characteristics of popular culture essay

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Popular Culture

Introduction, general overviews.

Classic Works
Edited Collections
Theoretical Perspectives
Cultural Studies
Representation Perspectives
Production Perspectives
Labor Force Issues
Audience Perspectives
Media Industry

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Popular Culture by Dustin Kidd LAST REVIEWED: 28 February 2017 LAST MODIFIED: 28 February 2017 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0193

Popular culture is the set of practices, beliefs, and objects that embody the most broadly shared meanings of a social system. It includes media objects, entertainment and leisure, fashion and trends, and linguistic conventions, among other things. Popular culture is usually associated with either mass culture or folk culture, and differentiated from high culture and various institutional cultures (political culture, educational culture, legal culture, etc.). The association of popular culture with mass culture leads to a focus on the position of popular culture within a capitalist mode of economic production. Through this economic lens, popular culture is seen as a set of commodities produced through capitalistic processes driven by a profit motive and sold to consumers. In contrast, the association of popular culture with folk culture leads to a focus on subcultures such as youth cultures or ethnic cultures. Through this subculture lens, popular culture is seen as a set of practices by artists or other kinds of culture makers that result in performances and objects that are received and interpreted by audiences, both within and beyond the subcultural group. Holistic approaches examine the ways that popular culture begins as the collective creation of a subculture and is then appropriated by the market system. Key issues in the sociological analysis of popular culture include the representation of specific groups and themes in the content of cultural objects or practices, the role of cultural production as a form of social reproduction, and the extent to which audiences exercise agency in determining the meanings of the culture that they consume.

Classical sociologists spoke generally to the concept of culture and culture’s role in shaping human social life, but without distinguishing the specific form of popular culture. The Frankfurt and Birmingham Schools, discussed in Classic Works , fostered interdisciplinary analyses of popular culture that include a number of sociological perspectives. The general overviews listed in this section offer broad social and sociological analyses of popular culture. Storey 2015 has used cultural studies to open new lenses for the study of popular culture, and this book is now in its seventh edition. Grazian 2010 and Kidd 2014 are both written as introductory texts for the sociology of popular culture, but they also serve well as field guides for scholars studying popular culture. Similarly, Holtzman 2000 and Danesi 2012 provide an introduction to the study of media and popular culture from the perspectives of communications and anthropology, respectively. Gaines 1998 is a study of youth music cultures in the 1980s, while Gaines 2003 is a memoir of writing a sociological analysis while also participating in the rock and roll culture of New York City in the 1980s. Gamson 1994 provides a detailed history of the celebrity concept in American culture. Lopes 2009 provides a broad historical account of the development of the comic book industry.

Danesi, Marcel. 2012. Popular culture: Introductory perspectives . London: Rowman & Littlefield.

Anthropologist Danesi presents a broad introduction to the study of popular culture organized around specific media formats such as radio, television, film, and music.

Gaines, Donna. 1998. Teenage wasteland: Suburbia’s dead end kids . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

This ethnographic analysis of rock youth subculture began as a Village Voice article about a suicide pact among four teens in suburban New Jersey.

Gaines, Donna. 2003. A misfit’s manifesto: The spiritual journey of a rock & roll heart . New York: Villard.

Gaines presents a unique memoir about becoming a sociologist, studying your subculture, and participating in the rock culture of 1980s New York.

Gamson, Joshua. 1994. Claims to fame: Celebrity in contemporary America . Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.

Gamson unpacks the concept of celebrity in American popular culture using both historical and sociological lenses. He then takes the concept to the audiences to unpack the varied ways that audiences respond to or utilize celebrity fetishes.

Grazian, David. 2010. Mix it up: Popular culture, mass media, and society . New York: Norton.

This widely used introductory text to the study of popular culture emphasizes foundational theories and concepts from sociology.

Holtzman, Linda. 2000. Media messages: What film, television, and popular music teach us about race, class, gender, and sexual orientation . Armonk, NY: Sharpe.

Holtzman presents a series of studies about representations in popular culture, focusing on race, class, gender, and sexuality.

Kidd, Dustin. 2014. Pop culture freaks: Identity, mass media, and society . Boulder, CO: Westview.

This book focuses on issues of identity in the labor force, representations, and audience for commercial popular culture.

Lopes, Paul. 2009. Demanding respect: The evolution of the American comic book . Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.

Lopes examines the origins of the comic book and its evolution across the 20th century. He focuses on how comics moved from the margins of nerd culture to the center of American popular culture.

Storey, John. 2015. Cultural theory and popular culture: An introduction . 7th ed. New York: Routledge.

Storey’s texts on popular culture have helped move the study of popular culture into the classrooms of colleges and universities. This book applies a range of social and literary theories to the analysis of popular culture objects as texts.

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Chapter 8 – Popular Culture and Social Media

Learning Outcomes

When you have completed this chapter you should be able to do the following:

Describe and define popular culture.
List and explain various ways we consume popular culture.
Describe the differences between folk, low, and high culture.
Understand and explore the ways popular culture is created.
Understand and explore the ways that popular culture influences culture.
Describe the ways to resist popular culture.

How important do you think popular culture is within your life? Are you constantly listening to the newest music? Do you enjoy watching the most recent episode of something on Amazon Prime or Netflix? Or do you follow social influencers on YouTube? Look around your house. Have your purchases been influenced by the Disney Corporation, Game of Thrones, World of Warcraft, or Peppa the Pig? The most common forms of popular culture are movies, music, television, video games, sports, entertainment news, fashion, and various forms of social media.

Some of us may be very selective in our consumption of popular culture, but it’s difficult to find someone who has not been touched by popular culture at all. Even if the mere mention of popular culture makes you roll your eyes and sigh, most of us—no matter what nation you are a citizen of—have been impacted by the economic and social impact of popular culture. This chapter will explore the significant roles that pop culture and social media play in terms of how people and cultures are socialized to thing about themselves, others, and the process of intercultural communication.

characteristics of popular culture essay

8.1 – Why Pop Culture and Social Media?

So why have a chapter on popular culture in an intercultural communication book? “Popular culture is intimately connected with education, mass communication, production, and a society’s ability to access knowledge” (Campbell, Intellectbooks.com). From an intercultural communication perspective, popular culture is usually our first exposure to other cultures. It is the place that we learn about those who are different than us. Martin & Nakayama believe that “popular culture is a lens for viewing other cultural groups” (2011, p. 202). Research tells us that people use popular culture to learn about other cultures, to re-affirm their own cultural identities, and to reinforce stereotypes. In other words, popular culture plays a powerful role in how we think about and understand ourselves as well as others.

For our purposes, the characteristics of popular culture are considered to fulfill social functions within a culture and are considered a cultural socialization agent . As a socialization agent, the messages and images that appear on television, radio, in print, hand-held devices, on large screens, the internet, and other forms of new media, can have a tremendous influence on how people view themselves and others. Because of this, the governments in some countries ban certain types of programming or only allow programming with specific agendas.

Convergence

Each era is marked by changes in technology. What happens to the “old” technology? When radio was invented, people predicted the end of newspapers. When television was invented, people predicted the end of radio and film. New technologies don’t mean that the old technologies simply vanish, people still read newspapers, listen to the radio, and watch TV, but now it’s possible to do all those things through one device—be it computer or smartphone—through the medium of the internet. Convergence is the process by which previously distinct technologies come to share content, tasks, and resources. Not clear about this yet? Think about your smartphone. It can take pictures, act as an alarm clock or a flashlight. You can access and read this textbook, send text messages, listen to the music, watch videos, and check the news.

The idea of convergence is not limited to technology though. Theorist Henry Jenkins breaks down convergence into five categories: economic, organic, cultural, global, and technological. Although all five categories are fascinating, we will consider just two categories: cultural and global convergence.

Cultural Convergence

Cultural convergence has two different aspects. One is that content flows across several kinds of platforms. For example, novels that become television series or movies ( Dexter or To All the Boys I’ve Loved Before ); manga, webtoons, graphic novels, or comics that become movies or series ( Love Alarm or The Black Panther ); even amusement park rides that become film franchises ( Pirates of the Caribbean ). And then there’s Harry Potter who exists in books, films, toys, amusement park rides, candy bars, and more!

Another aspect of cultural convergence is participatory culture or fan culture (we’re using the term culture loosely here)—that is the way that consumers can annotate, comment on, remix, and otherwise talk back to culture in unprecedented ways. Participatory fans are on the forefront of blending all the different elements of our shared culture and often doing it across national boundaries.

Global Convergence

Global convergence is the process of geographically distant cultures influencing one another despite the geographic obstacles that separate them. Nigeria’s “Nollywood” cinema takes its cues from India’s “Bollywood,” which of course came from Hollywood. Old Tom and Jerry cartoons and newer Oprah shows are popular on Arab satellite television channels; successful American horror movies like The Ring and The Grudge are remakes of Japanese hits. The hit television show “American Idol” was a remake of a British show.

The advantage of global convergence is worldwide access to a wealth of cultural influence. Its downside can be the threat of cultural imperialism . Cultural imperialism is the way that developing countries are “attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating center of the system (Schiller, 1969). In other words, less powerful nations lose their cultural traditions as more powerful nations spread their culture through their media and popular culture. Cultural imperialism can be a formal policy, or it can happen more subtly, as with the spread of the outside influences of popular culture.

When culture becomes a commercial commodity, the fear of the homogenization of cultures rises. People from different parts of the world can learn to dress, eat, consume, and communicate in the same ways. Localized cultural diversity could become endangered as a dominant, globalized culture becomes the norm. As Martin & Nakayama (2011, p. 202) note “There is no easy way to measure the impact of popular culture, but we need to be sensitive to its influences on intercultural communication because, for so many of us, the world exists through popular culture.”

8.2 – Cultural Attributes

We can sort the world into regions based on cultural attributes. We can also sort the material artifacts of culture into three general attribute areas: popular, high, and folk culture.

Historically humans have lived in small groups practicing folk culture. Much of folk culture dates to a time of human cultural development that was dependent on agriculture. The industrial age ushered in the idea of popular culture. Pop culture is a phenomenon in which large numbers of people in very different places are adopting the same or similar culture practices due to globalization. Seemingly timeless yet elite aristocratic expressions of culture are known as high culture.

Popular Culture

Popular culture is associated with the everyday, the mainstream, and that which is commonly accessible. It is culture produced for mass consumption and commercial gain. In other words, popular culture has huge appeal and functions to bind together large masses of people into a unified cultural identity.

Pop culture or low culture as it is sometimes referred to, has been described as (Stott, 2004) being commercially successful, self-sustaining, and self-perpetuating. TikTok and all its video challenges are a great example. Pop culture is always looking for the “new,” but the new is often recycled from previous generations, other cultures, or folk cultures. Pop culture can be revolutionary, though this is often unintentional.

It is common for popular culture to produce spectator-participants who form a community of believers or adherents to the culture they are consuming. These spectator-participant communities can have a powerful identity role and become a “glue” which binds members together. Discord is filled with such communities often called servers. Certain forms of pop culture are characteristic of certain co-cultures. Pop culture celebrates the people who are experiencing it.

Pop culture can be viewed from multiple evaluation points (Hammond, 2014), allowing individuals the freedom to assess and form opinions about topics. For example, a social media group talking about a new TV show versus a more in-depth program that explores the director’s vision for the show or even a website interviewing the actors from the show.

The origins of pop culture lie in the American Industrial Revolution of the late 18th century when rural people migrated to American cities in large numbers (McAdams, 2014). The newly emerging and densely populated cities allowed news of cultural items to spread rapidly. New means of mass production and the rise of the middle class made consumption of cultural items less expensive and easier to find. After World War II, innovations in radio and television broadcasting or mass media also led to significant cultural and social changes.

High Culture

High culture , on the other hand, isn’t meant for mass consumption. It might not be easily available to everyone. Consumers might need training or education to fully appreciate the benefits of high culture. It’s also possible that consumers of high culture might need to purchase costly equipment or memberships to participate in high cultural activities. Because of these limitations, high culture often belongs to social or economic elites, and does not often cross over into the realm of the masses. In the US, examples of high culture could be opera, ballet, classical music, an appreciation of fine wine, horse polo matches, or other items associated with “sophisticated” tastes.

Folk Culture

If popular culture is for the masses, and high culture is for the elites, folk culture is a localized form of culture. Folk culture refers to the rituals and traditions that maintain a cultural group identity. According to Wikipedia, “folk culture is quite often imbued with a sense of place. If elements of folk culture are copied by, or moved to, a foreign locale, they will still carry strong connotations of their original place of creation” (7/21/19). Examples of US folk culture could be quilt-making, powwows, cakewalks, hula, Shaker furniture, corn dogs, and Creole cuisine.

