared with the listener. In many arguments, warrants are often implicit and, hence, unstated. This gives space for the other person to question and expose the warrant, perhaps to show it is weak or unfounded.

Backing: The backing for an argument gives additional support to the warrant. Backing can be confused with grounds, but the main difference is this: grounds should directly support the premises of the main argument itself, while backing exists to help the warrants make more sense. For example,

Hearing aids are available locally.

This statement works as backing because it gives credence to the warrant stated above, that a hearing aid will help most people hear better. The fact that hearing aids are readily available makes the warrant even more reasonable.

Qualifier: The qualifier indicates how the data justifies the warrant and may limit how universally the claim applies. The necessity of qualifying words comes from the plain fact that most absolute claims are ultimately false (all women want to be mothers, e.g.) because one counterexample sinks them immediately. Thus, most arguments need some sort of qualifier, words that temper an absolute claim and make it more reasonable. Common qualifiers include “most,” “usually,” “always,” or “sometimes.” For example,

Hearing aids help most people.

The qualifier “most” here allows for the reasonable understanding that rarely does one thing (a hearing aid) universally benefit all people. Another variant is the reservation, which may give the possibility of the claim being incorrect:

Unless there is evidence to the contrary, hearing aids do no harm to ears.

Qualifiers and reservations can be used to bolster weak arguments, so it is important to recognize them. They are often used by advertisers who are constrained not to lie. Thus, they slip “usually,” “virtually,” “unless,” and so on into their claims to protect against liability. While this may seem like sneaky practice, and it can be for some advertisers, it is important to note that the use of qualifiers and reservations can be a useful and legitimate part of an argument.

Rebuttal: Despite the careful construction of the argument, there may still be counterarguments that can be used. These may be rebutted either through a continued dialogue, or by pre-empting the counter-argument by giving the rebuttal during the initial presentation of the argument. For example, if you anticipated a counterargument that hearing aids, as a technology, may be fraught with technical difficulties, you would include a rebuttal to deal with that counterargument:

There is a support desk that deals with technical problems.

Any rebuttal is an argument in itself, and thus may include a claim, warrant, backing, and the other parts of the Toulmin structure.

Even if you do not wish to write an essay using strict Toulmin structure, using the Toulmin checklist can make an argument stronger. When first proposed, Toulmin based his layout on legal arguments, intending it to be used analyzing arguments typically found in the courtroom; in fact, Toulmin did not realize that this layout would be applicable to other fields until later. The first three elements–“claim,” “grounds,” and “warrant”–are considered the essential components of practical arguments, while the last three—“qualifier,” “backing,” and “rebuttal”—may not be necessary for all arguments.

Toulmin Exercise

Find an argument in essay form and diagram it using the Toulmin model. The argument can come from an Op-Ed article in a newspaper or a magazine think piece or a scholarly journal. See if you can find all six elements of the Toulmin argument. Use the structure above to diagram your article’s argument.

Attributions

“Toulmin Argument Model” by Liza Long, Amy Minervini, and Joel Gladd is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Writing Arguments in STEM Copyright © by Jason Peters; Jennifer Bates; Erin Martin-Elston; Sadie Johann; Rebekah Maples; Anne Regan; and Morgan White is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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62 Toulmin Argument Model

Toulmin argument model.

The following are the parts of a Toulmin argument:

1. Claim : The claim is a statement that you are asking the other person to accept as true (i.e., a conclusion) and forms the nexus of the Toulmin argument because all the other parts relate back to the claim. The claim can include information and ideas you are asking readers to accept as true or actions you want them to accept and enact. One example of a claim:

My grandfather should wear a hearing aid.

2. Grounds : The grounds form the basis of real persuasion and includes the reasoning behind the claim, data, and proof of expertise. Think of grounds as a combination of premises and support . The truth of the claim rests upon the grounds, so those grounds should be tested for strength, credibility, relevance, and reliability. The following are examples of grounds:

Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty.

Hearing aids raise hearing quality.

3. Warrant : A warrant links data and other grounds to a claim, legitimizing the claim by showing the grounds to be relevant . The warrant may be carefully explained and explicit or unspoken and implicit. The warrant answers the question, “Why does that data mean your claim is true?” For example,

A hearing aid helps most people hear better.

The warrant may be simple, and it may also be a longer argument with additional sub-elements including those described below. Warrants may be based on logos , ethos or pathos , or values that are assumed to be shared with the listener. In many arguments, warrants are often implicit and, hence, unstated. This gives space for the other person to question and expose the warrant, perhaps to show it is weak or unfounded.

4. Backing : The backing for an argument gives additional support to the warrant. Backing can be confused with grounds, but the main difference is this: Grounds should directly support the premises of the main argument itself, while backing exists to help the warrants make more sense. For example,

Hearing aids are available locally.

5. Qualifier : The qualifier indicates how the data justifies the warrant and may limit how universally the claim applies. The necessity of qualifying words comes from the plain fact that most absolute claims are ultimately false (all women want to be mothers, e.g.) because one counterexample sinks them immediately. Thus, most arguments need some sort of qualifier, words that temper an absolute claim and make it more reasonable. Common qualifiers include “most,” “usually,” “always,” or “sometimes.” For example,

Hearing aids help most people.

Unless there is evidence to the contrary, hearing aids do no harm to ears.

6. Rebuttal : Despite the careful construction of the argument, there may still be counterarguments that can be used. These may be rebutted either through a continued dialogue, or by pre-empting the counter-argument by giving the rebuttal during the initial presentation of the argument. For example, if you anticipated a counterargument that hearing aids, as a technology, may be fraught with technical difficulties, you would include a rebuttal to deal with that counterargument:

There is a support desk that deals with technical problems.

Any rebuttal is an argument in itself, and thus may include a claim, warrant, backing, and the other parts of the Toulmin structure.

Toulmin Exercise

Write What Matters Copyright © 2020 by Liza Long; Amy Minervini; and Joel Gladd is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Module 9: Academic Argument

Organizing an argument, learning objectives.

Examine methods for organizing an argument, such as Toulmin’s schema

Organizing the Argument

There are several effective ways to organize an argument so that you have room for rebuttal. Using the block method, you could present your ideas first, then refute the counterarguments towards the end of your essay, before the conclusion. You could also use incorporate the rebuttal throughout the entire essay, by introducing the possible counterargument to each of your claims and the rebuttal in each body paragraph.

No matter which method of organization you use, the important thing is to systematically address the counterarguments to your viewpoints and provide support for your claims. For example, you could follow the Aristotelian, or classical, argumentative essay framework, in which you present your side of the issue first, then address the opposition, then provide evidence supporting your side of the issue. It looks like this:

Introduce your issue. At the end of your introduction, most professors will ask you to present your thesis. The idea is to present your readers with your main point and then dig into it.
Present your case by explaining the issue in detail and why something must be done or a way of thinking is not working. This will take place over several paragraphs.
Address the opposition. Use a few paragraphs to explain the other side. Refute the opposition one point at a time.
Provide your proof. After you address the other side, you’ll want to provide clear evidence that your side is the best side.
Present your conclusion. In your conclusion, you should remind your readers of your main point or thesis and summarize the key points of your argument. If you are arguing for some kind of change, this is a good place to give your audience a call to action. Tell them what they could do to make a change.

Toulmin’s Schema

The Toulmin method, developed by philosopher Stephen Toulmin , is another tool that’s helpful in analyzing an argument and identifying the rebuttal.

There are six elements for analyzing or presenting arguments that are important to the Toulmin method. When you’re analyzing arguments as a reader, you can look for these elements to help you understand the argument and evaluate its validity. When you’re writing an argument, you can include these same elements to ensure your audience will see the validity of your claims. You can also use these elements to help outline your argument in the early stages of your writing.

These are the six parts of an argument in Toulmin’s Schema:

Claim : conclusions whose merit must be established. For example, if a person tries to convince a listener that he is a British citizen, the claim would be “I am a British citizen.”

A pie chart and a line graph on a computer screen.

Figure 1 . Step 2 of Toulmin’s schema is using data to support the claim(s) that were made in Step 1.

