write an essay on buddhist philosophy

Essay on Buddhism

Students are often asked to write an essay on Buddhism in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Buddhism

Introduction to buddhism.

Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that emerged from the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) around 2,500 years ago in India. It emphasizes personal spiritual development and the attainment of a deep insight into the true nature of life.

Key Beliefs of Buddhism

Buddhism’s main beliefs include the Four Noble Truths, which explain suffering and how to overcome it, and the Noble Eightfold Path, a guide to moral and mindful living.

Buddhist Practices

Buddhist practices like meditation and mindfulness help followers to understand themselves and the world. It encourages love, kindness, and compassion towards all beings.

Impact of Buddhism

Buddhism has greatly influenced cultures worldwide, promoting peace, non-violence, and harmony. It’s a path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of reality.

250 Words Essay on Buddhism

Buddhism, a major world religion, emerged from the profound teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a prince from the Indian subcontinent, around the 5th century BCE. It is not merely a religion but a philosophy and a way of life, focusing on the alleviation of suffering.

The Four Noble Truths

At the heart of Buddhism lie the Four Noble Truths. The first truth recognizes the existence of suffering (Dukkha). The second identifies the cause of suffering, primarily desire or attachment (Samudaya). The third truth, cessation (Nirodha), asserts that ending this desire eliminates suffering. The fourth, the path (Magga), outlines the Eightfold Path as a guide to achieve this cessation.

The Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path, as prescribed by Buddha, is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing individuals from attachments and delusions; ultimately leading to understanding, compassion, and enlightenment (Nirvana). The path includes Right Understanding, Right Intent, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

Buddhists practice meditation and mindfulness to achieve clarity and tranquility of mind. They follow the Five Precepts, basic ethical guidelines to refrain from harming living beings, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication.

Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of reality. It encourages individuals to lead a moral life, be mindful and aware of thoughts and actions, and to develop wisdom and understanding. The ultimate goal is the attainment of enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of rebirth and death.

500 Words Essay on Buddhism

Introduction.

Buddhism, a religion and philosophy that emerged from the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), has become a spiritual path followed by millions worldwide. It is a system of thought that offers practical methodologies and profound insights into the nature of existence.

The Life of Buddha

The Buddha, born in the 5th century BCE in Lumbini (present-day Nepal), was a prince who renounced his royal comforts in search of truth. After years of rigorous ascetic practices and meditation, he attained ‘Enlightenment’ under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India. His teachings, known as ‘Dhamma,’ are centered around the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, providing a roadmap to end suffering and achieve Nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths are the cornerstone of Buddhism. They outline the nature of suffering (Dukkha), its origin (Samudaya), its cessation (Nirodha), and the path leading to its cessation (Magga). These truths present a pragmatic approach, asserting that suffering is an inherent part of existence, but it can be overcome by following the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path, as taught by Buddha, is a practical guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing individuals from attachments and delusions, ultimately leading to understanding, compassion, and enlightenment. It includes Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

Buddhist Schools of Thought

Buddhism evolved into various schools of thought, each interpreting Buddha’s teachings differently. The two main branches are Theravada, often considered the closest to the original teachings, and Mahayana, which includes Zen, Pure Land, and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayana, often considered part of Mahayana, incorporates esoteric practices and is dominant in Tibet.

Buddhism and Modern Science

The compatibility of Buddhism with modern science has been a topic of interest in recent years. Concepts like impermanence, interconnectedness, and the nature of consciousness in Buddhism resonate with findings in quantum physics, neuroscience, and psychology. This convergence has led to the development of fields like neurodharma and contemplative science, exploring the impact of meditation and mindfulness on the human brain.

Buddhism, with its profound philosophical insights and practical methodologies, continues to influence millions of people worldwide. Its teachings provide a framework for understanding the nature of existence, leading to compassion, wisdom, and ultimately, liberation. As we delve deeper into the realms of modern science, the Buddhist worldview continues to offer valuable perspectives, underscoring its enduring relevance in our contemporary world.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

Essay on Books
Essay on Bipolar Disorder
Essay on Biology

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

One Comment

Easy to understand thank u😍😍🙏🙏🙏

Bibliography

Academic tools.

Friends PDF Preview
Author and Citation Info
Back to Top

The Buddha (fl. circa 450 BCE) is the individual whose teachings form the basis of the Buddhist tradition. These teachings, preserved in texts known as the Nikāyas or Āgamas , concern the quest for liberation from suffering. While the ultimate aim of the Buddha’s teachings is thus to help individuals attain the good life, his analysis of the source of suffering centrally involves claims concerning the nature of persons, as well as how we acquire knowledge about the world and our place in it. These teachings formed the basis of a philosophical tradition that developed and defended a variety of sophisticated theories in metaphysics and epistemology.

1. Buddha as Philosopher

2. core teachings, 3. non-self, 4. karma and rebirth, 5. attitude toward reason, primary sources, secondary sources, other internet resources, related entries.

This entry concerns the historical individual, traditionally called Gautama, who is identified by modern scholars as the founder of Buddhism. According to Buddhist teachings, there have been other buddhas in the past, and there will be yet more in the future. The title ‘Buddha’, which literally means ‘awakened’, is conferred on an individual who discovers the path to nirvana, the cessation of suffering, and propagates that discovery so that others may also achieve nirvana. This entry will follow modern scholarship in taking an agnostic stance on the question of whether there have been other buddhas, and likewise for questions concerning the superhuman status and powers that some Buddhists attribute to buddhas. The concern of this entry is just those aspects of the thought of the historical individual Gautama that bear on the development of the Buddhist philosophical tradition.

The Buddha will here be treated as a philosopher. To so treat him is controversial, but before coming to why that should be so, let us first rehearse those basic aspects of the Buddha’s life and teachings that are relatively non-controversial. Tradition has it that Gautama lived to age 80. Up until recently his dates were thought to be approximately 560–480 BCE, but many scholars now hold that he must have died around 405 BCE. He was born into a family of some wealth and power, members of the Śākya clan, in the area of the present border between India and Nepal. The story is that in early adulthood he abandoned his comfortable life as a householder (as well as his wife and young son) in order to seek a solution to the problem of existential suffering. He first took up with a number of different wandering ascetics ( śramanas ) who claimed to know the path to liberation from suffering. Finding their teachings unsatisfactory, he struck out on his own, and through a combination of insight and meditational practice attained the state of enlightenment ( bodhi ) which is said to represent the cessation of all further suffering. He then devoted the remaining 45 years of his life to teaching others the insights and techniques that had led him to this achievement.

Gautama could himself be classified as one of the śramanas . That there existed such a phenomenon as the śramanas tells us that there was some degree of dissatisfaction with the customary religious practices then prevailing in the Gangetic basin of North India. These practices consisted largely in the rituals and sacrifices prescribed in the Vedas. Among the śramanas there were many, including the Buddha, who rejected the authority of the Vedas as definitive pronouncements on the nature of the world and our place in it (and for this reason are called ‘heterodox’). But within the Vedic canon itself there is a stratum of (comparatively late) texts, the Upaniṣads , that likewise displays disaffection with Brahmin ritualism. Among the new ideas that figure in these (‘orthodox’) texts, as well as in the teachings of those heterodox śramanas whose doctrines are known to us, are the following: that sentient beings (including humans, non-human animals, gods, and the inhabitants of various hells) undergo rebirth; that rebirth is governed by the causal laws of karma (good actions cause pleasant fruit for the agent, evil actions cause unpleasant fruit, etc.); that continual rebirth is inherently unsatisfactory; that there is an ideal state for sentient beings involving liberation from the cycle of rebirth; and that attaining this state requires overcoming ignorance concerning one’s true identity. Various views are offered concerning this ignorance and how to overcome it. The Bhagavad Gītā (classified by some orthodox schools as an Upaniṣad ) lists four such methods, and discusses at least two separate views concerning our identity: that there is a plurality of distinct selves, each being the true agent of a person’s actions and the bearer of karmic merit and demerit but existing separately from the body and its associated states; and that there is just one self, of the nature of pure consciousness (a ‘witness’) and identical with the essence of the cosmos, Brahman or pure undifferentiated Being.

The Buddha agreed with those of his contemporaries embarked on the same soteriological project that it is ignorance about our identity that is responsible for suffering. What sets his teachings apart (at this level of analysis) lies in what he says that ignorance consists in: the conceit that there is an ‘I’ and a ‘mine’. This is the famous Buddhist teaching of non-self ( anātman ). And it is with this teaching that the controversy begins concerning whether Gautama may legitimately be represented as a philosopher. First there are those (e.g. Albahari 2006) who (correctly) point out that the Buddha never categorically denies the existence of a self that transcends what is empirically given, namely the five skandhas or psychophysical elements. While the Buddha does deny that any of the psychophysical elements is a self, these interpreters claim that he at least leaves open the possibility that there is a self that is transcendent in the sense of being non-empirical. To this it may be objected that all of classical Indian philosophy—Buddhist and orthodox alike—understood the Buddha to have denied the self tout court . To this it is sometimes replied that the later philosophical tradition simply got the Buddha wrong, at least in part because the Buddha sought to indicate something that cannot be grasped through the exercise of philosophical rationality. On this interpretation, the Buddha should be seen not as a proponent of the philosophical methods of analysis and argumentation, but rather as one who sees those methods as obstacles to final release.

Another reason one sometimes encounters for denying that the Buddha is a philosopher is that he rejects the characteristically philosophical activity of theorizing about matters that lack evident practical application. On this interpretation as well, those later Buddhist thinkers who did go in for the construction of theories about the ultimate nature of everything simply failed to heed or properly appreciate the Buddha’s advice that we avoid theorizing for its own sake and confine our attention to those matters that are directly relevant to liberation from suffering. On this view the teaching of non-self is not a bit of metaphysics, just some practical advice to the effect that we should avoid identifying with things that are transitory and so bound to yield dissatisfaction. What both interpretations share is the assumption that it is possible to arrive at what the Buddha himself thought without relying on the understanding of his teachings developed in the subsequent Buddhist philosophical tradition.

This assumption may be questioned. Our knowledge of the Buddha’s teachings comes by way of texts that were not written down until several centuries after his death, are in languages (Pāli, and Chinese translations of Sanskrit) other than the one he is likely to have spoken, and disagree in important respects. The first difficulty may not be as serious as it seems, given that the Buddha’s discourses were probably rehearsed shortly after his death and preserved through oral transmission until the time they were committed to writing. And the second need not be insuperable either. (See, e.g., Cousins 2022.) But the third is troubling, in that it suggests textual transmission involved processes of insertion and deletion in aid of one side or another in sectarian disputes. Our ancient sources attest to this: one will encounter a dispute among Buddhist thinkers where one side cites some utterance of the Buddha in support of their position, only to have the other side respond that the text from which the quotation is taken is not universally recognized as authoritatively the word of the Buddha. This suggests that our record of the Buddha’s teaching may be colored by the philosophical elaboration of those teachings propounded by later thinkers in the Buddhist tradition.