Folk culture often informs pop culture and has even influenced high culture, but once folk cultural icons have become so internationalized that they have lost their original sense of place, they are no longer part of folk culture. An example of this could be the Seattle Seahawks football team emblem. The original 1975 emblem was derived from a picture of a Kwakwaka’wakw tribal mask found in an art book (http://wearefanatics.com/seattle-seahawks-logo, ret. 8/28/19). Most Seahawk fans will recognize the NFL logo instantly but have little or no understanding that a “sea hawk” is the nickname for an osprey, and that the original sea hawk mask used as a basis for the team emblem was a “transformational” mask with a specific religious meaning (https://www.audubon.org/news/what-seahawk-anyway, ret. 8/28/19).

Cultural Attribute Diffusion

Similar, but not the same as global convergence, cultural diffusion is about the geographical and social spread of different aspects of one or more cultures. Whereas global convergence is more about the import of a cultural product from one place to another, cultural diffusion is about the creative processes and adaptation of cultural traditions and ideas.

There are many types of cultural diffusion, but some examples would be US originated fast-food restaurant McDonalds developing different menu items for different parts of the world. Or the spread of musical forms such as “Dancehall” which came from Jamacia has now clearly influenced some of the music from Drake or Rihanna and Brazilian artist Lai Di Dai.

If you are interested in how popular culture impacts your life, look around. Did you buy a lot of Vans because your really like them? How many of your friends own them? Next check your clothing. Are you buying things because you like them or because they are popular?

What about your entertainment choices? The 2019 DC Comics film, AQUAMAN, grossed over $1 billion dollars making it the highest-grossing DC Comics film. A former student and her husband looked forward to watching it because of its popularity, but was disappointed when they finally saw it. “We sat and watched the entire thing even though it was cheesy and not very well made. Why? Probably because we have watched many other superhero movies over the years that have taken over the movie scene” (Hein, 2019). According to CNBC.com, “more than 70% of the film’s revenue came from countries outside the US” (https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/08/aquaman-nears-billion-dollar-bench-mark-thanks-to-international-sales.html, ret. 8/18/19).

According to Kathryn Sorrells (2013, pp. 142-144), there are several ways that we can become informed consumers of popular culture. First, we should increase awareness of what role media plays in forming views, normalizing ideas, and spreading stereotypes. Second, we need to understand that we have a choice in what media we consume and what we don’t. And third, we do not have to accept what mass media promotes. Kalle Lasn, author of Cultural Jam (2000), introduced the idea of cultural jamming which is a form of public activism that helps us to become better interpreters of media rather than simply consumers.

8.3 – The Power of Pop Culture

The US not only consumes a lot of pop culture but is also responsible for creating much of it. The economic prosperity of the United States at the beginning of last century created cultural industries . The term cultural industry was created by Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer (1944; 1993) to mean the creation, production, and distribution of goods and services that are cultural in nature and usually protected by intellectual property rights. The globalizing forces of trade & international commerce, plus media & communication technology plus the arts & languages are behind the rise of US pop culture. In the 1920s, US media was exported to boost sales of US products. Among the major sponsors of such programming were Procter & Gamble, Colgate-Palmolive, and Lever Brothers, all US manufacturers of soap and cleaning products, thus the term soap opera came into being for the daytime dramas that also became popular exports by themselves.

The growth of the influence of US television has also impacted the international film industry. In 1987, US films captured 56% of the European film market. Less than a decade later, that statistic rose to 90% (Dager, n.d.). Recently, the market share across Western Europe has ranged from 60-75% (Hopewell, 2013). In such a lop-sided import/export market, concerns are often raised. “Not only do foreign nations worry about their own domestic entertainment industries from an economic standpoint, but they also worry about the effects on their culture” (Levin Institute, 2017).

Other countries have taken notice in recent decades, and some of those countries have begun to focus on developing pop culture as an economic engine and international export. Take South Korea for instance. In the 1990s the South Korean government realized that the Hollywood blockbuster, Jurassic Park, was the equivalent value of foreign sales of 1.5 million Hyundai cars so it shifted its national export strategy from manufactured goods to cultural products like movies and music (Lee, 2022). The shift has ultimately paid off. Chinese audiences are huge fans of Korean television dramas. The K-pop artists, BTS were recently invited to the White House to mark the final day of Asian America, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander Heritage Month where they briefly discussed anti-Asian hate crimes with President Biden.

The Hallyu Wave (Korean Wave) has become a legendary example of “soft power” that South Korea has begun to accumulate in international relations. Growing familiarity with any nation’s culture translates into easier governmental and stronger commercial relationships around the world (Lee, 2022). Squid Games anyone?

8.4 – Cultural Values and Pop Culture

There has been a plethora of interesting research on social media and pop culture from an intercultural communication perspective. As the focus of this class is to introduce all aspects of intercultural communication, we can only cover a few highlights in this chapter.

Researchers Daniel and Musgrave (2017) have illustrated that the “synthetic experiences” of pop culture and social media (films, novels, television, video games) can change beliefs, reinforce preexisting views, or even displace knowledge gained through more traditional ways of learning about other cultures. They explored how a Tom Clancy book influenced US relations with the Soviet Union and 9/11.

Another researcher (Abdullah, 2019) studied the correlation between the willingness to learn the English language and being exposed to pop culture and social media. The correlation was so high that the author encouraged teachers to allocate as much time as possible to using pop culture to help students learn English.

Intercultural scholar, Chen Guo Ming, has stated that pop culture and social media “not only influences the form and content of information/messages, but it also affects how people understand each other in the process of human communication, especially for those from different cultural or ethnic groups (2012, pp.3).” He has explored changes in e-communication, cultural identity, intercultural relationships, adaptation, and intercultural conflict.

8.5 – Consuming and Resisting Pop Culture

People negotiate their relationship to pop culture in interesting and complex ways. To maintain or reshape our identities, we both resist popular culture, and actively consume it. If a social group participates forms of pop culture, individuals often feel that they should participate as well. On the other hand, if a social group has concerns about pop culture, individuals will often refuse to engage with that form as well.

Facebook usage is a great example of this. According to Statista.com (ret. 7/25/19), seventy-nine percent of 18-49 year-olds in the United States used Facebook in February of 2019 while only forty percent of the 65 and older group did. According to the Pew Research Center (ret. 7/25/19), those in the 18-24 range embrace a variety of platforms (YouTube 94%, Snapchat 78%, Instagram 71%, and Twitter 45%) by visiting them multiple times (71%) a day. Interestingly enough, popular culture does not have to win over the majority of the people to be considered “popular.” With usage by approximately a quarter of the world’s population, Facebook or Meta can be considered an elite purveyor of pop culture.

8.6 – Conclusion

Popular culture is constantly evolving and is unique to the time and place in which it occurs. Societal influences and institutions merge and diverge to appeal to a broad cross-section of people within a culture. According to Internet Live Stats (ret. 2/27/18) there are 3.5 billion Google searches per day. Whether you embrace it or resist it, popular culture serves important cultural functions. Those functions are connected to cultural identities both personal and national. Pop culture is also an economic force that influences how we get information about, and understand, other cultural groups.

Cultural Socialization Agent
Participatory Culture
Cultural Imperialism
Fan Culture
Low Culture
Cultural Diffusion
Cultural industry
Cultural jamming

Reflection Questions

What do we know about places that we have never been and how do we know it? Give several examples where popular culture (e.g. social media, magazines, videos, influencers, etc.) has influenced your understanding of a culture or place that you have no direct experience with, and how that aspect of popular culture has impacted you.
We all have our “favorite” forms of popular culture (e.g. Instagram or Snapchat over Facebook plus texting over phone calls, etc.). Explain why you have selected some forms of popular culture over others? Choose two.
The popular culture we prefer and consume is often influenced and intimately tied to our identities. Given two examples about how popular culture consumption has reflected or shaped your cultural identity? Has this “shaping” been minimal or life-changing?
Some people actively resist ALL or selective parts of popular culture. Do you resist popular culture? What parts? Explain why.
What types of assumptions might people from outside the United States make about the US after watching an episode of The Real Housewives of … or The Voice ? Have you ever had an experience explaining how your life is NOT like television or the movies? Please explain.

The characteristics of popular culture that are considered to fulfill social functions within a culture.

The process by which previously distinct technologies come to share content, tasks, and resources.

When different cultures become similar or even merge together.

The way that consumers can annotate, comment on, remix, and otherwise talk back to culture in unprecedented ways.

The process of geographically distance cultures influencing one another despite the geographic obstacles that separate them.

The way that developing countries are attracted to, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating center of the system.

Being commercially successful, self-sustaining, self-perpetuating, and readily available to the masses.

Being commercially successful, self-sustaining, and self-perpetuating.

Often belongs to social or economic elites, and does not often cross over into the realm of the masses.

Refers to the rituals and traditions that maintain a cultural group identity.

The geographical and social spread of different aspects of one or more cultures.

Form of public activism that helps us to become better interpreters of media rather than simply being consumers of culture.

The creation, production, and distribution of goods and services that are cultural in nature and usually protected by intellectual property rights.

A television or radio drama series dealing typically with daily events in the lives of the same group of characters.

Intercultural Communication for the Community College (Second Edition) Copyright © 2022 by Karen Krumrey is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Literary Theory and Criticism

Home › Popular Culture

Popular Culture

By NASRULLAH MAMBROL on August 17, 2018 • ( 0 )

Popular culture has become segmented into a myriad of forms, genres, audiences, tones, styles and purposes, so much so that it cannot meaningfully be talked about as a monolith. While some so-called ‘popular culture’ is produced en masse (and has certain of the characteristics of mid-twentieth-century mass culture that cultural critics of the period complained about), a great deal is produced for relatively small numbers of people who are familiar with, and more or less passionately interested in, the genres involved. And a great deal of popular culture – such as hip hop for instance – does retain links with geographical communities. Yet, at the same time it is increasingly finding new links between sectors and ways to market one set of products in terms of another. Branding across formats has become increasingly important with tie-ins: comics, computer games, books, films, music CDs, music videos, TV shows can all be produced around the same characters and ‘brand’. From the industry perspective this is one of the forces driving consolidation as large media conglomerates look for ‘synergies’ in a quest that has not been as successful in business terms as was once predicted. The point is, however, that both these forces – of segmentation and of consolidation – exist simultaneously and do not have to be thought of in contradiction.

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Certainly popular culture is riddled with art niches, in the sense that it produces work which resists immediate pleasures and satisfactions; which is experimental in terms of its media; which is ambitious in that it expresses unusual and thoughtful feelings and messages; which is often conscious of the history of its particular genre; and which requires some familiarity with a wider field than with the piece of work itself. In these terms there exist thousands of movies ( David Lynch ), songs ( Radiohead or the Magnetic Fields ), comic books ( Chris Ware ), even television shows ( The Sopranos ), which hybridise high and low forms. Indeed, art values are not only being democratised but are breaking into new spheres as they colonise fields such as food, car culture, wine and fashion (at the same time as art itself is becoming deaestheticised). Admittedly these values may be class markers and the products that express them available mainly to the privileged, although not exclusively: take aestheticised or ‘custom’ car culture as an example of an aesthetic practice that has barely been taken up or enjoyed by the bourgeoisie.

From the other side, sectors of old high culture have embraced the instruments of popular culture without losing much credibility. For instance, much art produced by artschool graduates and aimed at the art world has absorbed commercialism and the media. (In fact it is the very strength of the ‘art world’ as an institution which allows this to happen.) This has largely been Andy Warhol ‘s legacy, and has been taken up, to much controversy, by the Brit artists of the late nineties. Artists such as Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin have become celebrities and cultural entrepreneurs in a way not especially different from any rock star or fashionable restaurateur. Actually, the whole phenomenon of Brit Art is an example of the complex relation between different styles and audiences that cannot be broken down into the high and low division (Betterton 2001).

Modern popular culture has also developed tones and moods unique to itself partly because its consumers know that it is profit-orientated business and that they are being, to some degree, exploited, but generally don’t care! The enjoyment and the meaning of the music, the fashion, the movie or the record exist, not despite commercialisation but because of it. To enjoy and consume it is, whatever else it is, to participate in the present. Hence some popular culture is enjoyed in this spirit – ‘It’s rubbish, but I like it’ – and there is often a sense of solidarity between producers and consumers in that they share the joke. A typical example: the laddish British magazine, Loaded’ s logo, ‘For men who should know better’. This is sometimes called irony, but that’s not quite right. It’s an attitude that does not fit the old categories developed to describe the possibilities of cultural orders still under the grip of the classics and aesthetics.