Warrant : the statement authorizing the movement from the data to the claim. In order to move from the data established in 2, “I was born in Bermuda,” to the claim in 1, “I am a British citizen,” the person must supply a warrant to bridge the gap between 1 & 2 with the statement “A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen.” Toulmin stated that an argument is only as strong as its weakest warrant and if a warrant isn’t valid, then the whole argument collapses. Therefore, it is important to have strong, valid warrants.
Backing : facts that give credibility to the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must be introduced when the warrant itself is not convincing enough to the readers or the listeners. For example, if the listener does not deem the warrant as credible, the speaker would supply legal documents as backing statement to show that it is true that “A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen.”
Rebuttal : statements recognizing the restrictions to which the claim may legitimately be applied. The rebuttal is exemplified as follows, “A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen, unless he has betrayed Britain and become a spy of another country.”
Qualifier : words or phrases expressing how certain the author/speaker is concerning the claim. Such words or phrases include “possible,” “probably,” “impossible,” “certainly,” “presumably,” “as far as the evidence goes,” or “necessarily.” The claim “I am definitely a British citizen” has a greater degree of force than the claim “I am a British citizen, presumably.”

The first three elements (claim, data, and warrant) are considered as the essential components of practical arguments, while the final three elements (backing, rebuttal, and qualifier) may not be needed in all arguments.

The following video introduces the components of the Toulmin model.

You can view the transcript for “The Toulmin Model of Argumentation” here (download).

Figure 2 . This image shows how conclusions are reached, using the Toulmin model of arguments.

Toulmin’s Method Examples

Suppose you watch a commercial for a product that promises to give you whiter teeth. Here are the basic parts of the argument behind the commercial:

Claim : You should buy our tooth-whitening product.
Data : Studies show that teeth are 50% whiter after using the product for a specified time.
Warrant : People want whiter teeth.
Backing : Celebrities want whiter teeth.
Rebuttal : Commercial says “unless you don’t want to show your real smile.”
Qualifier : Fine print says “product must be used six weeks for results.”

Notice that those commercials don’t usually bother trying to convince you that you want whiter teeth; instead, they assume that you have bought into the value our culture places on whiter teeth. When an assumption—a warrant in Toulmin’s terms—is unstated, it’s called an implicit warrant. Sometimes, however, the warrant may need to be stated because it is a powerful part of the argument. When the warrant is stated, it’s called an explicit warrant.

Claim : People should probably own a gun.
Data : Studies show that people who own a gun are less likely to be mugged.
Warrant : People want to be safe.
Backing : May not be necessary. In this case, it is common sense that people want to be safe.
Rebuttal : Not everyone should own a gun. Children and those will mental disorders/problems should not own a gun.
Qualifier : The word “probably” in the claim.

How would you assess the strength of the warrant in this argument?

Claim : Flag burning should be unconstitutional in most cases.
Data : A national poll says that 60% of Americans want flag burning to be unconstitutional.
Warrant : People want to respect the flag.
Backing : Official government procedures for the disposal of flags.
Rebuttal : Not everyone in the U.S. respects the flag.
Qualifier : The phrase “in most cases.”

How would you assess the strength of the data in this argument?

Sample Essay

Now that you have had the chance to learn about Toulmin, it’s time to see what a Toulmin argument might look like. Here you’ll see a sample argumentative essay , written according to MLA formatting guidelines, with a particular emphasis on Toulmin elements.

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Organizing Your Argument

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How can I effectively present my argument?

In order for your argument to be persuasive, it must use an organizational structure that the audience perceives as both logical and easy to parse. Three argumentative methods —the Toulmin Method , Classical Method , and Rogerian Method — give guidance for how to organize the points in an argument.

Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument. Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment’s directions if you’re unsure which to use (if any).

Toulmin Method

The Toulmin Method is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation for their arguments. First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in The Uses of Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows:

Claim: In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.

Data (Grounds): You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide the reader with facts that prove your argument is strong.

Warrant (Bridge): In this section, you explain why or how your data supports the claim. As a result, the underlying assumption that you build your argument on is grounded in reason.

Backing (Foundation): Here, you provide any additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim: You should anticipate a counterclaim that negates the main points in your argument. Don't avoid arguments that oppose your own. Instead, become familiar with the opposing perspective. If you respond to counterclaims, you appear unbiased (and, therefore, you earn the respect of your readers). You may even want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Rebuttal: In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the counterclaim. It is essential to include a thorough warrant or bridge to strengthen your essay’s argument. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they may draw different conclusions.

Example of the Toulmin Method:

Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1: Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air-polluting activity.

Warrant 1: Due to the fact that cars are the largest source of private (as opposed to industrial) air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that the decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3: The combination of these technologies produces less pollution.

Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages an inefficient culture of driving even as it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging the use of mass transit systems.

Rebuttal: While mass transit is an idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work. Thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

Rogerian Method

The Rogerian Method (named for, but not developed by, influential American psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:

your position seems like a reasonable compromise.
you seem compassionate and empathetic.

The basic format of the Rogerian Method is as follows:

Introduction: Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as possible.

Opposing View : Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing side can see how you do not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.

Statement of Validity (Understanding): This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points can be valid under certain circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still present your own argument.

Statement of Your Position: By this point, you have demonstrated that you understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain your own stance.

Statement of Contexts : Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain contexts, the reader can recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.

Statement of Benefits: You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By explaining the advantages of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other side’s perspective.

Example of the Rogerian Method:

Introduction: The issue of whether children should wear school uniforms is subject to some debate.

Opposing View: Some parents think that requiring children to wear uniforms is best.

Statement of Validity (Understanding): Those parents who support uniforms argue that, when all students wear the same uniform, the students can develop a unified sense of school pride and inclusiveness.

Statement of Your Position : Students should not be required to wear school uniforms. Mandatory uniforms would forbid choices that allow students to be creative and express themselves through clothing.

Statement of Contexts: However, even if uniforms might hypothetically promote inclusivity, in most real-life contexts, administrators can use uniform policies to enforce conformity. Students should have the option to explore their identity through clothing without the fear of being ostracized.

Statement of Benefits: Though both sides seek to promote students' best interests, students should not be required to wear school uniforms. By giving students freedom over their choice, students can explore their self-identity by choosing how to present themselves to their peers.

Classical Method

The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize your points. Originally devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical arguments tend to focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the underlying assumption of classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.

The basic format of the Classical Method is as follows:

Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.

Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information to the audience to further their understanding of the issue. By doing so, you provide the reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.

Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you are ready to state your claims which relate to the information you have provided previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.

Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if necessary, you can provide supplementary evidence and subpoints.

Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the other side’s perspective, it is important to prove why your stance is more logical.

Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of pathos here makes the reader more inclined to consider your argument.

Example of the Classical Method:

Introduction (Exordium): Millions of workers are paid a set hourly wage nationwide. The federal minimum wage is standardized to protect workers from being paid too little. Research points to many viewpoints on how much to pay these workers. Some families cannot afford to support their households on the current wages provided for performing a minimum wage job .

Statement of Background (Narratio): Currently, millions of American workers struggle to make ends meet on a minimum wage. This puts a strain on workers’ personal and professional lives. Some work multiple jobs to provide for their families.

Proposition (Propositio): The current federal minimum wage should be increased to better accommodate millions of overworked Americans. By raising the minimum wage, workers can spend more time cultivating their livelihoods.

Proof (Confirmatio): According to the United States Department of Labor, 80.4 million Americans work for an hourly wage, but nearly 1.3 million receive wages less than the federal minimum. The pay raise will alleviate the stress of these workers. Their lives would benefit from this raise because it affects multiple areas of their lives.

Refutation (Refuatio): There is some evidence that raising the federal wage might increase the cost of living. However, other evidence contradicts this or suggests that the increase would not be great. Additionally, worries about a cost of living increase must be balanced with the benefits of providing necessary funds to millions of hardworking Americans.

Conclusion (Peroratio): If the federal minimum wage was raised, many workers could alleviate some of their financial burdens. As a result, their emotional wellbeing would improve overall. Though some argue that the cost of living could increase, the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks.

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Writing Tips

5 Examples of Concluding Words for Essays

4-minute read

19th September 2022

If you’re a student writing an essay or research paper, it’s important to make sure your points flow together well. You’ll want to use connecting words (known formally as transition signals) to do this. Transition signals like thus , also , and furthermore link different ideas, and when you get to the end of your work, you need to use these to mark your conclusion. Read on to learn more about transition signals and how to use them to conclude your essays.

Transition Signals

Transition signals link sentences together cohesively, enabling easy reading and comprehension. They are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence and separated from the remaining words with a comma. There are several types of transition signals, including those to:

● show the order of a sequence of events (e.g., first, then, next)

● introduce an example (e.g., specifically, for instance)

● indicate a contrasting idea (e.g., but, however, although)

● present an additional idea (e.g., also, in addition, plus)

● indicate time (e.g., beforehand, meanwhile, later)

● compare (e.g., likewise, similarly)

● show cause and effect (e.g., thus, as a result)

● mark the conclusion – which we’ll focus on in this guide.

