interpersonal skills problem solving

• INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

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Interpersonal Skills:

• A - Z List of Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal Skills Self-Assessment

The SkillsYouNeed Guide to Interpersonal Skills

• Communication Skills
• Listening Skills
• Non-Verbal Communication
• Verbal Communication
• Emotional Intelligence
• Self-Awareness
• Self-Regulation | Self-Management
• Self-Motivation
• Customer Service Skills
• Conflict Resolution and Mediation Skills
• Communication in Difficult Situations
• Dealing with Criticism
• Mediation Skills
• Team-Working, Groups and Meetings
• Effective Team-Working
• Difficult Group Behaviour
• Planning and Structuring Effecting Meetings
• Decision-Making and Problem-Solving
• Effective Decision Making
• Problem Solving
• Negotiation and Persuasion Skills
• What is Negotiation?
• Peer Negotiation
• Persuasion and Influencing Skills
• Personal and Romantic Relationship Skills

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Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills are the skills we use every day when we communicate and interact with other people, both individually and in groups. They include a wide range of skills, but particularly communication skills such as listening and effective speaking. They also include the ability to control and manage your emotions.

It is no exaggeration to say that interpersonal skills are the foundation for success in life. People with strong interpersonal skills tend to be able to work well with other people, including in teams or groups, formally and informally. They communicate effectively with others, whether family, friends, colleagues, customers or clients. They also have better relationships at home and at work.

You can improve your interpersonal skills by developing your awareness of how you interact with others and practising your skills.

This page provides an overview of interpersonal skills and how they are developed and used. It explains where these skills are important, including particular jobs that may require very good interpersonal skills. Finally, it discusses how you can start to develop your interpersonal skills further.

What are Interpersonal Skills?

Interpersonal skills are sometimes referred to as social skills, people skills, soft skills, or life skills.

However, these terms can be used both more narrowly and more broadly than ‘ interpersonal skills ’. On this website, we define interpersonal skills as:

“The skills you need and use to communicate and interact with other people.”

This definition means that interpersonal skills therefore include:

• Communication skills , which in turn covers:
• Verbal Communication – what we say and how we say it;
• Non-Verbal Communication – what we communicate without words, for example through body language, or tone of voice; and
• Listening Skills – how we interpret both the verbal and non-verbal messages sent by others.
• Emotional intelligence – being able to understand and manage your own and others’ emotions.
• Team-working – being able to work with others in groups and teams, both formal and informal.
• Negotiation, persuasion and influencing skills – working with others to find a mutually agreeable (Win/Win) outcome. This may be considered a subset of communication, but it is often treated separately.
• Conflict resolution and mediation – working with others to resolve interpersonal conflict and disagreements in a positive way, which again may be considered a subset of communication.
• Problem solving and decision-making – working with others to identify, define and solve problems, which includes making decisions about the best course of action.

The Importance of Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills matter because none of us lives in a bubble.

In the course of our lives, we have to communicate with and interact with other people on a daily if not hourly basis, and sometimes more often. Good interpersonal skills ‘oil the wheels’ of these interactions, making them smoother and pleasanter for all those involved. They allow us to build better and longer-lasting relationships, both at home and at work.

Interpersonal skills at home

Good interpersonal skills help you to communicate more effectively with family and friends.

This is likely to be particularly important with your partner. For example, being able to give and receive feedback effectively with your partner can help to resolve small problems between you before they become big issues.

There is more about this, and other aspects of using interpersonal skills at home, in our pages on Personal and Romantic Relationship Skills and Parenting Skills .

Interpersonal skills at work

You may not like to think about it in these terms, but you almost certainly spend more time with your colleagues than your partner.

At work, you are required to communicate with and interact with a wide range of people, from suppliers and customers through to your immediate colleagues, colleagues further afield, your team and your manager. Your ability to do so effectively can make the difference between a successful working life, and one spent wondering what went wrong.

There are, of course, some jobs in which interpersonal skills are particularly important.

Customer-facing roles, such as sales and customer relations management, are likely to specify good interpersonal skills as a prerequisite. However, there are a number of other less obvious jobs and careers where interpersonal skills are also vitally important. These include:

Healthcare provision, including doctors, nurses and other healthcare professionals . Being able to listen to, and talk to, patients and their families is an essential skill, as is being able to give bad news in a sensitive way. We almost take these skills for granted in healthcare professionals—but we also know how devastating the situation can be when these professionals have poor skills and fail to communicate effectively.

Financial advice and brokerage . Financial advisers and brokers need to be able to listen carefully to their customers, and understand both what they are saying, and what they are not articulating. This enables them to provide recommendations that match their clients’ needs. Poor interpersonal skills mean that they will find it harder to build good customer relationships, and to understand customer needs.

Computer programming and development . This area is often thought of as the ultimate territory for ‘geeks’, with the assumption that interpersonal skills are not essential. However, technical developers increasingly need good interpersonal skills to understand their customers, and to be able to ‘translate’ between the technical and the practical.

Interpersonal Skills for Job Seekers

Good interpersonal skills are essential at work, but many people find them hard to demonstrate during a job application process. Some ideas to help include:

‘Naming and claiming’ in your CV or resume. Give a clear statement of a particular skill or skills that you possess, and then give examples to show how you have demonstrated them in practice. For example:

“I have excellent written communication skills, and my colleagues often ask me to check their written work for them before onward transmission.”

• Carefully name-checking any specific skills that are mentioned in the job description or person specification. Make life easy for the recruiter. In your personal statement or covering letter, use the same terms as the job description or person specification, and again, give examples.

For more ideas about how to improve your chances of getting a job, see our pages on Writing a CV or Resume , Writing a Covering Letter and Applying for a Job .

Developing Your Interpersonal Skills

Good interpersonal skills are the foundation for good working and social relationships, and also for developing many other areas of skill.

It is therefore worth spending time developing good interpersonal skills.

You Already Have Interpersonal Skills

We've all been developing our interpersonal skills since childhood, usually subconsciously.

Interpersonal skills often become so natural that we take them for granted, never thinking about how we communicate with other people. If you have developed good habits, this is fine. However, it is of course also possible to develop bad habits, and then fail to understand why your communications or relationships are suffering.

Improving and developing your interpersonal skills is best done in steps, starting with the most basic, but vital:

1. Identify areas for improvement

The first step towards improving is to develop your knowledge of yourself and your weaknesses.

You may already have a good idea of areas that you need to develop. However, it is worth seeking feedback from other people, because it is easy to develop ‘blind spots’ about yourself. You might also find it useful to do our Interpersonal Skills Self-Assessment.

Discover your interpersonal skills strengths and weaknesses.

Our free self-assessment covers listening skills, verbal communication, emotional intelligence and working in groups.

The self-assessment may give you an idea of which areas to develop first. It may, however, also be worth starting with the basics, and moving on from there.

2. Focus on your basic communication skills

Communication is far more than the words that come out of your mouth.

Some would even go so far as to suggest that there is a reason why you have two ears and one mouth, and that you should therefore listen twice as much as you talk!

Listening is very definitely not the same as hearing. Perhaps one of the most important things you can do for anyone else is to take the time to listen carefully to what they are saying, considering both their verbal and non-verbal communication. Using techniques like questioning and reflection demonstrates that you are both listening and interested.

Visit our Listening Skills pages to learn more.

When you are talking, be aware of the words you use. Could you be misunderstood or confuse the issue? Practise clarity and learn to seek feedback or clarification to ensure your message has been understood. By using questions effectively, you can both check others’ understanding, and also learn more from them.

Our page on Verbal Communication introduces this subject. You may also find our pages on Questioning and Clarification useful.

You may think that selecting your words is the most important part of getting a message across, but non-verbal communication actually plays a much bigger part than many of us are aware. Some experts suggest that around three-quarters of the ‘message’ is communicated by non-verbal signals such as body language, tone of voice, and the speed at which you speak.

These non-verbal signals reinforce or contradict the message of our words, and are much harder to fake than words. They are therefore a much more reliable signal. Learning to read body language is a vital part of communication.

For more about this, see our page on Non-Verbal Communication . If you are really interested, you may want to explore more, either about Body Language , or the importance of Face and Voice in non-verbal communication.

3. Improve your more advanced communication skills

Once you are confident in your basic listening and verbal and non-verbal communication, you can move on to more advanced areas around communication, such as becoming more effective in how you speak, and understanding why you may be having communication problems.

Our page on Effective Speaking includes tips on how to use your voice to full effect.

Communication is rarely perfect and can fail for a number of reasons. Understanding more about the possible barriers to good communication means that you can be aware of—and reduce the likelihood of—ineffective interpersonal communication and misunderstandings. Problems with communication can arise for a number of reasons, such as:

• Physical barriers , for example, being unable to see or hear the speaker properly, or language difficulties;
• Emotional barriers , such as not wanting to hear what is being said, or engage with that topic; and
• Expectations and prejudices that affect what people see and hear.

See our page Barriers to Communication for more information.

There are also circumstances in which communication is more difficult: for example, when you have to have an unpleasant conversation with someone, perhaps about their standard of work. These conversations may be either planned or unplanned.

There tend to be two issues that make conversations more difficult: emotion, and change.

• Various emotions can get in the way of communicating , including anger and aggression, or stress. Few of us are able to communicate effectively when we are struggling to manage our emotions, and sometimes the best thing that can be done is to postpone the conversation until everyone is calmer.
• Difficult conversations are often about the need for change . Many of us find change hard to manage, especially if it is associated with an implied criticism of existing ways of working.

Our page Communicating in Difficult Situations offers further ideas to help you to get your message across when stress levels or other emotions are running high.

4. Look inwards

Interpersonal skills may be about how you relate to others, but they start with you . Many will be improved dramatically if you work on your personal skills.

For example, people are much more likely to be drawn to you if you can maintain a positive attitude. A positive attitude also translates into improved self-confidence.

You are also less likely to be able to communicate effectively if you are very stressed about something. It is therefore important to learn to recognise, manage and reduce stress in yourself and others (and see our section on Stress and Stress Management for more). Being able to remain assertive, without becoming either passive or aggressive, is also key to effective communication. There is more about this in our pages on Assertiveness .

Perhaps the most important overarching personal skill is developing emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand your own and others’ emotions, and their effect on behaviour and attitudes. It is therefore perhaps best considered as both personal and interpersonal in its nature, but there is no doubt that improving your emotional intelligence will help in all areas of interpersonal skills. Daniel Goleman, the author of a number of books on emotional intelligence, identified five key areas, three of which are personal, and two interpersonal.

The personal skills , or ‘how we manage ourselves’, are self-awareness , self-regulation , and motivation . In other words, the first steps towards understanding and managing the emotions of others is to be able to understand and manage our own emotions, including understanding what motivates us.

The social skills , or ‘how we handle relationships with others’, are empathy and social skills . These mean understanding and feeling for others, and then being able to interact effectively with them.

Improving your emotional intelligence therefore improves your understanding that other people have different points of view. It helps you to try to see things from their perspective. In doing so, you may learn something whilst gaining the respect and trust of others.

5. Use and practise your interpersonal skills in particular situations

There are a number of situations in which you need to use interpersonal skills. Consciously putting yourself in those positions, and practising your skills, then reflecting on the outcomes, will help you to improve.

For example:

Interpersonal skills are essential when working in groups.

Group-work is also a common situation, both at home and at work, giving you plenty of opportunity to work on your skills. It may be helpful to understand more about group dynamics and ways of working, as these can affect how both you and others behave.

For more about the different types of teams and groups, see our page An introduction to Teams and Groups , and for more about how people behave in groups, see Group and Team Roles . You can find more about the skills essential to team working in our page on Effective Team-Working .

Interpersonal skills may also be particularly helpful if you have to negotiate, persuade and influence others.

Effective negotiations—that is, where you are seeking a win–win outcome, rather than win–lose—will pave the way to mutual respect, trust and lasting interpersonal relations. Only by looking for a solution that works for both parties, rather than seeking to win at all costs, can you establish a good relationship that will enable you to work together over and over again.

Being able to persuade and influence others—again, for mutual benefit—is also a key building block towards strong interpersonal relations.

There is more about all of these in our pages on Negotiation and Persuasion . These pages explain negotiation , and discuss how it works , and explore the art of persuasion and influence in more detail.

Resolving and mediating in conflict scenarios can be a real test of interpersonal skills

Sometimes negotiation and persuasion are not enough to avoid conflict. When this happens, you need strong conflict resolution and potentially even mediation skills. Conflict can arise from poorly-handled interpersonal communications, and may be addressed simply by listening carefully to both sides, and demonstrating that you have done so. Finding a win–win situation is similarly important here, because it shows that you respect both sides.

These skills may be thought of as advanced communication skills. However, if you are often required to manage such situations, some specialist training may be helpful.

See our pages on Conflict Resolution and Mediation Skills for more.

Finally, problem-solving and decision-making are usually better when they involve more than one person

Problem-solving and decision-making are key life skills. While both can be done alone, they are often better for the involvement of more people. This means that they also frequently involve interpersonal elements, and there is no doubt that better interpersonal skills will help with both.

See our pages on Problem-Solving and Decision-Making for more.

6. Reflect on your experience and improve

The final element in developing and improving your interpersonal skills is to develop the habit of self-reflection. Taking time to think about conversations and interpersonal interactions will enable you to learn from your mistakes and successes, and continue to develop. You might, for example, find it helpful to keep a diary or learning journal and write in it each week.

For more about this, see our pages on Reflective Practice and Improving Communication Skills .

Further Reading from Skills You Need

The Skills You Need Guide to Interpersonal Skills eBooks.

Develop your interpersonal skills with our series of eBooks. Learn about and improve your communication skills, tackle conflict resolution, mediate in difficult situations, and develop your emotional intelligence.

Continue to: Developing Interpersonal Skills in Children Interpersonal Communication Skills Principles of Interpersonal Communication

Ace the Presentation

The 7 Key Steps of Effective Interpersonal Problem-Solving

Any interpersonal relationship involving two or more distinct people is susceptible to having misunderstandings, in which one does not agree, and the other has divergent opinions and views. These misunderstandings can lead to conflicts that, if properly solved, can generate significant progress in the relationship, strengthening it.

If you are wondering what are the 7 Key Steps of Effective Interpersonal Problem-Solving , then please find the list below:

• Don’t be afraid to admit the problem exists.
• Remain positive
• Find the ROOT of the problem.
• Choose the RIGHT MOMENT
• Make Good-Points
• Be communicative
• Know how to listen

Before we go to each step, let’s talk about how interpersonal problems can come up. Conflict is a natural exchange of energies, however often seen as unfavorable because most people can’t manage stress, can’t be honest with themselves and others, and go with the mindset of being right.

Highly Recommended Article:

9 Great Ways to Improve Interpersonal Skills

What are the Major causes of Interpersonal Conflicts?

That being so, and knowing that we cannot avoid conflicts, it is essential to understand them to resolve them in the best way. Then there will be clues as to how best to resolve disputes.

How to Resolve Interpersonal Conflicts?

Denial does nothing to improve the situation, quite the contrary because it allows the issue to increase over time. There is no point in delaying their afflictions, as they will continue where they are and as a snowball until they reach an insoluble plateau. Admitting you have a problem allows you to think about a solution.

Where should we start now that we are not afraid to admit there is a problem?

