research paper on academic leadership

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Academic leadership in the time of covid-19—experiences and perspectives.

• 1 Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
• 2 Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a sharp reminder that large scale, unpredictable events always bring about profound changes with significant consequences on many levels. In light of lockdown measures taken in many countries across the world to control the spread of the virus, academics were “forced” to adapt and move to online settings all teaching, mentoring, research, and support activities. Academic leaders in higher education had to make decisions and to act quickly how were they to manage large educational communities, addressing students', teachers', and staff's needs, as well as society's needs. Using an inductive approach, our study seeks to highlight the main challenges faced by university leaders and to understand their responses to those challenges. The current study aims to investigate perceptions and experiences of academic leaders in a University in Romania during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our foci were the processes underlying their leadership decisions and actions during the second part of the 2019–2020 academic year. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with 11 university and faculty leaders in Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania. The findings from the thematic analysis revealed three main themes emerging from participants' responses: “the leader's personal attributes,” “unity through decentralization,” and “opportunities to reinvent the university.” Good practices to manage academic institutions in times of crises and changes are discussed, along with insights into strategies for supporting higher education development during crisis and post-crisis times resulting into recommendations for increasing management effectiveness.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic brought several unpredictable challenges worldwide, forcing people to design and implement flexible solutions in order to adapt to the new reality. The crisis had a strong and deep impact on higher education at all levels. Due to the complexity of higher education institutions and their multi-faceted mission of teaching, conducting research, and contributing to society, managing change in academia during COVID-19 became a profound challenge for leaders.

Moving all the educational activities online showed that many universities already had all the tools and resources necessary for digitalization and for implementing effective decisions ( Strielkowski, 2020 ). Academic leaders are increasingly tasked with making day-to-day critical decisions that will shape the future of their institutions. Additionally, in light of the urgent and dramatic shifts, and needs which arose in the last few months, universities have been confronted with various new issues and obligations toward students, staff, and academic audiences.

Thinking ahead, this pandemic period could be the restart button that higher education needs. It might be an opportunity for universities to recalibrate their organizations and to build a more efficient, accessible, and adapted set of offerings to the knowledge-based society in the post-pandemic world of work. Therefore, the main goal universities should assume is to be ready to increase their community impact in a competitive environment.

In the process of designing future universities, academic leaders will play an essential role. Given the increased complexity and diversity of situations that require immediate solutions, academic leaders will be making innovative decisions and responding to the needs ( Al-Dabbagh, 2020 ). In the middle of such a acute crisis as the COVID-19 pandemic, the leaders act under high psychological pressure, with great expectations from members of various organizations for constant reassurance and support. Moreover, the pressure of time, ambiguity, the lack of information, and high level of stress, all increase the difficulty of the decision-making process. In this context, a wise leadership can help the organization become antifragile and resilient ( Taleb, 2012 ), developing in the middle of a crisis through creative thinking, learning fast from experience of and adapting to the crisis, and through decentralized decision-making processes.

Making decisions in times of crisis requires great leadership competencies. Hence, analyzing the perceptions and experiences of academic leaders as decision-makers in a university may provide valuable insights about the decision-making process in complex educational institutions during major crises, such as the COVID-19 crisis.

Academic Leadership

As a large institution, a university is governed by diverse structures and management bodies, from Rector, Vice-Rectors, and Deans to academic councils, department directors, administrative boards etc. Due to these particularities, academic leadership refers to different management roles and titles, varying from strategic management, administrative roles to transformational and visionary roles ( Settles et al., 2019 ). Even in normal times, coordinating all those decision-makers for a common goal, can be very difficult. Many scholars investigating leadership in higher education proposed different models to conceptualize the dimensions of academic leadership. The model proposed by Ramsden (1998) describes the complexity and diversity of roles that leaders in higher education have. Moreover, that model shows the different levels of leadership in a university. According to Ramsden, there is a leadership dimension related to teaching, an effective leader should inspire his colleagues to feel excited about learning and to make good decisions about the educational process. Secondly, there is leadership related to the research dimension of a university, emphasizing the role of producing relevant knowledge assumed by higher education institutions. The next dimension in the model is related to strategy, vision, and networking, and focuses on setting a direction and advocating for it. Thus, an effective leader needs to formulate a clear vision for how to achieve that goal, which will provide a set of expectations as well as intrinsic motivation for colleagues (the latter being the main driving factor of academics). Additionally, this vision needs to be advocated eloquently to the rest of the university, in order to obtain the resources needed to implement it. At the same time, Ramsden focuses on another three aspects of leadership: the motivational dimension, recognition and interpersonal skills, and notes that a good leader needs to be able to lead both from the front (by example) as well as from the back (by recognition and support).

Characteristics of Effective Academic Leadership in Crisis

According to the crisis management model proposed by Nathanial and Van der Heyden (2020) and applied to the COVID-19 crisis, there are some steps that every leader should be aware of in order to be effective in managing the crisis. In the initial phase, it is important to frame the crisis correctly and to communicate as early as possible the paths and methods that will be followed to manage the crisis. At the same time, the exploration of the problem together with different experts and formulating a clear strategy with well-defined indicators are important steps in managing the crisis. Next, the leader should communicate the decisions and the chosen scenarios, and then commit to action. Then comes the execution focus and constant monitoring of the actions. Finally, evaluating, learning, and adapting the efforts according to feedback is essential.

Beside the above-mentioned model of crisis management, some recent studies on leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the most essential leader characteristics that bring effectiveness in time of crisis. Koehn (2020) proposed four key-competencies for an effective leader: providing meaningful roles, focusing on learning experiences, emotional agility, and acknowledging fear. Schwantes (2020) also mentioned four competencies needed to overcome the challenges associated with the COVID-19 crisis: flexibility, accounting for emotions, attention to other opinions, engagement. Dirani et al. (2020) , emphasized some important roles and traits leaders should have in times of crisis: to be a sense maker, to be a technology enhancer, to have emotional stability, and to emphasize employee well-being and innovative communication in order to maintain the financial health of the organization.

Regarding academic leadership, the most important feature of leadership during the COVID-19 crisis that emerged in the latest publications on this topic brings distributed leadership to attention ( Fernandez and Shaw, 2020 ). Usually, a university is a large institution with many faculties and departments, so a leader acting alone cannot succeed in a time of such a difficult crisis. The academic leader should be the one setting the strategy and the institutional priorities and at the same time giving their team the autonomy to assume the responsibility of their own decisions based on the specificity of their faculties/departments. Such a distributed leadership can be more effective in improving the quality and rapidity of decisions while increasing the sense of empowerment and motivation of each team ( Kezar and Holcombe, 2017 ). The challenges of such a complex period require that top leaders engage in a explicit delegation of leadership that values the leadership potential of the people in their organization.

The academic decisions of shared leadership helped universities find solutions adapted to the crisis and to make local decisions benefiting from greater organizational agility, innovation, collaboration, and shared support ( Fernandez and Shaw, 2020 ). A shared leadership paradigm helps a university to respond to a crisis through distributed leadership and an increase in responsibility at any organizational level ( Kezar and Holcombe, 2017 ). Moreover, distributed leadership means making connections between people at all levels of the organization facing the challenges of a crisis and allows the transformation to be felt as meaningful for everyone. Moreover, it promotes psychological safety in the organization. So, the role of leaders is crucial in guiding the institution through finding the most appropriate solutions for empowering, developing a culture of trust, and orienting toward solutions that lead to effective results ( Kezar et al., 2018 ).

At the same time, disrupting organizational norms, displaying courageous decisions, and engaging in proactive adaptation helped the transition from face-to-face activities to online, remote education. Academic leaders who see crises as strategic opportunities for innovation and using new technologies and techniques are the ones that bring the best results and practices. Effective leadership in crisis means risk taking, courage, flexibility, orientation toward goals and solutions, strategic vision and using an innovative approach meant to gain competitive advantage ( Fernandez and Shaw, 2020 ). Leaders with great flexibility and adaptability and the capacity to perceive a crisis as an opportunity are effective in their decisions and have a strong capacity to navigate through uncertainty and to learn from experience ( Ancona et al., 2007 ).

Due to the specificity of the COVID-19 crisis, which brings a lot of stress and uncertainty, the leader's personality characteristics and leadership style are also very important for building trust and accountability in the organization. From this point of view, a servant leadership emphasizing a collaborative, empathetic, emotionally stable leader personality can help build a strong community through commitment to the needs of the organization's members ( Doraiswamy, 2012 ). A servant leader also focuses on the motivational and aspirational aspects and recognizes followers' need for psychological support and belonging ( Eva et al., 2019 ), which suggests that if followers are treated as ends in themselves, rather than a means to an end, they will reach their potential and so perform optimally even in crisis ( Waterman, 2011 ).

Organizational factors are equally important in facilitating effective solutions in response to crisis challenges. Making effective decisions in crisis means building organizational resilience. A resilient university is one that adapts and improves its responsiveness to challenges through absorbing adversities and going further ( Dirani et al., 2020 ). The organizations that respond efficiently to crisis and changes are the ones that develop a culture of flexibility, learning from experiences, and orientation toward understanding the specificity of situations and of employees' issues ( Caminiti, 2020 ). Moreover, an adaptative university is oriented, through accepting unpredictable contexts and finding ways to transform them into opportunities, toward sharing their own values and having an impact on their communities.

The characteristics of leaders and organizations we presented above, can offer a better picture for increasing the effectiveness of leadership in crisis, but they should be investigated in a more comprehensive framework. Due to the unpredictable and dynamic character of COVID-19 situation and our qualitative nature of the design, the meta-theoretical framework we adopted for our study is Complexity Leadership Theory ( Uhl-Bien et al., 2007 ). This theory frames leadership as a complex, dynamic, and interactive relationship between leaders' organizational and situational factors, focusing on enabling adaptivity, learning and innovation in within a context of knowledge-based organizations ( Uhl-Bien et al., 2007 ). Moreover, that theory emphasizes the idea that leadership strategies are embedded in context, with leaders valuing their characteristics to shape the dynamic emergent processes, in order to face the adaptive challenges requiring new patterns of decisions. More specific, the main leadership functions derived from those processes are adaptive, administrative, and enabling, interacting one to each other to every level.

Rationale and Aim of the Study

There is a research gap regarding effective leadership of academic leaders in crises, especially in higher education. Recently, a few studies have been published investigating aspects of academic leadership in the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, Strielkowski and Wang (2020) investigated the way lockdown and restrictions have impacted higher education in the Czech Republic such that the forced digitalization resulted in a somewhat technological revolution. The paper also describes the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic for academic leadership, outlining predictions and provisions. In another study on academic leadership, Sá and Serpa (2020) have studied the opportunity provided by the current situation to reshape the higher education system in Portugal, discussing the role of leadership in digital development and the transformation of academic organizational culture. Suggestions for the reconceptualization of teaching methods, leadership models, communication channels and other useful insights and strategies are offered by the authors in a comprehensive manner that seeks to help tackle challenges and embrace opportunities.

Even though there are some valuable research contributions to the literature of academic leadership, the need to understand the characteristics and specificities of decisions made by leaders in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic is important in order to understand and plan the effective development of universities for the future.

Therefore, we aim to provide a better understanding of academic leadership in crisis through a qualitative approach underlying one university's top academic leaders' experiences during COVID-19. We took a case-study approach and focused the investigation into one institution, Babeş-Bolyai University, in Romania. This was necessary to enable the analysis and to take into account the particular mission, values and specificity of academic environment and to make links between these and the leadership experiences and decisions. Moreover, the organizational case study approach brings value by undertaking an investigation into a phenomenon in its real context ( Rowley, 2002 ).

Babeş-Bolyai University (UBB) in Cluj-Napoca is one of the oldest and largest universities in Romania (45.000 students). UBB occupies the highest position among the Romanian universities (in the National University Metaranking), being classified as an “advanced research and education university” by the Ministry of Education and as an “international university, with excellence in teaching and research” by The British QS STAR. UBB was also granted the “HR Excellence in Research” award in 2018 and has joined in 2020 the prestigious GUILD organization. One characterizing element of the university is the linguistic and cultural diversity, reflected in the carrying out and coordination of its educational activities, having three major lines of study (Romanian, Hungarian and German, plus other international languages in some of its schools), with 22 faculties offering 300 study programs in bachelor's, master's, and PhD degrees, as well as advanced postgraduate studies, from which students can freely choose. As a comprehensive university aiming at advanced research and education, UBB complies with the general mission of generating and transferring knowledge. Assuming these goals, the university is considering a strategic management plan and an efficient teaching plan, a balanced global development of the institution, adequate decision-making, ensuring democracy, collective participation, and transparency, and last but not least, assuming a set of quality principles that guide all activities within UBB. The university incorporates and advocates for the following values: tradition, excellence, freedom of expression, truth-seeking, integrity, equity, social responsibility, respect toward diversity, and intercultural cooperation. Regarding rectorship, the Hungarian and German lines are represented by one deputy Dean and one general deputy secretary, and in the Senate by one of its Vice-Presidents. The rectorship management office of the university is made of 1 Rector and 10 Vice-Rectors, working in unity to ensure the advancement and growth of the institution on several areas of development: administration, human resources, alumni, career and counseling, socio-cultural component, public relations and international relation, research, development and innovation, digitalization, patrimony, etc. All of these offices, together with the Deans of each faculty, the Council for Doctoral Studies Director, the representative of the General Administrative Directorate, and the students' prefect constitute Babeş-Bolyai University's Board of Directors.