There is a closely related phenomenon in which conventional images of being a girl or being a boy for instance are pastiched slightly, exaggerated with a trace of mockery, as in the Hollywood teen-movie Clueless . This is sometimes read as providing a political space in which new grounds for identity formation can be explored ( McRobbie 1999, 127). This is doubtful however. That kind of interpretation falls prey to what we can call the fallacy of progressive self-referentiality or self-ironisation. Being aware that one is being positioned into stereotypes of femininity say, and gently making a joke of it by camping the stereotypes up, implies no liberation from that position. If anything it implies a tolerance of being positioned.

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Alicia Silverstone , Stacey Dash , Breckin Meyer , Brittany Murphy , Jeremy Sisto , Elisa Donovan , Donald Faison , Paul Rudd , and Justin Walker in Clueless (1995)

Popular culture often displays its intelligence in the way that it develops new styles to appeal to new audiences. Often these involve the old category of wit. So to riff on an example from Paul Gilroy , that of the early-nineties Californian rapper Snoop Dogg . Snoop was involved in the project of popularising rap, transforming it into a mainstream pop genre. Why did he pass as a dog? Because dogs chase pussy. Because it is a dog eat dog world. Because dogs hunt in packs. Because the dogfather is an inverted godfather. Because a dog is an abject creature and doing it doggy style is thought of by some as gross and as demeaning to women, although (jumping ahead in time) it is also a move in the sexy perreo dance style which caused an uproar in San Juan . Because, on the other hand, a dog is man’s best friend and a favourite of white Hollywood family movies, where no family is a real family without one. Because dogs (like Snoop) are dogged. And because a man impersonating a dog is comic (if a little embarrassing) rather than threatening ( Gilroy 2000, 204ff.). Snoop disseminated a trope from the streets in which abjection was turned against itself so as to attract the widest possible audience/ market.

Popular culture also routinely creates more or less invented notions of tradition and innovation: there are neo-modern, neo-classic and a plethora of retro styles , (just thinking of decades, there’s a taste for each – thirties, forties, fifties, sixties, seventies, eighties styles, you name it). Of course, there is nothing new in the anchoring of taste formations in the past: neo-classicism, which shifts its meaning and its content across generations in the period between the Renaissance and the mid-twentieth century, is arguably the key taste/style formation of modern Western culture and has always involved elements of ‘invented tradition’. Neo-classicism has generally meant order and harmony in turbulent times, and under modern capitalism all times are turbulent, so that one function of taste and style has been to indicate a historically transcendent calm and stability. But in contemporary popular culture, retro is neither a principle of order nor even of nostalgia: it organises fashions which know themselves as such, soliciting complex modes of reception which involve memory, irony, regret and pastiche.

To point to popular culture’s rich and innovatory tonal range, however, is not to say that popular culture does not have real limits and problems. But in most cases these are confined to specific occasions or genres and cant be used to demonise the domain as a whole. One of popular culture’s more systemic limits is that of obsolescence. In it, individual works or arts do not usually acquire prestige and aura because they are rare and exist at a distance from those who appreciate them, but on the contrary because certain names and texts are everywhere, because they have a culturally saturating fame. It is true that the objects of specific and limited tastes ( Lou Reed , South Park ) can acquire considerable prestige among the hippest taste monitors at a particular moment, but they have, even at their period of greatest acclaim, nothing like the massive popularity (or circulation at any rate) of Madonna or The Simpsons at their peak. Yet all prestige and appeal is acquired only in the process which will exhaust it: at a certain point repetition and celebrity turn into boredom and satiety, and the object is trashed into final uncoolness and obsolescence, awaiting its call into history’s dustbin – from which it will be retrieved (perhaps) as retro or nostalgia. Only premature death can stop this process it seems: Elvis Presley , Marilyn Monroe , John Lennon , James Dean .

The transitoriness of much popular culture is linked to its generationalism: massified popular culture is directed in particular to the young, since they have the greatest ‘discretionary’ spending power, as well as the most need to use it to make social connections. This complicates things considerably since old popular cultures become intertwined with youth memories for ageing generations, and getting into contemporary popular cultures routinely comes to require negotiation with the sense that one is ‘too old’ for this.

And popular culture can be exploitative lets call two important forms of this the rip-off and the beat-up. The rip-off appears when marketing efforts are made to entice audiences to consume low-quality work. The sad tale of the Star Wars franchise is a good case in point: the most recent films have contained no (good) new ideas and have none of their predecessors’ energy. Their main impetus was clearly profit, and most people seeing them would feel slightly cheated. Almost every franchise (and notably television series) involves a certain rip-off since they are under structural pressure to end a little past the time that they can maintain quality.

The beat-up is the intensifying of prejudices and cultural divisions: in a sense almost all Hollywood production before about 1980 is a beat-up on African Americans. This does not mean that all films that pandered to and intensified negative images of blacks are simply to be rejected on those grounds (as if films that encourage horrible prejudices cannot have other attractive – if not quite ‘redeeming’ – features), but it does mean that those films were exploitative of white racism. Rabidly conservative talk-show hosts, offering false information, closing down on dissent, bullying and ranting have refined the beat-up into a form all of its own. The effort to end that kind of exploitation is, of course, one of cultural studies’ most important and easily defended tasks.

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Because, under capitalism, popular culture is fundamentally commercialised, it is a standard bearer for commercial values and the ideology that supports consumer capitalism. This means that it has a somewhat conflictual relationship with publicly funded culture and in particular with public broadcasting. There may, indeed, be good reasons to support the public funding of culture and, as we know, these reasons usually boil down to maintaining diversity and news services which are not ratings-driven and protecting the poorest in the community from the overpricing of media services. On the other hand public subsidy for middle-class tastes is not so easily defensible. And so in certain contexts, commercial popular culture as an enemy of, or at any rate an alternative to, public culture can work against the best interests of the community.

The big point is, then, that cultural populists need to recognise limits and problems to popular culture as it exists (some of which are open to cultural policy intervention), while cultural elitists need to recognise that those limits and problems do not define popular culture as such.

Source Miller, Toby. A Companion To Cultural Studies . Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2001. Print.

Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984. Brantlinger, Patrick. Bread & Circuses:Theories of Mass Culture as Social Decay. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983. Fiske, John. British Cultural Studies and Television. Channels of Discourse: TV and Contemporary Criticism.Ed.R.C.Allen.Chapel Hill,NC;London:University of North Carolina Press,1987. Understanding Popular Culture. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989. Frow, John. Cultural Studies and Cultural Value. Oxford; New York: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, 1995. Hartley, John. The Politics of Pictures:The Creation of the Public in the Age of Popular Media. London: Routledge, 1992. Jenkins, Henry,Tara McPherson and Jane Shattuc. Hop on Pop:The Politics and Pleasures of Popular Culture. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002. McGuigan, Jim. Cultural Populism. London; New York: Routledge, 1992. Culture and the Public Sphere. London; New York: Routledge, 1996.

Sociological Definition of Popular Culture

The History and Genesis of Pop Culture

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Popular culture (or "pop culture") refers in general to the traditions and material culture of a particular society. In the modern West, pop culture refers to cultural products such as music, art, literature, fashion, dance, film, cyberculture, television, and radio that are consumed by the majority of a society's population. Popular culture is those types of media that have mass accessibility and appeal.

The term "popular culture" was coined in the mid-19th century, and it referred to the cultural traditions of the people, in contrast to the " official culture " of the state or governing classes. In broad use today, it is defined in qualitative terms—pop culture is often considered a more superficial or lesser type of artistic expression.

The Rise of Popular Culture

Scholars trace the origins of the rise of popular culture to the creation of the middle class generated by the Industrial Revolution . People who were configured into working classes and moved into urban environments far from their traditional farming life began creating their own culture to share with their co-workers, as a part of separating from their parents and bosses.

After the end of World War II , innovations in mass media led to significant cultural and social changes in the west. At the same time, capitalism, specifically the need to generate profits, took on the role of marketing: newly invented goods were being marketed to different classes. The meaning of popular culture then began to merge with that of mass culture, consumer culture, image culture, media culture, and culture created by manufacturers for mass consumption.

Different Definitions of Popular Culture

In his wildly successful textbook "Cultural Theory and Popular Culture" (now in its 8th edition), British media specialist John Storey offers six different definitions of popular culture.

Popular culture is simply culture that is widely favored or well-liked by many people: it has no negative connotations.
Popular culture is whatever is left after you've identified what "high culture" is: in this definition, pop culture is considered inferior, and it functions as a marker of status and class .
Pop culture can be defined as commercial objects that are produced for mass consumption by non-discriminating consumers. In this definition, popular culture is a tool used by the elites to suppress or take advantage of the masses.
Popular culture is folk culture, something that arises from the people rather than imposed upon them: pop culture is authentic (created by the people) as opposed to commercial (thrust upon them by commercial enterprises).
Pop culture is negotiated: partly imposed on by the dominant classes, and partly resisted or changed by the subordinate classes. Dominants can create culture but the subordinates decide what they keep or discard.
The last definition of pop culture discussed by Storey is that in the postmodern world, in today's world, the distinction between "authentic" versus "commercial" is blurred. In pop culture today, users are free to embrace some manufactured content, alter it for their own use, or reject it entirely and create their own.

Popular Culture: You Make the Meaning

All six of Storey's definitions are still in use, but they seem to change depending on the context. Since the turn of the 21st century, mass media —the way pop culture is delivered—has changed so dramatically that scholars are finding it difficult to establish how they function. As recently as 2000, "mass media" meant only print (newspapers and books), broadcast (televisions and radio), and cinema (movies and documentaries). Today, it embraces an enormous variety of social media and forms.

To a large degree, popular culture is today something established by niche users. What is "mass communication" moving forward? Commercial products such as music are considered popular even when the audience is tiny, in comparison to such pop icons as Britney Spears and Michael Jackson. The presence of social media means consumers can speak directly to producers—and are producers themselves, turning the concept of pop culture on its head.

So, in a sense, popular culture has gone back to its simplest meaning: It is what a lot of people like.

Sources and Further Reading

Fiske, John. "Understanding Popular Culture," 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2010.
Gans, Herbert. "Popular Culture and High Culture: An Analysis and Evaluation Of Taste." New York: Basic Books, 1999.
McRobbie, Angela, ed. "Postmodernism and Popular Culture." London: Routledge, 1994.
Storey, John. "Cultural Theory and Popular Culture," 8th ed. New York: Routledge, 2019.
Understanding Mass Media and Mass Communication
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Toward a Definition of Popular Culture

The most common definitions of popular culture suffer from a presentist bias and cannot be applied to pre-industrial and pre-capitalist societies. A survey reveals serious conceptual difficulties as well. We may, however, gain insight in two ways. 1) By moving from a Marxist model (economic/class/production) to a more Weberian approach (societal/status/consumption). 2) By looking to Bourdieu’s “cultural capital” and Danto’s and Dickie’s “Institutional Theory of Art,” and defining popular culture as “unauthorized culture.” Keywords: popular culture, cultural capital, “institutional theory of art,” Arthur Danto, George Dickie, Pierre Bourdieu, Antonio Gramsci

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The Role of Popular Culture in the United States of America Essay

The popular culture in the United States of America has taken a concrete foundation in the formation of various contemporary cultures. The popular culture in itself does not have exact information on who started it but there are assumptions or conclusions that are available when the origin of the popular culture arises. The information available is not enough about whom the founder of this upcoming culture was but we are dead certain that the effects of the popular culture are still across the United States of America (Sanchez 367).

The popular culture originated from the African-Americans according to their way of life and the way people live together in harmony. Then, it mostly spread via the music industry, which the African-Americans dominate, which showed up in the mainstream in the late 20th century and early 21st century. This is a very recent culture, but the enormity, which it has spread and the reception of the people makes it worth studying and backtracking about.

The role of the social change due to the popular culture is witnesses in United States of American and the whole world. The music industry receive great influence by the popular culture and whenever an artist releases a song and it does not conform to the current trend, it does not gain popularity and people will not listen to it no matter how good the message might be.

The popular culture has changed the way people dressed and dressing the way most people on the music videos do is cool, no matter how irrelevant a piece of clothing is to the situation (Takaki 529).

The music industry at some point will show the disparity in both the fully American society and the African American society. The latter have a certain way of singing, for example, so well they have done all the jazz music, soul and the various spirituals.

Rock music on the other hand has steamed for the fully American society and from this impact created by the popular music; we can see how later on the two societies find a grey area. The African Americans initially mastered rap music but with time, we have seen the uprising of the Americans indulging themselves into this genre of music.

The society change can partially be associated to the popular culture as well as improved technology, which make people adopt new way of living. Its role is major, every corner of the world feels it, and therefore people cannot consider it insignificant factor but a major contributor to the same. The use of slang has been there since time immemorial but the use of the current slang derived from the popular culture has flooded the tongues of the Americans.