• Identify the problem (try to understand what bothers us, how does it make you feel?);
•  Prepare the essential points you want to expose to each other;
• What can you do to change the situation?
• Brainstorm ideas on how you could talk and solve this situation.
• Remain Positive

We must not regard misunderstanding as persecution or an attempt to strike at us. By being positive, we assumed that the other person had good intentions and that a supposed lack of communication between us created a problem.

Moreover, by seeking to act positively in solving the problem, it is clear that we are not seeking intrigue, only the most sensible solution.

Thoughts motivate our actions, so it is of paramount importance that we always have good views.

Positive thinking gives us a vision of hope that things can improve and that nothing is eternal, not problems and difficulties. In addition to the personal benefits that this positive-thinking brings, you end up influencing the people around you with such thoughts.

• Find the ROOT of the Problem

Some of the main concerns we have stem from internalized issues, and unresolved feelings. Thus, it becomes essential to avoid hiding your feelings from others and ourselves.

By not admitting that we care about a particular question, we can go into denial and accumulate the problem, so we stop looking for a suitable solution.

It is all right that we feel shaken, sad, and a little bewildered to some degree with situations that seem to evade its possibilities of resolution. What can’t happen is that we let those feelings get in the way of the day-to-day interactions with the people around us.

It is often not advisable to resolve a conflict immediately when it occurs, but rather to allow a short interval so that the strong emotions that appear at the time of its occurrence do not make you say things you will regret. 

Besides, this break also gives you time for preparation (thinking well about what you want and how you want to say things). It is also essential to choose a time when there is time to speak calmly.

HOW TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT MOMENT TO SOLVE A CONFLICT:

• Don’t try to talk about it right away; go home, relax and then reflect on it;
• It is not a good idea to try problem-solving with other people around us, and the person may feel attacked or exposed.

Yelling was never an excellent option to solve anything; take your pride out of the spotlight. We need to stay focused on what’s best for everyone and not our ego. Know precisely where we’re going with that discussion. Have clear, convincing arguments and look for the best way to use them.

HOW TO MAKE GOOD-POINTS DURING PROBLEM-SOLVING:

• We need to have listed everything that affected us and how;
• We conduct the conversation to bring understanding, for that we should critique constructively;
• To critique constructively, we should compliment his or their qualities and then explain how it affected us;
• After that, we should propose help by having a suggestion of how the change would look like.
• Be Communicative 

The lack of clear information about specific processes or each one’s function within the organization leads to misinterpreted information. In this sense, clear, concise, and timely communication reduces the number and severity of conflicts.

TIPS ON HOW TO BECOME MORE COMMUNICATIVE:

• It uses first-person phrases “I feel like…” “I think…”, “It made me understand “;
• Keep to the critical/essential things (stick to the key points)
• Explain what this conflict means to you;
• Don’t blame or worry about reacting to each other;

• Know how to Listen 

Knowing how to listen to means being attentive to what is being said, understanding how the person behaves when positioning their arguments, and understanding their reasons. If we are always trying to answer to justify our actions, there is no possible understanding.

To listen, we need to consider first dialogue or a conversation that involves two or more people.

TIPS TO KNOW HOW TO LISTEN:

• Don’t interrupt someone else. Let them make their point;
• Focus your attention on what the other person is saying at that moment, and don’t think about the possible answers you can give them.

If there is a problem that needs to be solved, there is a behavioral pattern to be overcome or an action to be taken in the face of an individual circumstance. Problem-solving involves taking a proactive attitude.

References and Further Reading

KRASNER, Linda. Interpersonal Problem-Solving. Research Gate.

FLYNN, Katie. Steps to Interpersonal Problem Solving. Prezi.

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What Are Interpersonal Skills? And How to Strengthen Them

Interpersonal skills are important in work, school, and life. Learn how to strengthen yours.

Humans are social creatures, active in our respective work, school, and play communities. Interpersonal skills help us function in collaborative settings and succeed personally and professionally. 

In 1936, Dale Carnegie published How to Win Friends and Influence People —it is now one of the best-selling books of all time. He offered seemingly simple advice like: Be a good listener; don’t criticize, condemn, or complain; and try to see things from someone else’s perspective. Having sold over 30 million copies in 36 languages, Carnegie's book (and legacy) reminds us that a desire to improve one’s interpersonal skills resonates with people. 

Further, these kinds of skills continue to gain importance in the workplace. The amount of time devoted to social and emotional skills (such as leadership and managing others) will rise by 24 percent by 2030, to 22 percent of hours worked, according to McKinsey [ 1 ].

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What are interpersonal skills?

Interpersonal skills fall under the soft skills umbrella. We use Interpersonal skills when interacting and communicating with others to help start, build, and sustain relationships.

Sometimes called people skills , these are innate and learned skills used in social situations pertinent to your career, education, and personal life. These skills include working creatively with others, communicating clearly, collaborating, adapting to change, flexibility, interacting effectively with diverse teams, guiding and leading others, and being responsible, according to the Partnership for 21st Century Skills. 

For example, a marketing manager leads a brainstorming session and intentionally solicits participation from interns and newer team members so their ideas and opinions get a chance to shine. This demonstrates a few interpersonal skills in action: teamwork, leadership, motivation, and empathy. Such skills enable us to interact with others effectively, whether in the workplace, school, or on a daily basis.

Interpersonal skills examples

These are some of the most common interpersonal skills:

Communication

Emotional intelligence

Conflict resolution

Negotiation

Positive attitude

Collaboration

Most people already possess many of these in some capacity—even introverted individuals, who may become drained from too much social interaction, yet are observant, intuitive, and adept when interacting with others. However, there is always room for improvement. Developing self-awareness and an openness to learning is an excellent first step to strengthening your interpersonal skills.

Learn more: Hard Skills vs. Soft Skills: What’s the Difference?

How to improve interpersonal skills

Continuous pursuit of self-improvement and confidence can benefit your personal and professional relationships, and knowing your strengths and weaknesses regarding social interactions can help you determine which skills you want to hone. Here’s how you can build on your interpersonal skills:

1. Assess your current skill set.

The first step is to identify your strengths and weaknesses. Based on the list above of interpersonal skills, think about your recent interactions with colleagues, bosses, friends, family, partners, and even strangers. Go through each skill and reflect on your past experiences for positive and negative examples. Write down the skills you feel you have mastered and those that present an opportunity to improve.

2. Create an action plan.

Choose one or two skills you would like to strengthen. Develop an actionable plan similar to the solutions below.

Confident communication

Problem: “I get nervous whenever I approach a colleague with a question.”

Plan: “I will challenge my negative thinking by imagining possible outcomes of this interaction with my colleague. Then, I will focus on the best-case scenario before approaching them to boost my confidence further.”

Problem: “I have been at this company for three months, and I still don’t know anyone very well.”

Plan: “At the next company happy hour, I will speak to at least one person I don’t know. I will also engage a team member in a conversation, maybe noting a topic in mind that I have wanted to discuss with them for a while.”

Problem: “There aren’t many opportunities for me to practice negotiation or persuasion in my current workplace.”

Plan: “I will take a class like Successful Negotiation to become familiar with the strategies and skills. Then, I will commit to implementing at least one of the negotiation techniques that I learn.” 

Problem: “I have no idea how I am doing at work.”

Plan: “I will ask my manager for a quarterly assessment so we can set benchmarks for goals and growth.”

3. Reflect on your growth.

Self-reflection is a critical part of expanding your interpersonal skills. While some discomfort is expected during growth periods, it's important to feel comfortable and confident in the way you are approaching interpersonal situations.

After enacting your action plan, notice how you feel. Positive feelings indicate that you've found a productive path for building your skills, while negative feelings can indicate that you may benefit from an alternative approach. Iterating on your action plan along the way can enable you to develop a lasting skill set.

Using your interpersonal skills for career success

Wherever you go, whatever you choose to do with your career, you will interact with other people. Building solid relationships is key to getting that promotion, fostering team harmony, and dealing with conflict. The process of strengthening these skills can sometimes be tough and force you outside of your comfort zone, but the reward is well worth it. Here are some ways to apply the skills to each part of the job search. 

Interpersonal skills for resume and cover letter

Interpersonal skills are defined by how you deal with different personalities in dynamic situations, so demonstrating them on a resume can be difficult. Resumes tend to list technical skills needed to get the job done. However, you can incorporate interpersonal skills on your resume in bullet points for a specific job experience, such as including a line that describes your leadership ability: “Managed a team of six to implement fire evacuation policies for the entire company.” Or you might include a line about collaboration: “Executed an idea to hire influencers for marketing a new eco-friendly face cream by working with cross-functional teams.”

Another place to highlight interpersonal skills is in your cover letter . Here you have more space to describe a particular achievement, such as participating in a case study team project in your MBA program that turned into a start-up idea that won grant funding. As long as these types of experiences are relevant to the job you’re applying for, emphasizing your interpersonal skills can strengthen your application.

Finally, it is good practice to show that you possess strong interpersonal skills by being polite, responsive, and enthusiastic in emails and interactions when a recruiter contacts you. Throughout the job search process , your actions craft an image of who you are and whether your values align with the organization.

In a job interview

Performing well in a job interview also requires interpersonal skills—only this time you can show the potential employer through your actions and conversation just how your skills might play out if you land the role. For example, you can explain a scenario in which you used communication to relay a breach of ethics to several stakeholders through different communication channels as a health care professional.

Some jobs require behavioral interviews , in which the STAR method (situation, task, action, and result) can be effective. This is an excellent opportunity to integrate interpersonal skills and demonstrate how you resolved a conflict or performed well under pressure.

Read more: STAR Interview Questions: What They Are + How to Answer Them

Perhaps the best opportunity to strengthen your interpersonal skills is on the job. For example, with your colleagues, you can lead a team-building activity at a meeting if you observe a lack of cohesion when many new members join. With your manager, you can practice active listening to ensure you comprehend their expectations so that you may intuit when you are ready to take on more responsibility—and ask for it. 

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Article sources

McKinsey & Company. " Skill Shift Automation and the Future of the Workforce , https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/future-of-work/skill-shift-automation-and-the-future-of-the-workforce." Accessed January 24, 2024.

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

What Are Interpersonal Skills?

Here’s what interpersonal skills are, why they matter and how you can develop them.

Interpersonal skills are the behaviors people demonstrate when effectively interacting with others . Commonly referred to as “people skills,” these communication tactics can be signaled verbally and non-verbally in both one-on-one and group dynamics. Highly transferable across industries, interpersonal skills are a part of a professional’s soft skill arsenal that builds and determines the nature of professional relationships.

Interpersonal skills come in handy when handling conflict, collaborating within a team or just generally relating to your coworkers throughout your career . While some are innate traits, others are learned over time and can be further developed to strategically navigate social settings.

Interpersonal skills are the traits people use to communicate and interact with others. They are also known as “people skills” or “soft skills.”

“Being a genius coder or a killer salesperson doesn’t mean much if you can’t get along with others,” Melani Gordon, a partner at executive coaching and culture development firm Evolution , told Built In. “Interpersonal skills help you build that trust, turning you into not just someone people have to work with, but someone they want to work with.”

Sometimes referred to as ‘people skills’ or ‘social skills,’ interpersonal skills don’t just involve effectively communicating with others, but also reading others’ social cues and responding accordingly. 

Although interpersonal skills depend on one’s personality traits and communication style , they can also be developed through past experiences and repetition. As a result, employees can participate in more interactions to improve their interpersonal skills, which range from effective communication to active listening. 

13 Examples of Interpersonal Skills

While there is no official list of interpersonal skills to turn to, below are some office-friendly attributes that are sure to enhance anyone’s employability.  

1. Communication

Nearly every aspect of business relies on communication — whether spoken or written. It should be clear, concise and consistent. Even nonverbal cues count as communication, especially in the age of remote work and video meetings.

2. Active Listening

Active listening is when someone reflects upon and responds to — rather than reacts to — what another person says. As opposed to passive listening, active listening requires concentration, critical thinking, comprehension and a bit of demonstration. Without this interpersonal skill, it’s entirely possible to have two separate conversations at once, without arriving upon a mutual understanding.

Being in tune with what other people are thinking — and interpreting why they may be behaving a certain way — is the internal personal skill of empathy. It takes time to acquire. Achieving this level of insight involves listening, asking questions, recognizing feelings, avoiding judgment and sharing perspectives to authentically “walk in someone else’s shoes.”

4. Emotional Intelligence

Whether as an employee or leader of a company, having a clear understanding of your own emotions , motivations, triggers and behaviors is the first step in determining how to respond in any given scenario. The ability to recognize and regulate one’s own standings of emotional and social intelligence better informs where their strengths or weaknesses lay, and therefore what to embrace and where the work begins.

5. Positive Attitude

If an employee is capable of seeing the good in any situation, they are more equipped to stick it out when expectations fall short. Rather than complain or tally all that went wrong, these solution-oriented individuals are often the first in the room to switch on, ready to pivot. They have a certain energizing quality that rubs off, where just a greeting or brief catch-up conversation can leave coworkers feeling more capable of tackling the day.

6. Negotiation And Persuasion

Whether negotiating a deal or trying to persuade an audience, these processes involve articulating your thoughts in alignment with their needs while “selling it” altogether. Luckily, Aristotle determined the three pillars of persuasive speaking 2,300 years ago — ethos, pathos and logos — which suggests building a logical argument that appeals to an audience’s character and emotions.

7. Conflict Mediation And Resolution

Having a knack for designing win-win solutions and finding common ground translates well in a work environment. Listening to all of the facts, remaining calm and making sure people feel heard play a key role in resolving conflict . The pathway to peaceful resolution is to land on a compromise without either party feeling like they’re giving up anything.

8. Problem Solving

Problem solving begins with being able to identify a problem, then brainstorming a solution. From there, it’s a matter of analyzing the possibilities and implementing which works best, whether it’s project-specific or a company-wide matter. Strong problem solving can inspire better strategy and time management, but also instill confidence and build motivation.

9. Leadership

An employee with leadership qualities knows how to leverage the best out of their team. They listen to all sides before making a decision while motivating and inspiring others to work toward a shared goal — especially when the going gets tough.

10. Resilience

Having the ability to cope with adversity and pivot as the plot changes will serve someone well, especially in the workplace. When someone can maintain their own psychological well-being amid a high degree of stress, it communicates that they do not need things to go as planned in order to excel in their job. These individuals are dependable, and can roll with the punches.

11. Creativity

Problem solving, writing, analytical or critical thinking , communication and open-mindedness are all creative attributes fit for the workplace. Creative thinkers approach tired tasks in imaginative new ways, generating original ideas that can lead to innovative solutions.

Cracking a (well-timed, work-appropriate) joke can create a positive atmosphere even when handling difficult tasks, like high-stakes negotiations, presenting a sales pitch or delivering a down-market report. Humor diffuses tension, boosts creativity and increases one’s likeability.

Leaders with a sense of humor are seen as 27 percent more motivating and admired than those who don’t joke around. Their teams are 15 percent more engaged, and twice as likely to solve a creativity challenge — translating into higher productivity.

13. Small Talk 

The ability to have informal, polite discourse about light, non-work-related topics helps establish rapport with colleagues . Small talk eliminates the need for stale, overdone conversation starters.

“Have you ever been in one of those company mixers where it feels more like a middle-school dance? Nobody’s mingling,” Gordon said. “Now, a person with killer interpersonal skills walks in and suddenly, the energy shifts — conversations spark, people laugh and ideas start flowing. That’s interpersonal skills in action.”