Given the complexity of Babeş-Bolyai University, its academic leaders' reflections on the decision-making process and the results obtained during the COVID-19 crisis can bring insights into understanding leadership in higher education institutions.

More specifically, the objective of our research was to investigate perceptions and experiences of 11 academic leaders during the COVID-19 challenges, in order to understand the processes underlying leadership decisions during the second part of the 2019–2020 academic year.

Consequently, we aim to answer the following research questions: (1). What were the main characteristics of effective academic leadership during the COVID-19 challenges? (2). Which were the individual and organizational factors that facilitated leaders' decisions during the COVID-19 challenges?

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The invitation to participate in this study was sent to all the Deans and Vice-rectors [ NB—this is the equivalent of Vice-President or Pro-Vice-Chancellors ] from Babeş-Bolyai University. The interviews were conducted with those who responded to that invitation in the time allotted to the study. Specifically, the data was collected from 11 academic leaders (5 Vice-Rectors and 6 Deans) from Babeş-Bolyai University, Romania. Two of them were women and nine men, ranging in age from 34 to 62 and having over 5 years of experience in academic leadership positions. All the participants were Associate Professors and Professors, having an academic background in the fields of: Biology, Business, Communication and Public Relations, Economics, History, Mathematics and Psychology. Their involvement in the study was voluntary, based on their available time and willingness to participate in the interview. They were informed about the interview's purpose, how it will be conducted, the estimated length of time it might take, and the confidentiality of the responses. Informant consent was obtained from every participant.

Measures and Procedure

A semi-structured interview guide was developed with nine questions that explored the visions, strategies and actions taken through the lenses of personal and organizational effectiveness. The interviews were conducted in October and November 2020 and the participants were framed to respond by referring to their academic leadership experiences from March to October. Interviews lasted between 20 and 35 min and were conducted and moderated by the investigator. The discussions were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and checked to ensure accuracy.

Data Analysis

We authors analyzed the transcripts using the inductive thematic analysis based on the guidelines suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006) , focused on the semantic and essentialist approach. Each of us conducted separately a systematic and independent analysis through the entire data. Both authors read the transcripts several times in order to generate the initial codes, then transformed them into potential themes. After checking the themes in relation with the codes, they were refined. Based on diagramming techniques, the themes and subthemes were clustered. In the final step, the most relevant excerpts from the interviews were read and checked again against the research questions and existing literature. To present the findings through excerpts and to maintain the confidentiality of the responses, we coded the participants with Dean and Vice-Rector , followed by a number from 1 to 5 for Vice-Rectors, and 1 to 6 for Deans.

The thematic analysis revealed three main themes that emerged from participants' responses: “the leader's personal attributes,” “unity through decentralization,” and “opportunities to reinvent the university.” In the section below, we present each of these themes, the subthemes we identified for each of the themes and example quotes from the interviews. We also discuss the theme and subthemes according to participants' academic background and managerial role (Vice-Rector and Dean).

The Leader's Personal Attributes (Theme 1)

The first powerful theme that emerged from the participants' responses is related to essential personal characteristics of the leaders which underlined the leadership experiences during the first 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic. The subthemes we extracted are responsibility, the power of experience and adaptability to changes. Those three personal attributes of leaders emerged as central for academic leadership in the perception of our participants.

Firstly, responsibility, seen as a catalyst for effective leadership, is expressed concisely and directly by these responses:

“ The ability to transform and acknowledge the responsibility you have ” (Dean 3) .

“ Our long-term vision is to empower every decision maker to do their job without passing it down to someone else ” (Vice-Rector 3) .

“ And considering the present circumstances [the current context] whoever is in a leading position nowadays is bound to take over some responsibilities without passing them down to the others, without delegating those partial decisions or responsibilities they are otherwise legally accountable for and should therefore, assume ” (Dean 4) .

“ And a change that brought, let's say, a little reluctance and maybe dissatisfaction among some colleagues was the idea of making everyone responsible to a higher degree ” (Dean 5) .

Secondly, previous leadership experience has been perceived as an effective factor in dealing with the pandemic:

“ I believe part of my professional experience in the field of communication has considerably helped uproot myself from this traditional sphere ” (Dean 2) .

“ Experience helped me in the first place ” (Dean 3) .

“ I think that this experience [i.e., as head of department] has greatly helped me in general: I would address certain issues no matter how complicated they might have seemed at the time. I have gained the necessary, even if insufficient, experience to start from somewhere and to face certain things ” (Vice-Rector 5) .

Thirdly, adaptability (an adaptable mindset) was also an important personal factor perceived as effective in dealing with various administrative, teaching, research, and communication situations:

“ So, whatever the challenges, we have the ability to adapt and UBB has the ability to adapt from this point of view, because this is what defines us ” (Dean 4) .

“ The flexibility it has shown. So, I think it was very important that in moments like these we did not proceed in a stubborn way… they expedited the development of the admission app and similar solution, which were hardly perfect, but, in the end, proved functional… we can't ask for perfection, especially when everything happens in the context of overnight crisis… Even then we still saw this flexibility, yes… people might have rejected these things. But we've accepted the challenge of exploring uncharted waters ” (Dean 1) .

“ Redrafting all the regulations pertaining to my portfolio, in light of the current situation, rethinking them so that we can include all the possibilities that may arise due to the pandemic ” (Vice-Rector 1) .

Unity Through Decentralization (Theme 2)

The second theme which emerged from the responses is Unity through decentralization, revealing a community dimension of academic leadership, balancing autonomy with togetherness. The main subthemes refer to: setting the direction through guidelines, the autonomy of the faculties, and teams' power.

Firstly, the leadership process was characterized by the fact that the Rectorate set the direction through guidelines. This aspect was perceived by the respondents as a valuable asset of the university:

“ We all pull in the same direction, in other words, we try to manage this situation, we accept that this is what we have to deal with, and we are all part of the same team. I've never felt that each person wants something different. There was a shared goal, so to say ” (Dean 3) .

“ We've managed to tune our endeavors well, to act and speak as one: there were no absurd voices of dissent, arguing just for the sake of arguing against quite clear decisions that had to be taken drastically ” (Dean 2) .

“ There were some rules that still had to be followed. When a faculty had made a decision, it had to await the confirmation of the upper management before implementation ” (Vice-Rector 1) .

Secondly, the autonomy dimension was relevant for meeting the specific needs of the faculties:

“ Perhaps this was the wisest decision issued by the Rector's office: to give the faculties the choice of either going online or teaching face to face ” (Dean 5) .

“ The autonomy we had in deciding, as a faculty, whether to go online or face-to-face. In other words, respecting the singularity of each faculty guaranteed the consistency of a decision we had taken and complied with. And this was a positive thing because I felt that we could contribute to the welfare of the University ” (Dean 1) .

“ The fact that each faculty was allowed to choose a flexible or hybrid scenario for this period of teaching activities. And there was no imposition of a consensus: everyone in a certain way. That is, each faculty and each management team knows exactly which resources are available or how willing the teaching staff is to commit to face-to-face activities. The fact that we were allowed to put these things into perspective and make our own decision seemed extraordinary to me ” (Dean 4) .

“ The first and most important aspect is the mindset. The philosophy or the approach that the university board endorsed: to create general frameworks so that each faculty can make a specific decision that would facilitate a better control over and organization of activities. Should things go adrift, we try to put them back in place, but we always give the faculties enough wiggle room to act and think for themselves ” (Dean 3) .

Thirdly, the power of the teams was highlighted by all respondents, emphasizing the importance of trust in others' competence and collaboration.

“ Eventually, I hope my colleagues and I have managed to concur on encouraging each and everyone to bring something on the table ” (Dean 2) .

“ There are certain people I can collaborate with, because they have the proper approach. They also possess the right energy, the necessary strength and responsibility, that is clear. But for this, I wouldn't be successful…. I can be brilliant, but that is all. In the end, a collaborative environment is what matters ” (Vice-Rector 5) .

“ We shifted into high gear, we have been working under pressure and stress ever since March, but we have done this together, which alleviated some of the pressure we felt. The result was that we managed to streamline all legal regulations so that they could be applied by everyone ” (Vice-Rector 3) .

“ One aspect that helped me a lot was the top management's confidence that my team and I would have the ability to coordinate things well ” (Dean 3) .

“ I trust the people I coordinate, and I take the responsibility for each decision upon myself. This is very important ” (Vice-Rector 4) .

Opportunities to Reinvent the University (Theme 3)

The third theme revealed more of a community dimension of leadership, focusing on the capacity of the university to become resilient and to grow in a post-pandemic world. Responses reveal two subthemes related to the future: the university's legacy for tomorrow and its openness to change.

Firstly, the university's legacy for tomorrow, as reflected by the actual practices implemented throughout the university for the pandemic situation, is perceived as being valuable for application even in non-pandemic conditions:

“ I believe that many of the things we have acquired now will be put into our everyday practice… all the networks we have created must, undoubtedly, be reinforced ” (Dean 2) .

“ I believe that some changes could not have been possible, were it not for the Covid situation. I look upon the present time as one that fosters change, and change is certainly a prerequisite for adaptation… somehow, people understood that they have to embrace change ” (Vice-Rector 3) .

Secondly, openness to change was perceived and experienced as an essential dimension of the institution facing the challenges:

“ I can say that the pandemic triggered latent ideas, some perhaps less visible to us, in the sense that until now, they did not rise as immediate opportunities: open online courses, workshops which are not only feasible but could also represent effective teaching sessions…and these have been long elicited, planned and needed, indeed ” (Vice-Rector 5) .

“ This (pandemic) is an opportunity to radically reconsider our view of the educational system…to be able to thoroughly redesign the vision of a Romanian faculty and to share this vision as an example of good practices ” (Dean 3) .

“ The present moment and context bring with them a unique opportunity to capitalize on our potential both in the way we understand our development and in the way we steer the progress of a faculty ” (Dean 4) .

Discussions

The results of our study revealed novel insights about the personal and organizational factors contributing to the effectiveness of academic leaders' activity and decisions during the COVID-19 pandemic and supported the results existing in recent literature.

This research nonetheless probes more deeply into the processes of academic leadership. Analyzing the themes and subthemes which emerged in our research, we can identify processual connections between them. Firstly, there are the leader's personal attributes, emphasizing responsibility and adaptability, and building on previous experiences as a leader. Behind this combination of individual characteristics, we can infer there was a strong proactive attitude and an assumed risk-taking behavior, which helped the leaders find and create meaningful leadership experiences even in crisis ( Fernandez and Shaw, 2020 ). Secondly, the leaders' personal attributes helped the university to adopt the strategy of unity through decentralization . Proving responsibility and adaptability, along with the experience, the university's top leaders adopted a strategy that allowed mid-level leaders (Deans) to express their leadership styles, offering them the freedom of action within a given general framework. Deans acted responsibly, identifying viable solutions to continue the activity during the pandemic period. Moreover, decentralization gave Deans the opportunity to create and apply new systems, to communicate in a new way, to find new advantages and solutions in order to be able to continue their activity. Once these new systems, procedures, and solutions were tested and applied, Deans understood their potential even in the post-pandemic period. Therefore, the themes represent parts of the evolution process of the university, but also reveal some differences among Deans and Vice-Rectors.

If we discuss the results of the Deans and Vice-Rectors and take their academic background into account, we can gain a more contextual insight. Vice-Rectors have insisted more on the attribute of responsibility. A possible explanation could be the fact that Vice-Rectors are more aware about the importance of the leadership experience and engaged in their work duties of setting the general framework for all the faculties. On the other hand, the Deans emphasized the power of personal adaptability, more than Vice-Rectors. Those differences can be explained through the fact that while the Vice-Rectors' tasks were to implement all the national laws and measures and to create an effective framework, whereas the Deans had to find ways to adapt to the specificity of their programs and faculties to that framework.