The way of dressing has considerably changed for the tight jeans in the early eighties to the baggy, oversized jeans worn today by most young people. Most of them do this, not due to bodily comfort or preference but due to the influence, the popular culture has on the societal change.

The way of making money these days has revolutionized unlike back in the day when after school people would go out in search of vacant job positions. With the popular culture, it has encouraged the young people to work and run small businesses to take care of their needs.

Works Cited

Sanchez, George. Becoming Mexican American . New York: Oxford University Press. 1995. Print

Takaki, Ronald. A different Mirror: A history of Multicultural America . Boston: Little Brown and Co, 2008.Print

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Bibliography

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Course: US history > Unit 8

Korean War overview
The Korean War
The Eisenhower era
Anticommunism in the 1950s

Popular culture and mass media in the 1950s

Women in the 1950s
Atomic fears and the arms race
The start of the Space Race
1950s America
In the 1950s and 1960s, young Americans had more disposable income and enjoyed greater material comfort than their forebears, which allowed them to devote more time and money to leisure activities and the consumption of popular culture.
Rock and roll , a new style of music which drew inspiration from African American blues music, embraced themes popular among teenagers, such as young love and rebellion against authority.
In the 1950s, the relatively new technology of television began to compete with motion pictures as a major form of popular entertainment.

The postwar boom and popular culture

Rocking around the clock, hollywood on the defensive, the triumph of television, what do you think, attribution, want to join the conversation.

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Home — Essay Samples — Entertainment — Pop Culture — Impacts Of Popular Culture On The Society

What is Popular Culture and How It Impacts The Society

Categories: Pop Culture

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Published: Jul 10, 2019

Words: 1737 | Pages: 4 | 9 min read

Introduction: what is popular culture, impacts of pop culture in the society today, works cited:.

Bartz, G. K. (1997). Michelangelo: The complete sculpture, painting, architecture. Harry N. Abrams, Inc.
Bull, G. (2020). Michelangelo: A life in six masterpieces. Penguin.
Campbell, S. (2005). Michelangelo: critical studies. Wiley-Blackwell.
Cole, B. (1992). Italian art, 1250-1550: The relation of Renaissance art to life and society. HarperCollins Publishers.
Condivi, A. (2005). The life of Michelangelo. Penn State Press.
Goffen, R. (1999). Pieta, in Michelangelo's Three Pietas: http://www3.nd.edu/~ggoiffon/htdocs/papers/pieta.html
Harris, B. (1998). Michelangelo's David: Florentine history and civic identity. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 61, 1-54.
Mundy, J. (1996). Michelangelo. Bantam.
Parker, H. (2016). Michelangelo: Complete works. Taschen.
Seymour, C. (2012). Michelangelo’s sculptures: The finest quality cast reproductions. Titan Books.

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popular Culture

Quick reference.

1. Cultural artefacts or media content produced for mass audiences. This equates popular culture with commercial success. The formal features of mass-media content may be interpreted in terms of broadcast codes. In critical theory, this is mass culture: the standardized commercial products and media texts of the culture industry, produced for the masses; these are alleged to reflect the dominant ideology and to produce conformity among the subordinate classes. Commodity culture is distinguished from the authenticity of traditional folk culture or from the aesthetic value of high culture and often dismissed as ‘mere entertainment’. The media industries usually argue that they deliver ‘what the public wants’. See also commodification ; consumer culture ; dumbing down ; elitism ; Frankfurt school .

2. The everyday life and/or arts and artefacts of ‘the people’ within a society. The practices and artefacts seen as reflecting the tastes and values of ‘ordinary people’ (as opposed to the minority tastes of elite or high culture). Historically associated with traditional folk culture (especially oral culture as distinct from literary culture). British cultural studies (e.g. Hoggart) originally defined popular culture as working-class culture. Contemporary sociology stresses the importance of the diversity of subcultures (e.g. black popular culture, teenage popular culture), as distinct from mass culture. See also cultural politics .

3. The productive ways in which audiences engage with the pervasive cultural currency to make it their own, as in active audience theory. In the face of the dominant ideology, resistant audiences are capable of oppositional readings, using popular cultural artefacts and imagery for their own purposes ( see also uses and gratifications ). Critics of the subversive audience approach to popular culture dismiss it as cultural populism. However, popular culture clearly plays an important role in relation to the development of personal identity, particularly among adolescents.

4. Mass-media content which seeks to produce a particular conception of the collective identity of ‘the people’ within a society: see also imagined community .

From: popular culture in A Dictionary of Media and Communication »

Subjects: History

Reflections on Popular Culture and Philosophy

Contributions to the philosophical genre of popular culture and philosophy aim to popularize philosophical ideas with the help of references to the products of popular (mass) culture with TV series like The Simpsons , Hollywood blockbusters like The Matrix and Jurassic Park , or popular music groups like Metallica . While being commercially successful, books in this comparatively new genre are often criticized for lacking scientific rigor, providing a shallow cultural commentary, and having little didactic value to foster philosophical understanding. This paper discusses some of these methodological and didactic objections and seeks to encourage a constructive discussion of concerns with the genre. It shows how the genre similar to previous attempts to foster public understanding of philosophy and that it is a methodologically viable approach to reach a broad range of readers with diverse informational preferences and educational backgrounds. Considering what makes this approach to the popularization of philosophical thinking successful will shed light on some of the criteria for popularization of philosophy in general.

1 Introduction

Pseudo-philosophy needs to be replaced by philosophy like pseudo-science needs to be counteracted by science. ( Irwin 2006 )

In the early 2000s, a new way of popularizing philosophical thinking emerged. Philosophers like William Irwin and Georg Reisch began to edit volumes on two seemingly disparate cultural domains: popular culture on the one hand and academic philosophy on the other. Bridging the gap between these two realms, philosophers started to illustrate and explain philosophical ideas with the help of popular TV series, movies, song lyrics and video games. Books from this genre – for instance, The Simpsons and Philosophy ( Irwin, Conrad, and Skoble 2001 ) and Star Trek and Philosophy ( Decker and Eberl 2008 ; Decker, Eberl, and Irwin 2016 ) – have found their way into most well sorted bookstores. Addressing laypeople with no formal training in philosophy, these books attract a readership interested in philosophical investigations into their favorite format of pop-cultural entertainment. While readers obviously have enjoyed such volumes, as the number of published volumes in this genre indicates, some academic philosophers have been vocal about their criticism of this genre ( Lawrence 2007 ) and within the genre, a self-critical awareness of the limits of the literary format has been voiced as well ( Irwin 2006 ; Irwin and Garcia 2006 ; Snaevarr 2008 ). Off the record, some philosophers even lament pseudo-intellectual fandom, a lack of argumentative, conceptual, and terminological precision, and of cultural criticism – the opponents of this genre rate it as a kind of second-tier philosophy. William Irwin, one of the founders of this philosophical genre and the editor of the Open Courts Popular Culture and Philosophy series, has defended the genre against these accusations, saying, “[…] philosophy needs to be popularized, as science needs to be popularized, and philosophy professors should be involved in the popularization of philosophy, rather than leaving the task to well-meaning amateurs.” ( Irwin 2010 )

In this contribution, I will reflect on the value of the genre of popular culture and philosophy for the popularization of philosophical ideas and methods and make a case in favor of this genre. In this regard, I will defend the view that popular culture and philosophy is a legitimate and important way to popularize philosophical thinking. I also want to encourage further engagement with popular culture in philosophical writings and classroom settings. I will first differentiate between various attempts to popularize scientific knowledge in general and philosophical ideas in particular and discuss intellectual aspirations associated with popularized philosophy (in 2). Then I identify some common features of the genre of popular culture and philosophy on the basis of paradigmatic examples as well as writing instructions for authors given by series editors (in 3). Against this background, I then depict several reservations against the philosophical genre in question (in 4). In the following two sections I describe the socio-historical tradition of this genre (in 5) and address methodological concerns (in 6).

2 Popularization of Philosophy

Contributors to the genre of popular culture and philosophy leave the “ivory tower” of academic philosophy ( Shapin 2012 ). This is necessary in the context of science communication, since writings in academic philosophy, in particular research articles and monographs, are often hard to comprehend for lay people, thus philosophers should, according to editorial requirements of volumes in this genre (see Section 3 ), (i) mitigate certain technical complications in philosophical writings. [1] This includes the reduction of the usage of technical terms, logical formalizations of all kinds, complicated thought experiments, extensive historical reconstructions of thought traditions, as well as giving a representative (non-selective) overview on the relevant research literature with proper references. Also (ii), instead of focusing on abstract arguments, thought experiments and illustrative examples from high culture, authors should focus on popular culture to explain or illustrate philosophical ideas. The former (subtractive) feature reduces barriers of understanding for readers without a formal training in philosophy, while the latter (topical) feature ensures that the readers’ continuous attention is directed at the philosophical content and argumentative structure, since it is embedded in a familiar narrative. Thereby, philosophical lay people can easily learn something unfamiliar, like important features of classical utilitarianism, such as the principle of utility and the hedonistic calculus, without being overstrained by seemingly tedious philosophical investigations. More technically speaking, popular culture and philosophy is an attempt to reduce esoteric textual features , i.e. the application of formal and semi-formal tools, structural arrangement of textual content, argumentative schemes and intra- as well as intertextual markers (like cross-references, references to research literature), which require a solid understanding of scientific writing in order to be interpreted correctly. At the same time, this also means an effort to strengthen exoteric textual features , i.e. aspects of the text which do not require any particular training in scientific or philosophical writing. This includes, in particular, the usage of familiar narratives from popular culture, which require little interpretative effort by readers, since background knowledge about these narratives is readily available.

Popular culture and philosophy as a philosophical genre can be interpreted as just one approach for philosophers to reach the general public and popularize philosophical thinking. Other approaches include classic formats of science communication like public lectures, panel discussions, interviews, articles in Cultural Section and non-fiction books for a general audience, which avoid philosophical jargon and focus on illustrative and publicly interesting issues. Novel formats in science communication comprise of blog posts on personal websites, posts on social media platforms, online videos, video streams, and podcasts. Also, novel formats for organizing more mutual engagements between experts and lay people play a bigger and bigger role in scientific communication; these include science cafés, student or science parliaments, junior science cafés, citizens’ conferences, and 21st century town hall meetings ( Riise 2012 ). Against this background, Kappel and Holmen (2019) point out that there are currently two paradigms of proper science communication, these include a dissemination paradigm of science communication, which conceptualizes it as the unilateral transmission of scientific knowledge from experts to the public, and a public participation paradigm of science communication, which emphasizes the necessity of well-organized and informed reciprocal communication processes between experts on the one side and lay people and decision-makers on the other side. [2] These two paradigms obviously endorse different aims and methods for public outreach. Whereas the dissemination paradigm generally encourages formal training and classical formats of science communication through mass media (like popular science books, public lectures, television documentaries, and more recently science blogs), the public participation paradigm instead emphasizes the value of mutual public encounters and the active participation of representatives from a diverse range of peer social groups.

With regard to the aim of science communication, authors like Kappel and Holmen (2019) , Sánchez-Mora (2016) , Burns, O’Connor, and Stocklmayer (2003) identify a plurality of aims in science communication. It can be done in order to (a) share novel, in some cases hotly disputed research results, (b) inform lay people about scientific consent and settled research debates, (c) evoke excitement and public appreciation for science, i.e. a specific field of scientific inquiry [3] and (d) increase scientific literacy, meaning the capacity of lay people to correctly assess information presented as scientific knowledge. Furthermore (e), science communication can be understood as an active effort to influence political, societal, legal, and economic decision-making processes.

This broad range of aims (a–e) hints at the idea that one of the primary reasons for science communication is the acceptance of social responsibility through the spread of scientific knowledge, since scientific knowledge is seen as valuable for rational decision making. In research ethics, such a principle of social responsibility, i.e. that scientists have an individual or collective prima facie obligation to avoid damages to society and bring about societal benefits by providing technical and epistemic services, can be further justified by an argument from fair compensation ( Shamoo and Resnik 2015 , p. 284). According to this argument, scientists as well as research institutions greatly benefit from society, which provides research funding, infrastructure, and legal frameworks. Thus, society as a whole and specific social subsystem – in particular legal, political, and economic institutions – have a well-justified interest in the production of socially valuable knowledge and in the provision of research-related services as compensation for providing a complex socio-economic framework and resources for the social institution of science. Such a well-justified interest corresponds to a responsibility to consider society’s interest in agenda setting, research conduct, and the dissemination of research results. A second line of argument emphasizes social responsibilities of individual scientists, which arise from the factual and practical knowledge on certain subjects that scientists acquire during academic training and during their research activities (professional experience). This argument is obviously based on the assumption that high degrees of professional agency found in scientists come with special responsibilities towards society as a whole or social subsystems, which would be overdemanding for lay people.