Some scholars (e.g., Gombrich 2009, Shulman 2014) are more sanguine than others about the possibility of overcoming this difficulty, and thereby getting at what the Buddha himself had thought, as opposed to what later Buddhist philosophers thought he had thought. No position will be taken on this dispute here. We will be treating the Buddha’s thought as it was understood within the later philosophical tradition that he had inspired. The resulting interpretation may or may not be faithful to his intentions. It is at least logically possible that he believed there to be a transcendent self that can only be known by mystical intuition, or that the exercise of philosophical rationality leads only to sterile theorizing and away from real emancipation. What we can say with some assurance is that this is not how the Buddhist philosophical tradition understood him. It is their understanding that will be the subject of this essay.

The Buddha’s basic teachings are usually summarized using the device of the Four Nobles’ Truths:

There is suffering.
There is the origination of suffering.
There is the cessation of suffering.
There is a path to the cessation of suffering.

The first of these claims might seem obvious, even when ‘suffering’ is understood to mean not mere pain but existential suffering, the sort of frustration, alienation and despair that arise out of our experience of transitoriness. But there are said to be different levels of appreciation of this truth, some quite subtle and difficult to attain; the highest of these is said to involve the realization that everything is of the nature of suffering. Perhaps it is sufficient for present purposes to point out that while this is not the implausible claim that all of life’s states and events are necessarily experienced as unsatisfactory, still the realization that all (oneself included) is impermanent can undermine a precondition for real enjoyment of the events in a life: that such events are meaningful by virtue of their having a place in an open-ended narrative.

It is with the development and elaboration of (2) that substantive philosophical controversy begins. (2) is the simple claim that there are causes and conditions for the arising of suffering. (3) then makes the obvious point that if the origination of suffering depends on causes, future suffering can be prevented by bringing about the cessation of those causes. (4) specifies a set of techniques that are said to be effective in such cessation. Much then hangs on the correct identification of the causes of suffering. The answer is traditionally spelled out in a list consisting of twelve links in a causal chain that begins with ignorance and ends with suffering (represented by the states of old age, disease and death). Modern scholarship has established that this list is a later compilation. For the texts that claim to convey the Buddha’s own teachings give two slightly different formulations of this list, and shorter formulations containing only some of the twelve items are also found in the texts. But it seems safe to say that the Buddha taught an analysis of the origins of suffering roughly along the following lines: given the existence of a fully functioning assemblage of psychophysical elements (the parts that make up a sentient being), ignorance concerning the three characteristics of sentient existence—suffering, impermanence and non-self—will lead, in the course of normal interactions with the environment, to appropriation (the identification of certain elements as ‘I’ and ‘mine’). This leads in turn to the formation of attachments, in the form of desire and aversion, and the strengthening of ignorance concerning the true nature of sentient existence. These ensure future rebirth, and thus future instances of old age, disease and death, in a potentially unending cycle.

The key to escape from this cycle is said to lie in realization of the truth about sentient existence—that it is characterized by suffering, impermanence and non-self. But this realization is not easily achieved, since acts of appropriation have already made desire, aversion and ignorance deeply entrenched habits of mind. Thus the measures specified in (4) include various forms of training designed to replace such habits with others that are more conducive to seeing things as they are. Among these is training in meditation, which serves among other things as a way of enhancing one’s observational abilities with respect to one’s own psychological states. Insight is cultivated through the use of these newly developed observational powers, as informed by knowledge acquired through the exercise of philosophical rationality. There is a debate in the later tradition as to whether final release can be attained through theoretical insight alone, through meditation alone, or only by using both techniques. Ch’an, for instance, is based on the premise that enlightenment can be attained through meditation alone, whereas Theravāda advocates using both but also holds that analysis alone may be sufficient for some. (This disagreement begins with a dispute over how to interpret D I.77–84; see Cousins 2022, 81–6.) The third option seems the most plausible, but the first is certainly of some interest given its suggestion that one can attain the ideal state for humans just by doing philosophy.

The Buddha seems to have held (2) to constitute the core of his discovery. He calls his teachings a ‘middle path’ between two extreme views, and it is this claim concerning the causal origins of suffering that he identifies as the key to avoiding those extremes. The extremes are eternalism, the view that persons are eternal, and annihilationism, the view that persons go utterly out of existence (usually understood to mean at death, though a term still shorter than one lifetime is not ruled out). It will be apparent that eternalism requires the existence of the sort of self that the Buddha denies. What is not immediately evident is why the denial of such a self is not tantamount to the claim that the person is annihilated at death (or even sooner, depending on just how impermanent one takes the psychophysical elements to be). The solution to this puzzle lies in the fact that eternalism and annihilationism both share the presupposition that there is an ‘I’ whose existence might either extend beyond death or terminate at death. The idea of the ‘middle path’ is that all of life’s continuities can be explained in terms of facts about a causal series of psychophysical elements. There being nothing more than a succession of these impermanent, impersonal events and states, the question of the ultimate fate of this ‘I’, the supposed owner of these elements, simply does not arise.

This reductionist view of sentient beings was later articulated in terms of the distinction between two kinds of truth, conventional and ultimate. Each kind of truth has its own domain of objects, the things that are only conventionally real and the things that are ultimately real respectively. Conventionally real entities are those things that are accepted as real by common sense, but that turn out on further analysis to be wholes compounded out of simpler entities and thus not strictly speaking real at all. The stock example of a conventionally real entity is the chariot, which we take to be real only because it is more convenient, given our interests and cognitive limitations, to have a single name for the parts when assembled in the right way. Since our belief that there are chariots is thus due to our having a certain useful concept, the chariot is said to be a mere conceptual fiction. (This does not, however, mean that all conceptualization is falsification; only concepts that allow of reductive analysis lead to this artificial inflation of our ontology, and thus to a kind of error.) Ultimately real entities are those ultimate parts into which conceptual fictions are analyzable. An ultimately true statement is one that correctly describes how certain ultimately real entities are arranged. A conventionally true statement is one that, given how the ultimately real entities are arranged, would correctly describe certain conceptual fictions if they also existed. The ultimate truth concerning the relevant ultimately real entities helps explain why it should turn out to be useful to accept conventionally true statements (such as ‘King Milinda rode in a chariot’) when the objects described in those statements are mere fictions.

Using this distinction between the two truths, the key insight of the ‘middle path’ may be expressed as follows. The ultimate truth about sentient beings is just that there is a causal series of impermanent, impersonal psychophysical elements. Since these are all impermanent, and lack other properties that would be required of an essence of the person, none of them is a self. But given the right arrangement of such entities in a causal series, it is useful to think of them as making up one thing, a person. It is thus conventionally true that there are persons, things that endure for a lifetime and possibly (if there is rebirth) longer. This is conventionally true because generally speaking there is more overall happiness and less overall pain and suffering when one part of such a series identifies with other parts of the same series. For instance, when the present set of psychophysical elements identifies with future elements, it is less likely to engage in behavior (such as smoking) that results in present pleasure but far greater future pain. The utility of this convention is, however, limited. Past a certain point—namely the point at which we take it too seriously, as more than just a useful fiction—it results in existential suffering. The cessation of suffering is attained by extirpating all sense of an ‘I’ that serves as agent and owner.

The Buddha’s ‘middle path’ strategy can be seen as one of first arguing that since the word ‘I’ is a mere enumerative term like ‘pair’, there is nothing that it genuinely denotes; and then explaining that our erroneous sense of an ‘I’ stems from our employment of the useful fiction represented by the concept of the person. While the second part of this strategy only receives its full articulation in the later development of the theory of two truths, the first part can be found in the Buddha’s own teachings, in the form of several philosophical arguments for non-self. Best known among these is the argument from impermanence (S III.66–8), which has this basic structure:

It is the fact that this argument does not contain a premise explicitly asserting that the five skandhas (classes of psychophysical element) are exhaustive of the constituents of persons, plus the fact that these are all said to be empirically observable, that leads some to claim that the Buddha did not intend to deny the existence of a self tout court . There is, however, evidence that the Buddha was generally hostile toward attempts to establish the existence of unobservable entities. In the Pohapāda Sutta (D I.178–203), for instance, the Buddha compares someone who posits an unseen seer in order to explain our introspective awareness of cognitions, to a man who has conceived a longing for the most beautiful woman in the world based solely on the thought that such a woman must surely exist. And in the Tevijja Sutta (D I.235–52), the Buddha rejects the claim of certain Brahmins to know the path to oneness with Brahman, on the grounds that no one has actually observed this Brahman. This makes more plausible the assumption that the argument has as an implicit premise the claim that there is no more to the person than the five skandhas .

Premise (1) appears to be based on the assumption that persons undergo rebirth, together with the thought that one function of a self would be to account for diachronic personal identity. By ‘permanent’ is here meant continued existence over at least several lives. This is shown by the fact that the Buddha rules out the body as a self on the grounds that the body exists for just one lifetime. (This also demonstrates that the Buddha did not mean by ‘impermanent’ what some later Buddhist philosophers meant, viz., existing for just a moment; the Buddhist doctrine of momentariness represents a later development.) The mental entities that make up the remaining four types of psychophysical element might seem like more promising candidates, but these are ruled out on the grounds that these all originate in dependence on contact between sense faculty and object, and last no longer than a particular sense-object-contact event. That he listed five kinds of psychophysical element, and not just one, shows that the Buddha embraced a kind of dualism. But this strategy for demonstrating the impermanence of the psychological elements shows that his dualism was not the sort of mind-body dualism familiar from substance ontologies like those of Descartes and of the Nyāya school of orthodox Indian philosophy. Instead of seeing the mind as the persisting bearer of such transient events as occurrences of cognition, feeling and volition, he treats ‘mind’ as a kind of aggregate term for bundles of transient mental events. These events being impermanent, they too fail to account for diachronic personal identity in the way in which a self might be expected to.

Another argument for non-self, which might be called the argument from control (S III.66–8), has this structure:

Premise (1) is puzzling. It appears to presuppose that the self should have complete control over itself, so that it would effortlessly adjust its state to its desires. That the self should be thought of as the locus of control is certainly plausible. Those Indian self-theorists who claim that the self is a mere passive witness recognize that the burden of proof is on them to show that the self is not an agent. But it seems implausibly demanding to require of the self that it have complete control over itself. We do not require that vision see itself if it is to see other things. The case of vision suggests an alternative interpretation, however. We might hold that vision does not see itself for the reason that this would violate an irreflexivity principle, to the effect that an entity cannot operate on itself. Indian philosophers who accept this principle cite supportive instances such as the knife that cannot cut itself and the finger-tip that cannot touch itself. If this principle is accepted, then if the self were the locus of control it would follow that it could never exercise this function on itself. A self that was the controller could never find itself in the position of seeking to change its state to one that it deemed more desirable. On this interpretation, the first premise seems to be true. And there is ample evidence that (2) is true: it is difficult to imagine a bodily or psychological state over which one might not wish to exercise control. Consequently, given the assumption that the person is wholly composed of the psychophysical elements, it appears to follow that a self of this description does not exist.