Another important aspect we observed in the responses is that responsibility is underlined by those respondents with background in Humanities and Social Sciences, more than those in Math and Science. The need of autonomy was also more strongly emphasized by the Deans, with richer descriptions, this being strongly related to their responsibility. On the other hand, the Vice-Rectors insisted more on the power of the teams, reflected in the Rectorate strategy of shared and distributed leadership. Regarding the theme opportunity to reinvent the university , there were no notable differences between Deans and Vice-Rectors, but it is worth mentioning that those with background in Business, Economics and Mathematics appeared more interested in this topic, with a specific preference for openness to change .

The findings are valuable if we consider that academic leaders are usually elected based on their academic and scientific prestige, not on their managerial background and education, which can be a barrier in the leadership roles ( Elena-Pérez et al., 2011 ). For our participants, an important factor contributing to the internalization of their role, was their previous experience as academic leaders, which can be an important predictor of performance ( Fiedler, 1994 ). Based on the previous discussion, distributed leadership played a crucial role in the university's policy, which enhanced trust and added relevant feedback loops.

Moreover, in allowing faculties to decide and act independently within a given framework, top leaders of the university showed trust in Deans and their actions ( Montgomery, 2020 ). Empowered with trust, Deans conveyed it to their teams, as it appears from the excerpts presented. We notice here a two-way relationship between Rectorate and Deans and Deans and their teams. Thus, trust transcends the three themes: the self-perceived trust of leaders, manifested through responsibility and adaptability, is put into practice (capitalized at the institutional level) through the strategy of unity through decentralization of the university which goes even further, being reflected by the desire to reinvent the university. Consequently, in dealing with the pandemic crisis, the university acted “in the humanist spirit of trust and openness, to generate an organizational culture of solidarity and cooperation” ( David, 2020 , p. 5). Therefore, the university's values are assumed by its leaders and transmitted further to members. Sharing the same values amplifies collective efficiency and leads to unity in direction.

Trust has its own merits in developing efficient teams. The reverberation of trust facilitates a proactive attitude of the faculty members, which contributes to the increase of the teams' efficiency. This result is supported by the findings of Almutairi (2020) on effective leadership in higher education, which states that through their positive attitude to work, like encouraging innovation and not complaining about difficult tasks, managers increase the performance of faculty members.

The feeling of the team and the sense of community was perceived as being a powerful resource for implementing effective decisions and face the challenges, which emphasizes the important role of a distributed leadership and the value of controlling uncertainty through building meaningful actions for university members ( Kohtamäki, 2019 ; Zafar et al., 2019 ). At the same time, sharing trust and common directions increased the psychological safety and effectiveness of members from the lower level of the organization ( Samoilovich, 2020 ).

Thirdly, the individuality and the effectiveness of the teams was supported by organizational resilience and flexibility. The participants of our study perceived they were empowered by a general institutional orientation to learn, grow, and develop, despite the challenges. An organization that discovers its internal resources of adaptability and learning becomes more powerful in dealing with environmental demands ( De Boer and Goedegebuure, 2009 ). The pandemic forced leaders to find new solutions, to adapt, and the results did not take long to appear: teaching platforms, new approaches for the teaching process, the advantages of offering education for students all over the world, new intra-university communication channels and so on. These achievements open new perspectives not only for the continued existence of universities, but also for their development.

The pandemic showed us new horizons and forced us to think from a new and innovative perspective. The challenge for academic leadership is how to encourage the necessary skillset and mindset shifts for all who work in higher education ( Davis and Jones, 2014 ).

Furthermore, the current study's results confirm previous leadership theories and findings which conceptualize leadership as a complex process embedded in a social context. The academic leaders' perceptions revealed the interdependence of individual, organizational, and situational factors in supporting their decisions, implemented both on informal (emergent) as well as formal (hierarchical) processes ( Bolden et al., 2012 ).

Even if the academic management roles define specific responsibility, the effective application of management tasks was strongly dependent on leadership self-efficacy (personal attribute), shared trust, common goals and perceiving the change and crisis as opportunity, which created engagement and coherence in the process.

These findings can be a starting point for investigating the complex dynamics of mechanisms underlying academic leadership in time of crisis ( Uhl-Bien et al., 2007 ). Moreover, the themes we derived from the participants ‘responses, emphasized the importance of distributed leadership. As previous researchers have stated, distributing leadership can improve effectiveness in a crisis ( Berjaoui and Karami-Akkary, 2020 ) and enable rapid responses and decision making ( Kezar and Holcombe, 2017 ). If we investigate a deeper level, the relations between Deans, Vice-Rectors and Rector, corroborated with the trust of academic community, increased self-efficacy, facilitated an adaptive emotional climate and reduced the resistance to change, all of which seem to be essential for higher education leaders ( Heffernan and Bosetti, 2020 ).

The value of seeing leadership as a dynamic and collaborative process, where the Rectorate articulate the strategic goals and the responsibility is distributed among Deans and heads of departments, as previous authors suggest ( Ancona et al., 2007 ) was strengthened in our study. Although the results of the present research are concordant with leadership studies, they should be discussed in the context academic environment in Romania. Babeş-Bolyai University is a top university in Romania, it has a good internal and public brand, an effective collaboration with public administration and strong partnerships with key representatives of the social and business environment. Those factors contributed to a sense of empowerment and the trust the academic leaders perceived during COVID-19 crisis. Moreover, the effectiveness of one university's decisions “depends on relations of relative conflict or trust between the university and government and society” ( Kai and Li, 2013 , p.5) and our university has a great autonomy given by laws and policies, which gave leaders' the freedom to design and implement its own measures. Since “autonomy concerns the experience of acting with a sense of choice” ( Hocine and Zhang, 2014 , p. 140) and accountability for education and research's quality is correlated with autonomy, acting based on it, is relying on the university values expressed in its organizational culture. Babeş-Bolyai's core values are “tradition and excellence (through rationality and wisdom) in the modern humanistic spirit of trust and openness” ( David, 2020 , p.1). Being a university with a long tradition, and also a strong orientation toward future excellence, the experienced academic leaders perceived they were able to act accordingly. Last but not least, Babeş-Bolyai University is usually a key actor in providing good practices and models in higher education in Romania. From this point of view, our results can be a starting point for improving academic leadership in other universities.

Conclusions

This case study and its analysis make a significant contribution to contemporary literature and research on academic leadership. To our knowledge and to date, it is the first study to empirically explore this topic in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. With this aim to investigate the perceptions and experiences of Deans and Vice-Rectors regarding leadership processes during crisis, our research enriches the understanding over the leadership specificity in the most challenging times in the last few decades. The results discussed above should be seen in the light of the specificity of Babeş-Bolyai University. Academic leadership practices may vary across universities according to their differing organizational culture, tradition, mission etc. Also, our study's limitations are related to the reduced number of participants, their academic backgrounds, and the fact that the sample was based on voluntary participation. Therefore, future studies can address this issue by including more diverse and larger samples.

For a better understanding of the topic the perceptions of other stakeholders (head of departments, administrative staff, students, etc.) should be addressed. Despite these limitations, the findings provide insight into the important dimensions of academic leadership when faced with big environmental challenges. Hence, this paper provided several insights into the interaction and relationships between individual leaders (traits, attitudes, and background), organizational and contextual factors, thus offering a framework for investigating academic leadership from a comprehensive model.

Our findings will inform academic leadership strategies by providing insights into effective dynamic processes of leadership characterized by empowering every person in strengthening the relation between adaptive needs and administrative identity, as embedded in the context ( Koehn, 2020 ). From a practical perspective, this study can contribute to raising awareness of the importance of leadership processes in difficult times and of the needs of leadership training initiatives to foster change, innovation, and adaptation for finding the best ways to address local, national, and global challenges.

The findings can also guide the development of leadership and management tools and recommendations for academics and provide insightful perspectives on the topic. The future is already here, and a new mindset, new attitudes and practices will have to be incorporated into the new reality of universities, effectively harnessing the experience gained during the COVID-19 time.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Babes Bolyai University Ethics committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: academic leadership, COVID-19 adaptability, distributed leadership, opportunities, qualitative research, thematic analysis

Citation: Dumulescu D and Muţiu AI (2021) Academic Leadership in the Time of COVID-19—Experiences and Perspectives. Front. Psychol. 12:648344. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648344

Received: 31 December 2020; Accepted: 22 March 2021; Published: 20 April 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Dumulescu and Muţiu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Daniela Dumulescu, danieladumulescu@gmail.com

† These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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• v.6(4); 2020 Apr

Leadership styles, work engagement and outcomes among information and communications technology professionals: A cross-national study

Habtamu kebu gemeda.

a Adama Science & Technology University, School of Humanity & Social Sciences, Ethiopia

b Pusan National University, Keumjeong-Gu, Jangjeon-Dong, San 30, Busan, 609-735, South Korea

The present study examined relationships among leadership styles, work engagement and work outcomes designated by task performance and innovative work behavior among information and communication technology professionals in two countries: Ethiopia and South Korea. In total, 147 participants from Ethiopia and 291 from South Korea were made to fill in the self-reporting questionnaire intended to assess leadership styles, work engagement, task performance, and innovative work behavior. To test the proposed hypotheses, multiple linear regression analysis was utilized. The results showed that transformational leadership style had a significant positive relationship with employees' work engagement and innovative work behavior, while transactional leadership style had a significant positive relationship with employees' task performance. However, laissez-faire leadership style had a significant negative relationship with task performance. Work engagement had significant positive relationships with the indicators of work outcomes. Besides, work engagement partially mediated the relationship between leadership styles and work outcomes. The observed associations and mediation were consistent across the two national samples considered, indicating the soundness of the assumptions across countries. The findings provide insights into how leadership styles correspond with employees’ work outcomes.

Leadership; Workplace; innovation; Performance; industry; Organization; Human Resources; work engagement; transformation; transaction, Technology Management; Organizational Theory; Human Resource Management; Behavioral Psychology; Organizational Psychology

1. Introduction

Leadership is crucial for effective functioning of any organization. The fundamental of leadership is its persuading power on human resources, organizations' source of competitive advantage, and the resultant outcomes. In swaying followers and harnessing organization member's selves to their work roles, leaders must enhance employees' motivation as having engaged employees is critical for organization to achieve its goal ( Batista-Taran et al., 2009 ). Studies, (e.g., Bakker and Bal, 2010 ; Harter et al., 2002 ; Xathopoulou et al., 2009 ) recorded the noteworthiness of employees' work engagement for organizational achievement measured in terms of monetary returns, productivity, client satisfaction, and a number of individual-level alluring employees' characteristics such as taking initiative and being proactive.

Literature (e.g. Bakker and Demerouti, 2008 ; Kim, 2014 ; Park et al., 2013 ; Saks, 2006 ; Salanova et al., 2011 ; Salanova and Schaufeli, 2008 ; Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004 ; Song et al., 2012 ; Xathopoulo et al., 2007 ) studied employee engagement within the framework of its antecedents and consequences using mainly the job demand-resources model, social exchange theory, social cognitive theory, and leadership theory. In the plethora of studies examining the correlates of employee engagement, particularly in Western and some Asian contexts, the most discussed antecedents included job resources, personal resources, perceived supports, learning organizations, and transformational leadership, while the personal-level outcomes considered were performance, turnover intention, organizational citizenship behavior, health, proactive behavior, innovative behavior, and knowledge creation practices. In spite of significant empirical studies on associates of work engagement, little research have been found that explored the potential link between leadership behaviors and employee engagement in the wider human resources literature ( Carasco-Saul et al., 2015 ).

Thus, the current study focused on examining relationships among leadership styles, employee work engagement and work outcomes. Leadership was targeted because previous research (e.g. Xu and Thomas, 2011 ; Carasco-Saul et al., 2015 ) also elucidated scarcity of findings that connect leadership styles and employees work engagement. Further, the dominant capacity of leadership over other work variables and its vulnerability to modifications were taken into consideration in its selection as correlates of work engagement and outcomes. For workoutcomes, employees' job performance and innovative work behavior were considered because of their pertinence to organizational existence and progress. Job performance is the term that academics and practitioners use most commonly and widely. Nonetheless, an aggregate definition of success across jobs and roles is very difficult to conceptualize since employees are engaged in a large number of tasks including even those not listed out in their formal job description ( Demerouti and Cropanzano, 2010 ). On the basis of review of previous studies, Kim (2014) outlined various ways of conceptualizing job performance ranging from overall performance to organizational citizenship behaviour. In the present study, as indicator of employees' job performance, in-role performance is conceptualized as accomplishment of core tasks and activities specified in employee contract document connected to officially defined organizational outcomes (( Demerouti and Cropanzano, 2010 ). In addition to performing main tasks officially listed out, considering the current competitive work environment, employees are pressed to go extra mile beyond those formally recognized in their job description such as being innovative in their workplace. As Ramoorthy et al. (2005) suggested, to succeed organizations are pressuring employees to innovate their methods and operations. Janssen (2000) was of the view that to have a continuous flow of innovation and to achieve goals, individual employees need to be skilled to innovate. What is more, employees’ innovative work behavior is comprehended as a specific form of extra-role performance related to discretionary employee actions in connection to generating idea, promoting, and realizing it.