Related Reading How Interpersonal Skills Help You Be a Stronger Tech Player

Benefits of Interpersonal Skills

A solid set of interpersonal skills makes for a more harmonious — and more efficient — workplace. As employees become better colleagues and leaders become more effective at the helm, a positive and productive team culture is often a byproduct.

“Technical skills are important, but they aren’t the only skill type we should be focused on,” Koma Gandy, vice president of leadership and business at corporate-education platform Skillsoft , told Built In. “Success depends on a workforce that can understand, practice and apply both [technical and soft] sets of skills.”

Below are some of the benefits of interpersonal skills.  

1. Stronger Relationships

By definition, interpersonal skills are how we relate to others. It’s how we build trust , collect understanding and learn how people prefer to communicate. Great interpersonal skills are the bread and butter to effortlessly building deeper connections with your coworkers , resulting in a tighter team and pleasant work environment.

2. Higher Morale

Flexing your interpersonal skills to create a sense of understanding, belonging and recognition — as well as a space capable of facilitating change — boosts office morale and contributes to a culture of camaraderie.

3. Better Business

For every customer won, there’s a master of interpersonal skills at work. Anticipating the needs of a client is impossible without actively listening , exercising empathy, solid communication, patience and perhaps a sprinkle of witty banter.

4. Increased Productivity And Collaboration 

Interpersonal skills are the lubricant of a well-oiled organizational machine — with good communication, there are fewer misunderstandings and mistakes. According to research conducted by team messaging app Pumble, 86 percent of employees and executives cite insufficient collaboration and communication as the main causes of workplace failures. But when communicating effectively , a team’s productivity may increase by as much as 25 percent.

5. More Problem Solving

When a team takes the time to understand one another, they are better equipped to find a solution that works for most everyone involved. This leads to more compassionate office dynamics where “problems” become team-building opportunities.

6. Supportive Work Environment

When employees walk into a work environment that is more concerned with empowering them rather than putting them in their place, it’s immediately felt. Interpersonal skills can help leaders lighten their team’s workload and alleviate work-related stress by just setting the right tone. Keep the doors open, check in, pay credit where credit is due and listen before you lead.

7. Opportunities For Promotions

Office politics are a factor whether we want to admit it or not. When vying for a position, promotion or project, interpersonal skills can get you the job — even if you’re not as technically qualified as other candidates.

“[Office politics] is a game everyone says they don’t want to play, but guess what, you’re already a player,” Gordon said. “Interpersonal skills are your cheat code to navigate this tricky terrain without selling your soul to the corporate devil.”

Related Reading Upskilling: What It Is and Why It’s Important

Why Are Interpersonal Skills Important?

According to the World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs report , eight of the top 10 core skills required of workers today are interpersonal skills. Surveyed companies identified soft skills like analytical thinking, creativity, empathy, motivation and leadership as integral qualities to a workforce that works.

“To be effective in your workplace and career, it’s critically important to manage yourself, manage your network and manage your team — in that precise order,” Gandy said. “Interpersonal skills help us identify and navigate our emotions as we become more self-aware. When we are equipped with these skills, we make better leaders and colleagues to one another and help drive real business success.”

How to Improve Interpersonal Skills

1. get to know yourself.

To start, it’s important to understand your own natural behaviors when interacting with others. Are you more chatty and extroverted? Or do you struggle with attention, deflecting the conversation while mentally mapping out an escape plan?

Psychologist Leslie Dobson, who specializes in mental health in both individual and group therapy settings, said that this can be done with a simple self-assessment . By asking yourself how assertive you feel you are at work, and the manner in which you assert yourself — aggressively, passively, or passive-aggressively — can be a great exercise in self-awareness.

To put it to the test, try videotaping yourself. This can be in pretend conversations or more naturally, while out with friends, Dobson recommended. Despite an inevitable aspect of ‘cringe’ that comes with this tried-and-true exercise, it offers instant, indisputable feedback from a third-person perspective that provides a better understanding of your own habits.

“In the tech world people tend to be a little more introverted,” Dobson said, noting that, when learning new techniques and trying out different approaches to communication, these individuals may feel like they’re being aggressive.

As you reflect, you may notice that you have a tendency to overshare and could probably pull back on personal anecdotes, or you may find yourself blurring into the background a bit, and could use it as a green flag to increase your level of participation in a group setting. 

2. Pay Attention to Your Body Language

Small things, such as walking tall, shaking hands, holding eye contact and keeping an even, steady tone, can add up, and ultimately contribute to creating a more relatable presence in the workplace. Start by taking a proper posture and relaxing your shoulders. Keep your arms uncrossed and slightly lean in when others are talking to you. Study what others are doing, and try out what feels most natural to you.

“If we can name our interpersonal skills — both what we have and what we’re lacking — then we can externalize them and operationalize them,” Dobson said.

3. Enroll in Career Development Programs

For those seeking a more formal course correction, enrolling in career development classes may be the way to go. Any workshops that specifically focus on public speaking, leadership or networking in their curriculum are worth looking into, Dobson said, as well as supportive therapy groups such as social skills training .

4. Stay Curious

And it doesn’t stop there — as Gandy noted, developing professional-grade interpersonal skills is not a “set it and forget it” type of endeavor. Sharpening relational techniques is a life-long practice that can help build your career and enrich your life.

At Skillsoft, Gandy assists business leaders in identifying skill gaps in their teams via objective assessments. The results are then used to inform curated programs , with transferable credentials, that are in alignment with the needs of the organization.

“[Building interpersonal skills] is a consistent and constant journey of … continuous learning and growth,” Gandy said.

Related Reading Tech Hiring Madness! The ‘Elite 8’ Skills to Look for in Recruiting.

How to Use Interpersonal Skills at Work

It’s one thing to know about interpersonal techniques and their benefits. It’s another to actually apply them to your daily routine. The following includes a few hacks to work in during your next series of workplace interactions.  

1. Stay Positive

Try to cultivate a positive mental attitude at work. This will allow you to become both a part of and a contributor to a more harmonious work culture. While it may be a matter of ‘fake it until you make it,’ looking for the good in any given scenario — especially stressful ones — reflects positively on you as an employee and coworker.

2. Control Your Emotions

Conduct yourself professionally at work, even when others aren’t. Communicating in a calm, patient manner is key to maintaining an appropriate workplace persona conducive to trust, respect and integrity. If personal matters are too big to be compartmentalized, it may be worth taking a personal day or seeking help .

3. Give Praise to Colleagues

People love to hear about themselves. The next time an opportunity arises, when a coworker provides illuminating insight during a presentation, makes a great save or when receiving help on an issue, paying a compliment can be a simple way to vocalize appreciation and build trust . While it’s best to deliver kudos from a place of authenticity, celebrating someone’s expertise — even when competing in office politics — is still a nice gesture.

4. Take Interest in Others

There is no need to climb the workplace social ladder as if it were the same one in high school; however, there’s no harm in inquiring about the personal lives of the people you work side-by-side with on a regular basis. Typically, what they talk about is what they care about most. With this information, you get a better understanding of who they are and the people you work with at large. Bonus points for committing a few notes to memory and then following up later.

5. Practice Active Listening

Nod along, hold eye contact, repeat back what the speakers said in your own words, ask questions to learn more about their perspective and respond thoughtfully to let them know that they’ve been heard.

6. Be Assertive

Voice your needs, thoughts or boundaries with confidence. Letting others know where you stand eliminates confusion, if there is any, and is a strong demonstration of self-respect that may inspire others to follow your lead. 

7. Practice Empathy 

Simple exercises like giving others the benefit of the doubt, putting yourself in other peoples’ shoes and drawing parallels out of other peoples’ circumstances to your own are a few ways to practice empathy . In the context of work, these practices may also aid in problem solving and conflict resolution, when applicable.

8. Maintain Relationships

Whether in or out of work, having a supportive network of healthy relationships is an enriching way to demonstrate that you value and prioritize others. Prioritize connecting with friends and colleagues on a semi-regular basis. This reflects well on you in a professional setting, as it demonstrates qualities like dependability, honesty, respect and that you understand mutual give-and-take.

Common Jobs That Require Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills are crucial for jobs that require high levels of human interaction, including the following positions: 

• Social worker 
• Salesperson or customer support representative
• Human resources manager

How to Highlight Interpersonal Skills on Your Resume

Interpersonal skills might seem more subtle than technical or hard skills, but there are ways to ensure they get plenty of attention on your resume.  

Showcase Interpersonal Skills in Past Projects

Include projects or roles where you spearheaded an initiative, worked with members of other teams or cultivated client relationships. Focus on skills like leadership and collaboration. 

Emphasize Interpersonal Skills Through Volunteer Work and Extracurriculars 

Volunteer work and extracurriculars can also reveal soft skills. Helping plan a community event, volunteering at a library and running a fundraiser for a senior care facility are all scenarios that require emotional intelligence, problem solving and other interpersonal skills. 

Add Interpersonal Skills in a Skills Section

If there’s room on your resume, include a skills section that provides a bullet list of specific skills. In addition to hard skills, you can include interpersonal skills like empathy, teamwork, creativity and conflict resolution. 

Choose Interpersonal Skills That Match Keywords

Keywords in job descriptions often hint at what skills to include in your resume . For example, if a job calls for someone who can collaborate across departments and is comfortable handling complex challenges, drive home your communication and problem-solving skills. 

Make Sure References Can Back Up Interpersonal Skills

Select interpersonal skills that you’ve been complimented on and can be confirmed by colleagues, mentors, teachers and other important figures in your career. Having an extra vote of approval can add more weight to any interpersonal skills you mention in your resume.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some examples of interpersonal skills.

Communication, active listening, conflict resolution, creativity and problem-solving are a few examples of interpersonal skills. 

Why are interpersonal skills important?

Interpersonal skills enable professionals to become better coworkers and leaders in the workplace. As a result, many jobs require skills like empathy and leadership, making interpersonal skills essential for a successful career.

Recent Career Development Articles

Assessing 21st Century Skills: Summary of a Workshop (2011)

Chapter: 3 assessing interpersonal skills.

Assessing Interpersonal Skills

The second cluster of skills—broadly termed interpersonal skills—are those required for relating to other people. These sorts of skills have long been recognized as important for success in school and the workplace, said Stephen Fiore, professor at the University of Central Florida, who presented findings from a paper about these skills and how they might be assessed (Salas, Bedwell, and Fiore, 2011). 1 Advice offered by Dale Carnegie in the 1930s to those who wanted to “win friends and influence people,” for example, included the following: be a good listener; don’t criticize, condemn, or complain; and try to see things from the other person’s point of view. These are the same sorts of skills found on lists of 21st century skills today. For example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills includes numerous interpersonal capacities, such as working creatively with others, communicating clearly, and collaborating with others, among the skills students should learn as they progress from preschool through postsecondary study (see Box 3-1 for the definitions of the relevant skills in the organization’s P-21 Framework).

It seems clear that these are important skills, yet definitive labels and definitions for the interpersonal skills important for success in schooling and work remain elusive: They have been called social or people skills, social competencies, soft skills, social self-efficacy, and social intelligence, Fiore said (see, e.g., Ferris, Witt, and Hochwarter, 2001; Hochwarter et al.,

________________

1 See http://www7.national-academies.org/bota/21st_Century_Workshop_Salas_Fiore_Paper.pdf [August 2011].

BOX 3-1 Interpersonal Capacities in the Partnership for 21st Century Skills Framework

Work Creatively with Others

• Develop, implement, and communicate new ideas to others effectively
• Be open and responsive to new and diverse perspectives; incorporate group input and feedback into the work
• Demonstrate originality and inventiveness in work and understand the real-world limits to adopting new ideas
• View failure as an opportunity to learn; understand that creativity and innovation is a long-term, cyclical process of small successes and frequent mistakes

Communicate Clearly

• Articulate thoughts and ideas effectively using oral, written, and nonverbal communication skills in a variety of forms and contexts
• Listen effectively to decipher meaning, including knowledge, values, attitudes, and intentions
• Use communication for a range of purposes (e.g., to inform, instruct, motivate, and persuade)
• Utilize multiple media and technologies, and know how to judge their effectiveness a priori as well as to assess their impact
• Communicate effectively in diverse environments (including multilingual)

Collaborate with Others

• Demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with diverse teams
• Exercise flexibility and willingness to be helpful in making necessary compromises to accomplish a common goal
• Assume shared responsibility for collaborative work, and value the individual contributions made by each team member

2006; Klein et al., 2006; Riggio, 1986; Schneider, Ackerman, and Kanfer, 1996; Sherer et al., 1982; Sternberg, 1985; Thorndike, 1920). The previous National Research Council (NRC) workshop report that offered a preliminary definition of 21st century skills described one broad category of interpersonal skills (National Research Council, 2010, p. 3):

Complex communication/social skills: Skills in processing and interpreting both verbal and nonverbal information from others in order to respond appropriately. A skilled communicator is able to select key pieces of a complex idea to express in words, sounds, and images, in order to build shared understanding (Levy and Murnane, 2004). Skilled communicators negotiate positive outcomes with customers, subordinates, and superiors through social perceptiveness, persuasion, negotiation, instructing, and service orientation (Peterson et al., 1999).

Adapt to Change

• Adapt to varied roles, jobs responsibilities, schedules, and contexts
• Work effectively in a climate of ambiguity and changing priorities

Be Flexible

• Incorporate feedback effectively
• Deal positively with praise, setbacks, and criticism
• Understand, negotiate, and balance diverse views and beliefs to reach
• workable solutions, particularly in multicultural environments

Interact Effectively with Others

• Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak
• Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner

Work Effectively in Diverse Teams

• Respect cultural differences and work effectively with people from a range of social and cultural backgrounds
• Respond open-mindedly to different ideas and values
• Leverage social and cultural differences to create new ideas and increase both innovation and quality of work

Guide and Lead Others

• Use interpersonal and problem-solving skills to influence and guide others toward a goal
• Leverage strengths of others to accomplish a common goal
• Inspire others to reach their very best via example and selflessness
• Demonstrate integrity and ethical behavior in using influence and power

Be Responsible to Others

• Act responsibly with the interests of the larger community in mind

SOURCE: Excerpted from P21 Framework Definitions, Partnership for 21st Century Skills December 2009 [copyrighted—available at http://www.p21.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=254&Itemid=120 [August 2011].

These and other available definitions are not necessarily at odds, but in Fiore’s view, the lack of a single, clear definition reflects a lack of theoretical clarity about what they are, which in turn has hampered progress toward developing assessments of them. Nevertheless, appreciation for the importance of these skills—not just in business settings, but in scientific and technical collaboration, and in both K-12 and postsecondary education settings—has been growing. Researchers have documented benefits these skills confer, Fiore noted. For example, Goleman (1998) found they were twice as important to job performance as general cognitive ability. Sonnentag and Lange (2002) found understanding of cooperation strategies related to higher performance among engineering and software development teams, and Nash and colleagues (2003) showed that collaboration skills were key to successful interdisciplinary research among scientists.

WHAT ARE INTERPERSONAL SKILLS?