When you reach the end of an essay, you should start the concluding paragraph with a transition signal that acts as a bridge to the summary of your key points. Check out some concluding transition signals below and learn how you can use them in your writing.

To Conclude…

This is a particularly versatile closing statement that can be used for almost any kind of essay, including both formal and informal academic writing. It signals to the reader that you will briefly restate the main idea. As an alternative, you can begin the summary with “to close” or “in conclusion.” In an argumentative piece, you can use this phrase to indicate a call to action or opinion:

To conclude, Abraham Lincoln was the best president because he abolished slavery.

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As Has Been Demonstrated…

To describe how the evidence presented in your essay supports your argument or main idea, begin the concluding paragraph with “as has been demonstrated.” This phrase is best used for research papers or articles with heavy empirical or statistical evidence.

As has been demonstrated by the study presented above, human activities are negatively altering the climate system.

The Above Points Illustrate…

As another transitional phrase for formal or academic work, “the above points illustrate” indicates that you are reiterating your argument and that the conclusion will include an assessment of the evidence you’ve presented.

The above points illustrate that children prefer chocolate over broccoli.

In a Nutshell…

A simple and informal metaphor to begin a conclusion, “in a nutshell” prepares the reader for a summary of your paper. It can work in narratives and speeches but should be avoided in formal situations.

In a nutshell, the Beatles had an impact on musicians for generations to come.

Overall, It Can Be Said…

To recap an idea at the end of a critical or descriptive essay, you can use this phrase at the beginning of the concluding paragraph. “Overall” means “taking everything into account,” and it sums up your essay in a formal way. You can use “overall” on its own as a transition signal, or you can use it as part of a phrase.

Overall, it can be said that art has had a positive impact on humanity.

Proofreading and Editing

Transition signals are crucial to crafting a well-written and cohesive essay. For your next writing assignment, make sure you include plenty of transition signals, and check out this post for more tips on how to improve your writing. And before you turn in your paper, don’t forget to have someone proofread your work. Our expert editors will make sure your essay includes all the transition signals necessary for your writing to flow seamlessly. Send in a free 500-word sample today!

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2.6: Writing a Conclusion Paragraph

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Gabriel Winer & Elizabeth Wadell
Berkeley City College & Laney College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)

The main parts of a conclusion

The conclusion, or concluding paragraph, is the final paragraph in the essay. Because it is put at the end, it is the last paragraph your readers will read. It will wrap up your ideas and leave them something to think about. Having a strong conclusion will help to leave a clear idea in the reader's mind.

With the introduction you started with a broader idea (the hook) and got more specific as you moved through the background section, until you got to the very focused thesis statement. In a conclusion you will do the opposite. You will start with the specific ideas in your paper and move outwards, ending on a bigger idea that is related to your topic but not covered in the body paragraphs.

The three main parts of a conclusion are

Umbrella sentence
Food for thought

Let's look at each of them in more detail.

The umbrella sentence is one sentence that gives the main idea of your whole paper. It is similar to your thesis, but it should have different words and can also be a little simpler. It is called an umbrella sentence because one sentence covers all the points of your essay, just like an umbrella covers all of your body and protects you from the rain (see figure 2.6.1).

Let's compare a thesis statement with an umbrella sentence:

Here is a student's thesis statement: “The problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete, and make one story become the only story.”

A possible umbrella sentence could be: “Stereotypes are harmful because they present flawed and incomplete views of a person or a group of people.”

Notice how the umbrella sentence covers the same general information as the thesis statement, but is less detailed.

Remind the reader of the points you made in your essay so they can see how everything fits together. Summarize the main idea of each paragraph in 1to 3 sentences. Try to change the words so you are not using the exact same language as your topic sentences.

Identifying the summary

Let's see what that looks like:

Notice this!

Read the following conclusion. The sentences [in brackets] are summary sentences that indicate the contents of the writer’s body paragraphs.

Stereotypes are harmful because they present flawed and incomplete views that can lead to prejudice. [On an individual level, they take away a person’s true identity; a person is given a label based on a group identity that cannot accurately be applied to each person. On a societal level, stereotypes can lead to policies that discriminate against particular groups of people. Stereotypes can also lead to physical violence, as in the examples of the anti-Muslim mosque attacks and anti-Semitic synagogue attacks in Southern California.] By working hard to combat our own biases and speaking up when we see a “single story” dominate, we can lessen the damaging impact of stereotypes and make the world a safer, more equitable place.

Finally, give some final idea to leave the reader thinking. We call this "food for thought" because the reader will need to spend some time pondering and digesting it, just as you spend some time eating and digesting food (see figure 2.6.2). Basically, as you say goodbye to your reader you want them to keep thinking about the ideas in your essay and why these ideas are important. Your food for thought can be:

a suggestion
an explanation of why this is important or what you want readers to learn
a reflection on how your own thinking changed through writing this.
a prediction or warning for the future
return to the hook from the introduction with an explanation of how the knowledge we have gained through your paper changes our understanding of it (this makes your paper feel like a full circle, and can be satisfying for the reader)

Identifying food for thought

Let's see what some of these look like:

Can you identify what type of food for thought is shown in each of the following sentences?

By working hard to combat our own biases and speaking up when we see a “single story” dominate, we can lessen the damaging impact of stereotypes and make the world a safer, more equitable place.
Researching the topic of bias revealed some large gaps in my understanding, and now I realize that more than ever, identifying and addressing our own personal biases is critical.
Although it may be easier to avoid the potential discomfort of considering more than a “single story” about a person or group of people, failure to take multiple stories into account risks a bleak, increasingly polarized future.

Identifying the parts of a conclusion

Let's see if you can identify the main parts of a conclusion:

Here is the conclusion to the summary/response essay we looked at earlier in this chapter. Can you find the umbrella sentence, summary, and food for thought?

In “Stereotype Threat,” McRaney and her colleagues clearly and evenhandedly explain the phenomenon of stereotype threat. Their choice of language makes the chapter interesting and accessible to students who may not have training in the social sciences, even as the authors cite many academic sources. The authors also spend time addressing and responding to some common criticisms of and doubts about the existence of stereotype threat, which makes the ideas they discuss more credible. Furthermore, the content is relatable: the examples provided in the text helped me identify an instance of stereotype threat in my own life and made me think about other situations where stereotype threat may have been at play. Their chapter highlights an important phenomenon and, with this knowledge, institutions and individuals can take steps to create environments in and out of the classroom that lessen the chance stereotype threat will negatively (and needlessly) affect performance.

(For possible answers, check the 2.15: Answer Key: Organization and Cohesion .)

Writing your conclusion

Let's put this all together in your own writing:

Apply this!

Look at a draft of your writing, focusing on the conclusion.

Can you identify the three main elements of a conclusion?
Is your umbrella sentence directly connected to, but not exactly the same as, your thesis statement?
Does your summary address all the topics in your body paragraphs? (Hint: Look at the topic sentences in each body paragraph; this should help you answer this question.)
What information do you leave your reader with in the very last sentence? A suggestion? A return to your hook? Or something else?

Section review

The conclusion, or concluding paragraph, is the final paragraph in your essay.
A strong conclusion will help to leave a clear idea in the reader's mind.

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Authored by Susie Naughton, Santa Barbara City College, Clara Zimmerman, Porterville College, and Elizabeth Wadell, Laney College. License: CC BY NC.

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Advanced IELTS

Background Statement Practice

A background statement is the first sentence of an IELTS essay. It is written to introduce the essay question by paraphrasing it. Below you will find an IELTS writing task 2 essay question with model background statements. Also watch the video lesson below to learn how to write an introduction properly.

Essay Question

GOVERNMENTS SHOULD NOT INVEST IN ARTS SUCH AS MUSIC AND THEATER. GOVERNMENTS MUST INVEST MORE IN PUBLIC SERVICES. TO WHAT EXTENT DO YOU AGREE?

It is considered by many that government should spend more funds on public welfare rather than investing in art, for instance,music and theatre.

article “the” – it should be written “the government”. Missing “the” and “a” from sentences is one of the most common grammar mistakes that students make.
Public welfare is not the same as public services. Public services relate to public transport and the health system. However, public welfare relates to benefits for unemployed or sick people.

Model Background Statement

Some people think that the government should spend more money on public services instead of using their budget to support the arts, for instance theater and music.

Full introduction

One Sided Approach

Some people think that the government should spend more money on public services instead of using their budget to support the arts, for instance theater and music. In my opinion, I fully agree that money should be spent on public transport and the health system as it is a waste of resources to fund the arts. (56 words)

Balanced Approach

Some people think that the government should spend more money on public services instead of using their budget to support the arts, for instance theater and music. In my opinion, although more investment is needed in public transportation and the health system, the arts play an important role in society and should not be ignored. (55 words)

How to write an Introduction for IELTS Essays

Watch this video to learn how to write both a background statement and a thesis statement for an IELTS opinion essay.