In spite of evidences on the relationship between styles of leadership and work outcomes such as job performance and innovative work behavior (e.g., Khan et al., 2012 ; Solomon, 2016 ), studies explored the meditational role of work engagement in the link between leadership and work outcomes were insignificant. In connection to work engagement mediation between leadership behaviour and work outcomes, findings of the study are directing to quality of leader-subordinate relationships ( Agarwal et al., 2012 ), transformational leadership ( Salanova et al., 2011 ) and employees affective commitment to their immediate supervisor ( Chughtai, 2013 ) as antecedent factors.

Thus, specifically, in the present study the researchers proposed and tested a model in which work engagement partly mediates relationship between leadership styles (focusing on the pattern of behavior of leaders’ exhibited) and work outcomes labelled by task performance and innovative work behavior. Hence, the conceptual model used in the study is depicted in Figure 1 .

Research model.

Besides, the study also examined the associations among variables of the study and the mediation of work engagement in link between leaders’ style and work outcomes in two independent samples of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) professionals from Ethiopia and South Korea to test for soundness of suggested assumptions across the nations.

2. An overview of the study context

The participants of the study were professional ICT staffs working for for-profit companies engaged in ICT businesses in the two countries: Ethiopia and South Korea. Ethiopia is situated in the Horn of Africa; it has the second biggest populace in the continent, with more than 102 million occupants; however it has the most minimal per capita income ( Ethiopia, 2018 ). Be that as it may, Ethiopia's economy has developed at a remarkable rate over the previous decade. As the International Monetary Fund (2016) revealed, the nation has had a great record of achievement of development and poverty decrease lately and it is portrayed as one of the fastest developing economies on the planet.

With respect to Ethiopia's work culture, on the continuum of Hofstede's dimensions of culture—power distance, collectivism vs. individualism, femininity vs. masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance—it is characterized by a large power distance, tight social ties and collective action, masculine characteristics, and high uncertainty avoidance ( Beyene et al., 2016 ). Thus, in Ethiopian work culture, it appeared that power centralization is prevalent. Subordinates inclined to be told what to do and managers are expected to be influential and powerful. However, as Wasbeek (2004) indicated, individualism, masculinity, and a long-term orientation have been budding, specifically among the young and educated employees in Ethiopia.

South Korea, on the other hand, is an East Asian country on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula and is home to more than 51 million people. South Korea is the fourth biggest economy in Asia and the eleventh biggest on the planet ( South Korea, 2018 ).

When South Korean culture is examined, regarding power distance, it is a slightly hierarchical society with a collectivist nature and feminine as South Koreans are low on masculine/feminine dimension. Regarding uncertainty avoidance, South Korea might be taken as one of the most uncertainty avoiding countries, where people show a convincing enthusiastic prerequisite for rules, value time, and have an internal tendency to be involved and buckle down. Besides, South Korea's score on long-term orientation is at 100, showing that it is a highly pragmatic and long-term-oriented society ( Compare Countries—Hofstede Insights, n.d. ).

Nevertheless, as Yim (2002) indicated, Korean customary culture has in slight change, and to some level giving way to Western influx. Rapid socioeconomic transformation and the apparently indiscriminate inflow of Western culture were accounted for the change.

3. Previous research and hypotheses

3.1. leadership styles and work-related outcomes.

Leadership is the most commonly discussed topic in the organizational sciences. Lines of research may be delineated along three major approaches: trait, behavioral and inspirational. Trait theorists seek to identify a set of universal leadership traits whereas behaviorists focused on behaviors exhibited by specific leaders. Inspirational approach deliberated on leader as one who moves adherents through their words, thoughts and conduct ( Robbins et al., 2009 ). As Carasco-Saul et al. (2015) suggested in the 1970s and 1980s, the charismatic leadership concept emerged, emphasizing that a charisma leader, a leader who inspires, attracts and influences followers by their personal qualities are considered effective. A typical characteristic of charismatic leadership is that it has the ability to motivate subordinates to concede to goals by imparting a vision, displaying charming behavior, and being a powerful model.

As part of neo-charismatic movement, full range leadership theory, which is also referred to as the Full Range Leadership Theory of Bass and Avolio's distinguished three groups of leaders in behaviors/styles: transformational, transactional and laissez-faire ( Avolio et al., 1999 ; Bass and Riggio, 2006 ; Judge and Piccolo, 2004 ; Solomon, 2016 ). The theory defines a complete range of influencing styles from influential transformational leadership to laissez-faire style.

Based on a review of various studies, Vincent-Hoper et al. (2012) portrayed transformational leaders as managers who advance and propel their followers by anticipating and communicating appealing visions, common goals, and shared values, as well as by setting an illustration of the requested behavior. Facets of transformational leadership are: idealized influence (idealized attribution and idealized behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration ( Bass and Avolio, 1994 ; Bass and Riggo, 2006 ).

Transactional leadership contains among other things, an exchange process (between leader & follower) that results in adherent compliance to leader demands, but it is not expected to create zeal and commitment to an errand objective ( Trottier et al., 2008 ). The transactional leadership style constituted a constructive style labeled “contingent reward” and a corrective style labeled “management-by-exception.”

The last style is laissez-faire, which is characterized by non-involvement, showing indifference, being absent when needed, overlooking achievements and problems as well. It is a style of leadership in which leaders offer very little direction and allow group members to make decisions on their own ( Bass and Riggio, 2006 ; Koech & Namusonge, 2012 ; Solomon, 2016 ).

Several studies (e.g., Judge and Piccolo, 2004 ; Pourbarkhordari et al., 2016 ; Solomon, 2016 ) examined the influence of leadership styles on a number of employee work outcomes critical to an organization's productivity and effectiveness, such as job satisfaction, commitment, performance, and motivation. Judge and Piccolo (2004) carried out a comprehensive meta-analytic review of studies that employed a complete range of leadership from influential transformational to influential laissez-faire style to test their relative validity in predicting a number of leadership criteria: follower job satisfaction, follower satisfaction with the leader, follower motivation, leader job performance, group or organizational performance, and leader effectiveness. The researchers found out an overall positive relationship for transformational leadership and transactional leadership (contingent rewards), but a negative overall relationship between laissez-faire style and the criteria considered.

Other researches in broad leadership literature (e.g, Bass and Avolio, 1994 ; Hayward et al., 2003 ; Kotter, 1988 ; Meyer and Botha, 2000 ) elucidated that transformational leadership style is the most successful in enhancing employee performance and other characteristics. In the studies, transformational leadership is positively related with a range of workplace desirable behaviour such as individual employee's performance, satisfaction and organizational performance. For instance, in South African pharmaceutical industry, Hayward et al., 2003 ) found a significant positive linear relationship between transformational leadership and employee performance but not for transactional leadership and employee performance. In Ethiopian education sector, Solomon (2016) reported positive association of both transformational and transactional styles of leadership with employees' performance while the relations of laissez-fair style with employees' performance failed to reach significance level. Khan et al. (2012) examined leadership styles (transformational, transactional & laissez-fair) assessed with Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, as indicator variables in predicting innovative work behaviour and found out that both transformational and transactional leadership styles had positive relationship while laissez-faire had negative relationship with innovative work behaviour.

In general, it appears that transformational leadership style seems prominent in enhancing employees' work performance and other characteristics such as innovative behavior. The qualities of transformational leaders such as providing intellectual stimulation, inspiring followers through setting appealing vision and setting higher expectations maintains it effectiveness in organizational settings. Moreover, the motivational aspect and the fact that leaders serve as role model make this style to have profound influence on employees’ work outcomes. Because of the goal oriented nature of Transactional leaders focusing on expectations and recognizing achievement characteristics may positively initiate workers to exert higher levels of effort and performance Ejere and Abasilim (2013) ; Bass and Riggio (2006) . Based on the above discussion, the followings were hypothesized:

Transformational leadership style is positively related to (a) innovative work behavior and (b) task performance.

Transactional leadership style is positively related to (a) innovative work behavior and (b) task performance.

Laissez-faire style of leadership is negatively related to (a) innovative work behavior and (b) task performance.

Transformational leadership style is positively related to work engagement.

Transactional leadership style is positively related to work engagement.

Laissez-faire leadership style is negatively related to work engagement.

3.2. Mediating role of work engagement

Kahn (1990) presented an early interpretation of engagement, which conceptualized it as personal involvement in the workplace reflecting a condition in which workers "bring in" their personal selves during job performance, expend personal energy and feel an emotional connection to their jobs. According to Kahn, engaged employees dedicate themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances, while disengaged ones withdraw and guard themselves in all aspects (physically, cognitively & emotionally)in the course of role performances.

Based on Kahn's work, researchers—particularly those from the occupational health psychology fields further illuminate the concept of engagement. Early works based themselves on burnout model to clarify the concept of employee engagement ( Maslach and Leiter, 1997 ; Maslach et al., 2001 ). To Maslach and Leiter, for instance, elements of engagement are energy, involvement, and efficacy, which are in stark contrast to the three burnout dimensions: exhaustion, cynicism, and lack of accomplishment, respectively. In the same burnout framework, an alternative view that considered work engagement as a unique concept stands by its own and negatively related to burnout appeared. As a concept by its own right work engagement, consequently, defined as a positive, fulfilling, work related state of mind characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption ( Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá and Bakker, 2002 ). Here, Vigor refers to a high amount of drive and mental toughness while working, a willingness to invest effort in one's work, and sustain the determination even in the face of challenges. Dedication refers to a robust engagement in one's work and experiencing a sense of purpose and being enthusiastic, and absorption refers to fully and happily absorbed in one's work, such that time passes without notice while on work.

Despite some criticisms on confounding nature of some sub-constructs, the Schaufeli et al., 2002a , Schaufeli et al., 2002b model is hailed as a representative conceptualization of engagement and has been widely used in many fields ( Jeung, 2011 ).

The distinctive essence of work engagement was described in various works using constructs, such as employee engagement, job engagement, and role engagement in line with Kahn's conceptualization ( Rich, Lepine & Crawford, 2010 ; Rothbard, 2001 ; Saks, 2006 ). Among the different terms for engagement, work engagement and employee engagement are frequently and sometimes interchangeably used in literature. However the two terms vary in range in that work engagement focuses on the relationship between an individual employee and his or her work, while employee engagement applies to the relationships between the employee and the work and between the employee and the organization ( Schaufeli and Bakker, 2010 ). In the current study, since the focus was on the specific relationship between an individual employee and his her work, the term “work engagement” and conceptualization of Schaufeli et al., 2002a , Schaufeli et al., 2002b which connotes work engagement as ‘ a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption ’ was utilized.

Regarding the links among leadership styles, work engagement, and employee outcome behaviors, a closer look at the related literature showed that the quality of leader–subordinate relationships (LMX), empowering leadership, and transformational leadership behavior were the most frequently discussed topics ( Agarwal et al., 2012 ; Park et al., 2013 ; Zhang and Bartol, 2010 ). For instance, Agarwal et al. (2012) pointed out that the excellence of leader-member exchange influences engagement, and work engagement in turn correlates positively with innovative work behavior and negatively with intention to quit. The researchers asserted the meditational role of work engagement in the relationship between LMX as predictor and innovative work behavior and intention to quit as outcomes.

Park et al. (2013) also investigated the mediating effect of work engagement on the relationship between learning organizations and innovative behavior in the Korean context. The researchers found that a culture of learning organizations characterized by a positive learning environment, specific learning processes and procedures, and premeditated leadership behaviors through work engagement had direct and indirect impacts on the innovative work behaviors of employees.

In connection to transformational leadership and its link with various individual/organizational outcome behaviors, the mediating role of work engagement has been documented in various studies. Work engagement was found to mediate the link between transformational leadership and employees’ subjective occupational success designated by career satisfaction, social and career successes ( Vincent-Höper et al., 2012 ), staff nurse extra-role performance ( Salanova et al., 2011 ), organizational performance ( Evelyn and Hazel, 2015 ), and organizational knowledge creation practices ( Song et al., 2012 ). Thus, the researchers hypothesized:

Work engagement is positively related to (a) innovative work behavior and (b) task performance.