The multiplicity of names for interpersonal skills and ways of conceiving of them reflects the fact that these skills have attitudinal, behavioral, and cognitive components, Fiore explained. It is useful to consider 21st century skills in basic categories (e.g., cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal), but it is still true that interpersonal skills draw on many capacities, such as knowledge of social customs and the capacity to solve problems associated with social expectations and interactions. Successful interpersonal behavior involves a continuous correction of social performance based on the reactions of others, and, as Richard Murnane had noted earlier, these are cognitively complex tasks. They also require self-regulation and other capacities that fall into the intrapersonal category (discussed in Chapter 4 ). Interpersonal skills could also be described as a form of “social intelligence,” specifically social perception and social cognition that involve processes such as attention and decoding. Accurate assessment, Fiore explained, may need to address these various facets separately.

The research on interpersonal skills has covered these facets, as researchers who attempted to synthesize it have shown. Fiore described the findings of a study (Klein, DeRouin, and Salas, 2006) that presented a taxonomy of interpersonal skills based on a comprehensive review of the literature. The authors found a variety of ways of measuring and categorizing such skills, as well as ways to link them both to outcomes and to personality traits and other factors that affect them. They concluded that interpersonal effectiveness requires various sorts of competence that derive from experience, instinct, and learning about specific social contexts. They put forward their own definition of interpersonal skills as “goal-directed behaviors, including communication and relationship-building competencies, employed in interpersonal interaction episodes characterized by complex perceptual and cognitive processes, dynamic verbal and non verbal interaction exchanges, diverse roles, motivations, and expectancies” (p. 81).

They also developed a model of interpersonal performance, shown in Figure 3-1 , that illustrates the interactions among the influences, such as personality traits, previous life experiences, and the characteristics of the situation; the basic communication and relationship-building skills the individual uses in the situation; and outcomes for the individual, the group, and the organization. To flesh out this model, the researchers distilled sets of skills for each area, as shown in Table 3-1 .

Fiore explained that because these frameworks focus on behaviors intended to attain particular social goals and draw on both attitudes and cognitive processes, they provide an avenue for exploring what goes into the development of effective interpersonal skills in an individual. They

TABLE 3-1 Taxonomy of Interpersonal Skills

SOURCE: Klein, DeRouin, and Salas (2006). Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

FIGURE 3-1 Model of interpersonal performance.

NOTE: Big Five personality traits = openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism; EI = emotional intelligence; IPS = interpersonal skills.

SOURCE: Stephen Fiore’s presentation. Klein, DeRouin, and Salas (2006). Copyright 2006, Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

also allow for measurement of specific actions in a way that could be used in selection decisions, performance appraisals, or training. More specifically, Figure 3-1 sets up a way of thinking about these skills in the contexts in which they are used. The implication for assessment is that one would need to conduct the measurement in a suitable, realistic context in order to be able to examine the attitudes, cognitive processes, and behaviors that constitute social skills.

ASSESSMENT APPROACHES AND ISSUES

One way to assess these skills, Fiore explained, is to look separately at the different components (attitudinal, behavioral, and cognitive). For example, as the model in Figure 3-1 indicates, previous life experiences, such as the opportunities an individual has had to engage in successful and unsuccessful social interactions, can be assessed through reports (e.g., personal statements from applicants or letters of recommendation from prior employers). If such narratives are written in response to specific

questions about types of interactions, they may provide indications of the degree to which an applicant has particular skills. However, it is likely to be difficult to distinguish clearly between specific social skills and personality traits, knowledge, and cognitive processes. Moreover, Fiore added, such narratives report on past experience and may not accurately portray how one would behave or respond in future experiences.

The research on teamwork (or collaboration)—a much narrower concept than interpersonal skills—has used questionnaires that ask people to rate themselves and also ask for peer ratings of others on dimensions such as communication, leadership, and self-management. For example, Kantrowitz (2005) collected self-report data on two scales: performance standards for various behaviors, and comparison to others in the subjects’ working groups. Loughry, Ohland, and Moore (2007) asked members of work teams in science and technical contexts to rate one another on five general categories: contribution to the team’s work; interaction with teammates; contribution to keeping the team on track; expectations for quality; and possession of relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Another approach, Fiore noted, is to use situational judgment tests (SJTs), which are multiple-choice assessments of possible reactions to hypothetical teamwork situations to assess capacities for conflict resolution, communication, and coordination, as Stevens and Campion (1999) have done. The researchers were able to demonstrate relationships between these results and both peers’ and supervisors’ ratings and to ratings of job performance. They were also highly correlated to employee aptitude test results.

Yet another approach is direct observation of team interactions. By observing directly, researchers can avoid the potential lack of reliability inherent in self- and peer reports, and can also observe the circumstances in which behaviors occur. For example, Taggar and Brown (2001) developed a set of scales related to conflict resolution, collaborative problem solving, and communication on which people could be rated.

Though each of these approaches involve ways of distinguishing specific aspects of behavior, it is still true, Fiore observed, that there is overlap among the constructs—skills or characteristics—to be measured. In his view, it is worth asking whether it is useful to be “reductionist” in parsing these skills. Perhaps more useful, he suggested, might be to look holistically at the interactions among the facets that contribute to these skills, though means of assessing in that way have yet to be determined. He enumerated some of the key challenges in assessing interpersonal skills.

The first concerns the precision, or degree of granularity, with which interpersonal expertise can be measured. Cognitive scientists have provided models of the progression from novice to expert in more concrete skill areas, he noted. In K-12 education contexts, assessment developers

have looked for ways to delineate expectations for particular stages that students typically go through as their knowledge and understanding grow more sophisticated. Hoffman (1998) has suggested the value of a similar continuum for interpersonal skills. Inspired by the craft guilds common in Europe during the Middle Ages, Hoffman proposed that assessment developers use the guidelines for novices, journeymen, and master craftsmen, for example, as the basis for operational definitions of developing social expertise. If such a continuum were developed, Fiore noted, it should make it possible to empirically examine questions about whether adults can develop and improve in response to training or other interventions.

Another issue is the importance of the context in which assessments of interpersonal skills are administered. By definition, these skills entail some sort of interaction with other people, but much current testing is done in an individualized way that makes it difficult to standardize. Sophisticated technology, such as computer simulations, or even simpler technology can allow for assessment of people’s interactions in a standardized scenario. For example, Smith-Jentsch and colleagues (1996) developed a simulation of an emergency room waiting room, in which test takers interacted with a video of actors following a script, while others have developed computer avatars that can interact in the context of scripted events. When well executed, Fiore explained, such simulations may be able to elicit emotional responses, allowing for assessment of people’s self-regulatory capacities and other so-called soft skills.

Workshop participants noted the complexity of trying to take the context into account in assessment. For example, one noted both that behaviors may make sense only in light of previous experiences in a particular environment, and that individuals may display very different social skills in one setting (perhaps one in which they are very comfortable) than another (in which they are not comfortable). Another noted that the clinical psychology literature would likely offer productive insights on such issues.

The potential for technologically sophisticated assessments also highlights the evolving nature of social interaction and custom. Generations who have grown up interacting via cell phone, social networking, and tweeting may have different views of social norms than their parents had. For example, Fiore noted, a telephone call demands a response, and many younger people therefore view a call as more intrusive and potentially rude than a text message, which one can respond to at his or her convenience. The challenge for researchers is both to collect data on new kinds of interactions and to consider new ways to link the content of interactions to the mode of communication, in order to follow changes in what constitutes skill at interpersonal interaction. The existing definitions

and taxonomies of interpersonal skills, he explained, were developed in the context of interactions that primarily occur face to face, but new technologies foster interactions that do not occur face to face or in a single time window.

In closing, Fiore returned to the conceptual slippage in the terms used to describe interpersonal skills. Noting that the etymological origins of both “cooperation” and “collaboration” point to a shared sense of working together, he explained that the word “coordination” has a different meaning, even though these three terms are often used as if they were synonymous. The word “coordination” captures instead the concepts of ordering and arranging—a key aspect of teamwork. These distinctions, he observed, are a useful reminder that examining the interactions among different facets of interpersonal skills requires clarity about each facet.

ASSESSMENT EXAMPLES

The workshop included examples of four different types of assessments of interpersonal skills intended for different educational and selection purposes—an online portfolio assessment designed for high school students; an online assessment for community college students; a situational judgment test used to select students for medical school in Belgium; and a collection of assessment center approaches used for employee selection, promotion, and training purposes.

The first example was the portfolio assessment used by the Envision High School in Oakland, California, to assess critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and creativity. At Envision Schools, a project-based learning approach is used that emphasizes the development of deeper learning skills, integration of arts and technology into core subjects, and real-world experience in workplaces. 2 The focus of the curriculum is to prepare students for college, especially those who would be the first in their family to attend college. All students are required to assemble a portfolio in order to graduate. Bob Lenz, cofounder of Envision High School, discussed this online portfolio assessment.

The second example was an online, scenario-based assessment used for community college students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) programs. The focus of the program is on developing students’ social/communication skills as well as their technical skills. Louise Yarnall, senior research scientist with SRI, made this presentation.

Filip Lievens, professor of psychology at Ghent University in Belgium, described the third example, a situational judgment test designed

2 See http://www.envisionschools.org/site/ [August 2011] for additional information about Envision Schools.

to assess candidates’ skill in responding to health-related situations that require interpersonal skills. The test is used for high-stakes purposes.

The final presentation was made by Lynn Gracin Collins, chief scientist for SH&A/Fenestra, who discussed a variety of strategies for assessing interpersonal skills in employment settings. She focused on performance-based assessments, most of which involve role-playing activities.

Online Portfolio Assessment of High School Students 3

Bob Lenz described the experience of incorporating in the curriculum and assessing several key interpersonal skills in an urban high school environment. Envision Schools is a program created with corporate and foundation funding to serve disadvantaged high school students. The program consists of four high schools in the San Francisco Bay area that together serve 1,350 primarily low-income students. Sixty-five percent qualify for free or reduced-price lunch, and 70 percent are expected to be the first in their families to graduate from college. Most of the students, Lenz explained, enter the Envision schools at approximately a sixth-grade level in most areas. When they begin the Envision program, most have exceedingly negative feelings about school; as Lenz put it they “hate school and distrust adults.” The program’s mission is not only to address this sentiment about schools, but also to accelerate the students’ academic skills so that they can get into college and to develop the other skills they will need to succeed in life.

Lenz explained that tracking students’ progress after they graduate is an important tool for shaping the school’s approach to instruction. The first classes graduated from the Envision schools 2 years ago. Lenz reported that all of their students meet the requirements to attend a 4-year college in California (as opposed to 37 percent of public high school students statewide), and 94 percent of their graduates enrolled in 2- or 4-year colleges after graduation. At the time of the presentation, most of these students (95 percent) had re-enrolled for the second year of college. Lenz believes the program’s focus on assessment, particularly of 21st century skills, has been key to this success.

The program emphasizes what they call the “three Rs”: rigor, relevance, and relationships. Project-based assignments, group activities, and workplace projects are all activities that incorporate learning of interpersonal skills such as leadership, Lenz explained. Students are also asked to assess themselves regularly. Researchers from the Stanford Center for Assessment, Learning, and Equity (SCALE) assisted the Envision staff in

3 Lenz’s presentation is available at http://www7.national-academies.org/bota/21st_Century_Workshop_Lenz.pdf [August 2011].

developing a College Success Assessment System that is embedded in the curriculum. Students develop portfolios with which they can demonstrate their learning in academic content as well as 21st century skill areas. The students are engaged in three goals: mastery knowledge, application of knowledge, and metacognition.

The components of the portfolio, which is presented at the end of 12th grade, include

• A student-written introduction to the contents
• Examples of “mastery-level” student work (assessed and certified by teachers prior to the presentation)
• Reflective summaries of work completed in five core content areas
• An artifact of and a written reflection on the workplace learning project
• A 21st century skills assessment

Students are also expected to defend their portfolios, and faculty are given professional development to guide the students in this process. Eventually, Lenz explained, the entire portfolio will be archived online.

Lenz showed examples of several student portfolios to demonstrate the ways in which 21st century skills, including interpersonal ones, are woven into both the curriculum and the assessments. In his view, teaching skills such as leadership and collaboration, together with the academic content, and holding the students to high expectations that incorporate these sorts of skills, is the best way to prepare the students to succeed in college, where there may be fewer faculty supports.

STEM Workforce Training Assessments 4

Louise Yarnall turned the conversation to assessment in a community college setting, where the technicians critical to many STEM fields are trained. She noted the most common approach to training for these workers is to engage them in hands-on practice with the technologies they are likely to encounter. This approach builds knowledge of basic technical procedures, but she finds that it does little to develop higher-order cognitive skills or the social skills graduates need to thrive in the workplace.

Yarnall and a colleague have outlined three categories of primary skills that technology employers seek in new hires (Yarnall and Ostrander, in press):

4 Yarnall’s presentation is available at http://www7.national-academies.org/bota/21st_Century_Workshop_Yarnall.pdf [August 2011].

Social-Technical

• Translating client needs into technical specifications
• Researching technical information to meet client needs
• Justifying or defending technical approach to client
• Reaching consensus on work team
• Polling work team to determine ideas
• Using tools, languages, and principles of domain
• Generating a product that meets specific technical criteria
• Interpreting problems using principles of domain

In her view, new strategies are needed to incorporate these skills into the community college curriculum. To build students’ technical skills and knowledge, she argued, faculty need to focus more on higher-order thinking and application of knowledge, to press students to demonstrate their competence, and to practice. Cooperative learning opportunities are key to developing social skills and knowledge. For the skills that are both social and technical, students need practice with reflection and feedback opportunities, modeling and scaffolding of desirable approaches, opportunities to see both correct and incorrect examples, and inquiry-based instructional practices.

She described a project she and colleagues, in collaboration with community college faculty, developed that was designed to incorporate this thinking, called the Scenario-Based Learning Project (see Box 3-2 ). This team developed eight workplace scenarios—workplace challenges that were complex enough to require a team response. The students are given a considerable amount of material with which to work. In order to succeed, they would need to figure out how to approach the problem, what they needed, and how to divide up the effort. Students are also asked to reflect on the results of the effort and make presentations about the solutions they have devised. The project begins with a letter from the workplace manager (the instructor plays this role and also provides feedback throughout the process) describing the problem and deliverables that need to be produced. For example, one task asked a team to produce a website for a bicycle club that would need multiple pages and links.

Yarnall noted they encountered a lot of resistance to this approach. Community college students are free to drop a class if they do not like the instructor’s approach, and because many instructors are adjunct faculty,

BOX 3-2 Sample Constructs, Evidence of Learning, and Assessment Task Features for Scenario-Based Learning Projects

Technical Skills

Sample knowledge/skills/abilities (KSAs):

Ability to document system requirements using a simplified use case format; ability to address user needs in specifying system requirements.

Sample evidence:

Presented with a list of user’s needs/uses, the student will correctly specify web functionalities that address each need.

Sample task features:

The task must engage students in the use of tools, procedures, and knowledge representations employed in Ajax programming; the assessment task requires students to summarize the intended solution.

Social Skills

Sample social skill KSAs:

Ability to listen to team members with different viewpoints and to propose a consensus.

Presented with a group of individuals charged with solving a problem, the student will demonstrate correctly indicators of active listening and collaboration skills, including listening attentively, waiting an adequate amount of time for problem solutions, summarizing ideas, and questioning to reach a decision.

Sample social skill characteristic task features:

The assessment task will be scenario-based and involve a group of individuals charged with solving a work-related problem. The assessment will involve a conflict among team members and require the social processes of listening, negotiation, and decision making.