These two arguments appear, then, to give good reason to deny a self that might ground diachronic personal identity and serve as locus of control, given the assumption that there is no more to the person than the empirically given psychophysical elements. But it now becomes something of a puzzle how one is to explain diachronic personal identity and agency. To start with the latter, does the argument from control not suggest that control must be exercised by something other than the psychophysical elements? This was precisely the conclusion of the Sāṃkhya school of orthodox Indian philosophy. One of their arguments for the existence of a self was that it is possible to exercise control over all the empirically given constituents of the person; while they agree with the Buddha that a self is never observed, they take the phenomena of agency to be grounds for positing a self that transcends all possible experience.

This line of objection to the Buddha’s teaching of non-self is more commonly formulated in response to the argument from impermanence, however. Perhaps its most dramatic form is aimed at the Buddha’s acceptance of the doctrines of karma and rebirth. It is clear that the body ceases to exist at death. And given the Buddha’s argument that mental states all originate in dependence on sense-object contact events, it seems no psychological constituent of the person can transmigrate either. Yet the Buddha claims that persons who have not yet achieved enlightenment will be reborn as sentient beings of some sort after they die. If there is no constituent whatever that moves from one life to the next, how could the being in the next life be the same person as the being in this life? This question becomes all the more pointed when it is added that rebirth is governed by karma, something that functions as a kind of cosmic justice: those born into fortunate circumstances do so as a result of good deeds in prior lives, while unpleasant births result from evil past deeds. Such a system of reward and punishment could be just only if the recipient of pleasant or unpleasant karmic fruit is the same person as the agent of the good or evil action. And the opponent finds it incomprehensible how this could be so in the absence of a persisting self.

It is not just classical Indian self-theorists who have found this objection persuasive. Some Buddhists have as well. Among these Buddhists, however, this has led to the rejection not of non-self but of rebirth. (Historically this response was not unknown among East Asian Buddhists, and it is not rare among Western Buddhists today.) The evidence that the Buddha himself accepted rebirth and karma seems quite strong, however. The later tradition would distinguish between two types of discourse in the body of the Buddha’s teachings: those intended for an audience of householders seeking instruction from a sage, and those intended for an audience of monastic renunciates already versed in his teachings. And it would be one thing if his use of the concepts of karma and rebirth were limited to the former. For then such appeals could be explained away as another instance of the Buddha’s pedagogical skill (commonly referred to as upāya ). The idea would be that householders who fail to comply with the most basic demands of morality are not likely (for reasons to be discussed shortly) to make significant progress toward the cessation of suffering, and the teaching of karma and rebirth, even if not strictly speaking true, does give those who accept it a (prudential) reason to be moral. But this sort of ‘noble lie’ justification for the Buddha teaching a doctrine he does not accept fails in the face of the evidence that he also taught it to quite advanced monastics (e.g., A III.33). And what he taught is not the version of karma popular in certain circles today, according to which, for instance, an act done out of hatred makes the agent somewhat more disposed to perform similar actions out of similar motives in the future, which in turn makes negative experiences more likely for the agent. What the Buddha teaches is instead the far stricter view that each action has its own specific consequence for the agent, the hedonic nature of which is determined in accordance with causal laws and in such a way as to require rebirth as long as action continues. So if there is a conflict between the doctrine of non-self and the teaching of karma and rebirth, it is not to be resolved by weakening the Buddha’s commitment to the latter.

The Sanskrit term karma literally means ‘action’. What is nowadays referred to somewhat loosely as the theory of karma is, speaking more strictly, the view that there is a causal relationship between action ( karma ) and ‘fruit’ ( phala ), the latter being an experience of pleasure, pain or indifference for the agent of the action. This is the view that the Buddha appears to have accepted in its most straightforward form. Actions are said to be of three types: bodily, verbal and mental. The Buddha insists, however, that by action is meant not the movement or change involved, but rather the volition or intention that brought about the change. As Gombrich (2009) points out, the Buddha’s insistence on this point reflects the transition from an earlier ritualistic view of action to a view that brings action within the purview of ethics. For it is when actions are seen as subject to moral assessment that intention becomes relevant. One does not, for instance, perform the morally blameworthy action of speaking insultingly to an elder just by making sounds that approximate to the pronunciation of profanities in the presence of an elder; parrots and prelinguistic children can do as much. What matters for moral assessment is the mental state (if any) that produced the bodily, verbal or mental change. And it is the occurrence of these mental states that is said to cause the subsequent occurrence of hedonically good, bad and neutral experiences. More specifically, it is the occurrence of the three ‘defiled’ mental states that brings about karmic fruit. The three defilements ( kleśa s) are desire, aversion and ignorance. And we are told quite specifically (A III.33) that actions performed by an agent in whom these three defilements have been destroyed do not have karmic consequences; such an agent is experiencing their last birth.

Some caution is required in understanding this claim about the defilements. The Buddha seems to be saying that it is possible to act not only without ignorance, but also in the absence of desire or aversion, yet it is difficult to see how there could be intentional action without some positive or negative motivation. To see one’s way around this difficulty, one must realize that by ‘desire’ and ‘aversion’ are meant those positive and negative motives respectively that are colored by ignorance, viz. ignorance concerning suffering, impermanence and non-self. Presumably the enlightened person, while knowing the truth about these matters, can still engage in motivated action. Their actions are not based on the presupposition that there is an ‘I’ for which those actions can have significance. Ignorance concerning these matters perpetuates rebirth, and thus further occasions for existential suffering, by facilitating a motivational structure that reinforces one’s ignorance. We can now see how compliance with common-sense morality could be seen as an initial step on the path to the cessation of suffering. While the presence of ignorance makes all action—even that deemed morally good—karmically potent, those actions commonly considered morally evil are especially powerful reinforcers of ignorance, in that they stem from the assumption that the agent’s welfare is of paramount importance. While recognition of the moral value of others may still involve the conceit that there is an ‘I’, it can nonetheless constitute progress toward dissolution of the sense of self.

This excursus into what the Buddha meant by karma may help us see how his middle path strategy could be used to reply to the objection to non-self from rebirth. That objection was that the reward and punishment generated by karma across lives could never be deserved in the absence of a transmigrating self. The middle path strategy generally involves locating and rejecting an assumption shared by a pair of extreme views. In this case the views will be (1) that the person in the later life deserves the fruit generated by the action in the earlier life, and (2) that this person does not deserve the fruit. One assumption shared by (1) and (2) is that persons deserve reward and punishment depending on the moral character of their actions, and one might deny this assumption. But that would be tantamount to moral nihilism, and a middle path is said to avoid nihilisms (such as annihilationism). A more promising alternative might be to deny that there are ultimately such things as persons that could bear moral properties like desert. This is what the Buddha seems to mean when he asserts that the earlier and the later person are neither the same nor different (S II.62; S II.76; S II.113). Since any two existing things must be either identical or distinct, to say of the two persons that they are neither is to say that strictly speaking they do not exist.

This alternative is more promising because it avoids moral nihilism. For it allows one to assert that persons and their moral properties are conventionally real. To say this is to say that given our interests and cognitive limitations, we do better at achieving our aim—minimizing overall pain and suffering—by acting as though there are persons with morally significant properties. Ultimately there are just impersonal entities and events in causal sequence: ignorance, the sorts of desires that ignorance facilitates, an intention formed on the basis of such a desire, a bodily, verbal or mental action, a feeling of pleasure, pain or indifference, and an occasion of suffering. The claim is that this situation is usefully thought of as, for instance, a person who performs an evil deed due to their ignorance of the true nature of things, receives the unpleasant fruit they deserve in the next life, and suffers through their continuing on the wheel of saṃsāra. It is useful to think of the situation in this way because it helps us locate the appropriate places to intervene to prevent future pain (the evil deed) and future suffering (ignorance).

It is no doubt quite difficult to believe that karma and rebirth exist in the form that the Buddha claims. It is said that their existence can be confirmed by those who have developed the power of retrocognition through advanced yogic technique. But this is of little help to those not already convinced that meditation is a reliable means of knowledge. What can be said with some assurance is that karma and rebirth are not inconsistent with non-self. Rebirth without transmigration is logically possible.

When the Buddha says that a person in one life and the person in another life are neither the same nor different, one’s first response might be to take ‘different’ to mean something other than ‘not the same’. But while this is possible in English given the ambiguity of ‘the same’, it is not possible in the Pāli source, where the Buddha is represented as unambiguously denying both numerical identity and numerical distinctness. This has led some to wonder whether the Buddha does not employ a deviant logic. Such suspicions are strengthened by those cases where the options are not two but four, cases of the so-called tetralemma ( catuṣkoṭi ). For instance, when the Buddha is questioned about the post-mortem status of the enlightened person or arhat (e.g., at M I.483–8) the possibilities are listed as: (1) the arhat continues to exist after death, (2) does not exist after death, (3) both exists and does not exist after death, and (4) neither exists nor does not exist after death. When the Buddha rejects both (1) and (2) we get a repetition of ‘neither the same nor different’. But when he goes on to entertain, and then reject, (3) and (4) the logical difficulties are compounded. Since each of (3) and (4) appears to be formally contradictory, to entertain either is to entertain the possibility that a contradiction might be true. And their denial seems tantamount to affirmation of excluded middle, which is prima facie incompatible with the denial of both (1) and (2). One might wonder whether we are here in the presence of the mystical.

There were some Buddhist philosophers who took ‘neither the same nor different’ in this way. These were the Personalists ( Pudgalavādins ), who were so called because they affirmed the ultimate existence of the person as something named and conceptualized in dependence on the psychophysical elements. They claimed that the person is neither identical with nor distinct from the psychophysical elements. They were prepared to accept, as a consequence, that nothing whatever can be said about the relation between person and elements. But their view was rejected by most Buddhist philosophers, in part on the grounds that it quickly leads to an ineffability paradox: one can say neither that the person’s relation to the elements is inexpressible, nor that it is not inexpressible. The consensus view was instead that the fact that the person can be said to be neither identical with nor distinct from the elements is grounds for taking the person to be a mere conceptual fiction. Concerning the persons in the two lives, they understood the negations involved in ‘neither the same nor different’ to be of the commitmentless variety, i.e., to function like illocutionary negation. If we agree that the statement ‘7 is green’ is semantically ill-formed, on the grounds that abstract objects such as numbers do not have colors, then we might go on to say, ‘Do not say that 7 is green, and do not say that it is not green either’. There is no contradiction here, since the illocutionary negation operator ‘do not say’ generates no commitment to an alternative characterization.

There is also evidence that claims of type (3) involve parameterization. For instance, the claim about the arhat would be that there is some respect in which they can be said to exist after death, and some other respect in which they can be said to no longer exist after death. Entertaining such a proposition does not require that one believe there might be true contradictions. And while claims of type (4) would seem to be logically equivalent to those of type (3) (regardless of whether or not they involve parameterization), the tradition treated this type as asserting that the subject is beyond all conceptualization. To reject the type (4) claim about the arhat is to close off one natural response to the rejections of the first three claims: that the status of the arhat after death transcends rational understanding. That the Buddha rejected all four possibilities concerning this and related questions is not evidence that he employed a deviant logic.