The acceptance of social responsibility is certainly easier for scientific disciplines aiming at more or less directly applicable knowledge, like knowledge from epidemiology and virology about the safety and efficiency of vaccines and the usefulness of quarantine procedures during a pandemic. Philosophy, in contrast, seems to have no universally agreed upon, uncontroversial concept of service to the general public. Philosophers often even struggle with the idea of social responsibility. Yet the popularization of philosophical knowledge and methods of thinking is widely considered as socially responsible, since philosophical knowledge on certain issues can help philosophical lay people in ethical or political decision making. This is especially apparent in context of practical philosophy and some fields of (applied) theoretical philosophy. For instance, knowledge on the problem of demarcation in general philosophy of science, which is about the distinction between science and pseudoscience, can help lay people to identify specific instances of pseudoscience or science denialism. Likewise, knowledge on the concept of speciesism in animal ethics, i.e. the discrimination of non-animals due to their species membership, might evoke a more morally attentive perspective on the treatment of non-human animals in our society. In addition to this, many philosophical movements incorporate the idea that the adoption of certain philosophical systems can be a prerequisite of a good life – the latter is a more old-fashioned perspective on philosophy, which was certainly more established in ancient ethics focusing on eudaimonia – which means being free from emotional disturbance.

Realistically, these examples seem to be rather thin evidence for the thesis that the popularization of philosophy via the writing of essays in popular culture and philosophy is an effective way to accept social responsibility. It seems more probable that popular culture and philosophy is at most a way for experts (philosophers) to evoke excitement and public appreciation for philosophy in lay people.

Rather broadly, I will later distinguish between two types of popularizing philosophical thinking, i.e. making philosophical thoughts and ways of thinking available for lay people. But before that, it is necessary to explain the differences between lay people and experts, because typically the popularization of philosophical thinking establishes bridges of understanding between those who received philosophical training and those who are merely interested in philosophy or have only basic philosophical knowledge. With “lay people”, I denote individuals who lack a professional training in philosophy or another field of science. The “epistemic gap” or “asymmetry” between philosophers and lay people is relative to specific types of knowledge. For instance, a philosopher with expertise in climate ethics might engage in a discussion with an otherwise highly skilled and knowledgeable physician about the ethics of climate migration. In this context, the physician is a layperson relative to a specific type of ethical knowledge, while the philosopher is a layperson relative to a specific type of medical knowledge. Popularization of philosophical knowledge means an active attempt to somewhat level out the epistemic asymmetry between experts and lay people without referring to formal training.

Furthermore, I propose to distinguish between public advocacy for a specific philosophical idea (like the adoption of ethical veganism by animal rights activists, work in ethics committees on bioethical issues etc.), cultural, political and social criticism by philosophers (like criticism of the restriction of liberty rights during the COVID-19 pandemic) and the popularization of philosophical knowledge . [4] Although public advocacy and criticism often go hand in hand, they are not necessarily connected, nor are advocacy or criticism necessarily done in a popular fashion, intended to reach large parts of our society. [5] Against the background of these conceptual considerations, I further differentiate two types of literary attempts [6] to popularize philosophy with the help of philosophical writings by considering the originality of the produced text as a distinguishing feature: First, the popularization of philosophical knowledge can take the form of the production of an original piece of philosophically inspired literature (original popularization). Here, authors focus on philosophical ideas which are of special importance to them and originate from their own philosophical stance in research debates, while not necessarily adhering to conventional standards of academic writing. Typical examples would include some literary works of Jean Paul Sartre (e.g. Huis clos , 1944) and Albert Camus (e.g. Le mythe de Sisyphe, 1942 ), which incorporate existentialist themes.

From such forms of original popularization I distinguish, second, writings that can be described as attempts to an “illustrative popularization”. While in original popularization an author creates a piece of philosophical writing with fictional content solely or primarily written to bring about a philosophical point (hence the criteria of originality), authors intending to engage in illustrative popularization refer to already existing (preconceived) stories by other authors and cultural phenomena in order to make few selected philosophical ideas more understandable. This practice of referencing does include cultural products, which are especially amusing for the recipients and might include things associated with (a) high culture (e.g. classical plays, classical music, certain forms of jazz music, high literature etc.) [7] , (b) popular culture (see below) and (c) common culture, i.e. widely shared cultural practices like driving a car, being married, or eating breakfast. [8]

Common culture and popular culture are in my view distinguished from each other in terms of statistical frequency, stability of frequency over time and individual degrees of freedoms based on essential and second-order preferences. Elements of popular culture have high, but comparatively instable frequencies in a domain determined by non-essential preferences. For instance, it is a part of our common culture to use the Internet. As such, people from almost all societies on Earth have access to the Internet (high frequency), it is ceteris paribus a stable cultural phenomenon and it satisfies an essential need for information and a multitude of services. Yet, preferences for specific types of online services or specific types of information on the Internet can be a part of popular culture, since they can be found in a specific peer groups with particular medial preferences, which might change over time. Take the preference to watch, comment, and rearrange music from South Korean singer Park Jae-sang (Psy) – like the song “Gangnam Style”. The video to this song was very popular in 2012 and up to today (November 2021) has been watched 4,241,434,056 (4 billion) times. [9] This is an example of popular culture, since the overall frequency of media reception was high for a period of time and has now gradually declined due to a lack of interest in Psy’s newer music. The latter obviously depends on non-essential preferences (second order preferences) for a specific type of musical entertainment. [10] In the following, I will identify important genre defining features of the genre of popular culture and philosophy and give a short overview over of the literature published in this genre.

3 Genre-defining Features of Popular Culture and Philosophy

It is obviously the case that philosophers relate in at least two ways to popular culture, they are doing philosophical research on popular culture and the illustration of philosophy with the help of popular culture. The former includes a wide range of philosophical investigations, including conceptions of love in philosophy starting with platonic conceptions up to modern depictions in popular culture ( Secomb 2007 ), gender ideals influenced by Barbie dolls ( Wright 2003 ), philosophical approaches to mass art ( Carroll 1998 ; Kelly and Carroll 2000 ; Lopes 2000 ; Messaris 2000 ), Christian critique of the depiction of ethics in popular culture ( O’Connor 2004 ), investigations into the relevance of certain approaches to culture philosophy, like social theory ( Barron 2012 ; Light 2014 ), the representation of philosophical feminism in popular culture ( Crasnow and Waugh 2014 ), postmodernism and popular culture ( Story 2011 ), theological issues like the depiction of god, sin, and salvation in popular culture ( Cobb 2005 ), and investigations from philosophers of medicine and research ethics into the meaning of medical concepts like placebo effect in popular culture ( Marshall 2004 ). This heterogenous list of philosophical investigations shows that philosophical research on popular culture is obviously not limited to a specific philosophical paradigm or movement, apparently not limited with regard to certain topics, and is vastly different in ambition – starting from the descriptive analysis of popular culture to cultural criticism.

In popular culture and philosophy, the depiction of elements from popular culture serves as a literary framework to convey philosophical ideas, which is per se not uncommon in philosophy. For instance, principlism, based on common-morality in biomedical ethics ( Beauchamp and Childress 2001 ), was criticized in ( Arras 2009 ) as a “Borg-like approach”, since principle ethicists can incorporate a variety of cultural values and norms into their approach. [11] Arras makes a reference here to a species from the Star Trek franchise (the Borg), which consists of cybernetically enhanced humanoids who incorporate other species members and their cultural traits into their hive-like machine collective, thereby destroying individuality. The difference between such sporadic pop-cultural references and the genre of popular culture and philosophy is that the latter requires a continuous focus on the pop-cultural element chosen to illustrate a philosophical issue, while the former utilizes pop-cultural references without continuous focus on a fictional narrative. I focus on the latter phenomenon in writings published in the major series of this genre, yet is important to highlight that some authors have a broader understanding of popular culture and philosophy, which goes beyond the written word. For instance ( Cox and Levine 2012 ; LaRocca and Corrigan 2017 ; Litch 2002 ; Litch and Karofsky 2015 ), investigate the possibility of disseminating philosophical ideas through movies and focus on specific genres, like Film Noir ( Conrad 2006 ).

With “philosophical genre” I denote a specific type of textual format defined by formal features like the usage of technical terms (terminology), subtle and transparent argumentative structure, sophisticated methods used to introduce philosophical concepts, specific ways to reference philosophical literature and the extent of intertextuality and type of quality control (e.g. no review, editorial review, peer review) (etc.). Also, some genres are partially defined by thematic features like philosophical approaches used in a philosophical investigation (like a transcendental analysis, rational reconstruction, causal modelling etc.), range of topics investigated in a single investigation, consideration of scientific evidence from natural and social sciences (etc.). Traditional examples for philosophical genres include letters, treatises, confessions, meditations, (informal) essays, symposia, commentaries, disputations, and dialogues ( Heller 2012 ; Peters 2009 ). Modern genres within the tradition of modern analytic philosophy include, for instance, research articles in peer-reviewed journals, in which the author is limited to 5000–10,000 words of text length, focusses on a novel research issue (a novel problem, new argument in an ongoing debate etc.), carefully reconstructs hitherto done research, uses formal and semi-formal philosophical tools (like conceptual explication, rational reconstruction, but not typically a Kantian transcendental analysis) and focusses on the application of a specific philosophical framework from analytic philosophy within an often highly specialized research debate or produces a text with a high degree of intertextuality by comparing a multitude of different views. [12] The genre of popular culture and philosophy is vastly different from this way of writing, as I will show in the following.

In 1999, Open Court launched a ‘Philosophy and Popular Culture’ series, edited by Bill Irwin. The first title, Seinfeld and Philosophy: A Book about Everything and Nothing , was followed by dozens of volumes with a focus on popular culture. There are currently four series with volumes on popular culture and philosophy on the market, these include Wiley-Blackwell’s The Blackwell Philosophy and Culture Series (edited by William Irwin), [13] Open Court’s Popular Culture and Philosophy Series (edited by George A. Reisch), [14] The University Press of Kentucky’s The Philosophy of Popular Culture (edited by Mark T. Conard) [15] and Rowman & Littlefield/Lexington Books: The Philosophy of Popular Culture (edited by Mark T. Conard) [16] .

The volumes in these series include comparatively brief, simply written and philosophically reduced – more on this later – investigations into philosophical aspects of various instances of popular culture. There are volumes on sports like baseball ( Bronson 2011 ), basketball ( Walls and Bassham 2008 ), soccer ( Richards 2010 ), golf ( Wible 2010 ) and football ( Austin 2008 ), but also sporting events like the Olympic Games ( Reid and Austin 2012 ). Some volumes focus on the whole opus of popular authors, in particular authors of science fiction and fantasy novels like those by Neil Gaiman ( Bealer, Luria, and Yuen 2012 ), while other volumes comprise contributions on singular works or a books series written by one author, like Frank Herbert’s Dune ( Nicholas 2011 ). Some volumes are even more focused and thematize single characters within novels, like Hannibal Lecter from William Thomas Harris III’s Silence of the Lambs ( Westfall 2016 ) or Ian Fleming’s James Bond ( South and Held 2006 ). While human characters are in the majority here, fictional creatures found in folklore, mythology and religion as well as fantasy, horror and science fiction are also selected as topics, like Frankenstein ( Michaud 2013 ) and the Christian devil ( Arp 2014 ). Besides volumes on popular literature, in particular cult movies like The Big Lebowski ( Fosl 2012 ) and TV series like The Big Bang Theory ( Kowalski 2012 ) as well as franchises like Star Wars ( Decker and Eberl 2005 ) and Star Trek ( Decker and Eberl 2008 ; Decker, Eberl, and Irwin 2016 ) are common in the various series on popular culture and philosophy.