Work engagement partly mediates the relationship between leadership styles and work outcomes (task performance & innovative work behavior).

3.3. Cross-national aspects of leadership styles and work engagement

Despite some authors' claims that leadership styles are common across cultures, results are inconsistent with the degree to which leadership styles reign and their impact across cultures on followers. Shahin and Wright (2004) investigated the appropriateness of Bass and Avolio's leadership model in non-western country such as Egypt. They found that only certain factors that were considered as ideal leadership styles corresponded with U.S. factors, suggesting the influence of culture in labeling best leadership. Contrary to this finding, Walumbwa et al. (2007) made comparison based on data from China, India, Kenya, and the U.S. and found a robust manifestation of transformational and/or transactional leadership in these countries.

Ardichvili and Kuchinke (2002) carried out a comparative study on leadership styles and cultural values of managerial and non-managerial employees across culture by taking into account 10 business organizations in Russia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Germany, and the U.S., countries that differ widely in socio-economic and political orientation. The researchers elucidated that cross-cultural human resource development matters cannot be seen in terms of simplified dichotomies of East and West or developed versus developing economies.

In terms of the influences of leadership styles on work outcomes, it appeared that transformational-related behavior of leaders had a universally positive impact on followers’ behaviors ( Dorfman et al., 1997 ; Walumbwa et al., 2005 ). For instance, Walumbwa et al. (2005) examined influence of transformational leadership on two work-related attitudes: organizational commitment and job satisfaction based on data from Kenya and the U.S. and obtained its strong positive effect on both indicators and in both countries. Dunn et al. (2012) also reported similar results on the association of transformational leadership with organizational commitment based on data collected from two countries: the U.S. and Israel.

With regard to work engagement as a psychological construct, cross-cultural investigations are scant. However, existing evidence reveals invariance in the construct—at least, in Western countries. For instance, Schaufeli et al., 2002a , Schaufeli et al., 2002b observed the invariance of the UWES, consisting of vigor, dedication, and absorption, on a sample of students from three countries: Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands. Salanova and Schaufeli (2008) also reported the mediation model of work engagement in the link between job resources and managers’ proactive behavior at work in two independent samples drawn from Spain and the Netherland reflecting the consistence of the assertion across culture. In the current study, hence it was hypothesized that:

The proposed relationships among study variables and thus the interceding of work engagement between leadership styles and work outcomes are consistent for the two national samples.

4. Materials and method

The study partly used a cross-sectional method of online survey research. As pointed out by Nasbary (2000) , using an electronic format for a survey study does not pose any threat to the validity or reliability of the survey results, but rather has advantages such as low cost and rapid delivery.

4.1. Participants’ selection procedure

The target population for the study comprised of full-time professional ICT staff (with at least a college education) from for-profit companies engaged in ICT-related activities in Ethiopia and South Korea. Professionals in the ICT field were chosen mainly because of their crucial role in modern economic development in the least developed and advanced countries. Furthermore, the online survey was easily accessible due to their frequent contact to the internet. Additionally, selecting single industry enabled researchers to minimize errors emanating from industry-type. To collect data, Amharic (for Ethiopians) and Korean (for Koreans) versions of questionnaires were utilized for the study. In South Koreaa a survey company administered the questionnaire using random sampling approach in March–April, 2018. Using the company database, the questionnaire was sent to 500 staff, of which 300 replied. In Ethiopia, however, considering network quality and poor habit of using web, a hard-copy questionnaire was administered to 200 professionals selected by availability sampling in which 151 usable data were obtained. During data screening, nine extreme outliers (below or above 1.5 interquartile ranges of Q 1 & Q 3 respectively . ) from South Korea and four from Ethiopia were removed. Thus, the analyses were based on 291 (Males = 229 [78.7%], Females = 62 [21.3%]) participants from South Korea and 147 (Males = 98 [66.7%], Females = 49 [33.3%]) from Ethiopia.

The School Scientific Committee for Research and Publication (School of Humanities & Social Sciences, Adama Science & Technology University) approved the proposal of the study. The purpose of the research was also clearly explained for the participants to obtain their consent for participation.

For the South Korean participants, the average age was 37 years, with 58 being the highest age and 24 the lowest. The average tenure was seven years. Qualification wise, 16 (5.5%) had a diploma, 226 (77.7%) a bachelor’ degree, 43 (14.8%) a master's degree, and six (2.1%) were PhD holders. With respect to work position, 182 (62.5%) worked as staff, while 95 (32.6%) and 14 (4.8%) South Korean participants worked as team leaders and department heads respectively. A total of 176 (59.5%) worked for companies engaged in software development, followed by 86 (29.1%) who worked in telecom services. For the Ethiopian participants, the average age was 32, with 21 being the lowest age and 55 the highest. Average work experience was 5.6 years. In terms of educational qualifications, four (2.1%) had a diploma, 110 (74.8%) a first degree, 31 (21.1%) a second degree, and 2 (1.4%) of them were third degree holders. With regard to their work position, 129 (87.8%) worked as staff, while 12 (8.2%) and 6 (4.8%) of the Ethiopian participants worked as team leaders and department heads respectively. Most of (80%) the Ethiopian participants work for a telecom service company.

4.2. Measures

The study variables were measured using extensively used and validated instruments.

4.2.1. Leadership style

To measure the three leadership styles, participants ' impressions of the leadership behavior of their immediate supervisor were retrieved using the short form of the Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X), a measure built based on the full range leadership model of Avolio and Bass ( Avolio et al., 1999 ) and commonly used and evaluated in different cultures ( Trottier et al., 2008 ; Solomon, 2016 ). The short form of the MLQ 5X consists of 36 items measuring nine outcomes of leadership: idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence (behavioral), inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, contingent rewards, management-by-exception (active), management-by-exception (passive), and laissez-faire. The response are rated using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 “not at all” to 4 “frequently, if not always.”

4.2.2. Work engagement

The UWES which was initially designed by Schaufeli et al., 2002a , Schaufeli et al., 2002b and subsequently reviewed by Schaufeli et al. (2006) , has been used to measure the level of work engagement of the individual employees The scale was validated in many studies ( Schaufeli and Bakker, 2010 ) and utilized in non-Western countries such as South Korea ( Kim, 2014 ; Song et al., 2012 ). The short form of UWES is called the UWES-9; it has nine items, three for each dimension: vigor, dedication, and absorption. It is a self-report scale. All items of the UWES-9 were presented with a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (“never”) to 6 (“always”). Through analyzing data from various countries via CFA and test-retest reliability, Schaufeli et al. (2006) reported that the Cronbach's alpha for the UWES-9 ranged between 0 .85 and 0.92. Besides, other studies also confirmed its acceptable applicability in terms of the items' homogeneity and the construct factor structure (e.g., Park et al., 2013 ; Seppala et al., 2009 ).

4.2.3. Innovative work behavior

Innovative work behavior was measured using Janssen (2000) 9-item test with a 7-point Likert scale ranging from (1) “never” to (7) “always.” The instrument measures three aspects of innovative work behavior: breeding a new idea, gaining support from others for its implementation, and turning an idea into an application. The respondents were asked how often creative tasks relevant to these three fields were performed. To create measure of innovative work behavior, scores of the three aspects were summed up. With respect to its internal consistency, Agarwal et al. (2012) , reported Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.92.

4.2.4. Task performance

In order to assess in-role task performance, a three-item self-report scale which is utilized widely in recent studies (e.g., Kim, 2014 ), has been used. Responses were recorded on seven-point Likert scale ranging from (1) “strongly disagree” to (7) “strongly agree.” Drawing on review of different studies that had employed the scale, Kim (2014) reported its reliability ranging from 0.77 to 0.87.

All the scales that became part of the questionnaire used in this analysis were in English. Hence, to suit the current study, forward-then-backward translation procedures (English to Amharic and English to Korean) were performed on all instruments by independent bilingual professionals. This procedure ensures linguistic equivalence between the original language of the instrument and the language used for its administration ( McGorry, 2000 ).

4.3. Data analysis

In order to examine the data, descriptive statistics, Cronbach's alpha, Pearson's product momentum correlation, and linear multiple regression analysis were employed. To assess the amount of variability explained by the predictors, coefficient of determination ( R 2 ) and to determine the magnitude of the path effects, standardized path coefficient estimates were considered. For the sake of comparison, analyses were made for the two national samples separately.

Prior to the analyses, basic assumptions of multivariate data analysis such as normality, linearity, and multicollinearity were tested. Data from the two national samples showed approximately normal distributions. The assumption of linearity was also met. With respect to multicollinearity, the high bivariate correlation between transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style, particularly for South Korean participants, resulted in a relatively high variance inflation factor (VIF) of 5.33 for the variable transactional leadership worrisome as per the suggestion by Hair et al. (2010) .

5.1. Descriptive analyses

Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for the variables included in the study are presented in Table 1 . The bivariate correlations are indicated by a Pearson's product momentum correlation coefficient ( r) . Among the background factors, weak negative correlations between sex and work engagement ( r = - 0.18, p < 0.01) and sex and task performance ( r = -0.17, p < 0.01) were obtained for the South Korean sample, while for Ethiopia they failed to reach significance. Work position was weakly negatively correlated with work engagement ( r = -0.22, p < 0.01 for South Korea and r = -0.16, p < 0.05 for Ethiopia) and innovative work behavior ( r = -0.19, p < 0.01 for South Korea and r = -0 .24, p < 0.01 for Ethiopia). Transformational and transactional leadership styles were positively correlated with work engagement and indicators of work outcomes in both countries, with the exception of the relationship between the transactional leadership style and work engagement in Ethiopia, which failed to reach significance. Laissez-faire leadership was weakly positively correlated with work engagement ( r = 0.13, p < 0.05) and innovative work behavior ( r = 0.17, p < 0.01) in South Korea, while in Ethiopia it was negatively correlated with work engagement ( r = -0.21, p < 0.05) and innovative work behavior ( r = -0.16, p < 0.05). Its correlation with task performance failed to reach the significance level in both countries. Work engagement was moderately positively related with measures of outcome indicators —innovative work behavior ( r = 0.57, p < 0.01, and r = 0.66, p < 0.01) and task performance ( r = 0.46 , p < 0.01, and r = 0.54, p < 0.01) for Ethiopia and South Korea, respectively. With respect to internal consistency, all measures for both samples demonstrated traditionally acceptable internal reliability levels ( α ranged from 0.77 to 0.95).

Table 1

Bivariate correlation, mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and internal consistencies (Cronbach'sα) of the study variables for the South Korean (n = 291) and Ethiopian (n = 147) samples.

Notes: ∗p < .05, ∗∗p < .01 (two tailed).

The coding scheme was as follows: Gender: 1 = male, 2 = female; Education: 1 = diploma, 2 = BSc, 3 = MSc, 4 = PhD; work position: 1 = director/division head/assistant head, 2 = team leader, 3 = staff.

TRF - transformational, TRA - transactional, LAF - laissez-faire, WE - work engagement, IWB - innovative work behavior, TP - task performance.

Values below the diagonals are correlation coefficients for the South Korean sample, while those above the diagonals are values for the Ethiopian sample, along with internal consistency measures (Cronbach's alpha values).

5.2. Influence of leadership styles on work-related behaviors

To ascertain the proposed hypotheses related to the relationships between leadership styles and the measures of work outcomes and work engagement, a series of multiple linear regression analyses was performed, in which each indicator of work outcomes and work engagement was regressed on styles of leadership consecutively for the two countries separately. In the analyses, the background variables of the participants were controlled to remove their effects. As shown in Table 2 , the outputs indicated that the three leadership styles taken together explained a significant amount of the variability in innovative work behavior (Δ R 2 = 0.26, F (8,138) = 8.82 , p < 0.01 for Ethiopia; Δ R 2 = 0.48, F (8,182) = 47.1, p < 0.01 for South Korea), task performance (Δ R 2 = 0.20, F (8,138) = 5.55, p < .0.05 for Ethiopia; Δ R 2 = 0.21, F (8,182) = 10.46, p < 0.01 for South Korea), and work engagement (Δ R 2 = 0.24, F (8,138) = 8.82, p < 0.01 for Ethiopia; Δ R 2 = 0.32, F (8,182) = 23.2, p < 0.01 for South Korea). However, when the path coefficient estimates were taken into account, the path effects of the transformational leadership style on innovative work behavior ( β = 0.47, p < 0.01 for Ethiopia; β = 0. 54, p < 0. 01 for South Korea) and work engagement ( β = 0.52, p < 0.01 for Ethiopia; β = 0.45, p < 0.01 for South Korea) were significant, while its effect on task performance failed to reach the significance level in both countries. The effect of the transactional leadership style was significant only for task performance ( β = 0.29, p < 0. 01 for Ethiopia; β = 0.35, p < 0.01 for South Korea), not for innovative work behavior. Similarly, laissez-faire leadership's negative effect also reached significance level for task performance only ( β = -0.19, p < 0.05 for Ethiopia; β = - 0.17, p < 0.01 for South Korea).