Main IELTS Pages Develop your IELTS skills with tips, lessons, free videos and more. IELTS Listening IELTS Reading IELTS Writing Task 1 IELTS Writing Task 2 IELTS Speaking Vocabulary for IELTS

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should the essays be one sided or balanced? Which is more preferable? Also should it be written in the third person?

The opinion is yours to decide. It is your opinion. One approach doesn’t get a higher score than the other. It depends on the question, your ideas and your view. I’m not sure what you mean about “third person”. You can’t give your personal opinion in the third person – you must use “I” or “my” to state your own view. But the essay itself is about people in general. Please go to the HONE and learn how to access the writing task 2 section of this site to find model essays, tips, video etc.

Can I use “public facilities” to paraphrase public services? Thank you!

Services are not the same as facilities.

Okay, so I got my result and guess what! I passed Listening 7.5 Reading 8.0 Writing 7.5 Speaking 6.5 Overall – 7.5 Thanks to your great work on your website..it was perfectly helpful. ..I could hug you right now

Well done 🙂 !!

Had my test done yesterday. Your website has really been helpful. Thanks ao much Ms. Elizabeth.

I hope you did well 🙂

I stumbled across your website. ..and I bless God everyday I did. ..It’s bn so so so helpful. ..My test is at d end of next week, but I still have issues with developing idea for writing tasks…Can u pls put me through?

Go through the list of common topics to develop ideas. So each essay question, you can google the ideas. Take ideas from model essays posted online or from debate websites. See this page for essay questions and topics: https://ieltsliz.com/100-ielts-essay-questions/ and the recent questions page for current topics: http://www.ieltsliz.com/recent-ielts-questions-and-topics . Also see this page for tips before your test: https://ieltsliz.com/ielts-exam-tips-on-the-day/ . Good luck!

I have been spending lot to gain right knowledge n understanding to score my taget but I accidentally found this website and understood this is a very helpful teaching and points are there. I would appreciate your tiredless commitment and big thank you for all updated very useful tips. Than you very very much I m hoping to sit the exam end of this month hoping to achieve 7 in each module in academic..my weakest area is reading I always run out of time. I thank you once again and hoping to see more of reading task tips as well I trust with your guidance I will achieve my expectation. Thank you God Bless You Sujee

See this page: https://ieltsliz.com/ielts-reading-tips-how-can-i-improve-my-score/ and then review the main reading page: https://ieltsliz.com/ielts-reading-lessons-information-and-tips/ . Good luck!

Your explanations are clear, distinct and really helpful – just fine! Thanks a lot Liz! Grear job!

Hi Liz.Is it possible to paraphrase public servises as community servises?

No. It’s best not to paraphrase this. Public services are public services.

thank you very much!

Question: The role of education is to prepare children for the modern world. Schools should cut art and music out of the curriculum so that children can focus on useful subjects such as information technology. To what extent do you agree?

Introduction: Education is third eye of human being which make children to able for adapting new environment. Some people reckon that literature and music subjects should wipe out from school studies so that kids can concentrate on beneficial subjects like information technology . In my opinion , I am in consummate disaccord with this notion of removing art and music in studies.

Sorry, I don’t comment on writing.

Simple and effective. Perfect!

I’m really glad you find it useful 🙂

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Background Information in an Essay: How to Write and Example

Background Information in an Essay

When assigned an essay, it is advisable to assume that your target audience does not know anything about your topic hence the reason why you should provide background information.

This enhances your audience’s understanding of the essay topic and subject matter. They will know what to expect in the body paragraphs of the essay.

Even though the essay has been assigned to you by your instructor and they already know the expectations, it is important to provide some background information in the introduction.

What is the Background of an Essay?

A background in an essay is the part or point within the essay where you provide contextual knowledge or introductory information to the readers to help them understand the essay’s subject matter.

The background sets the stage for the main arguments or discussion that will be presented in the essay.

What is Background Information in an Essay?

“Background information” in an essay is the content that is provided within an essay’s background to provide the readers with introductory information or contextual knowledge.

The background information helps orient your readers and equip them with the relevant foundational knowledge and context to understand the main discussions and arguments that follow within the body paragraphs.

When you provide the background information within your essay, you are establishing to your readers the relevance of your topic. This gives them the relevant information to engage with the content of your essay.

Also Read : Can a Literature Review have Pictures, Diagrams or Charts?

How to Write Background Information in an Essay

1. identify the key elements.

When writing background information in an essay, it is important to determine the key aspects of your topic that need to be addressed within the section.

Normally, the background information of an essay includes elements like a brief introduction of your topic, key definitions and concepts, historical context, relevant data or facts, and an overview of the existing research relating to your topic.

2. Conduct Research and Gather Relevant Information

Before writing the background information of your essay, ensure that you have conducted thorough research so that you can gather the relevant information and sources that are related to your topic.

It would be difficult to briefly introduce the topic and provide a brief historical context without understanding your topic through research. If possible start discussion posts on relevant platforms to gather further insights.

You should only utilize reputable sources such as scholarly articles and journals, books, and credible websites so that the information you provide in the background is accurate and reliable.

3. Organize the Information

Once you have researched and gathered the relevant information concerning your topic, organize it in such a way that it is logical and coherent.

Put into consideration the flow of the information in addition to how it will effectively support the main discussion or argument in your essay.

4. Begin with a Broad Introduction

When writing the background information section of the essay, start with a broad introduction to your topic.

Give a brief overview of the topic’s subject matter and its significance. This will set the context of the essay and grab your readers’ attention.

5. Give Historical Context if Applicable

If your essay’s topic has some historical aspects, provide relevant historical background information.

Here, you should provide key historical developments, events, or circumstances that will help your readers understand the current issue or situation presented in your topic.

6. Define Key Concepts and Terms

Introduce and define any specialized jargon, terms, or concepts that may be unfamiliar to your readers.

This ensures that the readers have a clear understanding of the terminologies and concepts used throughout the essay.

7. Present Relevant Data or Facts

Include relevant facts, data, or statistics that will help in establishing the magnitude or scope of your topic. This can give a qualitative or quantitative perspective on the issues discussed.

8. Summarize Existing Research if Applicable

When your essay is part of a greater academic discourse, briefly summarize the key arguments or findings from relevant scholarly sources .

This shows that you acknowledge the existing body of knowledge concerning your topic and highlights your essay’s contribution to the academic discourse.

In summary, when you are writing the background information in an essay, it is imperative to ensure that you present it clearly and concisely in addition to being relevant to the essay’s topic.

Avoid spending a lot of time on it and providing too much information and details.

Also Read : Time to Write a Thesis or Dissertation: Tips to Finish Fast

How to Write Background Section in Research Writing

The background section in research writing differs from that of an essay because it gives a more in-depth and comprehensive review of the existing research and literature related to your topic.

When writing the background section in research, you should:

Conduct a Literature Review

You should conduct a thorough literature review before writing the background section.

This will help you identify and father relevant scholarly sources like books, journal articles, and conference papers.

Organize the Literature

Analyze and organize the gathered literature per the relevant theories, themes, or key research findings.

Note the major concepts and gaps within the existing research that your study wishes to address.

Provide a Historical Context

Provide a brief historical context of your topic that traces the evolution of the research question or development of the field.

This helps your readers understand how your research fits within the broader scholarly discourse, in addition to how the ideas have progressed.

Present Key Concepts and Theories

Briefly introduce and explain the key concepts, models, and theories that are relevant to the research.

This shows that you understand the theoretical framework that underpins your research. It also provides your research question’s foundation.

Highlight Research Questions and Gaps

Identify the limitations or gaps within the existing literature that your study aims to fill.

State the objectives or research questions of your study and explain how they will address the identified gaps.

Justify your Research’s Significance

Explain the relevance and significance of your research within the larger practical or academic context.

Demonstrate how your study contributes to existing knowledge, addresses a practical problem, or advances the field.

Also Read : Should a Literature Review be Critical? Tips How to do it

Background Information Example

An example of background information from an essay with the topic “The Benefits of Exercise on Mental Health” is:

“Exercise has long been recognized as a fundamental component of a healthy lifestyle. Beyond its physical benefits, several studies have shown that exercise also has a positive impact on mental health.