Social-Technical Skills

Sample social-technical skill KSAs:

Ability to ask questions to specify user requirements, and ability to engage in software design brainstorming by generating examples of possible user interactions with the website.

Sample social-technical skill evidence:

Presented with a client interested in developing a website, the student will correctly define the user’s primary needs. Presented with a client interested in developing a website, the student will correctly define the range of possible uses for the website.

Sample social-technical skill characteristic task features:

The assessment task will be scenario-based and involve the design of a website with at least two constraints. The assessment task will require the use of “querying” to determine client needs. The assessment task will require a summation of client needs.

SOURCE: Adapted from Louise Yarnall’s presentation. Used with permission.

their positions are at risk if their classes are unpopular. Scenario-based learning can be risky, she explained, because it can be demanding, but at the same time students sometimes feel unsure that they are learning enough. Instructors also sometimes feel unprepared to manage the teams, give appropriate feedback, and track their students’ progress.

Furthermore, Yarnall continued, while many of the instructors did enjoy developing the projects, the need to incorporate assessment tools into the projects was the least popular aspect of the program. Traditional assessments in these settings tended to measure recall of isolated facts and technical procedures, and often failed to track the development or application of more complex cognitive skills and professional behaviors, Yarnall explained. She and her colleagues proposed some new approaches, based on the theoretical framework known as evidence-centered design. 5 Their goal was to guide the faculty in designing tasks that would elicit the full range of knowledge and skills they wanted to measure, and they turned to what are called reflection frameworks that had been used in other contexts to elicit complex sets of skills (Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters, 1992).

They settled on an interview format, which they called Evidence-Centered Assessment Reflection, to begin to identify the specific skills required in each field, to identify the assessment features that could produce evidence of specific kinds of learning, and then to begin developing specific prompts, stimuli, performance descriptions, and scoring rubrics for the learning outcomes they wanted to measure. The next step was to determine how the assessments would be delivered and how they would be validated. Assessment developers call this process a domain analysis—its purpose was to draw from the instructors a conceptual map of what they were teaching and particularly how social and social-technical skills fit into those domains.

Based on these frameworks, the team developed assessments that asked students, for example, to write justifications for the tools and procedures they intended to use for a particular purpose; rate their teammates’ ability to listen, appreciate different points of view, or reach a consensus; or generate a list of questions they would ask a client to better understand his or her needs. They used what Yarnall described as “coarse, three-level rubrics” to make the scoring easy to implement with sometimes-reluctant faculty, and have generally averaged 79 percent or above in inter-rater agreement.

Yarnall closed with some suggestions for how their experience might be useful for a K-12 context. She noted the process encouraged thinking about how students might apply particular knowledge and skills, and

5 See Mislevy and Risconscente (2006) for an explanation of evidence-centered design.

how one might distinguish between high- and low-quality applications. Specifically, the developers were guided to consider what it would look like for a student to use the knowledge or skills successfully—what qualities would stand out and what sorts of products or knowledge would demonstrate a particular level of understanding or awareness.

Assessing Medical Students’ Interpersonal Skills 6

Filip Lievens described a project conducted at Ghent University in Belgium, in which he and colleagues developed a measure of interpersonal skills in a high-stakes context: medical school admissions. The project began with a request from the Belgian government, in 1997, for a measure of these skills that could be used not only to measure the current capacities of physicians, but also to predict the capacities of candidates and thus be useful for selection. Lievens noted the challenge was compounded by the fact the government was motivated by some negative publicity about the selection process for medical school.

One logical approach would have been to use personality testing, often conducted through in-person interviews, but that would have been very difficult to implement with the large numbers of candidates involved, Lievens explained. A paper on another selection procedure, called “low-fidelity simulation” (Motowidlo et al., 1990), suggested an alternative. This approach is also known as a situational judgment test, mentioned above, in which candidates select from a set of possible responses to a situation that is described in writing or presented using video. It is based on the proposition that procedural knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of possible courses of action can be measured, and that the results would be predictive of later behaviors, even if the instrument does not measure the complex facets that go into such choices. A sample item from the Belgian assessment, including a transcription of the scenario and the possible responses, is shown in Box 3-3 . In the early stages of the project, the team used videotaped scenarios, but more recently they have experimented with presenting them through other means, including in written format.

Lievens noted a few differences between medical education in Belgium and the United States that influenced decisions about the assessment. In Belgium, prospective doctors must pass an admissions exam at age 18 to be accepted for medical school, which begins at the level that for Americans is the less structured 4-year undergraduate program. The government-run exam is given twice a year to approximately 4,000 stu-

6 Lievens’ presentation is available at http://www7.national-academies.org/bota/21st_Century_Workshop_Lievens.pdf [August 2011].

BOX 3-3 Sample Item from the Situational Judgment Test Used for Admissions to Medical School in Belgium

Patient: So, this physiotherapy is really going to help me?

Physician: Absolutely, even though the first days it might still be painful.

Patient: Yes, I suppose it will take a while before it starts working.

Physician: That is why I am going to prescribe a painkiller. You should take three painkillers per day.

Patient: Do I really have to take them? I have already tried a few things. First, they didn’t help me. And second, I’m actually opposed to taking any medication. I’d rather not take them. They are not good for my health.

What is the best way for you (as a physician) to react to this patient’s refusal to take the prescribed medication?

a. Ask her if she knows something else to relieve the pain.

b. Give her the scientific evidence as to why painkillers will help.

c. Agree not to take them now but also stress the importance of the physiotherapy.

d. Tell her that, in her own interest, she will have to start changing her attitude.

SOURCE: Louise Yarnall’s presentation. Used with permission.

dents in total, and it has a 30 percent pass rate. Once accepted for medical school, students may choose the university at which they will study—the school must accept all of the students who select it.

The assessment’s other components include 40 items covering knowledge of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and biology and 50 items covering general cognitive ability (verbal, numerical, and figural reasoning). The two interpersonal skills addressed—in 30 items—are building and maintaining relationships and exchanging information.

Lievens described several challenges in the development of the interpersonal component. First, it was not possible to pilot test any items because of a policy that students could not be asked to complete items that did not count toward their scores. In response to both fast-growing numbers of candidates as well as technical glitches with video presentations, the developers decided to present all of the prompts in a paper-and-pencil format. A more serious problem was feedback they received ques-

tioning whether each of the test questions had only one correct answer. To address this, the developers introduced a system for determining correct answers through consensus among a group of experts.

Because of the high stakes for this test, they have also encountered problems with maintaining the security of the test items. For instance, Lievens reported that items have appeared for sale on eBay, and they have had problems with students who took the test multiple times simply to learn the content. Developing alternate test forms was one strategy for addressing this problem.

Lievens and his colleagues have conducted a study of the predictive validity of the test in which they collected data on four cohorts of students (a total of 4,538) who took the test and entered medical school (Lievens and Sackett, 2011). They examined GPA and internship performance data for 519 students in the initial group who completed the 7 years required for the full medical curriculum as well as job performance data for 104 students who later became physicians. As might be expected, Lievens observed, the cognitive component of the test was a strong predictor, particularly for the first years of the 7-year course, whereas the interpersonal portion was not useful for predicting GPA (see Figure 3-2 ). However, Figure 3-3 shows this component of the test was much better at predicting the students’ later performance in internships and in their first 9 years as practicing physicians.

FIGURE 3-2 Correlations between cognitive and interpersonal components (situational judgment test, or SJT) of the medical school admission test and medical school GPA.

SOURCE: Filip Lievens’ presentation. Used with permission.

FIGURE 3-3 Correlations between the cognitive and interpersonal components (situational judgment test, or SJT) of the medical school admission test and internship/job performance.

Lievens also reported the results of a study of the comparability of alternate forms of the test. The researchers compared results for three approaches to developing alternate forms. The approaches differed in the extent to which the characteristics of the situation presented in the items were held constant across the forms. The correlations between scores on the alternate forms ranged from .34 to .68, with the higher correlation occurring for the approach that maintained the most similarities in the characteristics of the items across the forms. The exact details of this study are too complex to present here, and the reader is referred to the full report (Lievens and Sackett, 2007) for a more complete description.

Lievens summarized a few points he has observed about the addition of the interpersonal skills component to the admissions test:

• While cognitive assessments are better at predicting GPA, the assessments of interpersonal skills were superior at predicting performance in internships and on the job. 7
• Applicants respond favorably to the interpersonal component of the test—Lievens did not claim this component is the reason but noted a sharp increase in the test-taking population.

7 Lievens mentioned but did not show data indicating (1) that the predictive validity of the interpersonal items for later performance was actually greater than the predictive validity of the cognitive items for GPA, and (2) that women perform slightly better than men on the interpersonal items.

• Success rates for admitted students have also improved. The percentage of students who successfully passed the requirements for the first academic year increased from 30 percent, prior to having the exam in place, to 80 percent after the exam was installed. While not making a causal claim, Lievens noted that the increased pass rate may be due to the fact that universities have also changed their curricula to place more emphasis on interpersonal skills, especially in the first year.

Assessment Centers 8

Lynn Gracin Collins began by explaining what an assessment center is. She noted the International Congress on Assessment Center Methods describes an assessment center as follows 9 :

a standardized evaluation of behavior based on multiple inputs. Several trained observers and techniques are used. Judgments about behavior are made, in major part, from specifically developed assessment simulations. These judgments are pooled in a meeting among the assessors or by a statistical integration process. In an integration discussion, comprehensive accounts of behavior—and often ratings of it—are pooled. The discussion results in evaluations of the assessees’ performance on the dimensions or other variables that the assessment center is designed to measure.

She emphasized that key aspects of an assessment center are that they are standardized, based on multiple types of input, involve trained observers, and use simulations. Assessment centers had their first industrial application in the United States about 50 years ago at AT&T. Collins said they are widely favored within the business community because, while they have guidelines to ensure they are carried out appropriately, they are also flexible enough to accommodate a variety of purposes. Assessment centers have the potential to provide a wealth of information about how someone performs a task. An important difference with other approaches is that the focus is not on “what would you do” or “what did you do”; instead, the approach involves watching someone actually perform the tasks. They are commonly used for the purpose of (1) selection and promotion, (2) identification of training and development needs, and (3) skill enhancement through simulations.

Collins said participants and management see them as a realistic job

8 Collins’ presentation is available at http://www7.national-academies.org/bota/21st_Century_Workshop_Collins.pdf [August 2011].

9 See http://www.assessmentcenters.org/articles/whatisassess1.asp [July 2011].

preview, and when used in a selection context, prospective employees actually experience what the job would entail. In that regard, Collins commented it is not uncommon for candidates—during the assessment—to “fold up their materials and say if this is what the job is, I don’t want it.” Thus, the tasks themselves can be instructive, useful for experiential learning, and an important selection device.

Some examples of the skills assessed include the following:

• Interpersonal : communication, influencing others, learning from interactions, leadership, teamwork, fostering relationships, conflict management
• Cognitive : problem solving, decision making, innovation, creativity, planning and organizing
• Intrapersonal : adaptability, drive, tolerance for stress, motivation, conscientiousness

To provide a sense of the steps involved in developing assessment center tasks, Collins laid out the general plan for a recent assessment they developed called the Technology Enhanced Assessment Center (TEAC). The steps are shown in Box 3-4 .

BOX 3-4 Steps involved in Developing the Technology Enhanced Assessment Center

SOURCE: Adapted from presentation by Lynn Gracin Collins. Used with permission.

Assessment centers make use of a variety of types of tasks to simulate the actual work environment. One that Collins described is called an “inbox exercise,” which consists of a virtual desktop showing received e-mail messages (some of which are marked “high priority”), voice messages, and a calendar that includes some appointments for that day. The candidate is observed and tracked as he or she proceeds to deal with the tasks presented through the inbox. The scheduled appointments on the calendar are used for conducting role-playing tasks in which the candidate has to participate in a simulated work interaction. This may involve a phone call, and the assessor/observer plays the role of the person being called. With the scheduled role-plays, the candidate may receive some information about the nature of the appointment in advance so that he or she can prepare for the appointment. There are typically some unscheduled role-playing tasks as well, in order to observe the candidate’s on-the-spot performance. In some instances, the candidate may also be expected to make a presentation. Assessors observe every activity the candidate performs.

Everything the candidate does at the virtual desktop is visible to the assessor(s) in real time, although in a “behind the scenes” manner that is blind to the candidate. The assessor can follow everything the candidate does, including what they do with every message in the inbox, any responses they make, and any entries they make on the calendar.

Following the inbox exercise, all of the observers/assessors complete evaluation forms. The forms are shared, and the ratings are discussed during a debriefing session at which the assessors come to consensus about the candidate. Time is also reserved to provide feedback to the candidate and to identify areas of strengths and weaknesses.

Collins reported that a good deal of information has been collected about the psychometric qualities of assessment centers. She characterized their reliabilities as adequate, with test-retest reliability coefficients in the .70 range. She said a wide range of inter-rater reliabilities have been reported, generally ranging from .50 to .94. The higher inter-rater reliabilities are associated with assessments in which the assessors/raters are well trained and have access to training materials that clearly explain the exercises, the constructs, and the scoring guidelines. Providing behavioral summary scales, which describe the actual behaviors associated with each score level, also help the assessors more accurately interpret the scoring guide.

She also noted considerable information is available about the validity of assessment centers. The most popular validation strategy is to examine evidence of content validity, which means the exercises actually measure the skills and competencies that they are intended to measure. A few studies have examined evidence of criterion-related validity, looking at the relationship between performance on the assessment center exer-

cises and job performance. She reported validities of .41 to .48 for a recent study conducted by her firm (SH&A/Fenestra, 2007) and .43 for a study by Byham (2010). Her review of the research indicates that assessment center results show incremental validity over personality tests, cognitive tests, and interviews.

One advantage of assessment center methods is they appear not to have adverse impact on minority groups. Collins said research documents that they tend to be unbiased in predictions of job performance. Further, they are viewed by participants as being fairer than other forms of assessment, and they have received positive support from the courts and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).

Assessment centers can be expensive and time intensive, which is one of the challenges associated with using them. An assessment center in a traditional paradigm (as opposed to a high-tech paradigm) can cost between $2,500 and $10,000 per person. The features that affect cost are the number of assessors, the number of exercises, the length of the assessment, the type of report, and the type of feedback process. They can be logistically difficult to coordinate, depending on whether they use a traditional paradigm in which people need to be brought to a single location as opposed to a technology paradigm where much can be handled remotely and virtually. The typical assessment at a center lasts a full day, which means they are resource intensive and can be difficult to scale up to accommodate a large number of test takers.

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The routine jobs of yesterday are being replaced by technology and/or shipped off-shore. In their place, job categories that require knowledge management, abstract reasoning, and personal services seem to be growing. The modern workplace requires workers to have broad cognitive and affective skills. Often referred to as "21st century skills," these skills include being able to solve complex problems, to think critically about tasks, to effectively communicate with people from a variety of different cultures and using a variety of different techniques, to work in collaboration with others, to adapt to rapidly changing environments and conditions for performing tasks, to effectively manage one's work, and to acquire new skills and information on one's own.