While rather topically focused volumes are a certainly proper means to target specific groups of fans, say Star Trek fans, some volumes address whole genres like western ( McMahon and Csaki 2010 ), science fiction ( Sanders 2008 ) and film noir ( Conard 2006 ) or movie directors like the Coen Brothers ( Conrad 2009 ), Tim Burton ( McMahon 2014 ), Martin Scorsese ( Conard 2007 ), Spike Lee ( Conard 2011 ), Stanley Kubrick ( Abrams 2007 ) and Steven Spielberg ( Kowalski 2008 ), without being limited to a specific movie genre. Since music is a huge part of our popular culture, several volumes exist on popular musicians like Bruce Springsteen ( Auxier and Anderson 2011 ), Bob Dylan ( Vernezze and Porter 2005 ) and bands like Pink Floyd ( Reisch 2007 ) and Metallica ( Irwin 2007 ). Comedians and comedy groups can also be found, examples include the books on the philosophy of Monty Python and Louis C.K. ( Hardcastle and Reisch 2006a ; Ralkowski 2016 ). In addition to this, volumes on musical genres were published, for instance on philosophical issues in hip-hop music ( Darby and Shelby 2005 ). A few volumes concern video games and video game series like Nintendo’s Zelda ( Cuddy 2010 ) and Blizzard’s World of Warcraft ( Cuddy and Nordlinger 2009 ), social media networks like Facebook ( Wittkower 2010 ), technical products like Apple iPods ( Wittkower 2008 ), leading figures in the technology sector like Steve Jobs ( Shawn 2015 ) and iconic motorcycles built by manufacturer Harley Davidson ( Rollin et al. 2012 ). Other volumes are hard to characterize, they debate philosophical issues in various social practices like bullshit in discourses ( Hardcastle and Reisch 2006b ) [17] and the Atkins diet ( Heldke, Mommer, and Pineo 2005 ).

A closer inspection of “Alien and Philosophy” ( Ewing and Decker 2017 ) can give an idea of some important features of such an edition with contributions to the genre of popular culture and philosophy. The edition comprises of 19 relatively short articles, each about 10 pages long, which are organized in six parts, roughly covering moral issues like the personal identity and moral status of androids, business ethics of the fictitious Weyland-Yutani Corporation, the moral psychology of several film characters, the feeling of fear and horror ( Alien (1979) is a science fiction horror movie), sex and gender issues relating to the main protagonists Ellen Ripley as well as perspectives from continental philosophy on the absurd nature of the alien monster. The edition has no unified philosophical perspective and the authors come from a wide range of philosophical traditions, common is only the shared interest in the Alien franchise. For instance, I wrote a contribution to this edition in which I made a case against the thesis that the main protagonist of the Alien franchise should be considered a feminist heroine. Instead, I argued that Ellen Ripley is (a) probably motivated by a professional ethos and (b) a feminist interpretation of this fictional character is probably sexist, since it is not based on the characters explicit reasons for certain moral decisions, but on her gender identity ( Christian 2017 ).

What literary features do contributions to the genre of popular culture and philosophy commonly have? According to William Irwin, contributions to collections about popular culture and philosophy (1) refer to popular culture and not to high culture, (2) are intended to reach a philosophically interested, yet often not professionally educated readership and (3) draw interest on philosophical ideas and ways of thinking ( Irwin 2014 ; 2010 ). Further textual characteristics include (4) either a pedagogical model , according to which popular culture serves as an example to explain philosophy, or an applied philosophy model , according to which philosophical interpretation of popular culture opens up a new dimension of a particular element of popular culture ( Huss 2014 ). Also, (5) virtually all contributions to this genre are non-original in the sense of not making a novel philosophical argument to a debate, instead the conservative focus is on the depiction of an already established philosophical insight. A final (6) important characteristic is the informal mode of depiction of these contributions. This means that authors are expected to avoid philosophical jargon (e.g. “post hoc”) and terminology (e.g. “transcendental”, all kinds of “-isms”), formal and semi-formal language, complex sentence structure and extensive reference to research literature. Many editors even limit the number of references, consequently expecting authors to avoid extensive referencing to research literature and instead focus on few selected primary sources.

What does a piece of writing that satisfies the criteria mentioned looks like? The following scene from Becky Chambers’ book To be taught, if fortunate ( Chambers 2019 ) can serve as a starting point for a short piece written in the sense of popular culture and philosophy. [18] A part of the plot in To be taught, if fortunate is as following: The crew of the spaceship Marian lands on hitherto unexplored planet. While exploring the strange new environment, a group of jellyfish-like creatures attach to the Marian’s hull. While the alien jellyfish’s behavior is scientifically interesting for the crew, it also posits a problem for the continuation of the mission, since the crew cannot start the Marian’s engines without killing the alien creatures. The crewmembers therefore debate whether their intrusion into an alien habitat was morally acceptable from the beginning, as well as whether their removing and possibly killing the natural inhabitants of the planet is morally acceptable.

A typical contribution to popular culture and philosophy could use such a partial plot to illustrate different types of moral approaches in environmental and animal ethics by referring to the debates between the crew, who try to answer the question whether they have a moral right to kill the sentient beings on the ship’s hull for the sake of continuing their mission. An author could start with a brief summary of the short story, then focus on the events in the chapter and finally attribute specific types of moral theories to the crewmen. One important feature of many contributions in this genre is that philosophical comments are nested in familiar fictional narratives. For instance, a philosopher could first focus on one of the crewmen’s right-based arguments for protecting the alien life forms from the fire of the spaceship’s engines and then could for instance explain why such an argument can be understood as an example for a deontological approach to animal ethics, which is a family of theories which (generally speaking) highlight rights of non-human animals and populations and responsibilities of human towards these entities.

4 Reservations against the Genre

The set of features – in particular the informal nature of these writings – identified in the previous section can be met with some reservations. In the following I will play devil’s advocate and present a series of reservations against the philosophical genre of popular culture and philosophy, although I have published a series of contributions in this genre ( Albersmeier and Christian 2020 ; Christian 2017 , 2018a , 2018b , Villanueva-Gardner and Christian 2020 ). Yet I will try to make the case against such contributions as strong as possible, since criticisms of the genre of popular culture and philosophy are often not well-developed and concerns oscillate between explicit objections and silent reservations.

missing methodological rigor – Due to missing methodological rigor (few proper references, little work with sources, lack of depth in reconstructing and interpreting philosophical arguments) contributions to the genre might convey an inaccurate picture of real philosophical research.

linguistic limitation – Due to the methodological requirement of exoteric, i.e. common/non-technical, language and the avoidance of esoteric (technical) language, contributions to the genre might fail to render conceptual clarity and argumentative precision as important assets of philosophical reasoning.

illustrative limitations – Due to the strict focus on specific narratives from popular culture, contributions to popular culture and philosophy are limited to the crypto-philosophical content in these narratives, which might hinder philosophers from giving a representative overview of arguments and positions in specific philosophical debates.

In the following sections I present several arguments in defense of the genre of popular culture and philosophy. The first (shorter) argument rests on the observation that appeals to popular culture are not uncommon among thinkers who are generally considered as important proponents of western philosophy.

5 The Historical Defense

Attempts to popularize philosophical thinking are present throughout the history of western philosophy and as Irwin rightly points out, “There is a long tradition in philosophy of making exoteric the esoteric, carried on by the likes of Socrates, Aristotle, Boethius, and Descartes” ( Irwin 2006 ). In ancient times, Plato wrote fictitious philosophical dialogues while his contemporaries authored didactic poems. Roman philosophers translated Greek philosophical terminology into common language (Latin), thus establishing an understandable linguistic framework for readers. Marcus Aurelius and Augustine of Hippo wrote philosophical autobiographies meant to be read as a philosophical prose for a wider audience — in dire need of a source of personal guidance and self-improvement. In medieval times, Nicholas of Cusa even invented a game to illustrate philosophical and theological ideas (De ludo globi, 1463). In modern times, Niccolò Machiavelli devoted Il Principe (1513), an accessibly written instruction to gaining and maintaining political influence, to the Duke of Urbino Lorenzo de’ Medici. Encyclopédistes like Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert intended to advance science and also spread the ideals of enlightenment among the folk. In contemporary philosophy, the popularization of philosophical thought is not uncommon either: Jean-Paul Sartre wrote several existentialist plays, philosopher of science Karl Popper participated in public debate after the Second World War with his The Open Society and Its Enemies and one of the last so-called “Volksbücher” of philosophy was written by Theodor W. Adorno ( Minima Moralia , 1951). Peter Singer influenced the debate about the moral consideration of nonhuman animals outside of academia with his Animal Liberation (1975) .

These philosophers tried to make philosophical thinking — theories, concepts, terms, and arguments — more accessible to a broader readership and a common implicit assumption was that philosophical thought should take precedence over the mode of depiction. This means that there is a long tradition of mediating philosophical knowledge (expert knowledge) by reducing esoteric features in written text. The genre of popular culture and philosophy seems to be just a contemporary form of the general ambition to make philosophy more accessible to the general public. The distinguishing feature is that popular culture and philosophy is dissociated from high cultured and elitist niche elements of the cultural industry. Critics of popular culture and philosophy must make clear why this new genre is methodologically inadequate or due to its relation to the popular culture an inappropriate means to disseminate philosophical knowledge. At the same time, such a criticism should not devalue historical examples for the popularization of philosophy, which present a prima facie case in favor of the genre of popular culture and philosophy.

6 The Methodological Defense

The examples mentioned in the previous section indicated that a skeptical attitude with regard to the value of popular culture and philosophy lacks initial plausibility, since the reduction of esoteric elements in philosophical writings is widely present in the history of western philosophy. In the following, I give some replies to the methodological objections.

This argument seems to rest on the assumption that writings meant for the popularization of philosophy should reassemble the methodological characteristics of specific types of academic genres, like research articles in the respective philosophical field. This is a rather unplausible assumption, since research publications are not written for a general readership, but for experts who are familiar with textual features relevant for their own research practice. For instance, experts require precise references to primary and secondary literature, since they have a genuine interest in figuring out and critically examining the arguments presented. Lay people, on the other hand, might be satisfied in learning the superficial fact that some philosopher said something in a book or article. In addition to this, the proclaimed lack of methodological rigor must be not necessarily the case, since common techniques for philosophical writing can also be applied in popular culture and philosophy. For instance, so-called paragraph writing ( Martinich 2016 ) is still possible and can be incorporated into a popular culture and philosophy contribution. Paragraph writing consists of structuring paragraphs of academic texts into topic, argument, conclusion and bridge sentences, which can include references to popular culture on all sentence levels. Furthermore, what some consider a lack of depth in reconstructing and interpreting philosophical arguments others might consider a necessary form of didactic reduction which is in accordance with the cognitive aims of a piece of educational writing. Just like a philosopher in an introductory class, say a class on ethics for first year students, might reduce the syllabus and choose to accentuate certain aspects of philosophical arguments, writers in popular culture might focus on just one important aspect of a philosophical approach and identify only enough philosophical background to give a rough idea about the line of reasoning. A philosopher, for instance, might focus on Karl Marx’s theory of alienation, while not presenting all aspects of the theory found in Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 and the Ludwig Feuerbach’s The Essence of Christianity (1841).

The second argument highlights linguistic limitations due to the focus on non-technical language and the avoidance of philosophical jargon and terminology:

linguistic limitation – Due to the methodological requirement of exoteric, i.e. common / non-technical, language and the avoidance of esoteric (technical) language, contributions to the genre might fail to render conceptual clarity and argumentative precision as important assets of philosophical reasoning.

This argument seems to be a strong case against popular culture and philosophy if one assumes that conceptual clarity and argumentative precisions are essential parts of the philosophical ideas (problems, arguments etc.), which should be disseminated. Against this argument we can bring forward two counter-arguments: First, philosophers from different philosophical movements have a vastly different understanding of what conceptual clarity actually means and which formal methods should be used to clarify philosophical concepts. Second, the avoidance of philosophical jargon, like small Latin phrases commonly found in research literature (post hoc, ergo, etc.) can be substituted with little loss of argumentative clarity with ordinary words (afterwards, therefore, etc.). More concerning is the avoidance of philosophical terminology, something that is commonly seen as essential to the practice of philosophical inquiry. A twofold reply might mitigate this concern: First of all, the avoidance of philosophical terminology does not imply the complete elimination of terminology. What can be found in many contributions to this genre rather is the tendency to focus on just one or two essential philosophical concepts, their explanation in natural language and their illustration with the help of a pop-cultural phenomenon. Thus, the avoidance of philosophical terminology is just an instance of didactic reduction of content. Secondly, writers in physics and biology can surely report newest research results without engaging in lengthy depictions of mathematized theory, as popular physic books by Stephan Hawking and Richard Dawkins clearly show. Such a perspective can also be found among editors of popular culture and philosophy series, like Irwin, “If physicists can write books of popular science with virtually no equations, philosophers can write books for a general audience with limited jargon.” ( Irwin 2014 ). Thus, philosophers avoiding philosophical terminology when it can be substituted by a natural paraphrased description, seem to choose an adequate mean to reach their readers.

A final methodological argument appeals to illustrative limitations due to the constant focus on a particular piece of pop-culture:

illustrative limitations – Due to the strict focus on specific narratives from popular culture, contributions to popular culture and philosophy are limited to the crypto-philosophical content in these narratives, which might hinder philosophers from giving a representative overview on arguments and positions in specific philosophical debates.