Table 2

Regression results for predicting innovative work behavior, task performance, and work engagement from leadership styles.

Notes: ∗p < .05, ∗∗p < .01 (two tailed). ETH - Ethiopia, KOR - South Korea.

The results in Table 2 provided support for H1 (a), H2 (b), H3 (b), and H4 but not for H5 and H6 .

To test the hypothesis related to the relationship between work engagement and the measures of work outcomes: innovative work behavior and task performance were regressed on work engagement consecutively and separately for the two countries. The results in Table 3 showed that a significant proportion of the variance in innovative work behavior (Δ R 2 = 0.28, F (6,140) = 13.10, p < 0.01 for Ethiopia; Δ R 2 = 0.38, F (6,140) = 38.04, p < 0.01 for South Korea) and task performance (Δ R 2 = 0.18, F (6,140) = 6.74, p < 0.01 for Ethiopia; Δ R 2 = 0. 29, F (6,284) = 21.95, p < 0 .01 for South Korea) were explained by work engagement. The standardized path coefficients of work engagement on innovative work behavior ( β = 0.56, p < 0.01 and β = 0.64, p < 0.01) and on task performance ( β = 0. 45, p < 0.01 and β = 0.56, p < 0.01) for Ethiopia and South Korea, respectively, indicated positive and significant relationships of work engagement with innovative work behavior and task performance and thus provided support for H7 .

Table 3

Regression results for predicting innovative work behavior and task performance from work engagement.

Note: ∗p < .05, ∗∗p < .01 (two tailed).

5.3. Mediational role of work engagement

In testing the hypothesis related to the partial mediational role of work engagement in the link between leadership styles and indicators of outcome behavior, as per Baron and Kenny's (1986) suggestion, certain conditions need to be met for mediation establishment. First, the predictor variable(s) had to be related to the mediator variable. Second, the mediator had to be related to the predicted variable(s). Third, a significant relationship between the predictor variable(s) and predicted variable(s) was to be reduced for partial mediation to operate when controlling for the mediator variable. As described earlier, the first two conditions were partly met. Thus, for the mediation test, the two indicators of work outcomes were regressed over leadership styles consecutively while controlling for background factors and work engagement. As the results in Table 4 showed, the amount of variance in innovative work behavior explained by leadership styles was reduced from 26% to 9% ( Δ R 2 = 0. 09, F (9,137) = 12.56, p < 0.01) for Ethiopia and from 48% to 16% (Δ R 2 = 0.16, F (9,281) = 48.62, p < 0.01) for South Korea, while for task performance reduction was from 20% to 10% (Δ R 2 = .10, F (9,137) = 7.63, p < 0.01) for Ethiopia and from 21% to 4% (Δ R 2 = 0.04, F (9,281) = 17.44, p < 0.01) for South Korea. Thus, H8 is supported.

Table 4

Regression results for predicting work outcomes (innovative work behavior and task performance) from leadership styles while controlling work engagement.

With respect to hypothesis 9, (nature of relationships & mediation model across the two national samples), the separately presented results elucidated that the relationships among styles of leadership, work engagement and work outcomes were more or less consistent across Ethiopia and South Korea samples. Work engagement also partly mediated the relationship between leadership styles and work outcomes in both samples. Hence, H9 is supported.

6. Discussion

The present study investigated relationships among leadership styles, employee work engagement and some indicators of work outcomes and tested a mediation model of work engagement in the link between styles of leadership and work outcomes among ICT professionals. The model viewed leadership styles (the behavior of leaders varying from powerful transformation to "non-leadership") as antecedent to work engagement and innovative work behavior and task performance were taken as work outcomes. It also investigated the nature of relationships among variables and cross-national validity of the proposed model in two independent samples from Ethiopia and South Korea, countries that differ in their social, cultural, economic, and technological levels. The obtained results were as follows:

First, the transformational leadership style had significant positive relationships with employees' work engagement and innovative work behavior, while the transactional leadership style had a significant positive relationship with employee task performance. Laissez-faire leadership had a significant negative relationship with task performance. These associations were consistent across the two national samples. The assumed positive links of transformational leadership style with task performance and transactional leadership style with employees’ innovative work behavior, and the negative relationship of the laissez-faire style with innovative behavior were not supported in both national samples. The relationships obtained have shown that leaders who stimulate and inspire followers by articulating visions, goals, and shared values and engaged in building capacity via coaching and challenging employees promote innovative behavior, while leaders who emphasize compliance of followers through supervision may have influence on task performance.

Second, as expected, work engagement had significant positive relationships with the indicators of work outcomes (innovative work behavior and task performance) among ICT professionals in both countries. This suggests that, employees who psychologically identify with their work or “bring in” their personal selves to work, devoting and experiencing an emotional connection to their work, appear to be innovative and put discretionary effort into performance of tasks.

Third, work engagement partially mediated the relationships between leadership styles and indicators of outcomes. Specifically, the relationship between transformational leadership and professionals’ innovative work behavior was partially mediated by work engagement in both countries. This implies that transformational leaders influence innovative behavior of staff directly and indirectly through influencing their level of work engagement.

Work outcomes such as task performance and innovative work behavior are influenced by a number of factors of which leadership is an important one. Consistent to current study results, previous studies (e.g. Khan et al., 2012 ; Ejere and Abasilim, 2013 ; Judge and Piccolo, 2004 ; Solomon, 2016 ) underscored the significant contributions of transactional and transformational styles of leadership for employees’ performance.

Specifically, the association of transformational leadership style with innovative work behavior and transactional leadership style with task performance observed in the current study may be explained in terms of peculiar characteristics of these styles. With respect to innovative work behaviour, transformational leadership style is considered as a suitable style of leadership as in this style followers are encouraged to commence new ideas and challenge old ways of doing things ( Bass and Avolio, 2000 ). For innovative behaviour transformational leaders' behaviour such as being role model by engaging in needed change, stimulating followers to challenge the status quo and be inspirational while leading others are all vital qualities. In addition, transformative leadership style demanding alignment of the needs and desires of followers with the organization's one ( Bass, 1999 ), may encourage employees to go additional mile necessary for creative behaviour. On the other hand, transactional leadership can be argued to be significant for task performance of employees' as it is focused more on immediate outcomes, monitor performance and correct mistakes. Additionally, transactional leaders make clear expectations and give feedback about meeting expectations may push employees to focus on tasks listed in job description.

The findings related to linkages among leadership styles, work engagement and work outcomes obtained in the current study are also consistent with some earlier studies (e.g., Bakker and Bal, 2010 ; Salanova et al., 2011 ; Song et al., 2012 ). Bakker and Bal (2010) reported on weekly work engagement as a predictor of performance among starting teachers. With respect to leadership styles, Song et al. (2012) affirmed the significant impact of transformational leadership on employee work engagement and organizational knowledge creation practices, and partial mediation of employee work engagement in the link between those two constructs. Salanova et al. (2011) also reported a relationship between transformational leadership and work engagement where, contrary to the findings of the current study, work engagement fully mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and nurses’ extra-role performance.

The observed mediation of work engagement across independent samples found in the current study is also consistent with some previous studies ( Dorfman et al., 1997 ; Walumbwa et al., 2005 ; Salanova and Schaufeli, 2008 ). While the consistency of the mediation model observed here across the two independent national samples does not justify either its utility or its contribution, it may add confidence in the generalizability of the findings.

6.1. Implications

The results of this study have some theoretical and practical implications in HR-related fields for researchers and practitioners. The study provides insights into the ongoing investigations of correlates of employees' work engagement. In particular, the study may shed light on the nature of associations among leadership styles, work engagement, and critical work outcomes such as task performance and innovative work behavior among ICT professionals. It may also disentangle the role of transformational leadership, particularly when it comes to employees personally committing themselves to role performance and innovation efforts. Besides, the study elucidated the cross-national aspect of the relationships among the variables it considered. Despite a number of background differences, it appeared that styles of leadership had more or less similar links with work engagement and outcome behaviors among participants from Ethiopia and South Korea. Specifically, the invariance in the mediating role of work engagement in the link between transformational leadership and employees’ discretionary actions with respect to idea generation, promotion, and realization among ICT professionals working in different countries solidify the existing understanding of the importance of this leadership style.

Practically, the results of the study highlight the need to improve leadership by applying a transformational style, as it is essential for organizations to have ICT workforces that perform their roles and are willing to demonstrate discretionary efforts. Thus, practitioners in the field should develop strategies and training programs targeting transformational leadership skills such as being supportive and intellectually stimulating, and conveying a vision to employees so that leaders can influence their staff. In particular, to strengthen the ICT sector's human resources in Ethiopia so that it can contribute significantly to the development of the country, more attention should be given to leadership development.

Furthermore, practitioners could closely scrutinize employees' work engagement by assessing it using well-established scales such as the UWES or a locally developed one. For ICT companies to be competitive, collecting information on the work engagement level of staff should be part of employees' opinion surveys, and identifying practices and policies that promote their staff's work engagement behavior is imperative.

6.2. Limitations and future research

Notwithstanding its important theoretical and practical contributions, there are some drawbacks to this study. The cross-sectional research design used primarily did not allow researchers to establish causality among variables. This means that the suggested associations among the variables should not be interpreted as causal relationships, but as associations that suggest causal ordering, which needs to be confirmed by longitudinal research. Secondly, the data for the study were gathered using a self-report questionnaire with its own inherent pros and cons, particularly when it comes to the participants’ assessments of their immediate supervisor. Thirdly, as antecedent variables, the study limited to full range of leadership model consists of transformational, transactional and laissez fair styles. That is, there are also other potential aspects of leadership nature that might be relevant that are not included in the current study. Finally, the relatively high VIF of the transactional leadership style could undermine the role of this variable in the web. Thus, for future research, the researchers suggest a longitudinal research design and outcomes measured through methods other than self-reports.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

Habtamu Kebu Gemeda, Jaesik Lee: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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3. problems students are facing at public k-12 schools.

We asked teachers about how students are doing at their school. Overall, many teachers hold negative views about students’ academic performance and behavior.

• 48% say the academic performance of most students at their school is fair or poor; a third say it’s good and only 17% say it’s excellent or very good.
• 49% say students’ behavior at their school is fair or poor; 35% say it’s good and 13% rate it as excellent or very good.

Teachers in elementary, middle and high schools give similar answers when asked about students’ academic performance. But when it comes to students’ behavior, elementary and middle school teachers are more likely than high school teachers to say it’s fair or poor (51% and 54%, respectively, vs. 43%).

Teachers from high-poverty schools are more likely than those in medium- and low-poverty schools to say the academic performance and behavior of most students at their school are fair or poor.

The differences between high- and low-poverty schools are particularly striking. Most teachers from high-poverty schools say the academic performance (73%) and behavior (64%) of most students at their school are fair or poor. Much smaller shares of teachers from low-poverty schools say the same (27% for academic performance and 37% for behavior).

In turn, teachers from low-poverty schools are far more likely than those from high-poverty schools to say the academic performance and behavior of most students at their school are excellent or very good.

Lasting impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Among those who have been teaching for at least a year, about eight-in-ten teachers say the lasting impact of the pandemic on students’ behavior, academic performance and emotional well-being has been very or somewhat negative. This includes about a third or more saying that the lasting impact has been very negative in each area.

Shares ranging from 11% to 15% of teachers say the pandemic has had no lasting impact on these aspects of students’ lives, or that the impact has been neither positive nor negative. Only about 5% say that the pandemic has had a positive lasting impact on these things.

A smaller majority of teachers (55%) say the pandemic has had a negative impact on the way parents interact with teachers, with 18% saying its lasting impact has been very negative.

These results are mostly consistent across teachers of different grade levels and school poverty levels.

Major problems at school

When we asked teachers about a range of problems that may affect students who attend their school, the following issues top the list:

• Poverty (53% say this is a major problem at their school)
• Chronic absenteeism – that is, students missing a substantial number of school days (49%)
• Anxiety and depression (48%)

One-in-five say bullying is a major problem among students at their school. Smaller shares of teachers point to drug use (14%), school fights (12%), alcohol use (4%) and gangs (3%).