The Buddha’s response to questions like those concerning the arhat is sometimes cited in defense of a different claim about his attitude toward rationality. This is the claim that the Buddha was essentially a pragmatist, someone who rejects philosophical theorizing for its own sake and employs philosophical rationality only to the extent that doing so can help solve the practical problem of eliminating suffering. The Buddha does seem to be embracing something like this attitude when he defends his refusal to answer questions like that about the arhat , or whether the series of lives has a beginning, or whether the living principle ( jīva ) is identical with the body. He calls all the possible views with respect to such questions distractions insofar as answering them would not lead to the cessation of the defilements and thus to the end of suffering. And in a famous simile (M I.429) he compares someone who insists that the Buddha answer these questions to someone who has been wounded by an arrow but will not have the wound treated until they are told who shot the arrow, what sort of wood the arrow is made of, and the like.

Passages such as these surely attest to the great importance the Buddha placed on sharing his insights to help others overcome suffering. But this is consistent with the belief that philosophical rationality may be used to answer questions that lack evident connection with pressing practical concerns. And on at least one occasion the Buddha does just this. Pressed to give his answers to the questions about the arhat and the like, the Buddha first rejects all the possibilities of the tetralemma, and defends his refusal on the grounds that such theories are not conducive to liberation from saṃsāra . But when his questioner shows signs of thereby losing confidence in the value of the Buddha’s teachings about the path to the cessation of suffering, the Buddha responds with the example of a fire that goes out after exhausting its fuel. If one were asked where this fire has gone, the Buddha points out, one could consistently deny that it has gone to the north, to the south, or in any other direction. This is so for the simple reason that the questions ‘Has it gone to the north?’, ‘Has it gone to the south?’, etc., all share the false presupposition that the fire continues to exist. Likewise the questions about the arhat and the like all share the false presupposition that there is such a thing as a person who might either continue to exist after death, cease to exist at death, etc. (Anālayo 2018, 41) The difficulty with these questions is not that they try to extend philosophical rationality beyond its legitimate domain, as the handmaiden of soteriologically useful practice. It is rather that they rest on a false presupposition—something that is disclosed through the employment of philosophical rationality.

A different sort of challenge to the claim that the Buddha valued philosophical rationality for its own sake comes from the role played by authority in Buddhist soteriology. For instance, in the Buddhist tradition one sometimes encounters the claim that only enlightened persons such as the Buddha can know all the details of karmic causation. And to the extent that the moral rules are thought to be determined by the details of karmic causation, this might be taken to mean that our knowledge of the moral rules is dependent on the authority of the Buddha. Again, the subsequent development of Buddhist philosophy seems to have been constrained by the need to make theory compatible with certain key claims of the Buddha. For instance, one school developed an elaborate form of four-dimensionalism, not because of any deep dissatisfaction with presentism, but because they believed the non-existence of the past and the future to be incompatible with the Buddha’s alleged ability to cognize past and future events. And some modern scholars go so far as to wonder whether non-self functions as anything more than a sort of linguistic taboo against the use of words like ‘I’ and ‘self’ in the Buddhist tradition (Collins 1982: 183). The suggestion is that just as in some other religious traditions the views of the founder or the statements of scripture trump all other considerations, including any views arrived at through the free exercise of rational inquiry, so in Buddhism as well there can be at best only a highly constrained arena for the deployment of philosophical rationality.

Now it could be that while this is true of the tradition that developed out of the Buddha’s teachings, the Buddha himself held the unfettered use of rationality in quite high esteem. This would seem to conflict with what he is represented as saying in response to the report that he arrived at his conclusions through reasoning and analysis alone: that such a report is libelous, since he possesses a number of superhuman cognitive powers (M I.68). But at least some scholars take this passage to be not the Buddha’s own words but an expression of later devotionalist concerns (Gombrich 2009: 164). Indeed one does find a spirited discussion within the tradition concerning the question whether the Buddha is omniscient, a discussion that may well reflect competition between Buddhism and those Brahmanical schools that posit an omniscient creator. And at least for the most part the Buddhist tradition is careful not to attribute to the Buddha the sort of omniscience usually ascribed to an all-perfect being: the actual cognition, at any one time, of all truths. Instead a Buddha is said to be omniscient only in the much weaker sense of always having the ability to cognize any individual fact relevant to the soteriological project, viz. the details of their own past lives, the workings of the karmic causal laws, and whether a given individual’s defilements have been extirpated. Moreover, these abilities are said to be ones that a Buddha acquires through a specific course of training, and thus ones that others may reasonably aspire to as well. The attitude of the later tradition seems to be that while one could discover the relevant facts on one’s own, it would be more reasonable to take advantage of the fact that the Buddha has already done all the epistemic labor involved. When we arrive in a new town we could always find our final destination through trial and error, but it would make more sense to ask someone who already knows their way about.

The Buddhist philosophical tradition grew out of earlier efforts to systematize the Buddha’s teachings. Within a century or two of the death of the Buddha, exegetical differences led to debates concerning the Buddha’s true intention on some matter, such as that between the Personalists and others over the status of the person. While the parties to these debates use many of the standard tools and techniques of philosophy, they were still circumscribed by the assumption that the Buddha’s views on the matter at hand are authoritative. In time, however, the discussion widened to include interlocutors representing various Brahmanical systems. Since the latter did not take the Buddha’s word as authoritative, Buddhist thinkers were required to defend their positions in other ways. The resulting debate (which continued for about nine centuries) touched on most of the topics now considered standard in metaphysics, epistemology and philosophy of language, and was characterized by considerable sophistication in philosophical methodology. What the Buddha would have thought of these developments we cannot say with any certainty. What we can say is that many Buddhists have believed that the unfettered exercise of philosophical rationality is quite consistent with his teachings.

Albahari, Miri, 2006, Analytical Buddhism , Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
–––, 2014, ‘Insight Knowledge of No Self in Buddhism: An Epistemic Analysis,’ Philosophers’ Imprint , 14(1), available online .
Anālayo, Bhikkhu, 2018, Rebirth in Early Buddhism and Current research , Cambridge, MA: Wisdom.
Collins, Stephen, 1982, Selfless Persons , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cousins, L. S., 2022, Meditations of the Pali Tradition: Illuminating Buddhist Doctrine, History, and Practice, edited by Sarah Shaw, Boulder, CO: Shambala.
Gethin, Rupert, 1998, The Foun dations of Buddhism , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gombrich, Richard F., 1996, How Buddhism Began , London: Athlone.
–––, 2009, What the Buddha Thought , London: Equinox.
Gowans, Christopher, 2003, Philosophy of the Buddha , London: Routledge.
Harvey, Peter, 1995, The Selfless Mind , Richmond, UK: Curzon.
Jayatilleke, K.N., 1963, Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge , London: George Allen and Unwin.
Rahula, Walpola, 1967, What the Buddha Taught , 2 nd ed., London: Unwin.
Ronkin, Noa, 2005, Early Buddhist Metaphysics , London: Routledge.
Ruegg, David Seyfort, 1977, ‘The Uses of the Four Positions of the Catuṣkoṭi and the Problem of the Description of Reality in Mahāyāna Buddhism,’ Journal of Indian Philosophy , 5: 1–71.
Siderits, Mark, 2021, Buddhism As Philosophy , 2nd edition, Indianapolis: Hackett.
Smith, Douglass and Justin Whitaker, 2016, ‘Reading the Buddha as a Philosopher,’ Philosophy East and West , 66: 515–538.

How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

The Pali Tipitaka , Pali texts
Ten Philosophical Questions to Ask About Buddhism , a series of talks by Richard P. Hayes
Access to Insight , Readings in Theravada Buddhism
Buddhanet , Buddha Dharma Education Association

Accessibility

Support SEP

Mirror sites.

View this site from another server:

Info about mirror sites

Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy Essay

There is much controversy and debate about whether Buddhism is a religion or a philosophy. The first inclination is to say that Buddhism is both a religion and a philosophy. However, after further exploration into Buddhist beliefs, one can conclude that Buddhism can be classified as a religion. Buddhists believe in a higher power and life after death, they have a moral code of ethics, and they perform rituals; these things are the definition of established religion.

One of the biggest problems in defining religion is that there are multiple sources and definitions of religion. Some definitions support Buddhist views; some do not. A compilation of ofvarious definitions regarding religion include the belief in a higher deity, and the implementation of values, traditions, or rituals.

Religion also involves a code of ethics, a common group view of an object or a being, a belief in supernatural powers, and a desire to better oneself. When the definitions are generalized, more facets of Buddhist beliefs can relate to religion. The confusion classification often arises among individual understanding; everyone is entitled to their own personal interpretation of religion (Robinson).

Although Buddhists do not worship a supreme being, they do seek enlightenment. They strive to emulate a set example or a set belief system. Buddhists follow the historical path of enlightenment set by Buddha. His example is a guide for Buddhists personal behavior. Buddhists do not worship Buddha; they strive to be the type of person he once was. Even though Buddhism lacks specific or established rules, guidelines, and historical figures, it emphasizes the need for informed decisions and personal responsibility.

Religion is supposed to be a positive experience. Positive experiences form the basis of a Buddhist belief system. In religion, personal standards are what matter most. The biggest difference between the western idea of religion and Buddhism is that Buddhists believe that an individual is the best indicator of what is good for them personally (Buddhism Beliefs).

Buddhists believe in life after death. They believe that life is a continuous predestined circle, created to reach enlightenment. They strive for their personal best. After death, the Buddhist’s next life will be chosen as a reward or a punishment for their previous life’s actions. When an individual reaches their highest potential, they can reach Nirvana. Nirvana is similar to the Christian view of Heaven.

When an individual becomes the best they can, they will be rewarded with peace and happiness in their next life. Religion is characteristically based upon the belief of a reward system. One difference is that Buddhist’s strive for greater personal happiness, not necessarily the happiness or expectations of others. They believe that the way they live has consequences, good or bad. The consequences are karma; karma is their fate. Karma will be a determining factor in their next life (Buddhism Beliefs).

Buddhists believe in a code of ethics. Buddhists are taught to encourage peace, justice, and love. They are to delight in themselves and are required to treat others the same way. They are not supposed to harm any living thing. This is similar to the Christian idea of doing unto others.

There is a code of morality and a belief in non-violent behavior. Compassion is encouraged in all aspects of life. The rules of conduct, morality, and virtue are based upon the belief of equality. Every living thing is equal and should be treated so; Buddhists are not to harm others or themselves(Robinson).

As another religious similarity, Buddhists have the guidance of the Five Precepts;the content is similar to the Ten Commandments. These precepts are called the rules to live by; they include not killing or harming others, not stealing or lying, not misusing sex, and not consuming drugs or alcohol.

The difference between the two guidelines is that the precepts are meant to be a guide. The precepts are a suggestion for a better life, not an actual requirement of the religion. The precepts are strongly suggested, but there are situations where the details become clouded; people must still have the freedom to do what is right for them and those around them (Robinson).

Buddhism has been called contemplative wisdom.This is because meditation plays a large role in Buddhist beliefs. Meditation is a ritual, a defining factor of established religion. Meditation calms and clears the mind and allows for personal reflection and inspiration. As another religious comparison, meditation is similar to prayer.