This argument rests on the idea that the dissemination of philosophical ideas should end in the depiction of a representative overview on a scholarly discourse, which is a rather high cognitive aim in context of the dissemination of philosophical ideas. Yet, if a philosophical teacher lowers the cognitive aims for her reader, as commonly happens in the scheduling of philosophical teaching or writing of introductory text for beginners, then she can cope with illustrative limitations. For instance, if a character in a movie constantly refers to rules and regulations, a teacher might focus on the introduction of philosophical approaches, which appeal to rules, principles and laws, and explains in a sub-clause that there are other ways of moral reasoning. Here you strive for familiarity with certain philosophical concepts and not the capacity to explain subtle differences between a number of philosophical concepts.

So, yes, there are some limitations and some risks for those who read contributions to popular culture as earnest philosophical contributions coming with the ambition to further philosophical knowledge. But, altogether, many instances of popular culture seem to make small but significant contributions to the public understanding of philosophy. They are written to convey on a lower cognitive learning scale some philosophical knowledge and primarily spark philosophical wonder.

Additionally to the historical and methodological defense of popular culture and philosophy, one can also make an ethical and didactical case for cultural references to popular culture: Referencing to popular culture in philosophical teaching and public communication can be considered a form of respect for cultural preferences of others, while focusing on illustrations supplemented by references to high-art or elusive cultural niches might be a form of disregard for legitimate cultural preferences as well as the students’ right to teachers making an active effort to be understood without being coerced into a different system of cultural values. The usage of contemporary art forms, which are familiar to students and lay people alike, is also didactically plausible . Just as it was plausible to refer in philosophical writings to theater plays and now classical pieces of literature in 1800s, it is now plausible to refer to contemporary movies, video games and other works from popular culture ( Lawrence 2007 ). Popular culture and philosophy might therefore be seen as one didactic tool to foster the imaginative power in student ( Lawrence 1975 ).

7 Conclusions

In this contribution I depicted features of the philosophical genre of popular culture and philosophy, worked out three methodological objections against this genre and tried to defend this genre against its critics. I in particular developed two arguments that made a historical case for the value of the genre of popular culture and philosophy and countered methodological concerns, which related to a lack of methodological rigor, linguistic limitations and illustrative limitations. I primarily defended the position that popular culture and philosophy is a form of methodologically-legitimate public engagement that must not live up to the methodological gold-standards assumed by its critics, since the intended readership of contributions to popular culture and philosophy largely consists of philosophically-interested lay people, who are in an asymmetric epistemic relationship with experts (philosophers).

One might wonder whether some of the reservations against this genre might root in cultural elitism, i.e. a bias against popular culture work forms. Such a bias might be rooted in a preference for (a) works associated with high culture or (b) for a critical stance with regard to works associated with popular culture, which disregards popular culture as of little value compared to other forms of cultural expression. Such an aversion to popular culture could also be a sign of the way social distinction – in the sense of ( Bourdieu 1984 ) – is gained among philosophers, namely by referring to high culture, not popular culture – albeit it is somewhat common that philosophers refer to some types of practices and artifacts. Typical examples for this include Wittgenstein’s references to work instructions among craftsmen or Heidegger’s depiction of the fulfilling experience of craftsmanship, which enables an authentic mode of existence.

The previously mentioned defenses of popular culture and philosophy tip-toed around the, in my view, rather plausible assumption that references to popular culture in philosophical thinking might simply be tainted with a feeling of cultural disgust among those who are used to participating in intellectual discourses, in which intellectual praise and collegial recognition are partly dependent on making references to the “right” kind of cultural phenomena, i.e. high culture. Gladly, the further justification of such an unpopular thesis about philosophers is certainly beyond the scope of this article.

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Art Comparative Analysis Essay: Exploring the Pop Art Style

Art is a powerful medium of expression that has evolved through centuries, reflecting the changing landscapes of culture, society, and individual creativity. One fascinating aspect of art is the ability to analyze and compare different styles, periods, or movements. In this comparative analysis art essay, we will delve into the vibrant world of Pop Art, examining its key characteristics, artists, and its influence on the art world.

List of Essays

Understanding comparative analysis in art essays, the emergence of pop art, key characteristics of pop art, key artists in pop art, comparative analysis of pop art, influence of pop art on contemporary art.

Before diving into the intricacies of Pop Art, let's briefly discuss what a comparative analysis art essay entails. Such essays require a systematic examination and comparison of two or more artworks or artistic movements. This analysis should uncover similarities, differences, and overarching themes, shedding light on the broader context in which these works or movements exist. Comparative analysis essays are valuable tools for art historians, students, and art enthusiasts, as they offer a deeper understanding of artistic evolution.

Pop Art, short for "popular art," emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction to the dominant Abstract Expressionism movement. It gained prominence in the 1950s and reached its zenith in the 1960s. This art style was characterized by a celebration of popular culture, consumerism, and everyday objects. Pop Art challenged the traditional notions of high art by incorporating elements from mass media, advertising, and consumer products into its works.

1. Repetition and Multiplicity

One of the defining features of Pop Art is the repetition of familiar images and objects. Artists such as Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein frequently used iconic symbols, like Campbell's Soup cans or comic book panels, in their works. This repetition served to emphasize the ubiquity of consumer culture.

2. Vibrant Colors

Pop Art embraced bold and vibrant colors, often using the primary color palette. The vivid hues in Pop Art pieces, such as Warhol's Marilyn Monroe portraits, added a sense of immediacy and accessibility, drawing viewers in.

3. Commercial Aesthetics

Artists sought to mimic the slick and polished appearance of commercial art and advertising. This aesthetic challenged the notion that fine art should be separate from popular culture.

4. Irony and Critique

While Pop Art celebrated consumerism, it also carried an underlying critique of society's obsession with consumption and celebrity. This juxtaposition of celebration and critique added depth to the style.

1. Andy Warhol

Andy Warhol is arguably the most iconic figure in the Pop Art movement. His "Campbell's Soup Cans" and colorful portraits of Marilyn Monroe are some of the most recognized artworks in the world. Warhol's work blurred the line between fine art and mass production, sparking critical discussions about the nature of art itself.

2. Roy Lichtenstein

Roy Lichtenstein gained fame for his comic book-inspired artworks, using Ben-Day dots and bold outlines to create a visually striking effect. His "Whaam!" and "Drowning Girl" are among his most celebrated pieces, showcasing the fusion of high and low culture.

3. Claes Oldenburg

Claes Oldenburg's sculptures of oversized everyday objects, such as typewriters and hamburgers, were a testament to the playful and ironic nature of Pop Art. His work challenged the traditional notion of sculpture and expanded the possibilities of art.

Now that we've explored the fundamentals of Pop Art, let's conduct a comparative analysis of two renowned Pop Art pieces: Andy Warhol's "Marilyn Diptych" and Roy Lichtenstein's "Drowning Girl."

Andy Warhol's "Marilyn Diptych"

"Marilyn Diptych" is a prime example of Andy Warhol's fascination with celebrity culture. This artwork features multiple repetitions of Marilyn Monroe's face, creating a mesmerizing pattern. The left side of the diptych shows a vibrant, colorful Marilyn, while the right side gradually fades into grayscale, symbolizing Monroe's tragic demise.

The repetition in "Marilyn Diptych" echoes the mass production of celebrity images in the media. By presenting Marilyn's image in various states, from vibrant to fading, Warhol highlights the ephemeral nature of fame.

Roy Lichtenstein's "Drowning Girl"

In contrast, Roy Lichtenstein's "Drowning Girl" draws inspiration from comic book panels. The artwork depicts a distressed woman in a stylized, emotionally exaggerated manner. The use of Ben-Day dots and bold outlines mimics the mechanical printing process used in comic books.

The comparative analysis of these two works reveals the diversity within the Pop Art movement. While Warhol's piece is more contemplative and reflective, Lichtenstein's work is dynamic and emotive. Both, however, employ the signature elements of Pop Art: repetition, vibrant colors, and a nod to popular culture.

Pop Art's impact on contemporary art is profound and enduring. Its bold use of imagery, consumer culture critique, and fusion of high and low culture continue to inspire artists today. Contemporary artists like Jeff Koons and Damien Hirst have drawn from the legacy of Pop Art in their own creations, exploring themes of mass production and consumerism.

In this comparative analysis art essay, we've explored the fascinating world of Pop Art. We've examined its key characteristics, delved into the works of iconic artists like Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein, and conducted a comparative analysis of "Marilyn Diptych" and "Drowning Girl." Pop Art's influence on contemporary art remains undeniable, serving as a testament to its enduring relevance and impact on the art world.

In conclusion, Pop Art's celebration and critique of consumer culture continue to resonate with audiences today, making it a vital chapter in the ever-evolving story of art. The comparative analysis of artworks within this movement allows us to appreciate the diversity and depth of this influential style, proving that art is indeed a reflection of society and a lens through which we can examine our world.

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6 Common Leadership Styles — and How to Decide Which to Use When

Rebecca Knight

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different approaches.

Research suggests that the most effective leaders adapt their style to different circumstances — be it a change in setting, a shift in organizational dynamics, or a turn in the business cycle. But what if you feel like you’re not equipped to take on a new and different leadership style — let alone more than one? In this article, the author outlines the six leadership styles Daniel Goleman first introduced in his 2000 HBR article, “Leadership That Gets Results,” and explains when to use each one. The good news is that personality is not destiny. Even if you’re naturally introverted or you tend to be driven by data and analysis rather than emotion, you can still learn how to adapt different leadership styles to organize, motivate, and direct your team.

Much has been written about common leadership styles and how to identify the right style for you, whether it’s transactional or transformational, bureaucratic or laissez-faire. But according to Daniel Goleman, a psychologist best known for his work on emotional intelligence, “Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances may call for different approaches.”

RK Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.

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DEADLINE EXTENDED: Esotericism, Occultism, and Magic at Southwest Popular/American Culture Association ONLINE Virtual Summer Salon, June 20-22

DEADLINE EXTENDED!

Call for Papers

ESOTERICISM, OCCULTISM, and MAGIC

Southwest Popular / American Culture Association (SWPACA)

SWPACA Summer Salon

June 20-22, 2024

Virtual Conference

https://www.southwestpca.org

Proposal submission deadline: EXTENDED to April 22, 2024

Proposals for papers are now being accepted for the SWPACA Summer Salon. SWPACA offers nearly 70 subject areas in a variety of categories encompassing the following: Film, Television, Music, & Visual Media; Historic & Contemporary Cultures; Identities & Cultures; Language & Literature; Science Fiction & Fantasy; and Pedagogy & Popular Culture. For a full list of subject areas, area descriptions, and Area Chairs, please visit https://southwestpca.org/conference/call-for-papers/

Esotericism, Occultism, and Magic invites proposals relating to magical worldviews, practices, and representations, as well as consciousness transformation, the preternatural, hidden meanings, the power of transmutation, and related phenomena. Characteristic methods, beliefs, perspectives, and practices include: arcane symbolism, imagery, and aesthetics; unseen forces, spiritual intermediaries, and invisible agencies; synchronous patterns, non-ordinary causation, and anomalous processes. Examples of ideas and systems include Hermeticism, Gnosticism, Sufism, Tantra, Rosicrucianism, Freemasonry, Satanism, witchcraft, sorcery, demonology, astrology, alchemy, yoga, shamanism, parapsychology, and psychic and paranormal phenomena, along with beliefs and practices relating to altered states of consciousness, overlapping with the study of mysticism as well as New Age spirituality, channeling, positive thinking, manifestation, the power of intention, guardian angels, and Ascended Masters. Esoteric, occult, and magical concepts, beliefs, and practices appear in every culture and civilization; contemporary media and popular culture have embraced them enthusiastically, yet at times have reacted against them. The impact of esotericism, occultism, and magic on genre formation/content and popular cultural perceptions has been profound.