The National Research Council (NRC) has convened two prior workshops on the topic of 21st century skills. The first, held in 2007, was designed to examine research on the skills required for the 21st century workplace and the extent to which they are meaningfully different from earlier eras and require corresponding changes in educational experiences. The second workshop, held in 2009, was designed to explore demand for these types of skills, consider intersections between science education reform goals and 21st century skills, examine models of high-quality science instruction that may develop the skills, and consider science teacher readiness for 21st century skills. The third workshop was intended to delve more deeply into the topic of assessment. The goal for this workshop was to capitalize on the prior efforts and explore strategies for assessing the five skills identified earlier. The Committee on the Assessment of 21st Century Skills was asked to organize a workshop that reviewed the assessments and related research for each of the five skills identified at the previous workshops, with special attention to recent developments in technology-enabled assessment of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. In designing the workshop, the committee collapsed the five skills into three broad clusters as shown below:

• Cognitive skills: nonroutine problem solving, critical thinking, systems thinking
• Interpersonal skills: complex communication, social skills, team-work, cultural sensitivity, dealing with diversity
• Intrapersonal skills: self-management, time management, self-development, self-regulation, adaptability, executive functioning

Assessing 21st Century Skills provides an integrated summary of the presentations and discussions from both parts of the third workshop.

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• PMC7903201.1 ; 2021 Jan 28
• ➤ PMC7903201.2; 2021 Mar 11

Interpersonal and communication skills development in nursing preceptorship education and training programmes: a scoping review protocol

Philip hardie.

1 UCD School of Nursing, Midwifery and Health Systems, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

Andrew Darley

2 UCD School of Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

Catherine Redmond

Attracta lafferty, suzi jarvis.

3 UCD Innovation Academy, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

Associated Data

No data are associated with this article.

Version Changes

Revised. amendments from version 1.

Many thanks to our reviewers for their suggested comments and suggestions. The article has been updated accordingly to reflect some of this feedback. Version 2 of this scoping review protocol includes minor additions including a broader definition of preceptorship and change in the narrative describing the interpersonal relationship between the preceptor and student nurse. The data extraction template has been modified to include additional items as suggested by the reviewers.

Peer Review Summary

The preceptorship model is an education-focused model for teaching and learning within a clinical environment in nursing. It formulates a professional educational relationship between a staff nurse (preceptor) and student nurse and is based on the provision of providing patient care. Preceptorship is widely acknowledged in the literature as a positive pedagogical approach in clinical nursing education in terms of knowledge and skill acquisition, confidence, and professional socialisation of undergraduate nursing students. However, the literature also widely reports negative interpersonal experiences within this professional educational relationship resulting in negative educational experiences and in some cases, negative patient experiences. Therefore, the authors set out to examine what teaching strategies are being implemented by nurse educators to encourage the development of interpersonal and communication skills in facilitating positive interpersonal relationships between the preceptor, nursing student and patient. This paper outlines the protocol for an exploratory scoping review that aims to systematically and comprehensively map out the available published and unpublished literature on the teaching strategies to develop interpersonal and communication skills in preceptorship education and training programmes. To conduct a systematic and comprehensive scoping review, the review will be guided by the Joanna Briggs Institute and Arksey & O’ Malley (2005) six-stage iterative framework, as well as PRISMA-ScR framework guidelines, to ensure the quality of the methodological and reporting approaches to the review. It is anticipated that the results of the scoping review will inform nurse educators on the current educational practices for developing interpersonal and communication skills in preceptorship education and training programmes and identify any educational practices that are worthy of further consideration for future research.

Introduction

The preceptorship model is a teaching and learning strategy frequently employed internationally to educate undergraduate and graduate nursing students in the clinical environment. Some debate exists regarding the definition and function of preceptorship, for example Billay & Myrick’s (2008, pg. 259) defines preceptorship as:

“ an approach to the teaching and learning process within the context of the practice setting which allows students to develop self-confidence while increasing their competence as they become socialised into the profession of nursing ”.

Carlson (2013, pg.457) further defines preceptorship “ as a trusting relationship between preceptor and student.... where the preceptor strives to create a safe and meaningful interactive relationship with the student...... thus supporting the student’s ability to implement generalized theoretical knowledge into patient-centered problems ”. Another key function of a preceptorship not captured in the previous definitions is the preceptor’s role in the assessment of students’ competencies. Vae et al. , (2018, pg.13) states “ the students' learning process is dependent on high-quality assessment processes and feedback from preceptors permitting students to critically reflect on their practice and learn for that experience ”.

Acknowledging that up to 50% of undergraduate nursing curriculums take place in the clinical environment, the preceptorship model plays a pivotal role in the education of student nurses ( McSharry & Lathlean, 2017 ; NMBI, 2016a ; NMC, 2018 ). The preceptorship relationship is a purposeful short-term professional partnership in the practice setting between the preceptor (staff nurse) and a nursing student (preceptee) and is based on the provision of providing patient care. Hence, within the preceptorship model, there are three members: the preceptor, the student nurse, and the patient, forming a triadic professional relationship. This relationship provides opportunities for nursing students’ socialisation into nursing practice and helps to integrate theory into practice, under the guidance of the preceptor ( McSharry & Lathlean, 2017 ; Muir et al ., 2013 ; Ward & McComb, 2017 ). The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Ireland ( NMBI, 2016b ) states that effective interpersonal relationships are not only essential for the foundation of effective patient care but also a successful teaching and learning environment. Therefore, the quality and support within this relationship contribute significantly to nursing student’s socialisation into the nursing profession and their learning ( Ward & McComb, 2017 ) whilst also ensuring quality patient care and their satisfaction in their nursing care ( Suikkala et al ., 2020a ). Thus, the formation of a therapeutic interpersonal relationship between the preceptor/nursing student and patient is essential.

Kornhaber et al . (2016 pg. 537) define a therapeutic interpersonal relationship between the nurse and patient as:

“ a relationship which is perceived by patients to encompass caring, and supportive non-judgmental behaviour, embedded in a safe environment during an often-stressful period ”.

Typically, a positive therapeutic relationship portrays characteristics of good interpersonal competence with meaningful dialogue that displays warmth, friendliness, genuine interest, respect, and empathy, while at the same time responding to patients’ emotions and having a desire to provide support and care ( Dinç & Gastmans, 2013 ; Kornhaber et al ., 2016 ; Prip et al ., 2018 ). It is therefore essential that preceptors are proficient in these skills, which will enable them to provide patient-centered care, while also utilising teaching techniques such as role modelling, coaching and contextual questioning to facilitate the student’s learning ( McSharry, 2013 ). For this reason, there needs to be a strong educational and trustful professional relationship between the preceptor and student nurse, so that positive therapeutic interpersonal relationships can then be developed with patients. In light of the increasing complexity of healthcare delivery, the importance of effective interpersonal relationships between the preceptor, nursing students and patients has grown exponentially. The literature emphasises the benefits of effective interpersonal and communication skills but also highlights the consequences of negative interpersonal interactions. Effective interpersonal relations have been shown to play a pivotal role in building trusting relationships and creating a caring and welcoming environment in nursing ( Arnold & Boggs, 2020 ). This thereby improves communication between the preceptor, nursing student and patient, leading to person-centred care, patient satisfaction, patient empowerment and decreases adverse events among patients ( Suikkala et al ., 2020a ; Suikkala et al ., 2020b ). Effective interpersonal relations also facilitate the development of knowledge, skills acquisition, and theory-practice integrations for nursing students ( Irwin et al ., 2018 ; Ke et al ., 2017 ; Omer & Moola, 2019 ; Ward & McComb, 2017 ; Washington, 2013 ).

However, the literature to date also widely documents negative interpersonal relationships within this professional educational relationship and the clinical environment. Reports from both preceptors and nursing students exist regarding workplace incivilities such as rudeness, humiliation, anger, generational clashes, and inappropriate criticism from experienced preceptors ( Dyess & Sherman, 2009 ; Gardiner & Sheen 2016 ; Omer & Moola, 2019 ). These challenging experiences consequently result in a negative learning experience for the student and, in some cases, interpersonal conflict occurs due to a breakdown in the preceptorship relationship ( Hugo & Botma, 2019 ; McCloughen & Foster, 2018 ). Furthermore, it has been reported that displaying poor interpersonal skills, where there is a lack of emotional intelligence demonstrated by preceptors and student nurses, can result in negative feelings amongst patients, leading to a lack of trust and a possible breakdown in the relationship ( Holst et al ., 2017 ; Mukumbang & Adejumo, 2014 ). As educators, this is concerning to the authors, as fragmented relationships can have not only a negative impact on the student nurses’ learning experience but also on patient care ( Cho et al ., 2017 ; Suikkala et al ., 2018 ; Suikkala & Leino-Kilip, 2005 ).

As with any human skill, interpersonal and communication skills, also referred to as “soft skills” can be improved through conscious effort ( Moss, 2020 ). McConnell (2004, pg. 178) describes soft skills as “ those essential skills involved in dealing with and relating to other people, largely on a one-to-one basis ”. These include the ability to engage with others at a personal and professional level, and display levels of empathy towards the situation that others may be experiencing ( Grant & Goodman, 2019 ). This process stimulates feelings of support, comfort, and recognition in individuals ( Wright, 2007 ). Enhancement of interpersonal skills concerns several key components, including the individuals’ emotional intelligence, learning to recognise the uniqueness of everyone, empathising with the individual, learning to listen, effective communication, empowering others and building trust ( Grant & Goodman, 2019 ).

Teaching effective interpersonal and communication skills requires providing the relevant knowledge, as well as guiding and coaching learning to develop and enhance these skills. It takes time and experience to build effective interpersonal and communication skills, beginning with foundational skills, for example, knowing when to use open-ended and closed-ended questions. More advanced listening skills paired with sensitivity and empathy generate highly effective interpersonal relationships ( Pavord & Donnelly, 2015 ). Investing in developing preceptors’ interpersonal and communication skills is essential in maintaining good interpersonal relationships, an effective teaching environment and exemplary patient care. Preceptors not only have the responsibility of role modelling effective soft skills but also evaluating student nurses’ competencies in these skills as part of their clinical assessment document ( NMBI, 2016a ). Therefore, the inclusion of such skills is paramount in preceptorship education and training programmes. Preceptors bring their own distinctive set of communication skills, cultural influences, learning styles and life experiences that directly affect their ability to engage in effective interpersonal relationships ( Gardiner & Sheen, 2016 ). Nurse educators must build on preceptors’ strengths and experiences to enhance their interpersonal skills. A preceptor short of adequate interpersonal and communication skills may be able to facilitate positive interpersonal relationships with the nursing students and patients ( Martínez-Linares et al ., 2019 ). Interpersonal and communication skills are practical skills. Therefore, nursing educators need to adapt teaching strategies that involve activities which allow opportunities for active participation to develop such skills, e.g., experiential learning opportunities ( Reid-Searl et al ., 2017 ). Pedagogical approaches observed in the literature include simulation practices such as the use of puppets ( Reid-Searl et al ., 2017 ), standardised patients ( Lin et al ., 2013 ; Maclean et al ., 2017 ), real patients ( Perry et al ., 2013 ) and roleplay ( Jackson & Back, 2011 ; Pearson & McLafferty, 2011 ). Other methods observed included clinical placement ( Purdie et al ., 2008 ), group discussions ( Waugh et al ., 2014 ), online discussion ( Deering & Eichelberger, 2002 ), and audiotapes ( Sloan, 2003 ).

The existing evidence outlined provides an overview of the importance of interpersonal and communication skills, particularly in the context of a nursing preceptorship relationship. This literature highlights the need for active development of these skills in preceptorship education and training programmes. However, an initial inspection of the literature demonstrates that the focus of interpersonal and communication skills development centres around nurse-patient relationships and is predominantly completed as part of an undergraduate nursing programme. Given the importance of effective interpersonal and communication skills for preceptors in not only facilitating and guiding such skills among nursing students and the patients, the authors feel it is therefore worthwhile to systematically examine the literature to identify what teaching strategies are being implemented to develop interpersonal and communications skills among trainee preceptors (qualified nurses). It is also important to determine if trainee preceptors are being afforded the opportunity to specifically develop interpersonal and communication skills required to facilitate and guide the triadic preceptorship relationship between the nurse, student nurse and patient.

A scoping review protocol will outline the approach that will be adopted to determine the available literature on the pedagogical approaches to developing interpersonal and communication skills among nursing preceptors as part of their preceptorship education and training programme.

An exploratory scoping review approach will be employed to establish the nature and extent of knowledge relating to pedagogical approaches in preceptorship education and training programmes for the development of interpersonal and communications skills among trainee preceptors. Scoping reviews are used to map the concepts underpinning a research area and the primary sources and types of evidence available ( Arksey & O’Malley, 2005 ). Scoping reviews present a broad overview of the evidence concerning a topic and are beneficial when investigating areas that are emerging to clarify key concepts, definitions and identify gaps ( Lockwood et al ., 2019 ; Page & Moher, 2017 ). Scoping reviews are also implemented to examine the breadth of the literature, as well as the conduct of research on a specific topic to inform the design of future research studies ( Lockwood et al ., 2019 ).

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are currently no scoping reviews examining the educational practices of nurse educators in developing interpersonal and communication skills among trainee preceptors. Therefore, the findings of this exploratory review will contribute to existing literature regarding current pedagogy for interpersonal and communications skills development in preceptorship education and training programmes. The findings of this review may benefit the wider society, considering that interpersonal relationships of a preceptorship not only play an essential role in providing effective patient care, but also in facilitating nursing education in the clinical environment. It will also contribute a theoretical and empirical basis for the future development of pedagogical approaches that aim to enhance interpersonal and communication skills in preceptorship education and training programmes. The scoping review protocol introduced by Arksey & O’Malley (2005) that encompasses a six-stage iterative framework, as well as Peters et al . (2020) updated approach to conducting scoping reviews, will guide this review protocol and subsequent scoping review.

Aim and objectives

The overall aim of the scoping review is to identify, explore and map the literature regarding the development of interpersonal and communication skills for preceptors as part of their preceptorship education and training programme.

This will be achieved by addressing the following objectives:

• 1. Determine the extent and nature of existing literature on the development of interpersonal and communication skills in preceptorship education and training programmes, so that the literature can be examined and mapped out, to identify any gaps.
• 2. Examine current educational practices for the development of interpersonal and communication skills in preceptorship education and training programmes, to identify any educational practices that are worthy of further consideration for future research.

Stage 1: Identification of the scoping review research question

Peters et al . (2020) state that a clear scoping review question should incorporate elements of the PCC mnemonic (population, concept, and context). In this instance, qualified nursing staff (trainee preceptors/preceptors) are the relevant population, the concept is educational practices for interpersonal and communication skills development for supporting newly qualified nurses taking part in preceptorship programmes as well as undergraduate nursing students, and the context is preceptorship education and training programmes in acute/residential clinical settings. The research question that will therefore guide this scoping review is:

“ What is known about the development of interpersonal and communication skills amongst trainee nursing preceptors in preceptorship education and training programmes? ”

Stage 2: Identifying relevant studies

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analysis extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) Checklist framework guidelines introduced by Tricco et al . (2018) will also guide the systematic scoping review. These guidelines are recommended to enhance transparency and quality of the completed scoping review ( McGowan et al ., 2020 ), and will help the researchers and the readers develop a greater understanding of the evidence. The research team will undertake a comprehensive search of the literature within the following databases:

• CINAHL Nursing and Allied Health (CINAHL Plus)
• SCOPUS (Elsevier Publications)
• Academic Search Complete (EBSCOhost)
• APA PsycINFO (American Psychological Association)
• Education (ERIC)

Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) three-step process for applying a search strategy will be implemented ( Peters et al ., 2020 ). Firstly, an initial search was deployed on CINAHL Plus, the identification of search terms was conceptually based on an oriented search to identify key text words used to address the major concepts which include population (preceptors), concept (interpersonal and communication skills development), and context (nursing preceptorship education and training programme). Synonyms for each of the concepts will also be included. Each search strategy will be adapted to the functionality of each database using specific Boolean operators, truncation markers, and MeSH headings where necessary to broaden the search and capture all literature that may use such terms. McGowan et al . (2020) state the input of a research librarian is invaluable when carrying out a scoping review; the authors worked with an expert university librarian (D.S.) in designing and refining the search strategy. Table 1 outlines the keywords for each search string.