Differences by school level

Similar shares of teachers across grade levels say poverty is a major problem at their school, but other problems are more common in middle or high schools:

• 61% of high school teachers say chronic absenteeism is a major problem at their school, compared with 43% of elementary school teachers and 46% of middle school teachers.
• 69% of high school teachers and 57% of middle school teachers say anxiety and depression are a major problem, compared with 29% of elementary school teachers.
• 34% of middle school teachers say bullying is a major problem, compared with 13% of elementary school teachers and 21% of high school teachers.

Not surprisingly, drug use, school fights, alcohol use and gangs are more likely to be viewed as major problems by secondary school teachers than by those teaching in elementary schools.

Differences by poverty level

Teachers’ views on problems students face at their school also vary by school poverty level.

Majorities of teachers in high- and medium-poverty schools say chronic absenteeism is a major problem where they teach (66% and 58%, respectively). A much smaller share of teachers in low-poverty schools say this (34%).

Bullying, school fights and gangs are viewed as major problems by larger shares of teachers in high-poverty schools than in medium- and low-poverty schools.

When it comes to anxiety and depression, a slightly larger share of teachers in low-poverty schools (51%) than in high-poverty schools (44%) say these are a major problem among students where they teach.  

Discipline practices

About two-thirds of teachers (66%) say that the current discipline practices at their school are very or somewhat mild – including 27% who say they’re very mild. Only 2% say the discipline practices at their school are very or somewhat harsh, while 31% say they are neither harsh nor mild.

We also asked teachers about the amount of influence different groups have when it comes to determining discipline practices at their school.

• 67% say teachers themselves don’t have enough influence. Very few (2%) say teachers have too much influence, and 29% say their influence is about right.

• 31% of teachers say school administrators don’t have enough influence, 22% say they have too much, and 45% say their influence is about right.
• On balance, teachers are more likely to say parents, their state government and the local school board have too much influence rather than not enough influence in determining discipline practices at their school. Still, substantial shares say these groups have about the right amount of influence.

Teachers from low- and medium-poverty schools (46% each) are more likely than those in high-poverty schools (36%) to say parents have too much influence over discipline practices.

In turn, teachers from high-poverty schools (34%) are more likely than those from low- and medium-poverty schools (17% and 18%, respectively) to say that parents don’t have enough influence.

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Table of contents, ‘back to school’ means anytime from late july to after labor day, depending on where in the u.s. you live, among many u.s. children, reading for fun has become less common, federal data shows, most european students learn english in school, for u.s. teens today, summer means more schooling and less leisure time than in the past, about one-in-six u.s. teachers work second jobs – and not just in the summer, most popular.

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SRU recognized several students for research, academic leadership and more at 2024 Celebration of Achievement

From left, Kelli Galbraith was recognized for being Slippery Rock University's  finalist for Syed Ali-Zaidi Award for Academic Excellence by Michael Zieg, SRU’s provost.

April 3, 2024

SLIPPERY ROCK, Pa. — Slippery Rock University recognized several students at its annual Celebration of Achievement awards ceremony, April 2, in the Smith Student Center Ballroom, highlighted by the announcement of SRU's nominee for the Syed Ali-Zaidi Award for Academic Excellence.

Kelli Galbraith, a senior mathematics major from Gibsonia, is SRU's finalist for the Ali-Zaidi award, which is given to a graduating senior in Pennsylvania's State System of Higher Education who exemplifies academic excellence and involvement. A selection committee appointed by the State System chancellor reviews all nominees' accomplishments and selects a winner. The winner will receive $1,000 and will be announced later this month. The award was established by Syed Ali-Zaidi, a charter member of the PASSHE Board of Governors.

Galbraith has a 4.0 grade-point average who presented two research projects in three states earlier this year, including a presentation on fractal dimension applied to human iris recognition, presented at the 2024 Joint Mathematical Meeting, and a case study for support vector machines, decision tree and random forest, presented at the 2023 North American Power Symposium. Last summer, she was an intern with the U.S. Department of Energy Omni Technology Alliance at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee.

Galbraith is also involved with the SRU Honors College and the Math Club and Delight Christian Ministries at SRU.

She plans to pursue her master's degree at SRU in secondary education and enter a teaching career in education at the secondary or college levels.

Other awards presented at the Celebration of Achievement included:

The Outstanding Students in Research , Scholarship or Creative Activity. These awards recognize students from each of SRU's five colleges -- College of Business, College of Education, College of Engineering and Science, College of Health Professions and College of Liberal Arts -- based on their involvement in a variety of research, scholarly and creative projects:

• Jessica Stroh, a graduate student majoring in business administration from Monroeville. Stroh authored a research paper titled "Breaking Through Barriers: Women in Finance" which she presented as a poster during the Spring 2023 Student Research Symposium. This paper explored the lack of female representation in the upper echelons of the finance industry. Stroh furthered her research by looking into careers in the financial services industry over the following summer and through Fall 2023.
• Mitchell McCleary, a senior physical and health education major from Slippery Rock. McCleary has been the most active and accomplished physical and health education undergraduate student in both grant acquisition and scientific research for the last three years. During the 2022 spring semester, he won a $1,500 SRU Student Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activities Grant to research "The Effects of Muscular Power versus Muscular Strength for Upper Body Strength of College Aged Students." He followed that with another grant in the Spring of 2023: the Summer Collaborative Research Experience grant for Community Strength Training: Muscular Power versus Muscular Strength Upper Body Training, for more than $4,000. Mitchell's research has been presented at the SRU's research symposium and nationally at the SHAPE America convention.
• Olivia Kaminski, a junior biology major from New Castle. Kaminski started an extracurricular research project with Stacey Hrizo, professor of biology, in March of 2022, in which they examined if a commonly used pesticide activates stress responses in three different human cell lines. They received an SRU SCORE grant that enabled them to work in the lab during the summer of 2022. Kaminski presented her research at a national meeting, Discover Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, in Seattle, Washington, in March of 2023, and at the SRU Research Symposium in April 2023. During the summer of 2023, Kaminski completed a summer undergraduate research experience with the cardiac program at Washington University of St. Louis Medical School, completing 10 weeks of research on ultrasound data collection for a cardiac research program at the medical school. She then presented her research results at an international cardiac research meeting in Seattle in October 2023.
• Riley Page, a junior recreational therapy major from Windber. Page has assisted in the SRU faculty-student research project comparing the effectiveness of education and seated yoga for fall prevention. His research poster won the 2023 Best Research Poster at the American Therapeutic Recreation Association annual meeting and he is working with SRU faculty members on a full-length research article for the Therapeutic Recreation Journal. Last summer, Page worked in an undergraduate research fellowship at the University of Utah where he was paired into biking buddies to complete shared rides using a side-by-side adaptive bike. He presented a poster at the University of Utah student symposium, and published his research, in an Undergraduate Research Journal.
• Michael LaBella, a senior music education major from Glenshaw. LaBella has received more than $10,000 in grant money while at SRU, including a $1,500 SRU Student Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Grant for the implementation of SRU Bassoon Day that addressed gaps in teachers' knowledge. During the summer of 2022, LaBella secured a $5,000 SRU SCORE grant for a project titled "Music Education in Urban, Suburban, and Rural Schools," in which he conducted Zoom interviews with music educators, and he presented his research at the Pennsylvania Music Educators Association conference in April 2023. He also did research through a SRU Faculty-Student Research grant, worth $5,000, for a field experience immersion in music project in New Mexico. He is currently working on a book about the history of the Shaler Area School District Band Program.

The Outstanding Student Academic Leaders . These awards recognize students from each of SRU's five colleges based on their outstanding leadership within an academic department or college:

• Bhodie Cummings, a junior dual finance and economics major from Warren. Cummings is co-president of the Finance and Economics Club at SRU. He and other executive board members have revived the club, holding bi-weekly meetings, coordinating field trips, and organizing activities including guest speaker events and Google certificate signups.
• Heaven Jacoway, a junior elementary education/early childhood major from Sharon. Jacoway has demonstrated leadership in the Jump Start Program, as a peer leader for the FYRST seminar, and a RockTeach Ambassador who actively goes to schools, presents research, and leads groups of students on campus. 
• Daniel Miller, a senior mathematics major from Pittsburgh. Miller is the president of the Pre-Service Teachers of Mathematics Club at SRU. As president, Miller has both continued the success of the Math Family Nights and organized new outreach opportunities for the club. Miller and several other club members led three mini-mathematics lessons for students at Slippery Rock Elementary School. He has also served as a FYRST Seminar peer leader, tutor in the Mathematics and Statistics Assistance Center and worked as a supplemental instruction tutor.
• Leanne Digman, a junior recreational therapy major from Denver. Digman is the secretary of the Recreational Therapy Club at SRU and has served as a FYRST seminar peer leader for two years. Leanne is the founder and inaugural president of the Interprofessional Education Club, and she ensures the Brain Injury Support Program runs smoothly for participants and their families, as well as the student volunteers. In the RT Research Lab, she has helped organize and facilitate the research process for the falls prevention for older adults research grant. Her research poster won the Best Research Poster Award at the ATRA conference.
• Ericka Morton, a senior dance major from Pittsburgh. Mortan has served as student leader of the Palenque, the SRU Dance Department's outreach and touring company. She currently leads rehearsals, participates in the production of the company's many performances throughout the academic year, and she helps coordinate the touring aspects of the company and serves as the main liaison between the students and the artistic director. She is one of two student directors for the SRU Dance Theatre company, and she served as the student rehearsal director for Martha Graham's historic work "Steps in the Street," and she is currently serving as a student rehearsal director for guest artist Nathan Trice's "Their Speech is Silver, Their Silence is Gold."

The Global Leader Awards. These awards are presented to students who have demonstrated the desire to pursue a truly global education, through committed involvement in the opportunities provided by SRU for global learning, global experiences and meaningful engagement with people from other countries and cultures. The recipients include:

• Kaylee Villanueva Santos, a graduate student in the TESOL program from Kissimmee, Florida. Villanueva Santos participated in a short-term program abroad to Sweden with the College of Education in May 2023 and then took part in a summer 2023 language and culture program in South Korea. She also completed her studies at SRU by student teaching in Madrid, Spain.
• Hailie Moggee, a senior accounting major from Spanish Fort, Alabama. Moggee, who was born and raised in South Africa until age 7, has participated in campus and community initiatives, highlighting her commitment to fostering diversity, inclusion, and mutual respect among her peers. Moggee has served as an International Club Executive Board member at SRU, an international orientation student worker, and a contributor to the Office for Global Engagement.

SRU President's Award recipients , consisting mostly of SRU employees, were also recognized at the Celebration of Achievement.

MEDIA CONTACT: Justin Zackal | 724.738.4854  | [email protected]

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What is Hedging in Academic Writing?  

In academic writing, researchers and scholars need to consider the tonality and sweep of their statements and claims. They need to ask themselves if they are being too aggressive in trying to prove a point or too weak. If you’ve ever struggled to ensure your academic writing sounds confident yet acknowledges the inherent complexities of research, Hedging is a technique that can help you achieve just that.  

Hedging is a linguistic strategy that helps soften the claims and express the degree of uncertainty or certainty that an author wants to convey based on their research and available evidence. In this blog post, we’ll explore what hedging is and why it’s important in academic writing. We’ll also provide practical tips on how to use hedging effectively, including avoiding common mistakes and recognizing the role of context.   

Table of Contents

• What is the importance of hedging in academic writing?  
• How to use hedging in academic writing?  
• Understand context and appropriate usage 
• Use precise and accurate language 
• Provide supporting evidence and justification 
• Seek feedback and peer review 

What is the importance of hedging in academic writing?

The element or degree of uncertainty in academic knowledge and science cannot be overlooked. Hence, making absolute claims in educational and research writing can run counter to the traditional understandings of science as tentative. By employing hedging, academic writers and researchers acknowledge the possibilities for alternative perspectives and interpretations. In doing so, researchers and scholars accept the fact that their statements are open to discussions and debates. Hedging also lends credibility to their claims.  

Consider the following statements:  

‘Eating more than four eggs a day causes heart disease’ or  

‘People who rise early remain alert throughout the day.’  

These statements sow seeds of doubt or lead to many questions among readers. However, they can be made more flexible and open to discussion by adding words like ‘probably’ and ‘could.’  

Let’s review the modified sentences again:  

‘Eating more than four eggs a day could cause heart disease’ or  

‘People who rise early probably remain alert throughout the day.’ 1         

How to use hedging in academic writing?

While hedging in academic writing is inevitable, it should not be overused. Researchers must know how to hedge and develop this skill to deliver credible research. The writer can utilize specific hedging devices to make a well-reasoned statement.   