Special themes for the 2024 Summer Salon may include the following, as well as their various possible intersections and combinations, but all proposals suitable to the Area will be considered: EOM and politics/politicization of EOM; syncretism; liminality, fluidity, and normative boundaries as well as their challenge and transgression; the normalization and mainstreaming of EOM; artificial life, artificial sentience, and artificial sapience; identity, personality, personification; masks; metamorphosis and shapeshifting; illusion, deepfake, simulation, and forgery; magical charlatanry and occult fraud; EOM and concepts of "reality"; "technomagic" and "magical machines”; memes, nationalism, (geo)politics, multipolarity, espionage, disinformation, and cyberspace; conceptions of the miraculous and the impossible; thaumaturgy and wonder-working; the monstrous; the supernatural; (un)death, unlife, and necromancy; antinomianism, immoralism, and conceptions of evil; EOM and crime (as motive, as projection, but also the criminalization/vilification of EOM); inversion, subversion, and reversal; creativity, interactive fiction, and metafiction; invented worlds, secondary worlds, myth, magical realism, the fantastic, the weird, and the sublime; theurgy and theosis; mystery cults and theophany; entheogens and nootropics; indigenous worldviews and magical folklore; Tradition, Traditionalism, and Neo-Traditionalism; EOM and radicalism, extremism, and terrorism; labyrinths and mazes; nostalgia, retrofuturism, alternate history, and counterfactual scenarios; concepts/models of parallel/alternate/mirror dimensions, timelines, universes, multiverses/metaverses/omniverses; the alien and the unknown

Sample Ideas for topics categorized by media:

Literature: Fiction by practitioners, such as Philip K. Dick, William S. Burroughs, C. S. Friedman. Books by practitioners (for example, Evola, Gurdjieff, Crowley, Anton LaVey, Gerald Gardner, Peter Carroll, Edgar Cayce). Influences and themes in magical realism, speculative fiction, gothic fiction, weird fiction, historical fiction, urban fantasy, paranormal romance and adventure. Fiction influential on practitioners, such as Zanoni , Goethe’s Faust , The Illuminatus! Trilogy. Historical representations of magicians, witches, and wizards, including stylized and mythic figures (Merlin, Morgan La Fey, Circe, Medea, Kostchie the Deathless, etc.), in genre fiction (contemporary Arthurian adaptations) or modernizations (Neil Gaiman, Tim Powers, Jim Butcher, Susanna Clarke), indigenous futurism and fantasy (Octavia Butler, Rebecca Roanhorse, N. K. Jemisin). New Age and/or popular manifestation guides, such as The Secret . Conspiracist and/or extra-terrestrial cosmologies related to esoteric concepts (David Icke, the Seth transmissions to Jane Roberts, the Michael channelings, etc.).

Visual Art: Examples: Hilma af Klint, Wassily Kandinsky, Austin Spare, Rosaleen Norton, Michael Bertiaux.

Film: Content as in The Conjuring series, Spell, The Pope’s Exorcist, Suspiria, Babylon 5: The Road Home, Malum, The Last Voyage of the Demeter, The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar, Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham, It Lives Inside, Nefarious, Hellraiser, The Color Out of Space, The Witch , Hereditary , Midsommar , Apostle, The Endless, A Dark Song, Kill List, Drag Me To Hell, The Skeleton Key , The Serpent and the Rainbow , The Ninth Gate , The Wicker Man ; Gnostic allegories such as The Matrix , Dark City , The Truman Show ; explorations of consciousness such as eXistenZ , Altered States , 2001 Space Odyssey, Dune ; representations of occult aesthetic, such as Eyes Wide Shut , occult conspiracy, such as Starry Eyes, traumatic initiation, such as the Saw series, immersive fiction as initiation, such as The Game ; stylized depictions of magicians, wizards, and witches ( Dr. Strange, Shazam, Maleficent, Oz, Warlock, Balthazar Blake of The Sorcerer’s Apprentice , Thulsa Doom of Conan, Jafar of Aladdin ) ; esoteric/occult films such those by Kenneth Anger and Alejandro Jodorowsky; pseudo- and crypto-history in fiction ( Assassin’s Creed, Tomb Raider, National Treasure ); New Age documentaries, such as The Secret ; conspiracist receptions of esoteric and occult history, such as Zeitgeist .

Television: Theme and/or content examples Severance, Sanctuary: A Witch’s Tale, Mayfair Witches, A Discovery of Witches, True Detective (season one and season four), House of Usher, Taboo, The Changeling, Archive 81, Lodge 49, Requiem, Undone, Fortitude, Yellowjackets, Wandavision, Brand New Cherry Flavor, The Devil’s Hour, Jonathan Strange & Mr. Norrell, The Exorcist, Game of Thrones/House of the Dragon, The Witcher, The Magicians, Midnight Mass, The Devil In Ohio, The Order, Dark, Shadowhunters, NOS4A2, Outcast, Zone Blanche/Black Spot, Stranger Things, Westworld, The Man in the High Castle, His Dark Materials, The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina, Twin Peaks, Penny Dreadful, DaVinci’s Demons, American Horror Story, Carnivale, Babylon 5; Significant characters, representations, and personifications American Gods, Lucifer, Constantine, Sandman, Preacher,

Strange Angel (fictionalized biography of occultist/magician Jack Parsons); fourth-wall-breaking or uncanny figures, presented with esoteric, occult, or quasi-ritualistic aesthetics (Dr. Hannibal Lecter, Frank Underwood of House of Cards ).

Comics / Graphic Novels: Contain esoteric, occult, and magical motifs and tropes. Some are actively esoteric; Grant Morrison claims The Invisibles and Promethea as personal magical workings; the graphic novels of Neil Gaiman embrace esoteric, occult, magical themes and characters.

Music: Specific artists (e.g. Genesis P-Orridge, David Bowie, Coil, Marilyn Manson, Ghost, Watain, Dissection, Behemoth, Wardruna, Tori Amos, Loreena McKennitt, Gustav Holst), genres (dark ambient, dungeon synth, black metal, viking/Nordic ambient, apocalyptic folk, military industrial, witch house).

Video Games: Theme and content, e.g., Astrologaster, Apollyon: River of Life, The Council, Goetia, Solium Infernum, Hell Is Others, The Chant, American Arcadia, Cyberpunk 2077, Saturnalia, A Plague Tale, Cult of the Lamb, Medium, Potion Craft: Alchemist Simulator, Dead Synchronicity, The Witcher, Silent Hill, Cultist Simulator, The Shadow Government Simulator, This Book Is A Dungeon, Secret Government, Secret World, Xenogears, Devil May Cry, Murdered: Soul Suspect, Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura, Arcana, Prognostic, Signalis, Faith, Amazing Cultivation Simulator, The Mortuary Assistant, Shadow Hearts, Arx Fatalis, Eternal Darkness ; pseudo-history Assassin’s Creed, Tomb Raider, Broken Sword ; historical worldviews, Civilization VI (secret societies), Crusader Kings (cults, witchcraft, demonolatry), The Elder Scrolls, Destiny 2, Genshin Impact (Gnosticism & Hermeticism), Curious Expedition (historical occultists as playable characters, occult revival + pulp aesthetic); Deus Ex, SOMA, State of Mind (transhumanism); methodology ( Nevermind , when utilizing biofeedback)

Tabletop Roleplaying Games: The Esoterrorists and Yellow King (Pelgrane Press) , Esoterica (Fire Ruby Designs), Kult: Divinity Lost (rebooted by Modiphius Games), Liminal (Modiphius), Sigil & Shadow (Osprey Games), Esoteric Enterprises (Dying Stylishly Games), White Wolf’s Mage (classic World of Darkness ) and Demon: The Descent ( Chronicles of Darkness ), World of Darkness generally, Atlas Games Unknown Armies , Monte Cook’s Invisible Sun, Kevin Crawford's Silent Legions. RPGs have influenced the conception of magic in popular culture across media, and present extensive representation of magical figures. Esoteric and gnostic themes intersect with transhumanism in examples such as Eclipse Phase .

Characteristics of an Epic Hero

This essay about the characteristics of an epic hero explores the quintessential traits that define these legendary figures. It highlights their unparalleled bravery, moral integrity, and the transformative challenges they face. These heroes, celebrated for their noble origins and divine favor, are not just warriors but also beacons of virtue, navigating through trials that test their physical strength and moral fiber. The narrative emphasizes how epic heroes are relatable through their complex nature, showcasing their human emotions and weaknesses amidst their extraordinary feats. Ultimately, the essay reflects on the enduring appeal of epic heroes, portraying them as symbols of hope, resilience, and the indomitable human spirit, reminding us of the potential for heroism in every individual.

How it works

In the grand tapestry of storytelling, epic heroes stand tall, their capes billowing in the winds of legend and lore. These characters, from the cunning Odysseus to the valiant Beowulf, embody qualities that transcend time and culture, inviting us into worlds where valor, honor, and resilience are etched into the very essence of their being. The characteristics of an epic hero, while varying slightly across narratives, share a common core that resonates with the human spirit’s longing for adventure, justice, and the triumph of good over evil.

At the heart of every epic hero lies a bravery that knows no bounds. This isn’t the everyday courage that nudges us to try a new food or to venture into the unknown. It’s the type of valor that faces monstrous adversaries and daunting quests head-on, without a quiver of fear in their voice or a tremble in their stance. This bravery often finds its roots in noble origins or divine favor, setting the stage for a journey that intertwines fate with sheer willpower.

Yet, what truly sets these heroes apart isn’t just their brawn or battlefield prowess; it’s their unwavering moral compass. They operate under a code of honor that guides their actions, making them paragons of virtue in times when darkness threatens to overshadow the light. Their decisions, though fraught with peril, are often driven by a deep-seated sense of duty not only to themselves but to their people and the realms they protect. This commitment to righteousness, even at great personal cost, illuminates their path through trials and tribulations, earning them the reverence of those who witness their saga unfold.

Moreover, an epic hero’s journey is never solely their own. It’s a voyage that molds them, shaping their character through tests that are as much about inner strength as they are about external conquest. These trials, often presented as seemingly insurmountable challenges or riddles, demand not only physical strength but wisdom, ingenuity, and a resilience that bends but never breaks. Through these ordeals, the hero emerges not just victorious but transformed, their triumphs etching their names into the annals of history and the hearts of those who will tell their stories for generations to come.

What’s perhaps most fascinating about epic heroes is their complexity. They are not infallible deities, immune to the pitfalls of human emotion and weakness. Their greatness is often punctuated by moments of doubt, grief, and rage, making their victories sweeter and their characters more relatable. It’s in their struggles that we see reflections of our own, reminding us that even in the face of overwhelming odds, there’s a hero in each of us, waiting for the moment to rise.

As the sun sets on the realms of epic heroes, their stories lingering like the last light on the horizon, it’s clear that the allure of these characters isn’t just in their deeds but in what they represent. They are beacons of hope, resilience, and the enduring power of the human spirit. In their journeys, we find escapism, inspiration, and the reminder that heroes come in many forms, but it’s their virtues, their trials, and their triumphs that immortalize them in our collective memory. So, the next time you find yourself lost in an epic saga, remember that within its lines lies the blueprint of heroism, a testament to what it means to face the darkness and emerge, not just unscathed, but unforgettable.

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Thus, popular culture involves the aspects of social life most actively involved in by the public. As the people's culture, popular culture is determined by the interactions between people in their everyday activities: the use of slang, styles of attire, greeting rituals and the foods that people eat are all examples of popular culture.
The Culture Of Popular Culture Essay
Popular culture is known as the 'culture of the people'. This culture is determined by the interactions between people within their daily activities, for instance, dressing styles, use of language, greeting rituals and the ways that people behave in public, etc. are all examples of popular culture. Popular culture is also diverted by the ...
Characteristics Of Popular Culture
Characteristics Of Popular Culture. 903 Words4 Pages. Question 1. (a) In general, popular culture is considered as the products and practices that are frequently encountered. It represents a commonly liked and accepted culture at a particular time. Mediated popular culture refers to the practices and artefacts being produced and consumed via ...
The Characteristics of Material Culture and Non Material Culture
Essay Example: Material and non-material culture are fundamental elements that structure the vast edifice of human civilization. Each has unique traits that highlight the complex fabric of societies around the globe. Immersing ourselves in these aspects reveals a vibrant collage of both tangible
Comparative Analysis Essay in Art: The Pop Art Style
The comparative analysis of these two works reveals the diversity within the Pop Art movement. While Warhol's piece is more contemplative and reflective, Lichtenstein's work is dynamic and emotive. Both, however, employ the signature elements of Pop Art: repetition, vibrant colors, and a nod to popular culture.
Beliefs and Characteristics of the Swinger Culture
Essay Example: In the social sphere, swinging, often denoted as 'the lifestyle', represents a manifestation of non-monogamous relationships wherein individuals or pairs engage consensually in amorous endeavors with others, typically within recreational or communal environs. This phenomenon diverges
6 Common Leadership Styles
Summary. Research suggests that the most effective leaders adapt their style to different circumstances — be it a change in setting, a shift in organizational dynamics, or a turn in the business ...
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Esoteric, occult, and magical concepts, beliefs, and practices appear in every culture and civilization; contemporary media and popular culture have embraced them enthusiastically, yet at times have reacted against them. The impact of esotericism, occultism, and magic on genre formation/content and popular cultural perceptions has been profound.
Characteristics Of An Epic Hero
Essay Example: In the grand tapestry of storytelling, epic heroes stand tall, their capes billowing in the winds of legend and lore. These characters, from the cunning Odysseus to the valiant Beowulf, embody qualities that transcend time and culture, inviting us into worlds where valor, honor