Regular physical activity has been linked to improved mood, reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression, and enhanced overall well-being. Research has shown that exercise can mitigate the risk of developing mental health disorders. It has been associated with a lower incidence of conditions such as depression and anxiety, in addition to playing a crucial role in the management and treatment of these conditions as well.

Understanding the benefits of exercise on mental health is essential for individuals seeking to improve their overall well-being. By incorporating regular physical activity into their routines, individuals can experience improved mood, reduced stress levels, and enhanced mental resilience.

This essay explores the existing literature on the relationship between exercise and mental health, highlighting the specific mechanisms through which exercise positively affects mental well-being. The aim is to further emphasize the importance of exercise as a tool for promoting mental health and well-being”.

Also Read : How to Tell If a Research Paper Is Good: Tips from A to Z

Do’s & Don’ts when Writing Background Information

As earlier discussed in this article, the Do’s when writing background information includes providing the necessary context, including relevant facts and data, citing credible sources, focusing on relevance to the topic, and being concise.

Do not include irrelevant information or overgeneralize, do not plagiarize, and do not overwhelm your readers with too much information or details since they will be provided in the body.

Josh Jasen or JJ as we fondly call him, is a senior academic editor at Grade Bees in charge of the writing department. When not managing complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In his spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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5 ways to use evidence to back up (or challenge) an argument

Based on the material I’m reading and editing, a lot of people have forgotten how to use evidence in their writing. They make unsupported statements that the reader is just supposed to swallow whole. If you want to persuade me that your assessment is valid, your prediction is accurate, or your advice is effective, here are five ways to do that.

Cite a statistic

Nothing persuades like a number. Just make sure it’s relevant to the argument you’re making.

How to use it. Cite the data and the source. To persuade you concentrate on writing better emails , I could tell you that, in my 2016 survey of 547 business writers, they spend an average of 9.3 hours per week reading email, which was 36% of all their time spent reading.

How to poke holes in it. All statistics have weaknesses. Is it out of date? Is the sample too small or unrepresentative? How did they ask the question? And above all, what is the source? I trust unemployment estimates from the U.S. Department of Labor over wild-ass guesses from Donald Trump, for example.

Provide an example

If you’re making a bold and forward-looking claim, there may not yet be any statistics. So cite an example — who else did this and why did it work? (And unless you’re writing a personal narrative, citing examples from your own life or career are far less effective, because we know you’re biased.)

How to use it. Make the claim, then show how it works in practice. “A disruptive technology can destroy a market in less than three years — that’s what happened in San Francisco, where Uber has completely undermined the taxi market.” Several examples are better than one. Prominent people and large companies are more persuasive than random people and tiny companies. Direct quotes from a personal interview are best, but quotes taken from published articles are also effective.

How to poke holes in it. Examples sound more persuasive than they actually are. Can you site a counterexample? Show that the example is not typical?Or show that the cited example doesn’t prove the point the writer is making?

Use an analogy

If something you’re predicting has never happened before, what has happened that is similar?

How to use it. Draw a parallel. For example, “You might think we wouldn’t trust autonomous vehicles. But investors have learned to trust algorithms to gain profit, and we’re all trusting Facebook to tell us what news to read. When machines do things better than people, eventually we learn to trust the machines.”

How to poke holes in it. Is the analogy really relevant? To subvert an analogy, show why the current case is different from the one cited.

Show alternatives are absurd

In the classic mathematician ‘s reductio ad absurdum, you s tart by positing that you are wrong, then show what the awful consequences would be.

How to use it. You must take up a contrary position plausibly and without contempt and calmly reason to an undesirable conclusion. “OK, suppose we did allow South Korea to have nuclear weapons. How would we make sure they didn’t get into the wrong hands? And if they ever used them against North Korea, could we be certain that China would not retaliate? It seems an awfully risk way to save a few dollars.” (By the way, there is a very quick way to make these types of arguments — it’s called sarcasm.)

How to poke holes in it. You can attack the reasoning. But it’s often simpler to show that there is a false dichotomy — that there more alternatives than the one the writer is arguing for and its absurd opposite.

Cite an authority

This is the weakest way to back up an argument, but if the authority is sufficiently believable, it can help.

How to use it. Quote somebody. “As Malcolm Gladwell explains, it takes 10,000 hours for someone to become really adept at a skill.”

How to poke holes in it. Easy. Just cite evidence of the other four kinds that supports a counterargument.

And here are some ways not to argue

Social media, the internet, and comment sections have surfaced a lot of really bad ways to argue. They may make you feel good, but they don’t persuade anybody of anything (except that you’re more emotional than logical). If you’re an honorable writer, please don’t use these:

Ad hominem. “But of course, he’s a pedophile and a liar.” Even if it’s true, this doesn’t invalidate his argument. You’ll have to tell me why he’s wrong, not just why he’s bad, or a fascist, or a communist, or a Justin Bieber fan.
Guilt by association. “That’s what all those fascist kooks say.” I don’t care who else says it, I care if it’s right. Awful people say true things all the time.
Of course we all agree. Everyone has assumptions. Other people may not share yours. Reasoning from shared assumptions fails if the reader doesn’t share your assumptions.
Shouting. Profanity, using all caps, and exclamation points don’t make arguments stronger. They show that you have nothing to say.

There are countless other ways to argue inappropriately, but you get the idea. Argue the facts. Argue the logic. Try to leave the personal qualities of the writer out of it. Because if you’re the writer, you wouldn’t want people to treat you that way.

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NPR defends its journalism after senior editor says it has lost the public's trust

David Folkenflik

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust. Saul Loeb/AFP via Getty Images hide caption

NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the public's trust.

NPR's top news executive defended its journalism and its commitment to reflecting a diverse array of views on Tuesday after a senior NPR editor wrote a broad critique of how the network has covered some of the most important stories of the age.

"An open-minded spirit no longer exists within NPR, and now, predictably, we don't have an audience that reflects America," writes Uri Berliner.

A strategic emphasis on diversity and inclusion on the basis of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation, promoted by NPR's former CEO, John Lansing, has fed "the absence of viewpoint diversity," Berliner writes.

NPR's chief news executive, Edith Chapin, wrote in a memo to staff Tuesday afternoon that she and the news leadership team strongly reject Berliner's assessment.

"We're proud to stand behind the exceptional work that our desks and shows do to cover a wide range of challenging stories," she wrote. "We believe that inclusion — among our staff, with our sourcing, and in our overall coverage — is critical to telling the nuanced stories of this country and our world."

NPR names tech executive Katherine Maher to lead in turbulent era

She added, "None of our work is above scrutiny or critique. We must have vigorous discussions in the newsroom about how we serve the public as a whole."

A spokesperson for NPR said Chapin, who also serves as the network's chief content officer, would have no further comment.

Praised by NPR's critics

Berliner is a senior editor on NPR's Business Desk. (Disclosure: I, too, am part of the Business Desk, and Berliner has edited many of my past stories. He did not see any version of this article or participate in its preparation before it was posted publicly.)

Berliner's essay , titled "I've Been at NPR for 25 years. Here's How We Lost America's Trust," was published by The Free Press, a website that has welcomed journalists who have concluded that mainstream news outlets have become reflexively liberal.

Berliner writes that as a Subaru-driving, Sarah Lawrence College graduate who "was raised by a lesbian peace activist mother ," he fits the mold of a loyal NPR fan.

Yet Berliner says NPR's news coverage has fallen short on some of the most controversial stories of recent years, from the question of whether former President Donald Trump colluded with Russia in the 2016 election, to the origins of the virus that causes COVID-19, to the significance and provenance of emails leaked from a laptop owned by Hunter Biden weeks before the 2020 election. In addition, he blasted NPR's coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict.

On each of these stories, Berliner asserts, NPR has suffered from groupthink due to too little diversity of viewpoints in the newsroom.

The essay ricocheted Tuesday around conservative media , with some labeling Berliner a whistleblower . Others picked it up on social media, including Elon Musk, who has lambasted NPR for leaving his social media site, X. (Musk emailed another NPR reporter a link to Berliner's article with a gibe that the reporter was a "quisling" — a World War II reference to someone who collaborates with the enemy.)

When asked for further comment late Tuesday, Berliner declined, saying the essay spoke for itself.

The arguments he raises — and counters — have percolated across U.S. newsrooms in recent years. The #MeToo sexual harassment scandals of 2016 and 2017 forced newsrooms to listen to and heed more junior colleagues. The social justice movement prompted by the killing of George Floyd in 2020 inspired a reckoning in many places. Newsroom leaders often appeared to stand on shaky ground.