Buddhists also pray, but meditation is a deeper look into their soul. Buddhists believe that the mind holds all power; it controls individual thoughts and actions. The mind effects karma, it can heal and strengthen. Self-exploration can lead to increased wisdom and compassion. Nothing in life happens by itself; life is faith (Lewis).

In reality, it does do not matter if Buddhism is labeled as a religion or a philosophy. What is important is that Buddhist followers can strengthen their faith and live their lives in a manner that pleases them. Buddhism has many characteristics of religion; there are enough similarities that it can rightfully be defined as a religion. The belief in a higher power, life after death, a moral code of ethics, and the performance of rituals all combine to create an established religious entity.

Works Cited

Buddhism Beliefs, 2008.

Lewis, G.R. “21 Shin Buddhist Beliefs.” Buddhist Beliefs, Practices and Experiences.

Robinson, B.A. “Buddhism: Comparison of Buddhism & Christianity.” Religious Tolerance.org. 2009. Web.

Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 26). Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy. https://ivypanda.com/essays/buddhism-religion-or-philosophy/

"Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy." IvyPanda , 26 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/buddhism-religion-or-philosophy/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy'. 26 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/buddhism-religion-or-philosophy/.

1. IvyPanda . "Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/buddhism-religion-or-philosophy/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/buddhism-religion-or-philosophy/.

Samurai: Precepts and Ethical Codes
Nirvana and Other Buddhism Concepts
Ethics in the Buddhist Tradition
Buddhism and Hinduism: A Comparative Study
A Conversation With a Buddhist
Buddhism: Analysis of the Religion’s Faith and Practices
World Religions. Buddhism and Its Teaching
Nirvana in Buddhism and Atman in Hinduism
Presenting Christianity to Buddhism
Myanmar Buddhism: Between Controversy and Ecumenism
Protestant, Catholic and Jews Religion Issue
The Shinto Religion in the Ancient Japan
Comparison of Christianity and Islam
Religious Studies - Square Peg: Why Wesleyans Aren’t Fundamentalists
World Religions: Islam and Baha’i

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

We're Hiring!
Help Center

BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. A Bibliographic Essay, Oxford Bibliographies Online, 2010

Related Papers

Joshua Schapiro

Essays of Buddhist Philosophy -I

Wijayawimala Suriyawewa

Collected articles written in Sinhala have uploaded here for the interest of reading the subject.

Routledge Handbook of Indian Buddhist Philosophy

William Edelglass

The Routledge Handbook of Indian Buddhist Philosophy is the first scholarly reference volume to highlight the diversity and individuality of a large number of the most influential philosophers to have contributed to the evolution of Buddhist thought in India. By placing the author at the center of inquiry, the volume highlights the often unrecognized innovation and multiplicity of India’s Buddhist thinkers, whose unique contributions are commonly subsumed in more general doctrinal presentations of philosophical schools. Here, instead, the reader is invited to explore the works and ideas of India’s most important Buddhist philosophers in a manner that takes seriously the weight of their philosophical thought. The forty chapters by an international and interdisciplinary team of renowned contributors each seek to offer both a wide-ranging overview and a philosophically astute reading of the works of the most seminal Indian Buddhist authors from the earliest writings to the twentieth century. The volume thus also provides thorough coverage of all the main figures, texts, traditions, and debates animating Indian Buddhist thought, and as such can serve as an in-depth introduction to Buddhist philosophy in India for those new to the field. Essential reading for students and researchers in Asian and comparative philosophy, The Routledge Handbook of Indian Buddhist Philosophy is also an excellent resource for specialists in Buddhist philosophy, as well as for contemporary philosophers interested in learning about the rigorous and rich traditions of Buddhist philosophy in India.

Ulrich Timme Kragh

Syllabus for seminar (13 students) on Buddhist philosophy, centered on a complete reading of the eighth-century Indian-Tibetan Buddhist treatise Madhyamakalamkara in translation. As a source-text, this treatise provides a good classical survey of several traditions of Buddhist and non-Buddhist Indian philosophy framed in a dialectical Madhyamaka critique. The reading of the primary source served as the basis for further reading in secondary sources and extensive class discussions.

Tadeusz Skorupski

CONTENTS The online pagination 2012 corresponds to the hard copy pagination 1992 Abbreviations............................................................................vii List of Illustrations.....................................................................ix Introduction...............................................................................xi T.H. Barrett Devil’s Valley to Omega Point: Reflections on the Emergence of a Theme from the Nō..............................1 T.H. Barrett Buddhism, Taoism and the Rise of the City Gods................13 L.S. Cousins The ‘Five Points’ and the Origins of the Buddhist Schools...27 P.T. Denwood Some Formative Inf1uences in Mahāyāna Buddhist Art…...61 G. Dorje The rNying-ma Interpretation of Commitment and Vow…..71 Ch.E. Freeman Saṃvṛti, Vyavahāra and Paramārtha inthe Akṣamatinirdeśa and its Commentary by Vasubandhu….................................97 D.N. Gellner Monk, Househo1der and Priest: What the Three Yānas Mean to Newar Buddhists...................................................115 C. Hallisey Councils as Ideas and Events in the Theravāda…………....133 S. Hookham The Practical Implications of the Doctrine of Buddha-nature……................................................................149 R. Mayer Observations on the Tibetan Phur-ba and the Indian Kīla ........................................................................163 K.R. Norman Theravāda Buddhism and Brahmanical Hinduism: Brahmanical Terms in a Buddhist Guise……………..............193 References...............................................................................201

Buddhist Philosophy: Essential Readings

The Buddhist philosophical tradition is vast, internally diverse, and comprises texts written in a variety of canonical languages. It is hence often difficult for those with training in Western philosophy who wish to approach this tradition for the first time to know where to start, and difficult for those who wish to introduce and teach courses in Buddhist philosophy to find suitable textbooks that adequately represent the diversity of the tradition, expose students to important primary texts in reliable translations, that contextualize those texts, and that foreground specifically philosophical issues. Buddhist Philosophy fills that lacuna. It collects important philosophical texts from each major Buddhist tradition. Each text is translated and introduced by a recognized authority in Buddhist studies. Each introduction sets the text in context and introduces the philosophical issues it addresses and arguments it presents, providing a useful and authoritative guide to reading and to teaching the text. The volume is organized into topical sections that reflect the way that Western philosophers think about the structure of the discipline, and each section is introduced by an essay explaining Buddhist approaches to that subject matter, and the place of the texts collected in that section in the enterprise. This volume is an ideal single text for an intermediate or advanced course in Buddhist philosophy, and makes this tradition immediately accessible to the philosopher or student versed in Western philosophy coming to Buddhism for the first time. It is also ideal for the scholar or student of Buddhist studies who is interested specifically in the philosophical dimensions of the Buddhist tradition.

Buddhism in South east Asia

Eric S Nelson

APA Newsletter on Asian and Asian-American Philosophers and Philosophies, Vol. 19, No. 1, Fall 2019. Newark: The American Philosophical Association.

Rafal K. Stepien , Hans-Rudolf Kantor , Mattia Salvini , Matthew Kapstein , Gereon Kopf , Birgit Kellner

This issue on Buddhist Philosophy Today: Theories and Forms and the previous issue on Buddhist Philosophy Worldwide: Perspectives and Programs are two special issues of the APA Newsletter on Asian and Asian-American Philosophers and Philosophies which I was invited to guest edit. They are designed to include descriptive and prescriptive/evaluative elements: On the one hand, scholars working on Buddhist philosophy throughout the world provide a descriptive snapshot of the state of the field in their geographical/disciplinary area; on the other, they proffer an evaluative appraisal of how Buddhist philosophy has been carried out and/or a prescriptive programme of how they feel it should be carried out. This collection of articles by experts of the widest possible spectrum of classical, modern, and contemporary Buddhist philosophical schools working in universities throughout Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America thus comprises both an informed survey of the current state of research and a manifesto for the field. As such, it constitutes an important contribution to the ongoing project by scholars of ‘less commonly taught philosophies’ (including but not limited to Chinese, Indian, Islamic, Africana, and Feminist philosophies) to expand the ambit of professional philosophy beyond the narrow confines of the Western canon. Contributions study Buddhist philosophy based on authorial experience in Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, France, Hong Kong, India, Israel, Japan, Myanmar, Nepal, Poland, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Buddhist Philosophy

Updated 18 October 2023

Subject Buddhism

Downloads 25

Category Religion

Topic Buddha , Faith

Buddhism refers to dharma or religion that encompass a diversity of beliefs, spiritual practices, and traditions majorly based on different teachings accredited to the Buddha which results to interpreted philosophies. Initially, Buddhism originated from Antique India between 6th and 4th

centuries BCE and extended throughout Asia and later declined during the middle ages. The two main branches of Buddhism in existence are usually identified by scholars as Mahayana (Sanskrit: “The Great Vehicle) and Theravada (Pali: “The School of the Elders). Globally, Buddhism is recognized as the 4th

largest religion, with over seven percent of the world’s population or roughly five hundred and twenty million followers which are referred to as Buddhists. Several Buddhist schools differ on the precise temperament of the path to freedom, the significance and canonicity of a variety of scriptures and teachings, particularly their individual practices.

Buddhists often have various practices which include taking shelter in the Buddha, study of scriptures, the Sangha and the Dharma. Other traditions include rejection of attachment and craving, the ceremony of moral precepts, the practice of contemplation inclusive of insight and calm, the nurturing of wisdom, compassion, and loving-kindness, the Vajrayna practices of completion generation stage, as well as the Mahayana practice of bodhicitta. In Theravada, the crucial goal is the termination of kleshas which is defined as the disparaging mental state inclusive of attachment, ignorance, as well as aversion, and the achievement of the inspiring state of Nirvana which is accomplished through the active involvement in the Noble Eightfold Path which was also known as the Middle Way, therefore, evading what is viewed as a loop of suffering along with rebirth. Theravada, as a result, has an extensive following both in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.

Mahayana, which is found throughout East Asia, is an inclusion of the traditions of Nichiren Buddhism, Zen, Pure Land, and Tianta. Mahayana, compared to Nirvana aspire to Buddhahood through the bodhisattva lane, a position whereby an individual remains in the sequence of a renaissance to assist other human beings to reach the point of awakening. A body of teachings accredited to Indian Siddhas known as Vajrayana can be seen as just a third branch or a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which aspires to rainbow body or Buddhahood, conserves the Vajrayana teachings of the 8th Century in India. The practice is majorly carried out in the areas which surround the Mongolia, Himalayas, as well as the Kalmykia. The proofs of early texts on Buddhism which is an Indian religion, suggests that the religion was attributed to the teachings of Buddha, allegedly born Siddhartha Gautama, also referred to as Tathagata.

In the Buddhist sutras, Gautama was touched by the intrinsic anguish of humankind and its never-ending recurrence due to reincarnation and, therefore, set out a mission to finish the repetitive suffering. Untimely Buddhist early biographies and canonical texts of Gautama explain that his first studies were guided by Vedic teachers who were known as Uddaka Ramaputta and Alara Kalama, where he learnt ancient philosophies and meditation, precisely the notion of emptiness and nothingness from the past and whatever is unseen or seen from the latter. When Gautama found the knowledge to be insufficient to achieve his objectives, he turned to the practice of plainness which also did not nurture his goal.