As per the second stage of the JBI search strategy protocol, the same keywords from Table 1 will be searched in the remaining aforementioned databases. During this stage, the research team will review and ‘hand search’ the reference list to identify any additional relevant studies. Given that this is an exploratory scoping review, the authors are interested in identifying all literature including RCTs, exploratory studies and discussion papers. Therefore a “web search” of the grey literature will also be conducted using “OpenGrey” and “Google Scholar”. Specific educational policy publications by regulatory and professional bodies for preceptorship education and training programmes will also be searched to examine the focus of interpersonal and communication skills required for a preceptorship role. Table 2 outlines the search terms for grey literature and regulatory and professional bodies for preceptorship education and training programmes.

Stage 3: Study selection

Each search conducted will be systematically documented (date, search terms, results per string) and saved by two independent authors (PH, AD), with the findings of the searches compared and then imported into Mendeley (1.19.6 / 2020), a bibliographic reference manager, where any duplicates of literature will be removed before the initial screening of title and extract is divided out and screened by all of the authors. Covidence screening and data extraction software tool ( www.covidence.org ) will be utilised by the authors for screening. Each article will be required to be approved by two independent screeners before either being included or excluded in the review. A pilot testing of articles (n=50) using Covidence software package and inclusion and exclusion criteria will be undertaken by the authors to ensure consistency of the methodology adopted in the selection process ( Peters et al ., 2020 ). Full text screening will then be carried out on all articles that meet the inclusion criteria during the initial screening round by two independent authors (PH, CR). For any articles in which a disagreement may arise a third independent author (AL) known as the “tie-breaker” will further review the article against the inclusion criteria to settle the difference of opinion. The number of articles identified, screened, assessed for eligibility, and included in the review will be captured using the Covidence software package. A PRISMA flow diagram will be created to ensure transparency of reporting, decisions for the exclusion of studies permitting replication and comparison of any further studies.

The inclusion and exclusion criteria, highlighted in Table 3 , will be developed through an iterative process based on the PCC elements of the review question, plus a specification of the types of studies that have addressed the scoping review question and discussions amongst the authors ( McKenzie et al ., 2020 ). The primary author will record any changes. All authors will utilise and adhere to its criteria during the screening process to ensure consistency.

Stage 4: Data charting

In this stage, a data extraction form will be created by the lead author (PH) ( Table 4 ) based on JBI (2020) data charting form, mapping it with the objectives and research question of the scoping review ( Peters et al ., 2020 ) and piloted on two articles by all authors. Any changes to the chart will be documented and reported in the final scoping review for transparency in the reporting.

Stage 5: Collating, summarising and reporting the results

Each data charting form will be logged electronically using Microsoft Excel to capture relevant information for each study and will be available for all members of the research team via a shared drive. All authors will discuss the data before a descriptive analysis commences. As recommended by Peters et al . (2020) , the analysis of data extracted should not involve any more than descriptive analysis to achieve the desired outcomes of a scoping review. Therefore, a narrative report will be produced, using a deductive thematic analysis approach summarising the extracted data concerning the objectives and scoping review question, for example, the pedagogy adopted for interpersonal and communication skills development and the impact of such training on trainee preceptors. Identification of areas in which a gap in the literature exists will also be reported. Quality appraisal of studies will not be conducted, as this review aims to explore the general scope of research conducted in the field of interpersonal and communication skills development in preceptorship education and training programmes and identify current pedagogical practices implemented to contribute a theoretical and empirical basis for the future development of preceptorship education and training programmes.

Stage 6: Consultation and dissemination

Initial findings from the scoping review will be presented to several stakeholders. The primary author (PH) will disseminate the results of the review with local academic networks within the authors’ place of work (third level institution) and associated clinical settings. The author will specifically report the findings to Clinical Placement Coordinators (CPC), who typically develop and facilitate preceptorship education and training days in the clinical settings in Ireland. The primary author will also share the results at the Clinical Skills Network of Ireland in which he is a stakeholder to reach a national targeted audience. The authors will engage with these groups to share and discuss our findings and interpretations to capture their perspective on the evidence identified. The primary author also aims to deliver an oral or poster presentation at National and International conferences such as the International Nursing & Midwifery Research and Education Conference, scheduled for March 2022. Finally, the authors aim to publish the scoping review findings in a peer-reviewed journal for a wider communication of the results. All data generated and analysed during the scoping review will be included in the published scoping review article; including search results, list of included studies, data extraction spreadsheets and final results, to ensure transparency and reproducibility of the review.

Study status

This study is at Stage 2 – a preliminary search of the literature has been conducted and the software packages Mendeley and Covidence have been trialled.

Conclusions

This scoping review protocol has been designed in line with the latest literature and evidence ( Arksey & O’Malley’s, 2005 ; Peters et al ., 2020 ; Tricco et al ., 2018 ) to create and perform a systematic scoping review. The distinguishing features of a scoping review will permit the authors to answer the specified research question, applying a systematic and evidence-based approach to identify the current knowledge on educational practices for the development of interpersonal and communication skills as part of preceptorship education and training programmes. It will also enable the authors to identify gaps in our knowledge base in this field which could justify new research and also inform the design, conduct and reporting of future research.

While this scoping review will not formally evaluate the quality of evidence available, it will provide a comprehensive overview of the available literature that will inform the researcher on current educational practices for the development of interpersonal and communication skills as part of preceptorship education and training programmes. This knowledge may identify the gaps in training that are contributing to interpersonal conflicts in preceptorship relationships that are widely reported throughout the literature. Only articles in English will be utilised; however, there will be no restrictions on the country of origin where the publications were produced, which should therefore provide a diverse range of opinions, experiences and cultural contexts. Following the open peer-review process and achieved approval, the authors will commence the systematic scoping review.

Data availability

Acknowledgements.

Diarmuid Stokes, UCD Librarian

[version 2; peer review: 3 approved]

Funding Statement

The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.

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Reviewer response for version 1

Karen poole.

1 Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University Of Surrey, Guildford, UK

Thank you for inviting me to review this protocol. The authors make a compelling case for conducting a scoping review on the pedagogic practices used to develop communication and interpersonal skills in nurse preceptors. This protocol draws upon the most recent guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews, with a clear and well written account of the planned search strategies, data extraction and dissemination plans. 

In terms of "context" scope, it may be helpful to clarify if you are including the educational preparation of preceptors for supporting Newly Qualified Nurses taking part in preceptorship programmes as well as undergraduate nursing programmes.

I agree with Elisabeth Carlson (first reviewer) regarding the difficulty of applying the concept of the therapeutic relationship to the preceptor and nursing student. There are characteristics that are relevant, but I am not sure whether it is a faithful representation of this concept. You may wish to consider a minor revision to this paragraph? Preceptors have a critical role in shaping students' clinical experiences, but are also responsible for assessing their developmental progress both formatively and summatively (often in a placement of short duration). As such, there is a complex relationship between preceptors and nursing students and the use of effective communication and interpersonal skills (in both parties) is essential in negotiating learning opportunities and navigating safe honest formative feedback/feed-forward that enables students to optimise learning in practice placements through their programmes.

Here are a couple of minor suggestions for inclusion in your plans for data extraction:

• capture of "nursing field" (learning disability, mental health, child, adult).
• capture of whether the educational strategies include both preceptors and students or preceptors alone.

This scoping review has the potential to make an important contribution in shaping how preceptors are prepared and support the future nursing workforce.

Is the study design appropriate for the research question?

Is the rationale for, and objectives of, the study clearly described?

Are sufficient details of the methods provided to allow replication by others?

Are the datasets clearly presented in a useable and accessible format?

Not applicable

Reviewer Expertise:

Education of Healthcare Professionals, Integrated Programmatic Assessment, Self-regulated Learning, Teaching Evidence-based Practice, Cancer Care.

I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard.

The authors would like to thank you for your comments on our scoping review protocol and for your suggestions.

We have responded to your comments below:

• A broader definition of preceptorship will be provided which will be more aligned to the diverse range of roles and responsibilities associated with a nursing preceptorship.
• We acknowledge the therapeutic relationship better describes the relationship between the nurse and patient and have amended the text accordingly.
• The “context” of the scope has been updated to include the educational preparation of preceptors for supporting Newly Qualified Nurses taking part in preceptorship programmes as well as undergraduate nursing programmes

Edel McSharry

1 Department of Nursing, Health Science and Disability Studies, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland

2 St. Angela's College Lough Gill Sligo, Lough Gill, Ireland

The preceptor holds a dual role of practitioner and teacher. The preceptor must utilise complex teaching strategies to the foster the student’s ability to practise nursing competently and compassionately. One of the core competencies inherent in all nursing programmes is the student's ability to communicate effectively and develop positive professional interpersonal relationship with both patients and other health care professionals. It is essential that the preceptor trainee is proficient in these skills in order to be able to provide patient centered care and utilise the teaching techniques of role modelling, coaching and contextual questioning to facilitate the student’s learning. Students often find these skills a challenge to learn and preceptors often undervalue their own professional interpersonal communication skills ( Mallik et al 2009 1 , Mc Sharry 2013 2 ).

Preceptorship preparation varies in length and content and some studies have reported that preceptors do not feel adequately prepared for their teaching and assessment role. This scoping review focusing on interpersonal and communication skill development of preceptor trainees will contribute to existing literature that can inform the development of preparation programmes both nationally and internationally. It has the potential to contribute to pedological approaches that enhance both preceptor trainee skills and student’s interpersonal and communication skills. Any enhancement in these skills are can only positively contribute to the provision of quality person- centered care. The protocol is clearly written with well-defined aim and objectives, inclusion and exclusion criteria and appropriate search terms. It aligns wells to recent writings on methodological guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews.

I have 3 suggestions that the authors may find useful in refining this protocol:

• Page 3 The definition of preceptorship offered is valuable and constitutes many of the attributes of the preceptorship model. Carlson (2013) definition develops on this definition and may be more appropriate. The preceptorship model in the Irish context further involves an assessment role which is not specified or encapsulated within these definitions as they are presented.
• Page 3 I would not entirely agree the preceptor- preceptee relationship is a therapeutic interpersonal relationship. This type of relationship is associated with a long term mentor- student relationship. The preceptor has to ensure the student gains the competencies required to pass the placement and therefore its focus is educational. The paper already sets out that the preceptor relationship is purposeful and short-term therefore I would suggest preceptorship involves a reciprocal student -preceptor relationship based on equality and mutual respect where the student’s confidence is fostered( Mc Sharry & Lathlean 2017 3 ).
•  Page 3 and Page 4 there is a sentence that is repeated at the beginning of the paragraph at the bottom of page 3 and at the beginning of the paragraph on page 4. This repetition is not required and just requires some editing.

clinical education, digital learning, internationalisation

Elisabeth Carlson

1 Department of Care Science, Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden

The training and preparation of preceptors vary over the world. Some programs or rather initiatives are merely a couple of days or even hours long while others are full academic credit bearing courses at universities. This implies that studies on preceptor preparation is a subject always worthy of investigation. The protocol is well written, easy to follow and uses current methodological references. I applaud the authors that despite their educational context being Ireland, the protocol is written in such a way that it is easily transferable to an international context. I have three minor  comments or rather thoughts that might be useful.  

Keywords: Alphabetical order

Page 3 Definition (the quote): While this is very true and a frequently used definition, I would also recommend the more elaborated definition to be found in CARLSON E. (2013) Precepting and symbolic interactionism – a theoretical look

at preceptorship during clinical practice. Journal of Advanced Nursing 69(2), 457– 464. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06047.x 1

Page 3: I am not quite sure if I agree that there is a therapeutic relationship between preceptor an nursing student. I would say there should be a strong educational and trustful professional relationship which in turn enables therapeutic interpersonal relationships with patients.

Higher Health Care Education, Learning theories, Preceptorship, Clinical Training, Methodology, Interprofessional Collaboration and learning, Educational models.

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15 Examples of Interpersonal Skills That Will Help You Grow

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To be successful in life, you need more than just good education and experience. You also need interpersonal skills. This term can be defined in many ways, but at its core, it simply means the ability to communicate and interact with others effectively.

This blog post will discuss what is meant by interpersonal, why are interpersonal skills important, and demonstrate interpersonal skills examples that will help you succeed in life!

What is meant by interpersonal?

When we talk about interpersonal, we refer to the relationships and communication between people. This can include both verbal and non-verbal communication and the different ways in which people interact with each other.

Interpersonal relationships can be either positive or negative, depending on the level of communication and connection between the individuals involved. Positive interpersonal relationships are those in which there is a high level of communication and mutual respect. In contrast, negative interpersonal relationships are characterized by little to no communication and a lack of mutual respect.

It is an essential component of successful relationships, whether professional, platonic, or romantic. Good communication helps individuals to understand each other better and build strong bonds. Without effective communication, it can be challenging to maintain healthy relationships.

What are interpersonal skills and their importance?

Interpersonal skills, also known as people skills, soft skills, or emotional intelligence, are our abilities to interact with others. We use them every day, at work and in our personal lives.

Some people are naturally good at interpersonal mastery, but everyone can improve interpersonal skills with practice. Enhancing interpersonal skills can help us resolve conflicts, express appreciation, and listen effectively. The importance of interpersonal communication skills is in every aspect of our lives. Good interpersonal skills can help us succeed at work, make friends, and build strong relationships.

When we interact with others, we use a variety of interpersonal skills. Of course, each situation is different, and we might use different skills in different situations. But some interpersonal skills are fundamental in many cases. We listed some of the essential skills below.

What are the types of interpersonal skills?

There are four main types of interpersonal skills: verbal, listening, written, and non-verbal communication . Each one is important, and they all play a role in our everyday interactions with others.

• Verbal communication is the most common form of communication, and it includes both speaking and writing. We use verbal communication skills every day to communicate our thoughts and feelings to others. It is essential to be clear and concise when communicating verbally so that the person you are speaking to can understand you.
• Listening is another crucial form of interpersonal communication. We need to be able to listen carefully to what others are saying to understand them. Of course, there are times when we may disagree with what someone is saying, but it is important to respect their opinion and give them a chance to explain themselves.
• Written communication is another way to share our thoughts and feelings with others. This can include emails, text messages, letters, or even notes. It is crucial to be clear and concise when writing so that the person reading your message can understand you.
• Non-verbal communication is the final type of interpersonal communication. It is a powerful way to express ourselves and our feelings. It can build rapport, trust, and rapport, create an impression, and communicate messages without using words. Nonverbal communication includes social cues, kinesics , distance, physical environments/appearance, voice, and touch.

Related: Communication

Examples of Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills are the most critical skill to have in your repertoire. They’re cross-industry, transferable, and will keep you working efficiently with a positive environment for everyone involved!