Leaders at many newsrooms, including top editors at The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times , lost their jobs. Legendary Washington Post Executive Editor Martin Baron wrote in his memoir that he feared his bonds with the staff were "frayed beyond repair," especially over the degree of self-expression his journalists expected to exert on social media, before he decided to step down in early 2021.

Since then, Baron and others — including leaders of some of these newsrooms — have suggested that the pendulum has swung too far.

Author Interviews

Legendary editor marty baron describes his 'collision of power' with trump and bezos.

New York Times publisher A.G. Sulzberger warned last year against journalists embracing a stance of what he calls "one-side-ism": "where journalists are demonstrating that they're on the side of the righteous."

"I really think that that can create blind spots and echo chambers," he said.

Internal arguments at The Times over the strength of its reporting on accusations that Hamas engaged in sexual assaults as part of a strategy for its Oct. 7 attack on Israel erupted publicly . The paper conducted an investigation to determine the source of a leak over a planned episode of the paper's podcast The Daily on the subject, which months later has not been released. The newsroom guild accused the paper of "targeted interrogation" of journalists of Middle Eastern descent.

Heated pushback in NPR's newsroom

Given Berliner's account of private conversations, several NPR journalists question whether they can now trust him with unguarded assessments about stories in real time. Others express frustration that he had not sought out comment in advance of publication. Berliner acknowledged to me that for this story, he did not seek NPR's approval to publish the piece, nor did he give the network advance notice.

Some of Berliner's NPR colleagues are responding heatedly. Fernando Alfonso, a senior supervising editor for digital news, wrote that he wholeheartedly rejected Berliner's critique of the coverage of the Israel-Hamas conflict, for which NPR's journalists, like their peers, periodically put themselves at risk.

Alfonso also took issue with Berliner's concern over the focus on diversity at NPR.

"As a person of color who has often worked in newsrooms with little to no people who look like me, the efforts NPR has made to diversify its workforce and its sources are unique and appropriate given the news industry's long-standing lack of diversity," Alfonso says. "These efforts should be celebrated and not denigrated as Uri has done."

After this story was first published, Berliner contested Alfonso's characterization, saying his criticism of NPR is about the lack of diversity of viewpoints, not its diversity itself.

"I never criticized NPR's priority of achieving a more diverse workforce in terms of race, ethnicity and sexual orientation. I have not 'denigrated' NPR's newsroom diversity goals," Berliner said. "That's wrong."

Questions of diversity

Under former CEO John Lansing, NPR made increasing diversity, both of its staff and its audience, its "North Star" mission. Berliner says in the essay that NPR failed to consider broader diversity of viewpoint, noting, "In D.C., where NPR is headquartered and many of us live, I found 87 registered Democrats working in editorial positions and zero Republicans."

Berliner cited audience estimates that suggested a concurrent falloff in listening by Republicans. (The number of people listening to NPR broadcasts and terrestrial radio broadly has declined since the start of the pandemic.)

Former NPR vice president for news and ombudsman Jeffrey Dvorkin tweeted , "I know Uri. He's not wrong."

Others questioned Berliner's logic. "This probably gets causality somewhat backward," tweeted Semafor Washington editor Jordan Weissmann . "I'd guess that a lot of NPR listeners who voted for [Mitt] Romney have changed how they identify politically."

Similarly, Nieman Lab founder Joshua Benton suggested the rise of Trump alienated many NPR-appreciating Republicans from the GOP.

In recent years, NPR has greatly enhanced the percentage of people of color in its workforce and its executive ranks. Four out of 10 staffers are people of color; nearly half of NPR's leadership team identifies as Black, Asian or Latino.

"The philosophy is: Do you want to serve all of America and make sure it sounds like all of America, or not?" Lansing, who stepped down last month, says in response to Berliner's piece. "I'd welcome the argument against that."

"On radio, we were really lagging in our representation of an audience that makes us look like what America looks like today," Lansing says. The U.S. looks and sounds a lot different than it did in 1971, when NPR's first show was broadcast, Lansing says.

A network spokesperson says new NPR CEO Katherine Maher supports Chapin and her response to Berliner's critique.

The spokesperson says that Maher "believes that it's a healthy thing for a public service newsroom to engage in rigorous consideration of the needs of our audiences, including where we serve our mission well and where we can serve it better."

Disclosure: This story was reported and written by NPR Media Correspondent David Folkenflik and edited by Deputy Business Editor Emily Kopp and Managing Editor Gerry Holmes. Under NPR's protocol for reporting on itself, no NPR corporate official or news executive reviewed this story before it was posted publicly.

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How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

Start with a question
Write your initial answer
Develop your answer
Refine your thesis statement

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What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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See an example

The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

Why you hold this position
What they’ll learn from your essay
The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

It gives your writing direction and focus.
It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

Ask a question about your topic .
Write your initial answer.
Develop your answer by including reasons.
Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, August 15). How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/thesis-statement/

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How a Black conservative activist arranged Donald Trump’s stop at an Atlanta Chick-fil-A

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump, center, takes a photo with Michaelah Montgomery, left, a local conservative activist, as he visits a Chick-fil-A eatery, Wednesday, April 10, 2024, in Atlanta. (AP Photo/Jason Allen)

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump, left, hugs Michaelah Montgomery, a local conservative activist, as he visits a Chick-fil-A eatery, Wednesday, April 10, 2024, in Atlanta. (AP Photo/Jason Allen)

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump, left, greets a customer as he visits a Chick-fil-A eatery, Wednesday, April 10, 2024, in Atlanta. (AP Photo/Jason Allen)

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump, center, visits a Chick-fil-A eatery, Wednesday, April 10, 2024, in Atlanta. (AP Photo/Jason Allen)

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump visits a Chick-fil-A eatery, Wednesday, April 10, 2024, in Atlanta. (AP Photo/Jason Allen)

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WASHINGTON (AP) — The scenes of Donald Trump being warmly greeted on Wednesday by a Black audience at a Chick-fil-A restaurant in Atlanta electrified conservative political media at a moment when Republicans hope to make inroads with Democrats’ most committed voting bloc.

Those widely shared moments were days in the making, an alliance between the Trump campaign, local activists, and students at some of the nation’s most iconic historically Black colleges.

Trump and his allies have argued he can win greater Black support due to his messages on the economy and immigration, a notion President Joe Biden’s campaign rejects. Some of his outreach to African Americans has played on racial stereotypes — promoting $399 branded sneakers or suggesting that Black people would empathize with his dozens of felony charges — and has offended longtime critics and some potential allies.

But the campaign considered Wednesday’s photo opportunity at Chick-fil-A, a stop he made on the way to a fundraiser in Atlanta, a win that produced viral videos shared by his allies and widely discussed by supporters and opponents alike.

Former President Donald Trump, flanked by attorneys Todd Blanche and Emil Bove, appears at Manhattan criminal court during jury selection in New York, Thursday, April 18, 2024. (Jabin Botsford/The Washington Post via AP, Pool)

“People find it so hard to believe that there are young Black people who would have loved the opportunity to meet Trump,” said Michaelah Montgomery, a conservative activist and founder of Conserve the Culture, which recruits and educates college students and young alumni at Atlanta’s historically Black colleges and universities.

Montgomery, a former Georgia Republican Party staffer who regularly coordinates events for HBCU students open to conservative ideas to meet with politicians and activists, said she was notified earlier in the week that Trump would visit Atlanta’s Vine City neighborhood during his trip to host a high-dollar fundraiser in the city. She notified a private group chat of students she uses to coordinate events and job opportunities about the president’s visit. She received immediate interest in appearing alongside him from around a dozen students.

“Everybody got together at around 9:30 in the morning and walked on over to the Chick-fil-A and then we sat there and waited until the president showed up,” said Montgomery, who can be seen embracing the former president in multiple viral videos. “It’s really disheartening to see that the media makes it seem like we just stumbled into a Chick-fil-A and he bought us milkshakes.”

Morehouse and Spelman Colleges are some of the foremost historically Black colleges in the nation, with long legacies of influential Black alumni in politics, business, religion and medicine. Martin Luther King Jr. and Georgia Democratic Sen. Raphael Warnock, who pastors King’s former church, are both Morehouse alumni. Stacey Abrams, the influential Georgia Democrat, attended Spelman. Alongside neighboring Clark Atlanta University and Morris Brown College, the academic collective on Atlanta’s West Side has served as a bastion of African American politics and culture since before the Civil Rights movement.

Trump’s overture to students at the iconic Black institutions both underscored his eagerness to show any potential inroads with Black voters as well as the campaign’s strategy of partnering with local conservative groups to marshal a crowd in communities outside the GOP base, a common political tactic with a slight twist.