After that, he sorted to the practice of dhyana, contemplation, something he had already found out during his youth. He popularly sat under a Ficus religiosa and meditated and from that, he gained the insights into the deeds of Karma together with his former lives, and he achieved clarification and belief on the Middle Way as the correct path of religious practice to bring an end to suffering from rebirth. The Indian philosophy of Buddhism developed independently and focused on the Heavenly way and the human way as a pair of categories which were very vital (Tang Pg 58).

As an entirely liberal Buddha, he ended up attracting followers and hence after founded Sangha and as a Buddha ended up spending his entire life teaching the Dharma that he had discovered and later died at eighty years old. The teachings of Buddha were propagated by the people who followed him, and through the last centuries of the first millenniums, there were over eighteen sub-schools of thought teaching Buddha. In some of the books, it is stated that Pali tradition Maitreya appears as the future Buddha waiting to be reborn on earth to purify the religion in some distant future (Ch'En and Kuan Sheng pg 16). Each of the school had its own tray of texts which contained various reliable teachings of the Buddha as well interpretations, which evolved into several traditions, whereby, the widespread and famously known in the current times are the Mahayana, Theravada, Buddhism, and Vajrayana.

Confucianism which is also known as Ruism, is described as a religion, tradition, a philosophy, a rationalistic or a humanistic religion, a way of life or a way of governing. The origin of the word Confucians can be traced to the writings of the sixteenth century where the Jesuits used Confucius as the Latin transliteration of Kong Fu Zi (Xinzhong Pg 6). Confucianism came up from what was later named as the Hundred Schools of Thought which were teachings from the Chinese Philosophers Confucius, who regarded himself as a transmitter and codifier of the values and theology inherited from the Shang as well as the Zhou dynasty. According to the Han dynasty, the approaches of the Confucian edged out the Huang-Lao as the authorized philosophy, whilst the emperors mixed both with the pragmatist technique of Legalism.

The revival of the Confucian started during the Tang dynasty whereby according to the late Tang, the Confucianism religion came up in response to Taoism and Buddhism and was later formulated as Neo- Confucianism. This form of reinvigoration was adopted as the major foundation of the imperial exams as well as the central idea of the academic bureaucrat class in the song dynasty. When the elimination of the system of examination in the year 1905 marked a stop to official Confucianism, the philosophers belonging to the New Culture Movement around the early twentieth century held Confucians liable for the weaknesses of China. Therefore, they launched a search for novel doctrines to restore the teachings of the Confucians, and some of the new ideologies in Confucians were Three Principles of the People together with the organization of the Republic of China, and Maoism which is underneath the People’s Republic of China.

Confucian work ethic, in the late 20th century, has been credited with the increase of the East Asian financial system. With a precise emphasis on the fundamentals of the social harmony and family, apart from otherworldly sources of spiritual values, the central part of Confucianism is humanistic. In relation to Hebert Fingarette’s understanding of Confucianism as a religion which considers worldly as consecrated, Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between humanism and religion, bearing in mind the reasonable actions of the life of human beings precisely human relationships as a sign of the sacred since they are the face of humanity’s moral nature. In as much as Tian has some features that partly cover the group of god-heads, it is first and foremost an absolute unfriendly principle like Brahman and Dao. Confucianism majorly focuses on the no-nonsense order that is given by a world wise knowledge of the Tian.

The worldly apprehension of Confucianism relies on the belief that beings are improvable and perfectible, good, and teachable, via individual and public attempt particularly self-creation and self-cultivation. Confucian contemplation focuses on the cultivation of good quality in a morally prearranged globe. Some of the essential Confucian moral concepts and practices which include humaneness or benevolence are the spirit of the human being which manifest as empathy. Customarily, cultures and countries in the East Asian intellectual globe are strongly prejudiced by Confucianism, together with mainland Taiwan, China, Macau, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Hong Kong, and a variety of territories settled mainly by Chinese people, for instance, Singapore.

In the twentieth century, Confucianism’s power greatly diminished and in the previous decades there have been talks of a Confucian Revival in the scholarly and academic society, and there has been proletariat propagation of a variety of Confucian churches. During late 2015, several Confucian personalities officially recognized a national Holy Confucian Church in China to unify the numerous Confucian congregations and civil society communities.

Kenneth Kuan Sheng. Chinese Tranformation of Buddhism. Princeton University Press, 2015.

Tang, Yijie. Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture. Springer, 2015.

Yao, Xinzhong. The Encyclopedia of Confucianism: 2-volume Set. Routledge, 2015.

Deadline is approaching?

Wait no more. Let us write you an essay from scratch

Related Essays

Paragraph on Buddhism

Buddhism is a way of life; it is one of the oldest beliefs practiced by a large population. Religions and beliefs are faith in society. For a better understanding of this ancient religion and belief, we have created some of the important paragraphs mentioned in the below section. Kindly read it as per your need.

Short and Long Paragraphs on Buddhism

Paragraph 1 – 100 words.

Buddhism is one of the oldest religions of the world. It’s a faith, a way of life, and a religion of peace. Buddhism was founded before more than 2,500 years ago in India. Lord Buddha was the founder of Buddhism, it is said that his teachings were the foundation of Buddhism. The path of self-enlightenment can be achieved by meditation and insight.

Lord Buddha showed the world path of spirituality and self-help. He was born as Siddhartha. After his spiritual awakening and a journey of enlightenment he called “Buddha”. The Buddhist devotees focus on the path of enlightenment. They mediate and remind the Buddha and his sermons. Buddhism is an old religion that was evolved in modern-day.

Paragraph 2 – 120 Words

Buddhism is lenient religion; the teachings of Buddha are the base of religion. The Logical teachings given by Lord Buddha is worldwide famous. The devotees of Buddhism practice deep meditation.

Buddhism is different from other religions, as Buddhists believe that there is no personal creator. The individuals should make their own path for their best they can. The Buddhist teachings for life say that:

There are three marks of existence i.e., the concept of impermanent, unsatisfactory, and interdependent. It means that nothing is permanent, nothing can make human tendency truly happy and all things are related to each other. The concept of the Middle way, meditation, Nirvana is the base of Buddhism. Buddhists believe in the path of self-enlightenment and thus they worship Lord Buddha and remember his teachings. However, most of Buddhism ideas are very similar to Hinduism.

Paragraph 3 – 150 Words

Buddhism is predicated on the teachings of Lord Buddha. The roots of Buddhism are from India. It is widely practiced in the Asian region. Buddhism evolved from the ancient period to modern-day. Buddhism is a philosophy a sect that covers the way of spiritual awakening. In Asian subcontinent countries, people follow it religiously. The way of practicing religion might differ in countries.

Lord Buddha was born as Siddhartha Gautama in the royal family of Kapilvastu (current day Indo-Nepalese Border). When prince Siddhartha (Young Buddha) confronted the realities of the world like old age, sickness, birth, death, and rebirth, he concluded that these are the reality of humankind. He became curious to find these answers of truth.

He also felt that the caste system and ruling of the upper caste in society slowly taking over humanity. He decided to leave the luxurious life for finding these answers of truth. He spent 45 years of life in exile.

Paragraph 4 – 200 Words

Buddhism is a belief of self-awakening and spirituality. Buddhists believe that there are three jewels of life that are the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. “Buddha” means the awakened one. Buddhist devotees say “I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha”. They find calmness in these jewels.

Tripitaka is the religious Book of Buddhism. It is written in ancient Indian language Pali. Pali is similar to the language that Buddha used to speak. Buddhists worship in temples, Pagodas, or in Buddhist Monastery. Devotees also worship in homes in front of Lord Buddha statue. They meditate in front of the Lord Buddha statue. Wheel, White lotus, and Lord Buddha images are the symbo0ls of Buddhism.

Buddhism followers worship Lord Buddha and meditate. They make floral offerings, candles, incense sticks, holy water at Buddhist temples. They prefer meditating in peace and they chant verses from their holy book. Buddhists visit temples often on Full Moon day (Purnima).

Vesak or Buddha Purnima is the most important festival of Buddhism. Lord Buddha has a divine aura; he was an extraordinary man who was born for a special purpose. According to scholars, Buddhism is not actually a religion or sect but it is a way of life or a spiritual tradition.

Paragraph 5 – 250 Words

Buddhism is predicated on the teachings of Lord Buddha. He was born in the 6th century in an aristocratic family of Kapilvastu. When he was 21 years old, he left his family and went to spend the rest of life in exile. He traveled across India for finding the real meaning of truth, happiness, and the path of self-awakening. After spending six years in exile, He attained self-enlightenment while meditating under Mahabodhi tree. Gautama Buddha attains Nirvana; his disciples began a religious movement across the world.

There are three types of Buddhism, divided by the cultures of different countries. Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism are the type of Buddhism practiced in the world. Buddhism prohibits the killing of living things, lying, consuming drugs or alcohol, etc.

Common Buddhist Practices includes the hearing and learning the Dharma. Buddhism tells us that one should follow the path of humanity and concentrate on the path of self-enlightenment. Buddhism says that anyone can be Buddha, who is achieved enlightenment. The teachings of Buddhism are different and interpreted differently in different parts of the world. Buddhism states that the sufferings of the world are unavoidable.

By following the noble path, one can found a way from these sufferings of the world. The wheel of Dharma represented in Buddhism depicts the eightfold paths of Buddhism i.e. “Right View, Right Thinking, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Diligence, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration”. By that specialize in these paths one should attain enlightenment. Buddhism also says that everyone has an eternal power that can lead them to be their own enlightenment.

FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions

Ans. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama.

Ans. Buddhism was founded in the late 6th century.

Ans. The population of Buddhists in the World is 535 millions.

Ans. Buddha gave his first sermon in Sarnath Varanasi?

Ans. Bodhi tree is named after Buddha.

Paragraph on moral values, paragraph on republic day of india 2023, paragraph on national festivals of india, paragraph on national flag of india, paragraph on importance of republic day of india, paragraph on education, paragraph on my best friend, paragraph on zoo, paragraph on diwali.

Buddhist Ethics

“Come, let me extol in sweet words of praise The one who’s given up stains and delusions” ~ Snp 5.19

What is buddhist ethics, prerequisites, part 1: foundations, part 2: cultivating virtue, part 3: engaging the world, further reading, advanced courses.

Buddhist Ethics is the training in virtuous conduct beloved by the Noble Ones. Its core principle is non-cruelty: the abstaining from all intentional harm.

The most gross forms of cruelty are the ethical precepts common to all Buddhists and to most other religions besides: the renunciation of killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and intoxication. The Buddha’s instructions, however, continue far beyond such perennial philosophy: to guarding the senses, the development of positive moral character, and (eventually) to the complete eradication of the underlying tendencies towards greed, hatred and delusion which cause cruelty in the first place.

The Buddha’s teachings on how to live thus outline a system of transformation which is aimed at awakening — powerful tools for us to use to transform our habits of body, speech, and mind so that they might both afford and accord with liberating insight.

Prior familiarity with Buddhism will be helpful but is not necessary for this course.

There are two textbooks for this class: one dry and one wet.