There are many different types of interpersonal skills. Some examples interpersonal skills include:

1. Leadership

Leadership is an important interpersonal skill for many reasons. First, leadership involves the ability to influence others. This is especially important in work settings, where persuading and motivating others can be crucial to task completion and productivity.

Additionally, leadership skills often include excellent communication. Good leaders can clearly articulate their vision and goals and then rally others around these objectives. Lastly, leadership also entails the ability to build relationships. Strong leaders are typically skilled at networking and developing positive working relationships with others. These interpersonal skills are essential in any leadership role .

Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person. It is a vital interpersonal skill that can help us build strong relationships, resolve conflicts, and show compassion.

While empathy is often a positive emotion, it is essential to remember that it can also be a double-edged sword. Too much empathy can lead to burnout, compassion fatigue, and depression. Therefore, it is vital to find a balance to use this skill effectively.

When used effectively, empathy can be a powerful tool for building solid relationships. If you find yourself struggling to empathize with others, you can do a few things to improve your skills. Practice active listening, pay attention to nonverbal cues and try to put yourself in another person’s shoes. With a bit of practice, you can learn to use empathy.

3. Active listening

Active listening is another one of the most important interpersonal skills that involve paying attention to what the other person is saying, taking time to process and understand the information being communicated, and responding to clarify that the message has been received and understood. It can be used in personal and professional relationships to improve communication and build mutual understanding.

When active listening, it is essential to be aware of the verbal and nonverbal cues that the other person is giving off. The tone of voice, body language, and facial expressions can all provide valuable information about what the other person is thinking and feeling. Paying attention to these cues will help to ensure that you accurately understand the message being communicated.

It is also important to resist the urge to interrupt or interject while the other person is speaking. This can be difficult, especially if you feel passionate about the discussion topic. However, interrupting disrupts the flow of communication and sends the message that you are not interested in hearing what the other person has to say.

If you find yourself getting impatient or needing to jump in, try taking a few deep breaths and remind yourself that Active listening is a skill that takes practice. The more you can focus on truly understanding what the other person is saying, the your listening skills will be more effective.

4. Teamwork

Teamwork necessitates many interpersonal abilities, such as communication, attentive listening, adaptability, and duty. Working well with others to accomplish a common goal is essential in today’s workplace. Good teamwork requires communication, cooperation, and a willingness to put the team’s success above your interests.

Without teamwork, many businesses would simply not be able to function effectively. Teamwork is often the key to successful projects and can be a major donor to a company’s overall success. If you want to be an asset to your team and help contribute to the business’s success, focus on honing your teamwork skills.

There are several different ways to become a better team player. One of the most important things you can do is learn interpersonal skills to communicate effectively with your teammates. Make sure you listen carefully to what others have to say and that you’re clear when sharing your ideas. It’s also important to be cooperative and willing to compromise when necessary. Remember, the goal is to work together for the team’s good, not to try to get ahead at the expense of others.

Related: Team Communication

5. Conflict resolution

Conflict resolution is a critical interpersonal skill. It involves managing and resolving disagreements and differences between people effectively. When conflict is managed effectively, it can lead to positive outcomes such as improved communication, stronger relationships, and increased cooperation. On the other hand, when conflict is not managed effectively, it can lead to adverse outcomes such as damaged relationships, decreased communication, and reduced cooperation.

There are a variety of skills that are important for effective conflict resolution. These include:

• Identifying and understanding the different types of conflict.
• Communicating clearly and assertively.
• Listening actively and empathically.
• Finding common ground and compromise.
• Handling emotions effectively.

6. Decision-making

Decision-making is another critical interpersonal skill. When we make decisions, we constantly interact with others and affect their lives. Therefore, the ability to make sound decisions is essential to our success as individuals and in society.

Many different factors go into making a decision, and the ability to weigh all of these factors effectively is a key interpersonal skill. For example, when deciding whether or not to accept a job offer, we must consider the financial implications of the decision, the impact on our family and friends, and our own goals and aspirations. Weighing all of these factors can be difficult, but it is essential to making a sound decision.

The ability to make decisions quickly and efficiently is another essential interpersonal skill. In today’s fast-paced world, we often have to make split-second decisions that can significantly impact our lives. Making these decisions quickly and without hesitation is a critical interpersonal skill.

7. Problem-solving

When it comes to interpersonal skills, problem-solving is also a key ability to make all the difference. After all, we all encounter problems in our lives and relationships, and being able to solve them effectively can make a world of difference.

There are a few things to keep in mind when trying to solve problems with others. First, it’s important to be open to different solutions and perspectives. Secondly, effective communication is crucial – you need to be able to listen and express yourself clearly. Finally, patience and flexibility are essential; remember that finding a solution that works for everyone involved may take time and effort.

With these tips in mind, you’ll be well on your way to mastering the art of problem-solving and using it to improve your interpersonal skills!

8. Communication

The ability to communicate effectively is one of the most important interpersonal skills. Communication involves exchanging information between two or more people and can be verbal (using spoken words), nonverbal (using body language and gestures), or written (using documents and other tools).

It is important to understand the different communication skills or styles and how to use them in different situations to communicate effectively. For example, formal communication is typically used in business settings, while informal communication is more common in social situations.

It is also important to be aware of cultural differences in communication. For example, in some cultures, direct communication is considered rude, while in others, it is seen as the best way to get your point across. It is essential to learn about these differences to avoid misunderstandings.

Effective communication requires both parties to be able to understand each other. This can be a challenge when there is a difference in language or culture. It is often helpful to use a translator or interpreter in these cases.

9. Negotiation

When it comes to negotiation, there are two types of people: those who are born hagglers and those who wish they were. If you’re in the latter category, don’t despair-negotiation is a skill that can be learned. And while some people may have a natural knack for it, anyone can improve their negotiation skills with a bit of practice.

One of the most critical aspects of negotiation is understanding what you want. Before entering any negotiation, you must have a clear idea of your goals. What are you hoping to achieve? What is your bottom line? Once you know what you want, you can begin to formulate a strategy to best achieve it.

It’s also essential to understand the other side’s objectives. What are they hoping to achieve? What are their bottom lines? By understanding their goals, you can see where there may be room for compromise.

Once you know what you want and what the other side wants, you can start to negotiate. The key is to find a middle ground that satisfies both parties. That might mean making some concessions, but it can be considered a successful negotiation as long as everyone gets something out of the deal.

Of course, not every negotiation will go smoothly. There will be times when tempers flare, and emotions run high. But if you keep your cool and remember your goals, you’ll be more likely to come out of the negotiation with a favorable result.

10. Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the capacity to be aware of and manage one’s own emotions and the emotions of others. So what does emotional intelligence have to do with interpersonal skills?

Well, EI is a significant part of successful communication and relationships. People with high emotional intelligence can navigate social interactions skillfully and often have better collaborative teamwork skills.

While emotional intelligence is not the only factor contributing to successful interpersonal skills, it is undoubtedly important. If you want to be a master of communication and relationships, start by working on your emotional intelligence!

11. Dependability

Are you dependable? Can others rely on you to keep your word and follow through on your commitments? If so, then you possess an essential interpersonal skill known as dependability.

Dependability is a quality that is highly valued in the workplace. Employers want to know that they can count on their employees to show up on time, complete assigned tasks, and be there when needed. This type of reliability is essential for businesses to run smoothly and efficiently.

Dependable individuals are often seen as being reliable and trustworthy. People know that they can count on them to do what they say they will do. This type of reputation can open doors and create opportunities in both personal and professional settings.

12. Positive Attitude

Having a positive attitude is an interpersonal skill that can help you in your personal and professional life. It can make you more likable and approachable, leading to better relationships. Additionally, a positive outlook can make you more likely to succeed in achieving your goals.

If you’re looking to improve your interpersonal skills, start by focusing on developing a positive attitude. Here are some tips:

• Be aware of your thoughts and language: Make an effort to catch yourself when you think or speak negatively. Replace negative thoughts with positive ones, and use affirmative language when talking to others.
• Practice gratitude : One way to maintain a positive attitude is to focus on what you’re grateful for. Make it a habit to regularly reflect on the things in your life that make you happy.
• Seek out positive people: Surround yourself with people who have a positive outlook on life. These people can help contribute to a more positive mindset for you.
• Be mindful of your body language: Nonverbal cues, such as your body language, can influence how others perceive you. Make sure that your body language conveys confidence and approachability.
• Smile: Smiling is one of the easiest ways to show others that you have a positive attitude. Practice smiling throughout the day, even when you don’t feel like it.

13. Patience

Patience is an interpersonal skill! After all, it is the ability to manage relationships effectively and patiently manage difficult situations. Patience also allows you to remain calm under pressure, a valuable trait in any situation.

Whether dealing with a demanding customer or managing a team of employees, patience will help you get through challenging situations more effectively. So, if you’re looking to improve your interpersonal skills, focus on developing more tolerance. It’s a skill that will come in handy in any situation!

14. Self-motivation

It’s a capability to keep yourself going even when things are tough. When you’re self-motivated, you don’t give up easily. Instead, you’re always looking for ways to improve and learn. Self-motivation is vital in any area of life. It can help you succeed at work, in your relationships, and in your personal life.

If you want to be successful, it’s crucial to develop your self-motivation skills. Here are some tips:

• Set goals for yourself: Having something to work towards can help you stay motivated.
• Find a role model: Look for someone who is successful and has the qualities you want to develop.
• Be positive: Belief in yourself and your ability to achieve your goals.
• Take action: Don’t wait for things to happen; make them happen.
• Persevere: When you face setbacks, don’t give up. Keep going and learn from your mistakes.

15. Awareness

It’s been said that awareness is the key to success in any endeavor. After all, if you’re not aware of what you’re doing, how can you hope to achieve your goals? The same is true of interpersonal skills. Building relationships will not be easy if you’re not mindful of how your words and actions affect others.

Fortunately, awareness is a skill that can be developed with practice. By paying attention to your interactions with others and taking note of the impact of your words and actions, you can gradually become more attuned to the needs and feelings of those around you. With time and effort, you can learn to use your interpersonal skills more effectively and make a positive difference in the lives of those you care about.

Related: Teamwork in the Workplace

How do you describe your interpersonal skills on a resume?

One of the most important aspects of any job is having strong interpersonal skills. This means being able to communicate and collaborate with others effectively. Therefore, when writing a resume , you want to ensure that your interpersonal skills are front and center. Here are some tips for job seekers on how to add you’re relevant interpersonal skills to a resume:

• Use strong action verbs: When describing your interpersonal skills on a resume, use strong action verbs such as “collaborated,” “communicated,” and “negotiated.” This will make your skills stand out and show that you can work well with others.
• Include examples: Whenever possible, include specific examples of instances where you utilized your interpersonal skills. For instance, you could mention a time when you successfully negotiated a contract or collaborated on a project.
• Focus on the positive: When describing your interpersonal skills, focus on the positive. For instance, rather than saying “I’m not shy,” say “I’m confident in my ability to communicate with others.” This will show employers that you’re a team player capable of working well with others.
• Use keywords: Many companies use applicant tracking systems (ATS) to screen resumes. To ensure that your resume makes it through the ATS, be sure to include keywords such as “team player,” “collaborative,” and “good communication skills.”

By following these tips, you can ensure that your interpersonal skills are front and center on your resume. This will show employers that you’re a team player capable of effectively communicating and collaborating with others.

Related: List of Skills for Resume

Difference between Interpersonal and Intrapersonal

As we have already learned, Interpersonal communication is defined as the process of exchanging messages between two or more people. This type of communication can occur in person, by phone, or online. In order to be effective, interpersonal communication must be both clear and concise. The sender of the message must be able to state their thoughts and feelings clearly, and the receiver must understand the message.

On the other hand, intrapersonal communication is defined as the process of exchanging messages between yourself and yourself. This type of communication occurs inside your head and is usually triggered by an event or situation. It can be positive or negative; you can talk to yourself to calm yourself down or speak to yourself to motivate yourself. Either way, intrapersonal communication is a valuable tool that can help you to understand your thoughts and feelings.

Related: Intrapersonal Vs Interpersonal Communication

Final Thoughts

So what are some of the best interpersonal skills to have? We’ve highlighted a few examples here, but we want to hear from you! What has been your experience with successful people, and what do you think are the key interpersonal skills that help them succeed?

Let us know in the comments below – we can’t wait to hear from you!

What are some examples of interpersonal situations?

There are many different types of interpersonal situations, but they all involve communication between two or more people who have some kind of relationship with one another. For example, a father and son may have an interpersonal communication situation when discussing the son’s plans. Likewise, an employer and employee may have an interpersonal communication situation when talking about work-related issues. Two sisters may have an interpersonal communication situation when arguing about something. And teachers and students may have an interpersonal communication situation when discussing a class assignment. Ultimately, any situation in which people communicate with one another can be considered an interpersonal situation.

What are personal and interpersonal skills?

There are a variety of skills that fall under the umbrella of personal and interpersonal skills. Personal skills are those you use to interact with the world around you. This can include everything from time management and decision-making to communication and problem-solving. On the other hand, interpersonal skills are those skills that you use to interact with other people. This can include everything from active listening and conflict resolution to public speaking and negotiation. Both personal and interpersonal skills are essential for success in your personal and professional life. So whether you’re looking to build better relationships or simply get ahead in your career, honing your personal and interpersonal skills is a great place to start.

What is interpersonal Behaviour?

The study of interpersonal behavior aims to understand how people interact with one another. This can involve understanding both the words that are spoken and the nonverbal cues that are used. Body language, for example, can often convey more meaning than the words that are spoken. In addition, how people communicate can vary depending on the relationship between the individuals involved. The study of interpersonal behavior can help us better understand human relationships and how they are formed.

What are interpersonal relationship issues?

Interpersonal difficulties are often at the root of relationship issues. If you have trouble bonding with others, it can be difficult to form close relationships. When interpersonal challenges arise, they may be due to underlying issues with communication, trust, or other vital areas in relationships. If left unresolved, interpersonal difficulties can lead to problems in all areas of your life. Fortunately, many resources help you overcome interpersonal problems and improve your relationships. With the proper support, you can learn how to manage interpersonal difficulties and build healthier, more satisfying relationships.

What causes interpersonal conflict?

Interpersonal conflict often arises when people have different approaches to solving problems. For example, perhaps one person is more logical and likes to take a step-by-step process, while another is more spontaneous and creative. Or maybe one person is more risk-averse while the other is more likely to take risks. Whatever the differences may be, they can often lead to conflict when both parties are trying to solve a problem. In some cases, each person might be convinced that their approach is the best, and neither is willing to budge. In other cases, both parties might be willing to compromise, but they can’t seem to agree on a middle ground. Either way, it’s easy to see how interpersonal conflict can quickly escalate if left unchecked. However, with open communication and a willingness to compromise, most interpersonal disputes can quickly be resolved.

What are the four interpersonal behaviors?

Four essential interpersonal behaviors are respect, understanding, communication, and turning a conflict over to a third party when those involved cannot agree on a solution. Respect is essential in any interaction because it creates a foundation of trust. Once respect is established, understanding can develop. This involves taking the time to see things from the other person’s perspective truly. Communication is key to maintaining understanding and resolving conflict. Lastly, turning a conflict over to a third party can help fix it when all else fails. While all four of these behaviors are important, they will not always be effective in every situation. The best course of action will vary depending on the situation and the people involved. However, by being aware of these four behaviors, we can be better prepared to navigate complex interactions.

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