These include the use of grammatical tools like:   

• Verbs such as suggest, tend to seem to indicate. For example, ‘Earlier studies indicate…’  
• Modal auxiliaries such as may, might, can, and could. For example, ‘Industries can make use of …’  
• Adjectives such as much, many, some, perhaps. For example, ‘within some micro-credit groups.’  
• Adverbs such as probably, likely, often, seldom, sometimes.  
• ‘That’ clauses: for example, ‘It is evident that…’  
• Distance – it is helpful to distance oneself from the claims made. For example, you present it in the following ways: ‘Based on the preliminary study…’, ‘On the limited data available…’.  

A combination of such devices may be used to balance the strength of your claims. For example, in double hedging, the statement can be: ‘It seems almost certain that…’.  

However, overuse of hedging can dilute the impact of your arguments. Ideally, hedging should enhance clarity and foster a space for discussion, not create unnecessary ambiguity. 

Edgar Allan Poe, the renowned American writer, encapsulated the essence of doubt with his insightful words: ‘The believer is happy, the doubter is wise.’ This sentiment aptly captures the advantages of employing hedging in academic writing. While robust evidence and data may be the basis of an argument, the practice of hedging ensures that ideas are presented not as overconfident assertions but as credible and considerate viewpoints. Through cautious language, academic writers create an atmosphere of respect and openness. This approach not only acknowledges varied perspectives but also signals to readers that the author is receptive to counterthoughts and alternative viewpoints. It promotes a more prosperous and more inclusive scholarly discourse. Here are some tips for the effective use of hedging in academic writing.   

Tips to leverage hedging in academic writing

Hedging in academic writing isn’t just about softening claims; it’s about strategically conveying the strength of your evidence and fostering a nuanced discussion. Here are some key tips to help you leverage hedging effectively: 

Understand context and appropriate usage

Employing hedging solely for the sake of it can disrupt the flow and result in counterproductive outcomes, potentially inviting unnecessary critique and doubts regarding the credibility of the work. 2 The very purpose of hedging is to balance the tone of your claims such that it does not appear overconfident or too weak, so you need to be conscious of the context and hedge appropriately. So, how do you use a cautious tone through hedging? To express a balanced tone in the claims, you need to use a mix of hedging devices to convey low to high certainty about your claims. For example, for low certainty, words used can be ‘may, could, might’; for medium certainty, words such as ‘likely, appears to, generally’; and high certainty words such as ‘must, should, undoubtedly.’ It all depends on the evidence you have at hand.  

Use precise and accurate language

The use of precise and accurate language is critical, particularly the use of the right strength of the hedging device based on the evidence you have. Be careful that the claims are not presented as too weak such that they defeat your main argument and idea. It is important to remember that hedging requires refined linguistic skills. For instance, when employing hedging words such as ‘possibly’ and ‘probably,’ it is crucial to understand their subtle distinctions. ‘Possibly’ should be reserved for situations where an outcome is within the realm of feasibility – ‘The weather data shows that it will likely rain tomorrow.’ On the other hand, ‘probably’ indicates a higher likelihood, albeit without absolute certainty – ‘The latest weather data shows it will probably rain next week.’   

Provide supporting evidence and justification

When you provide supporting evidence and justification, you will be able to express the degree of certainty more clearly and also recognize what is less specific. Be careful not to generalize or make categorical statements without any supporting evidence. Neglecting the responsibility to substantiate statements with information dilutes their impact. Embracing data not only imparts accuracy and precision to claims but also bolsters their credibility. Further, the use of hedging in academic writing helps communicate the claim clearly based on evidence at the time of doing research and writing. It acknowledges that situations can change, and discoveries may be made at a later date.   

Seek feedback and peer review

It is always recommended to have your work read thoroughly by a third person or a colleague/faculty member. Outside feedback and a peer review process can highlight specific areas in your work that may require a certain degree of improvement or refinement. By actively seeking feedback, a distinct message is conveyed – the willingness to expose ideas to the crucible of critical assessment. This proactive approach not only signals a receptivity to constructive insights but also exemplifies scholarly integrity that places value on the collective pursuit of knowledge. In embracing this feedback loop, the practice of hedging not only upholds the ethos of academic rigour but also creates an ecosystem of continuous improvement and growth.  

Hedging is a linguistic tool that reflects a willingness to embrace diverse perspectives in the pursuit of knowledge. As academicians navigate their respective fields, hedging emerges as an ally, facilitating a nuanced discourse that pushes the boundaries of scholarship forward.  

References:   

• IELTS Task 2 essays: formal writing (hedging) – https://ieltsetc.com/2020/12/hedging-in-academic-writing/   
• Hedging in academic writing: Some theoretical problems, Peter Crompton (1997) – https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S088949069700007   

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English major elected to National Humanities Center Leadership Council

• Leslie King

11 Apr 2024

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Adventuresome notions of zookeeping, law enforcing, firefighting, doctoring humans or pets, driving a bus, or owning a shop tantalize many 5-year-olds’ minds. Then adulthood sets in, and people often find themselves pursuing passions different from what they imagined during childhood.

But this is not the case with Julie Deacon.

Why it matters

Since her early childhood, the Virginia Tech junior who is majoring in creative writing and minoring in international studies hoped her path would involve writing. That lifelong dream is finding new validation. The National Humanities Center Leadership Council in November accepted Deacon into its membership.

“Julie is a great example of a dedicated student who knows where she wants to go,” said Laura Belmonte, dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences, “and with her love of writing and journalism, she is the perfect ambassador for the humanities when it comes to representing Virginia Tech in this highly competitive role on the leadership council.”

The leadership council, housed in the nonprofit National Humanities Center at Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, helps prepare select students with humanities-based leadership skills. These young scholars are from institutions that are center sponsors. Universities nominate them to the council ranks.

Elected students participate in round tables and discussion sessions about the importance of humanistic perspectives in addressing the concerns of contemporary society. They then embark on a semester-long research project, which they will present at a symposium later in the year. After this, they work on other initiatives and career development.

War zone research

Deacon’s focus with her research project involves the extent to which journalism is justifiable in war zones, examining different perspectives on peace coverage and its benefits and detriments.

She will interview journalists and spend time in historical collections.

“In terms of the main focus for the research project, I’ll be able to utilize a lot of past information in archives for firsthand accounts. The American Red Cross archive database has a lot of information on war journalists and peace coverage, as does the National Archives,” she said. “I can use these archives to help build my research project with information from United States wars and worldwide conflicts that involved journalists living on assignment in war zones, and hopefully I’ll be able to get first-hand references from different established journalists. There are so many more resources than I ever thought there would be about such a focused topic.”

Although she is not sure she will pursue this avenue of journalism, she became intrigued with the idea after talking to editor Michael Marshall at the Crozet Gazette, a community newspaper in Virginia where Deacon works as a freelance writer. When she first met him, he mentioned wanting to be a foreign correspondent at the start of his career. Deacon thought that sounded fascinating.

“It’s such an interesting perspective,” she said. “When we think about war, of course our minds naturally go to those directly involved in the fighting, but there are also those who report news and development to the general public. Media and communication are so influenced by how events are reported, where they’re reported, and who’s reporting them. I thought that’d be an interesting topic to dive into, and everything came together to make the role of journalism in war zones the focus of this research project. I’m thankful and excited that the National Humanities Center is giving me the resources to pursue it.”

Early career writing

The realities of a war zone are different from the types of journalism prevalent in Deacon’s writing experience. Currently, she is a digital media intern for the Department of Computer Science at Virginia Tech. Prior to this, when she first started at Virginia Tech, she wrote for the Collegiate Times and then segued to the newspaper in Crozet, Virginia.

Deacon also completed a bridge experience internship with the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at Virginia Tech. A bridge experience offers students an experiential learning opportunity, such as an internship, in exchange for credit toward graduation. For this, Deacon revised and edited content for student access and career development.

After deciding to pursue journalism, she began working for the Crozet Gazette in the summer of 2023 and continues to freelance for the publication.

The latter experience is one she finds fulfilling, delighting in opportunities to interact with a wide variety of people. These include  athletes who overcome personal challenges,  business owners, and an 85-year-old who was once a member of the Hollywood Foreign Press who reported on the American entertainment industry for predominantly foreign media markets. With the paper’s small team of seven employees, Deacon considers herself fortunate to be able to write alongside these more seasoned writers and that she can continue working for what started as a summer dream job.

“It’s been such a great experience working for a local paper,” she said. “You find out there’s always something to write and talk about, and interesting people to talk to everywhere you go.”

Humanities forward

Deacon finds her peers on the leadership council just as interesting. From Vanderbilt to Yale, there is a vast, diverse group of majors. These include neuroscience, engineering, the arts, and liberal arts, all engaged in propelling the humanities forward. In an age when STEM fields can dominate discussions of education and career prospects, Deacon’s experience at Virginia Tech and her work with the leadership council have made her optimistic about the enduring value of the humanities.

“I completely understand the desire to major in a discipline with guaranteed high pay and job security, but I don’t think those should be the sole reasons to earn your degree in something,” she said. “In my eyes, I think having the opportunity to come to college and choose how you might want to spend your future is an incredibly fortunate thing that we get to do, and it’s important that you focus on what you enjoy and what truly interests you.”

For Deacon, that career is writing. Her journey is one that bridges the divide between STEM and the humanities and speaks to the role of young leaders shaping a more empathetic and understanding world. 

Jenny Kincaid Boone

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‘Incentives influence research findings,’ business scholar says

A new paper questions McKinsey & Company research purporting to find workforce diversity boosts a company’s bottom line.

The paper examines claims that the racial diversity of company leadership is linked to better financial performance. The authors found “no statistically significant” relationship between the two and said McKinsey used a “flawed” interpretation of data that biased the results.

The consulting firm’s research does not “support the argument that large US public firms can expect on average to deliver improved financial performance if they increase the racial/ethnic diversity of their executives,” the scholars wrote in Econ Journal Watch .

The two papers have garnered more than 1,800 citations.

“In terms of observable influence, on [G]oogle [S]cholar, ‘Diversity Matters’ has been cited 1,214 times and ‘Delivering through diversity’ has been cited 594 times,” Jeremiah Green, an accounting professor at Texas A&M University, said in an email to  The College Fix .

Green told The Fix  that McKinsey “presumably” conducts the research to potentially find justification for its “diversity practices.”

“Given that McKinsey is one of the most respected consulting firms, and that they touted these studies, it must have worked for them,” Green said.

The Fix asked McKinsey’s media team for a response to the authors’ findings but did not receive a response to two emails sent in the past week. McKinsey has not publicly commented on the studies since the paper came out.

Top McKinsey executive Dame Vivian Hunt, who co-authored the four studies, argued against a “meritocratic” system of hiring in a 2020 interview. She now works for healthcare company Optum.

A colorblind standard “isn’t good enough” because it “allows the bias that is in our systems, be they at work or in culture or in society … to perpetuate,” she said. “You have to proactively stand for an antiracism environment, an anti-bias environment, to positively include people who have been historically excluded.”

‘Incentives’ may ‘influence research findings’

The Fix asked Green if there is a conflict of interest when companies study their own diversity initiatives.

“I think there is plenty of evidence that incentives influence research findings,” Green said.

“However, our main point is really that McKinsey could and should do better and that people reading the McKinsey studies can make conclusions for themselves if they understand how they did their research,” Green said.

“In peer reviewed research, I’m pretty sure most peers would have pushed back on how the conclusions and the research design don’t match,” Green told The Fix . “In journals I typically review for[,] they often have a statement related to this, something like ‘are the conclusions accurate and justified by the findings?’”

“In terms of a possible conflict of interest here, that seems obvious,” Green said.

Green and his co-author, accounting Professor John Hand of the University of North Carolina Chapel-Hill, have followed McKinsey’s work for years. Their latest paper expands on a 2021 review of three studies, which similarly found that “caution is warranted in relying on their findings.”

The discredited research as a whole has appeared in mainstream media reporting and prestigious publications such as Harvard Business Review . Corporate leaders and federal agencies have cited the studies as a basis for decision-making.

In a 2017 report, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence argued for diversifying intelligence agencies while referencing McKinsey’s “Why Diversity Matters” study.

“Committing to diversity and inclusion isn’t just the right thing to do; it is linked to measurable improvements in business performance,” the document says.

The Biden administration also used McKinsey studies to push for “diversity, equity, and inclusion” efforts in the United States military, The Daily Wire reported.

MORE: Disputed race research totals more than 3,000 citations

IMAGE: McKinsey & Company; Bezruk;  College Fix edits

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