This classic textbook covers a surprising breadth of subjects and perspectives in Buddhist Ethics in admirably clear and precise prose.
It will supply the “dry” explanations for this course. You can think of Harvey as our lecturer: elucidating the meaning and providing a solid grounding for our course.

Our “wet” textbook is the Sanskrit classic:

This epic poem on grasping firmly the intention to awaken has inspired many generations of Buddhists (myself included) to live a more ethical and spiritual life and it captures beautifully the aesthetic of Buddhist ethics. Well worth reading again and again and again.
There are a few English translations of this classic of world literature. Steven Bachelor has a translation available online here for free, but I strongly recommend the Padmakara translation published by Shambhala in 2011 for its unparalleled accuracy and force.

Forget you. This is about waiting

A poem which shakes ‘work’ from its masculine frame and recenters it, not on you, on your brother.

We start the course with this poem by American poet Philip Levine. Go ahead and click the link above now to read the poem. Think about its last line. What is work?

Hopefully this course will help you answer that question.

A lay follower living at home with these five qualities is self-assured.

Confidence or lack thereof in layfolk is due to their precepts.

The core of Buddhist Ethics is summed up well in this pithy sutta. The five qualities listed here are called “The Five Precepts” and all Buddhists strive to preserve them. Technically, observing these five moral precepts assiduously is sufficient to be considered an ethical person.

Indeed, holding to generosity and the five precepts is believed to be a ticket to rebirth in heaven.
While failing to uphold them leads… elsewhere in Saṃsāra…

If Buddhist Ethics can be summarized so quickly, why a whole course? What challenges do you see in trying to observe these Five Precepts? Are there any ethical issues you think they don’t cover?

Analyzing the Five Precepts

This booklet by a former Supreme Patriarch (think, “Pope”) of Thailand gives a traditional analysis of the Five Precepts, unpacking the many layers of meaning inside each point.

Chapter 1: The Shared Foundations of Buddhist Ethics

The course will follow the sequence of the chapters in Harvey’s Introduction . Go ahead and read Chapter 1 now, and when you’re finished consider this:

If you make your living off immorality, it takes a huge toll on your mind, relationships, and health.
What kinds of things do liberated beings never do? And why not?
Bhante Dhammika demonstrates Buddhist ethical thought for us by examining the question of smoking within—and beyond—the framework of the five precepts.
A lecture introducing Buddhist Ethics, particularly from the perspective of early Buddhism.

Buddhist ethics corresponds to a more generic, act-centered virtue ethics.

In this half of the course, we focus on the cultivation of virtue. What mental states make virtue? What beliefs enable such virtuous mental states?

To help us explore these questions, we’ll turn to the Tibetan Tradition’s favorite poem:

This entire half of the course technically covers only Chapter 2 of Harvey but really centers on The Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra .

A free version is linked above, but there are a number of better (copyrighted) translations available, including the Padmakara edition published by Shambhala.

Philosopher Jay Garfield talks about how he got into Buddhism from Western philosophy and shares with us what he finds so compelling about this particular text.

Your chosen translation of the text may have a good introduction and, if so, you may want to read that now. But if not, this introduction is good for our purposes:

An encyclopedia entry on Indian and Tibetan Buddhism which lays the groundwork for our reading of this beloved classic.

With that by way of introduction, let’s now read Śāntideva himself! Preferably twice! Seriously, it’s that good.

Your first time, I recommend reading it all the way through. Let the poetic language, imagery and structure work their magic on you. After reading it once for feel, go back and reread the book chapter-by-chapter with the additional readings below to put the work into dialogue with the Theravāda tradition.

The Way of the Bodhisattva

This, more detailed, introduction to Śāntideva’s work discusses its overall structure and phenomenological approach to ethics and how it breaks the mold of Western ethical categories.

Chapter 1: The Excellence of Bodhicitta

In Buddhism, the highest good is awakening, and in this chapter Śāntideva expresses his devotion to that ideal and honors those who are advanced on the path towards to. This raises two questions:

What makes awakening good?
How (and why) did the Buddha suggest that we pay him homage?
The Buddha famously said that good friendship is the whole of the holy life. This poem from the Buddha explains that point whilst (oddly?) encouraging (?) us to desire fame and fortune.

Chapter 2: Confession

Accepting our faults is a critical starting point for ethical development, and a practice that the Buddha talked much about:

The Buddha compares an unethical person to a charnal pit to point out the downsides of unethical conduct.
How do you react when someone criticizes you? Can you recognize yourself or someone you know in each of these eight ways?
Venerable Mahā Moggallāna lists 16 qualities that make someone easy to admonish.
The Buddha points out that even a killer only spends a small amount of their time actually killing, pointing out how hard it is to know ourselves—and how easy it is to delude ourselves!

Chapter 3: Taking Hold of Bodhicitta

A Queen gives her King a shockingly honest answer, prompting the Buddha to teach “The Golden Rule”
A rather remarkable sutta, in which the Buddha admits that it’s often painful to strictly follow the precepts.
Given that following the precepts sometimes leads to pain, why does the Buddha still recommend them?
Shantideva wishes in this chapter to become “the very medicine itself” for sentient beings, but here the Buddha tells us not to “give away” ourselves. How do you understand this contradiction?
The corner stone of Buddhist morality is generosity, for all other virtues start in its renunciation and care for others. But clearly there are better and worse ways to give, as rich people often demonstrate. What factors make giving better or worse?

Chapter 4: Carefulness

How does the Buddha advise that we care for others?
The standard for “refraining from taking that which was not given” can be extremely high!
From the perspective of the Buddhist path, what is so blameworthy about “stopping to smell the roses?”
People often acuse Theravada Buddhism of focusing only on strict, negative ethics, but I find it helpful to know what not to do.
But this reputation isn’t wholely deserved, as Ajahn Suchart points out here that there are a number of good things Theravada Buddhism encourages.
While these guidelines were delivered to the monastic community, they serve even laypeople with a high bar to strive for in terms of “right speech.”
Homework How might you turn a “low” conversation into a “high” conversation?

Chapter 5: Vigilant Introspection

Ajahn Jayasaro answers two common questions on the five precepts, including whether it breaks the precepts to have a glass of wine for your health.
As we improve our conduct and remove our blemishes, humility might seem to dictate that we don’t acknowledge our increasing virtue. What harm can come from refusing to accurately assess our purity?
In one of the most famous similes of the canon, the Buddha encourages his son to constantly watch his own behavior to see what it reveals about his heart.

Chapter 6: Patience

The Buddha never condoned anger, but what can we do if anger does arise?
We can improve ourselves and the world without anger or guilt.

Chapter 7: Diligence

Two of the most important suttas on Buddhist Ethics in the whole canon, translated with helpful notes.
Whenever we lose our diligence, it show us where we lack wisdom. Where we have wisdom, we will have ease and prosperity.

Chapter 8: Meditative Concentration

Why is Zen so minimalistic? Why take on the practice of celibacy or reduced eating?
What kinds of people are better not associated with? What kinds of places are better left behind?
And what does all this have to do with enlightenment anyway?

Chapter 9: Wisdom

What qualities distinguish the wise?
What is the highest external virtue? How can we avoid conflict in this world?

Chapter 10: Conclusion

What did you think going through The Way of the Bodhisattva a second time? Was anything new? How does it compare to the philosophy of the Pali Suttas? Did you notice any significant differences?

At this point you should now have a firm grasp of Buddhist Ethics. For our “Midterm Exam”, write an essay comparing Buddhist Ethics to the popular ethics of your own culture. What do they agree on? Where do they diverge?

Now that we’ve finished Parts 1 and 2, we’ve covered the core of Buddhist Ethics and can revisit Philip Levine:

Rereading the poem now, has your understanding changed at all since we started the course? How would you now explain what work is?

I give you back 1948.

A poem about what time can do to a person.

In Part 3 we return to Peter Harvey’s Introduction and, chapter by chapter, engage in a number of topical, ethical debates, starting with the Mahayana’s twist on Buddhist ethics already alluded to earlier in our comparison of the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra to the Pāli Canon. As we go through this part of the course, please keep in mind the radical openness of our second Philip Levine poem, “You can have it.” How can we use our heart to check our intellect and our culture’s typical way of doing things?

Chapter 3: Mahayana Adaptions

An introduction to Mahayana Ethics from within the tradition, and an excellent set of caveats to keep in mind as we ethically navigate our own lives.
A Theravada response to the Mahayana assertion of the existence of compassionate killing.
Ven Pandita tackles the famous “Trolly Problem” from the perspective of Theravada Ethics, and illuminates a way in which Theravada and Mahayana ethics might agree more than you think.

Chapter 4: Natural World

An interview about carnism and the importance of mindfulness in living green and ethically.
Mindfulness practices may be essential for facing climate change.
Especially as Buddhists can use their practice to set a good example for others.

Chapter 5: Economics

In which the Buddha compares attachment to wealth to a dung beetle proud of her dung.
A Buddhist monk who rejects money has a lot to say about economics, perhaps because of the objectivity that distance affords.
In which the Buddha thoroughly rejects the ancient Indian caste system.
The Tamil reformer who turned to Buddhism as a refuge from the current Indian caste system.
There is a profound connection between internal states of delusion and macroeconomic problems.

Chapter 6: War and Peace

An argument between two highly respected Theravada monks on the subject of whether war can ever be justified, Bhikkhu Bodhi wonders out loud, “War: what is it good for?” and Thanissaro Bhikkhu responds with, “Absolutely nothing!”
What do you make of the King’s behavior here? Is he a sincere Buddhist? And what do you think of the Buddha’s reaction?
Bhante Sujato replies to Bhikkhus Bodhi and Thanissaro, reminding them that the Buddha’s ethical tetralemma avoids such harsh dualities as “should” and “must not”
An African American law professor gives a master class in nonviolent communication.

Note: Sadly, Harvey’s Introduction doesn’t include a chapter explicitly on racism — a notorious blind spot for Buddhists both East and West which the Buddha himself pulled no punches in denouncing.

Chapter 7: Suicide

An early Buddhist perspective on suicide.
A Theravada answer to the question of euthanasia.

Do you agree with their answers? What do you think makes the subject so uncomfortable?

Chapter 8: Abortion

Speaking of uncomfortable!

A Theravada monk gives an important clarification on the early Buddhist perspective on abortion and IVF, which later (conservative) texts have muddled in their quest for clear, crisp lines.

Chapter 9: Sexual Equality

Not Buddhist per se , but a contemporary classic, this essay shows exactly what casual sexism feels like.
Bhikkhuni Subha comes up with an extraordinary (if not recommended!) way of handling more serious sexual harassment, showing that women have long had to deal with the same problems.
But that doesn’t mean that things can’t or don’t get better. This letter celebrates one such step towards gender equality taken in recent years.

Chapter 10: Sexuality

The story of a pioneering, transgender Buddhist, and a word on how Buddhism’s attitude towards transgenderism differs from that of the monotheistic religions.
Buddhists are mostly accepting of homosexuality: especially in comparison to other religions.
A refreshingly humble and non-dogmatic essay on everyone’s favorite topic, embodying the spirit of generous orthodoxy .
A reminder that what we say matters.