“The location was beautifully selected and I think it had an incredible impact,” said Bill White, a businessman and longtime friend of the former president who organized the high-dollar luncheon for the Trump campaign in Atlanta’s Buckhead neighborhood the same day. “I just thought the day was a resounding success for him and for the people in Georgia who loved him and wanted to come out and show their support.”

White added that Donald Trump “is very relatable to anyone, really. Atlantans got a chance to see that and show their love back” and he anticipates Trump will make major inroads with Black voters in Atlanta and across the country due to events like his Wednesday visit.

Jasmine Harris, a spokesperson for the Biden campaign, criticized the visit.

“Thinking Black voters relate to Donald Trump because he spent twenty minutes handing out freebies at a fast food restaurant is yet another insult to our intelligence – and perfect example of just how disingenuous Trump’s outreach to Black voters continues to be,” Harris said in a statement.

In March, 55 percent of Black Americans said they approved of Biden’s handling his job as president while 45 percent disapproved, according to a poll by the AP-NORC Center for Public Research. But a February poll found only a 25 percent favorability rating for Trump among Black Americans.

The visit was not met with fanfare by some on campus or the local community. Montgomery denounced the criticism some students who appeared in the viral videos alongside Trump have received both on campus and online.

“They are claiming that the students made a mockery of their institutions and saying that they are disrespecting their ancestors. It is really, really bad,” said Montgomery.

The Trump Trial’s Extraordinary Opening

The first days of the criminal case against the former president have been mundane, even boring—and that’s remarkable.

This is The Trump Trials by George T. Conway III, a newsletter that chronicles the former president’s legal troubles. Sign up here .

The defendant nodded off a couple of times on Monday. And I have to confess, as a spectator in an overflow courtroom watching on closed-circuit television, so did I.

Legal proceedings can be like that. Mundane, even boring. That’s how the first couple of days of the trial in the People of the State of New York v. Donald J. Trump, Indictment No. 71543–2023, felt much of the time. Ordinary—despite being so extraordinary. And, frankly, that was comforting. The ordinary mechanics of the criminal-litigation process were applied fairly, efficiently, and methodically to a defendant of unparalleled notoriety, one who has devoted himself to undermining the rule of law.

Certainly the setting was ordinary. When the Criminal Courts Building, at 100 Centre Street in Lower Manhattan, first opened in 1941, an architectural critic lamented that the Art Deco structure, a New Deal/Public Works Administration project, was “ uncommunicative .” Eight decades later, it still has little to say. Raw and spartan, it’s a bit of a mystery to people who aren’t familiar with it (including me, a civil litigator who, despite having been admitted to the New York state bar some 35 years ago, practiced mostly in federal and Delaware courts). A pool reporter yesterday described the surroundings as “drab.”

Drab indeed, but busy—very busy. There’s never a want of bustle here, of the sort you would expect. As the former federal prosecutor Andrew Weissmann put it this week, 100 Centre is, “well, Dickensian—a beehive of activity with miscreants, state prosecutors, judges, defense lawyers, probation officers, court security [and] families—in dark, dingy halls and courtrooms.” It’s a bit like New York City as a whole: How it functions, with the volume it handles, never ceases to amaze.

And how the court manages to keep track of things, Lord only knows. In contrast with the federal courts or even New York’s civil courts, it has no electronic, publicly accessible docket. The Supreme Court of the State of New York for the County on New York, Criminal Term, is, as one courthouse reporter said last month, “stuck in the past.” It’s a tribunal “where the official record is a disorganized and incomplete mass of paper with no accounting of what’s inside.” The records come in brown accordion folders—Redwelds, lawyers call them—and what judges and clerks decide to put in them is the record, and what they don’t is not.

But somehow it works. Somehow the court manages to dispose of thousands of cases a year, involving all manner of defendants and offenses. A calendar emailed to journalists by the Manhattan District Attorney’s Office listing the week’s anticipated court appearances gives you the flavor. It catalogs names seemingly of many ethnicities, with a couple of corporate entities to boot. A hodgepodge of alleged charges, including the violent and the corrupt: robbery, conspiracy, forgery, criminal mischief, identity theft, enterprise corruption, stalking, murder, attempted murder, sex trafficking, grand larceny, attempted grand larceny, possession of a forged instrument, offering a false statement for filing.

And the list contained three cases involving the crime of falsifying business records, one of which was set for trial on Monday, April 15, in Part 59, Courtroom 1530—People v. Trump.

Nothing on the calendar, other than the defendant’s readily recognizable name, would have told you there was anything special about the case. In that sense, it was ordinary. But the hubbub outside—a handful of protesters, multiple television cameras, and a long line for the press and other spectators—made clear that something somewhat special was afoot. An overflow courtroom down the hall from the main courtroom offered a closed-circuit television feed of the proceedings. Those who had lined up went through an extra set of security screeners and machines—mandated, we were told, by the United States Secret Service.

But still, so much was ordinary—the stuff of the commencement of a criminal trial, housekeeping of the sort you’d see in virtually any court about to try a criminal case. That began promptly at 10:00 a.m. on Monday, when Judge Juan Merchan assumed the bench. There were loose ends for the judge to tie up, pending motions to decide. Merchan denied the defendant’s motion to recuse, reading, in even tones, an opinion from the bench. The motion was frivolous; the result unsurprising. And then the parties argued some motions in limine—pretrial efforts to exclude evidence.

For example, would the notorious Access Hollywood tape that rocked the 2016 presidential campaign be played for the jury? The prosecution said it should be: An assistant district attorney said the tape would elucidate why the defendant and his campaign were so hell-bent, to the point of falsifying business records, on keeping additional instances of the defendant’s miscreant conduct with women out of the public eye. The defense, of course, argued that playing the tape would be prejudicial. After all, this wasn’t a case about sexual assault.

The judge allowed that the tape’s existence provided context for the business-records charges but ruled that actually showing the tape to the jury would be prejudicial. Instead, the jury would be given a transcript. And speaking of sexual assault, prosecutors tried to get in an excerpt from Trump’s deposition in the E. Jean Carroll sexual-assault and defamation cases in which Trump testified that he was a “star,” and that stars historically get to do to women what Trump said on the Access Hollywood tape that he liked to do to them. Judge Merchan rightly said no, he would not allow the jury to hear that. It would be too much, too beside the point of what this case (unlike the Carroll cases) is actually about.

But as unusual and colorful as the factual predicate for the evidentiary motions was, the argument wasn’t all that interesting. It was rather low-key, in fact. Perhaps that was because none of the proffered evidence was new. But it was also because the arguing of pretrial evidentiary motions, however crucial they may be (although these, frankly, weren’t), is seldom scintillating. I can’t imagine that Donald Trump and I were the only ones watching who dozed off.

Then came jury selection, which took the rest of Monday, all of yesterday, and will probably consume tomorrow and Friday as well. (The judge will be handling his other cases today.) That was a bit more interesting, but slow going at first. Again, the ordinary met the extraordinary. Ninety-six potential jurors were brought in. The judge provided an overview of the case in the broadest terms, describing the charges in a few sentences; explained what his role and what the jury’s would be; and read the names of the cast of characters (some would be witnesses, others would simply be mentioned, including—full disclosure—my ex-wife). Still, it was mundane. It was pretty much what a judge would say in any big case.

And jury selection was a bit tedious; in a case like this, it simply has to be. Jurors were asked to give oral answers—some 42 of them, including a number with multiple subparts—to a written questionnaire. In substance: Where do you live? What do you do? What’s your educational background? What news sources do you read? What’s your experience with the legal system? Have you ever been to a Trump rally or followed him on social media? Have you belonged to any anti-Trump groups? And on and on and and on. But the most important inquiries came toward the end of the list: questions asking whether the prospective jurors could be fair. Occasionally the judge would interject, when an unusual or unclear answer was given. And once in a while there was a moment of levity: One woman—in response to a question about having relatives or close friends in the legal field—noted that she had once dated a lawyer. “It ended fine,” she volunteered, with a flatness of tone that betrayed no hint of nostalgia or loss.

This process took well over a day, and included brief follow-up questioning—“voir dire”—by the lawyers for both sides. But the judge did take a shortcut, one that saved a great deal of effort: After describing the case, but before proceeding to the individual-by-individual, question-by-question process, he asked the entire group the bottom-line question: Do any of you think you couldn’t judge the case fairly? Roughly two-thirds of this first batch of potential jurors said they couldn’t. That was extraordinary—a reflection of the fact that everyone knows who the defendant is, and that not many people lack a strong opinion about him.