Ajahn Brahm concludes by reminding us that between all the ethical debates and traditions and forms, there is a common core of good sense which we can rely on:

Ajahn Brahm returns to the origins of Buddhism to help us understand the intentions and practice of “original” Buddhism.

Congratulations on finishing the course!

Please take a moment to take the end of class survey . Your feedback is vital to making these courses good. Thank you!

If we have learned one thing from the #MeToo campaign, apart from just how pervasive sexual violence is, it is that we as a society do not have a clear, uncontested idea of what sexual consent looks like, and that we do not all universally and equally value it.

As for the question of suffering in the future—in this life or the next—don’t overlook your heart that’s suffering right now.

My favorite translation of the Dhammapada, including accurate summaries of the stories that traditionally accompanied the verses—some of the most beloved commentarial stories in all of Buddhism.

Buddhism is a middle course, a via media ; pragmatic and innovative

This book is intended to provide an introduction to the teachings of the Buddha which will shed some light on a subject that, to non-Buddhists, can appear both unexpectedly rational and exotically strange.

[In Buddhism, morality] is not concerned so much with the result of one’s actions on other people as it concerns the result of one’s actions on one’s own mind.

Canonical Works

A magisterial compendium of good advice for lay people.

We ask Gotama, the Eye that has arisen in the world: Is one a brahmin by birth, or by action? Explain to us what we do not understand – how to know a brahmin.

‘What the hell, Kāḷī!’

I’d hold his head with my left hand, and take [the stone] out using a hooked finger of my right hand, even if it drew blood.

… you should ignore that person’s impure behavior

Just as, Kassapa, gold does not disappear so long as counterfeit gold has not arisen in the world, but when counterfeit gold arises then true gold disappears, so the true Dhamma does not disappear so long as a counterfeit of the true Dhamma has not arisen in the world, but when a counterfeit of the true Dhamma arises in the world, then the true Dhamma disappears.

… if sentient beings only knew, as I do, the fruit of giving and sharing, they would not eat without first giving

Mendicants, don’t fear good deeds. For ‘good deeds’ is a term for happiness…

Take a golden mountain, made entirely of gold, and double it— it’s still not enough for one!

Bhikkhus, it is good for a bhikkhu from time to time to review his own failings. It is good for him from time to time to review the failings of others. It is good for him from time to time to review his own achievements. It is good for him from time to time to review the achievements of others.

The grass, sticks, branches, and leaves of India would run out before that person’s mothers and grandmothers.

… this paper aims for a philosophically more nuanced discussion of the case for and against eating locally. I assess, in turn, locavore arguments based on environmental preservation, human health, community support, agrarian values and political concerns

There is no single “swiss-army knife” technique that works equally well at all times; instead, we must carefully examine our present conditions and determine what practice is most relevant.

We are committed to living simply and sharing our time, energy, and material resources with those in need.

Audio/Video

COMMENTS

Essay on Buddhism
Students are often asked to write an essay on Buddhism in their schools and colleges. And if you're also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic. ... Buddhism, a religion and philosophy that emerged from the teachings of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), has become a spiritual path followed by ...
Buddha (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
The Buddha (fl. circa 450 BCE) is the individual whose teachings form the basis of the Buddhist tradition. These teachings, preserved in texts known as the Nikāyas or Āgamas, concern the quest for liberation from suffering.While the ultimate aim of the Buddha's teachings is thus to help individuals attain the good life, his analysis of the source of suffering centrally involves claims ...
258 Buddhism Essay Topics & Examples
Another option would be to write about Buddhist philosophy or practices. Whether you need to write a short Buddhism essay or a more substantive paper, this article will be helpful. Here you'll find a collection of 241 Buddhism topics for essays and research papers together with Buddhism essay examples. 🏆 Best Buddhism Essay Examples ...
Buddhism
Buddhism, religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha (Sanskrit: "Awakened One"), a teacher who lived in northern India between the mid-6th and mid-4th centuries bce (before the Common Era). Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of Asia, and ...
PDF An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy
An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. In this clear and accessible book, Stephen Laumakis explains the origin and development of Buddhist ideas and concepts, focusing on the philosophical ideas and arguments presented and defended by selected thinkers and sutras from various traditions. He starts with a sketch of the Buddha and the Dharma ...
Buddhism Essay
Buddhism: Buddhism And The Life Of Buddhism. The world's fastest growing religion and the 4th largest religion in terms of the followers, followed by Christianity, Islam and Hinduism, the "Buddhism" (1) (2). The word Buddhism is derived from the word "Buddha" which means 'the awakened". Siddhartha Gautama was born between the 5th ...
Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy
The first inclination is to say that Buddhism is both a religion and a philosophy. However, after further exploration into Buddhist beliefs, one can conclude that Buddhism can be classified as a religion. Buddhists believe in a higher power and life after death, they have a moral code of ethics, and they perform rituals; these things are the ...
Buddhist Ethics and Western Moral Philosophy
Abstract. This chapter shows how some forms of Buddhist ethics share features with Western moral philosophies, especially virtue ethics and consequentialism. Interpreting various forms of Buddhist ...
Buddhist philosophy
Buddhist philosophy is the ancient Indian philosophical system that developed within the religio-philosophical ... While Zhiyi did write "one thought contains three thousand worlds", this does not entail idealism. ... wrote 'Essay on the Golden Lion' and 'Treatise on the Five Teachings', which contain other metaphors for the interpenetration of ...
Reaching Enlightenment Through Buddhism Philosophy Essay
"Since Buddhism includes such a variety of branches, it has been described as a group of religions and of ways of thinking rather than a single religion" (Buddha 424b). Although Buddhism is classified as a religion, it is actually more of a philosophy to live by. Buddhism is a way of looking inside to find that path to inner peace.
Buddhist Philosophy (Asynchronous)
of the major schools of Buddhist philosophy that have developed from the Buddha's teachings and our focus will be on the two major schools of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism, Madhyamaka ... @ Everybody is required to write two 2-page reflection essays in the course of this semester, each worth 5 points. I have listed two topics for you to choose ...
An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy
Buddhist Philosophy (right view, thought, understanding, and wisdom) is both the beginning and the end of the Buddhist Path. Without confidence in the power of action and the dangers of greed, hatred and delusion, one can only practice the path half-heartedly at best. And yet the overcoming of ignorance is itself the goal of the path.
The Basic Beliefs Of Buddhism Philosophy Essay
In Buddhism, it is believed that a person can escape from the cycle of birth and death by following the noble eightfold path, by following these eight steps. (Buddhist Belief) 3) Right speech: no criticism, lying, gossip, harsh language, condemning. 5) Right livelihood; assist yourself without harming others.
Buddhist Philosophy: Essential Readings
Abstract. The Buddhist philosophical tradition is vast, internally diverse, and comprises texts written in a variety of canonical languages. It is hence often difficult for those with training in Western philosophy who wish to approach this tradition for the first time to know where to start, and difficult for those who wish to introduce and teach courses in Buddhist philosophy to find ...
PDF PHIL 3500: Buddhist Philosophy
Buddhism; (3) write arguments either challenging or supporting the claims we consider in the course; (4) broaden a general knowledge base of contemporary applications of Buddhist Philosophies. By the end of the course, students will … -improve their ability to think clearly and logically. -improve their ability to write clearly and persuasively.
BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. A Bibliographic Essay, Oxford Bibliographies
In The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy. Edited by Jay L. Garfield and William Edelglass, 233-244. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. A good introduction to Buddhist epistemology in India. This is a very challenging field of Buddhist philosophy, and Tillemans's essay is a good place to start.
Buddhist Philosophy
The Indian philosophy of Buddhism developed independently and focused on the Heavenly way and the human way as a pair of categories which were very vital (Tang Pg 58). ... On our website, students and learners can find detailed writing guides, free essay samples, fresh topic ideas, formatting rules, citation tips, and inspiration to study. ...
Short and Long Paragraph on Buddhism in English for Students
Paragraph 4 - 200 Words. Buddhism is a belief of self-awakening and spirituality. Buddhists believe that there are three jewels of life that are the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. "Buddha" means the awakened one. Buddhist devotees say "I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha". They find calmness in these jewels.
Buddhist Ethics @ The Open Buddhist University
Buddhist Ethics is the training in virtuous conduct beloved by the Noble Ones. Its core principle is non-cruelty: the abstaining from all intentional harm. The most gross forms of cruelty are the ethical precepts common to all Buddhists and to most other religions besides: the renunciation of killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech ...
The Psychological Aspects Of Buddhism Philosophy Essay
1. Generosity. Includes a donation to the material values such as money, clothes, food; act of love; transfer of other knowledge about spiritual teachings and practices; alleviate the suffering of all sentient beings caught in a difficult situation: help even the ant caught in a puddle. 2.
The Women In Buddhism Philosophy Essay
The Women In Buddhism Philosophy Essay. Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, based the religion on his teachings. He lived about 26 centuries ago in northeastern India, which is now known as Nepal. Siddhartha was eventually known as "the Buddha," or the "awakened one.". This occurred after he experienced an extreme realization ...
The Differences Between Taoism And Buddhism Philosophy Essay
On the other hand, in Buddhism beliefs live is suffering which is different by comparing with Taoism that believes that life is all about goodness, Buddhist believes that having illness or suffering is the nature of life which we cannot escape from (Difference Between, 2010). Birth, get old, get sick or ill, and death are the nature cycle of life.

Essay on Buddhism

100 Words Essay on Buddhism

Key Beliefs of Buddhism

Buddhist Practices

Impact of Buddhism

250 Words Essay on Buddhism

The Four Noble Truths

The Eightfold Path

500 Words Essay on Buddhism

The Life of Buddha

Buddhist Schools of Thought

Buddhism and Modern Science

One Comment

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Bibliography

1. Buddha as Philosopher

Support SEP

Buddhism: Religion or Philosophy Essay

Works Cited

BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY. A Bibliographic Essay, Oxford Bibliographies Online, 2010

Related Papers

RELATED PAPERS

Buddhist Philosophy

Related Essays

Paragraph on Buddhism

Short and Long Paragraphs on Buddhism

Paragraph 2 – 120 Words

Paragraph 3 – 150 Words

Paragraph 4 – 200 Words

Paragraph 5 – 250 Words

FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions

Related Posts

Buddhist Ethics

Table of Contents

Analyzing the Five Precepts

Chapter 1: The Shared Foundations of Buddhist Ethics

The Way of the Bodhisattva

Chapter 1: The Excellence of Bodhicitta

Chapter 2: Confession

Chapter 3: Taking Hold of Bodhicitta

Chapter 4: Carefulness

Chapter 5: Vigilant Introspection

Chapter 6: Patience

Chapter 7: Diligence

Chapter 8: Meditative Concentration

Chapter 9: Wisdom

Chapter 10: Conclusion

Chapter 3: Mahayana Adaptions

Chapter 4: Natural World

Chapter 5: Economics

Chapter 6: War and Peace

Chapter 7: Suicide

Chapter 8: Abortion

Chapter 9: Sexual Equality

Chapter 10: Sexuality

Canonical Works

Audio/Video

COMMENTS