And during the lawyers’ voir dire, a few interesting moments did occur, mostly when Trump’s lawyers pulled out social-media posts that they claimed showed possible bias on the part of the remaining candidates in the jury pool. One man was stricken by the court for cause because he once posted that Trump should be locked up. The Trump lawyers attempted, but failed, to get the court to strike a woman whose husband had posted some joking commentary about the former president. The judge’s response: That’s all you have? He allowed the juror to stay, and left it to counsel to decide whether to use their limited number of peremptory strikes.

In the end, for two days, the extraordinary intertwined with the ordinary, as it should in a case like this one. As one young woman from the Upper East Side, now to be known as Juror No. 2, put it during the selection process, “No one is above the law.” Let’s hope that sentiment prevails.

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COMMENTS

Definition and Examples of Backing in the Toulmin Model
Backing as Evidence "Initial Statement: It should be investigated whether Peter murdered George. Claim: Peter shot George. Backing: Witness W states that Peter shot George. [Here] . . . the backing statement is the kind of evidence you need to collect in a murder investigation. Of course, the witness may be lying, or what he says may not be true.
Backing
Backing is a key part of building a strong argument, as defined by Stephen Toulmin in his model of argumentation. It's the additional evidence or reasoning that supports the warrant, which is the logical link connecting your evidence to your main point or claim. In simpler terms, if your claim is what you're trying to.
Toulmin Argument Model
This statement works as backing because it gives credence to the warrant stated above, that a hearing aid will help most people hear better. ... Find an argument in essay form and diagram it using the Toulmin model. The argument can come from an Op-Ed article in a newspaper or a magazine think piece or a scholarly journal. See if you can find ...
How to Write a Great Essay Using the Toulmin Method
The grounds give place to the warrant, which is the assumption that connects the grounds to the main idea, or the claim. An example of the Toulmin method structure: Claim: The street is safely guarded in the night. Grounds: There are police officers that go through the street every hour from 8 PM to 6 AM. Warrant: The main function of a police ...
Toulmin Argument Model
The following are the parts of a Toulmin argument: 1. Claim: The claim is a statement that you are asking the other person to accept as true (i.e., a conclusion) and forms the nexus of the Toulmin argument because all the other parts relate back to the claim. The claim can include information and ideas you are asking readers to accept as true ...
12.4: Toulmin's Schema
Rather than a strict outline for a persuasive essay, Toulmin's Schema asks you to identify key features of your argument ahead of time, and understand how they will influence both what you write, and how your audience will react to what you write. ... Backing: facts that give credibility to the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must ...
Organizing an Argument
Backing: facts that give credibility to the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must be introduced when the warrant itself is not convincing enough to the readers or the listeners. For example, if the listener does not deem the warrant as credible, the speaker would supply legal documents as backing statement to show that it is true ...
Organizing Your Argument
Three argumentative methods —the Toulmin Method, Classical Method, and Rogerian Method— give guidance for how to organize the points in an argument. Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument. Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment's directions if ...
How to Conclude an Essay
Step 1: Return to your thesis. To begin your conclusion, signal that the essay is coming to an end by returning to your overall argument. Don't just repeat your thesis statement —instead, try to rephrase your argument in a way that shows how it has been developed since the introduction. Example: Returning to the thesis.
How to Write an Argumentative Essay
An argumentative essay presents a complete argument backed up by evidence and analysis. It is the most common essay type at university. ... analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true. In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays ...
Example of a Great Essay
The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement, a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas. The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ...
5 Examples of Concluding Words for Essays
Overall, It Can Be Said…. To recap an idea at the end of a critical or descriptive essay, you can use this phrase at the beginning of the concluding paragraph. "Overall" means "taking everything into account," and it sums up your essay in a formal way. You can use "overall" on its own as a transition signal, or you can use it as ...
2.6: Writing a Conclusion Paragraph
The main parts of a conclusion. The conclusion, or concluding paragraph, is the final paragraph in the essay. Because it is put at the end, it is the last paragraph your readers will read. It will wrap up your ideas and leave them something to think about. Having a strong conclusion will help to leave a clear idea in the reader's mind.
PDF Writing Conclusions 3. The Final "So what?" Strategy
Writing Conclusions. 1. About. Though expectations vary from one discipline to the next, the conclusion of your paper is generally a place to explore the implications of your topic or argument. In other words, the end of your paper is a place to look outward or ahead in order to explain why you made the points you did. 2. Writing the Conclusion.
Writing Logic: Claim, Evidence, and Warrant
From birthday cards to personal statements, college essays, or academic papers, strong writing is done with purpose. Structuring your writing around claims and evidence can give you the clarity to bring that purpose to the reader. ... However, more complex claims and evidence will need some backing and explanation of warrant. When you become ...
Background Statement Practice for IELTS Essays
All IELTS writing task 2 essay introduction paragraphs contain: Background statement = a paraphrase of the essay question. Thesis statement = your position or main points. This lesson will give you practice at paraphrasing essay questions to make a background statement. Below you will find 4 essays with model background statements and a list of ...
Background Statement Practice
Background Statement Practice. A background statement is the first sentence of an IELTS essay. It is written to introduce the essay question by paraphrasing it. Below you will find an IELTS writing task 2 essay question with model background statements. Also watch the video lesson below to learn how to write an introduction properly.
Background Information in an Essay: How to Write and Example
Normally, the background information of an essay includes elements like a brief introduction of your topic, key definitions and concepts, historical context, relevant data or facts, and an overview of the existing research relating to your topic. 2. Conduct Research and Gather Relevant Information. Before writing the background information of ...
5 ways to use evidence to back up (or challenge) an argument
Shouting. Profanity, using all caps, and exclamation points don't make arguments stronger. They show that you have nothing to say. There are countless other ways to argue inappropriately, but you get the idea. Argue the facts. Argue the logic. Try to leave the personal qualities of the writer out of it.
15 What is the function of a backing statement in the conclusion
The function of a backing statement in the conclusion of an essay is to demonstrate that you have made a valid argument or response to the topic. ... The backing statement helps to reinforce the credibility and strength of your argument by showing that you have done the necessary research and have a solid foundation for your claims. Therefore ...
What is the function of a backing statement in the conclusion
What is the function of a backing statement in the conclusion of an essay? A. To demonstrate that facts back your argument. B. To indicate that you are backtracking in your argument. C. To show that you have done the background research in your introduction . D. To demonstrate that you have made a valid argument or response to the topic. E.
15 What is the function of a backing statement in the conclusion
1.5. What is the function of a backing statement in the conclusion of an essay? A. To demonstrate that facts back your argument. B. To indicate that you are backtracking in your argument. C. To show that you have done the background research in your introduction. D. To demonstrate that you have made a valid argument or response to the topic. E.
From NPR President and CEO Katherine Maher: Thoughts on our mission and
It is deeply simplistic to assert that the diversity of America can be reduced to any particular set of beliefs, and faulty reasoning to infer that identity is determinative of one's thoughts or ...
NPR responds after editor says it has 'lost America's trust' : NPR
NPR defends its journalism after senior editor says it has lost the public's trust. NPR is defending its journalism and integrity after a senior editor wrote an essay accusing it of losing the ...
How to Write a Thesis Statement
Step 1: Start with a question. You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis, early in the writing process. As soon as you've decided on your essay topic, you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.
A Black conservative activist arranged Trump's Atlanta Chick-fil-A stop
WASHINGTON (AP) — The scenes of Donald Trump being warmly greeted on Wednesday by a Black audience at a Chick-fil-A restaurant in Atlanta electrified conservative political media at a moment when Republicans hope to make inroads with Democrats' most committed voting bloc. Those widely shared moments were days in the making, an alliance ...
The Trump Trial's Extraordinary Opening
That's how the first couple of days of the trial in new People of the State of New York v. Donald J. Trump, Indictment No. 71543-2023, felt much of the time. Ordinary—despite being so ...
Essay
Tomorrow I will have the opportunity to appear before the same committee and share what we have learned as we battle this ancient hatred at Columbia University. Oct. 7 was a day, like Sept. 11 ...
Who are the swing voters in America?
Family matters. Among people who backed one of the two leading candidates in 2020 and plan to do so this year, 10% of non-white respondents with school-age children are flipping from Mr Biden to ...
Why Iran attacked Israel and what comes next
After a virtual meeting Sunday, leaders of the G7 condemned in a joint statement the Iranian attack, which it said "risks provoking an uncontrollable regional escalation."

Backing (argument)

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9 Toulmin Argument Model

Toulmin Exercise

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Module 9: Academic Argument

Organizing the Argument

Toulmin’s Schema

Toulmin’s Method Examples

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Organizing Your Argument

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Toulmin Method

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Background Information in an Essay: How to Write and Example