anti human trafficking campaigns a systematic literature review

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Operations research and analytics to combat human trafficking: A systematic review of academic literature

Geri l. dimas.

1 Data Science Program, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, United States of America

Renata A. Konrad

2 Business School, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, United States of America

Kayse Lee Maass

3 Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States of America

Andrew C. Trapp

Associated data.

All data files are available on GitHub at https://github.com/gldimas/Dimas-et.-al-2022_Human-Trafficking-Literature-Review .

Human trafficking is a widespread and compound social, economic, and human rights issue occurring in every region of the world. While there have been an increasing number of anti-human trafficking studies from the Operations Research and Analytics domains in recent years, no systematic review of this literature currently exists. We fill this gap by providing a systematic literature review that identifies and classifies the body of Operations Research and Analytics research related to the anti-human trafficking domain, thereby illustrating the collective impact of the field to date. We classify 142 studies to identify current trends in methodologies, theoretical approaches, data sources, trafficking contexts, target regions, victim-survivor demographics, and focus within the well-established 4Ps principles. Using these findings, we discuss the extent to which the current literature aligns with the global demographics of human trafficking and identify existing research gaps to propose an agenda for Operations Research and Analytics researchers.

Introduction

Human trafficking (HT) involves the commercial exchange and exploitation of individuals for monetary or other gain using force, fraud, or coercion [ 1 ] and is a widespread social, economic, and human rights issue. While the trafficking of individuals is a centuries-old phenomenon, over the past two decades there has been growing public and research awareness, in part with the ratification of the 2000 Palermo Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons [ 2 ]. Although precise figures are elusive, the Global Estimates of Modern Slavery Report estimates that HT impacts 25M individuals and annually generates more than 150 billion USD in illicit gains globally [ 3 , 4 ]. HT is broadly classified as labor and sex trafficking; while all trafficking features exploitation, the actions and means by which HT occurs may differ [ 5 ]. Labor trafficking takes place in a wide variety of sectors, including the agriculture, domestic work, construction, fishing, food service, and beauty industries. Sex trafficking is a part of the broader commercial sex industry, occurring in industries such as escort services, brothels, and pornography.

Because the scope of HT activity is vast and there are diverse ways in which individuals are exploited [ 6 ], context is critical, and effectively addressing HT increasingly requires efforts from multiple disciplines, including interdisciplinary collaborations. For example, HT interventions include approaches from multiple sectors and disciplines such as social work [ 7 – 9 ], healthcare [ 10 , 11 ], criminal justice [ 12 – 14 ], and economics [ 15 , 16 ]; each domain brings unique perspectives and methods to understand and address HT.

Owing to the breadth of domains that contribute to anti-HT research, a wealth of literature exists that has been well-documented in surveys over the years [ 10 , 11 , 17 – 21 ]. Existing reviews focus on social science, healthcare, and law enforcement approaches; whereas OR and Analytics have much to offer [ 22 ], no systematic review exists for the emerging landscapes of Operations Research (OR) and Analytics as applied to anti-HT.

The present study identifies and classifies the existing OR and Analytics literature related to anti-HT operations. Building off the earlier work of Krammer-Kerwick et al. [ 23 ] and Caulkins et al. [ 24 ], this systematic review proposes an agenda for future research in this field, filling a gap in the current literature. This study focuses on the four broad principles of anti-HT: prevention, protection, prosecution, and partnership (4Ps) [ 25 ], extending their definition in relation to the OR and Analytics fields. We examine the following research questions:

(i) What aspects of HT are being studied by OR and Analytics researchers?
(ii) What OR and Analytics methods are being applied in the anti-HT domain?
(iii) What are the existing research gaps associated with (i) and (ii)?

We organize the remainder of our study as follows. In the method of collection and categorization section we define the scope of this review, and in the data section we define the data features for analysis. In the implications and observations section we discuss the implications of the survey and, based on the observed gaps, suggest areas for future work. We conclude our study in the final section.

Method of collection and categorization

We conducted a systematic literature review inventorying studies to answer the three research questions outlined in the introduction. The methodology used for this systematic review was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) [ 26 ]. The collection process ( Fig 1 ) was based on keyword searches that generated a set of research studies for analysis. Two sets of search words were defined using the combined knowledge of the authors on HT terminology and OR and Analytics methods. These keywords were used in a procedure to identify and select studies that met a set of pre-defined criteria. The first set of keywords reflects terms related to HT, while the second reflects common methods in the OR and Analytics fields (see Table 1 ). The search and selection of studies was performed by the lead author (G.L.D.), and any uncertainty regarding a study’s inclusion was resolved through discussion with the coauthors.

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Each search query followed the format: “Keyword One” + “Keyword Two” (such as “Debt Bondage” AND “Integer Programming”), each keyword pair was applied across three bibliographic databases: Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The database search was conducted from June 2021 through March 2022. The search results were truncated to studies available through the end of 2021 to provide a comparable year-over-year basis for the research landscape. The sum of these two searches resulted in a total of 449,407 studies for potential inclusion. After the keyword search identification process, a two-step selection process was followed (see Fig 2 ). An initial screening process was conducted that evaluated the search results returned for each query, where titles and abstracts were screened and added to the set based on the criteria outlined in Table 2 . The stopping criteria for each keyword pair search followed a heuristic approach: if at least 50 results returned no eligible results, then the current keyword search was stopped and the next keyword search began. The intuition behind this approach is that by design, search engines return the most relevant results first, and therefore if after a certain point no relevant results are produced (at least 50 results in our context), then it is highly unlikely relevant results exist past that point. After the initial screening process, the set included 230 unique studies for review. A more in-depth review using the eligibility requirements checklist ( Table 2 ) was followed in step two for each of the 230 studies.

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First, only studies that fell into one of the three themes: Operations Research methodologies, Analytical methodologies, or Position / Thought pieces related to Operations Research and Analytics were included. Second, only studies whose primary application area was anti-HT and was written completely in English text were included. Third, book chapters, workshops, and reports (governmental, intragovernmental, non-government organizations, think-tanks) were excluded. Finally, if multiple studies related to a single work were found, only the most complete version were included. Peer-reviewed studies, dissertations, and pre-print studies were included to produce a full and comprehensive review of the current research landscape. The full article screening process resulted in a total of 142 studies included in the set for final review.

As with any search process based upon a predefined set of keywords and checklist requirements, the 142 identified studies may not be exhaustive in scope. However, given our collective experience in researching at the intersection of anti-HT and OR and Analytics, we believe the generated set of studies is representative of current literature at this confluence. A repository containing our classification data can be found publicly at https://github.com/gldimas/Dimas-et.-al-2022_Human-Trafficking-Literature-Review .

While the focus of this study was to capture the general trends in anti-HT research within the OR and Applied Analytics communities, we acknowledge there exist many relevant studies that either fall outside of the scope of the present analysis (such as reports) or focus on the problem domain of anti-HT but do not have a specific OR or Analytics-related attribution, and therefore were excluded. We have included such studies in the S1 File and further point the reader to reviews such as Raets and Janssens [ 27 ], Farrell and De Vries [ 28 ], and Weitzer [ 29 ] to better capture the broader scope of anti-HT research.

The classification of studies was independently conducted by the lead author (G.L.D.) who throughout the process conferred with all coauthors. Each of the 142 studies in the set were reviewed and assigned labels to nine key features: Publication Year , Category , Context , Demographics , Target Region , Data Source , Theoretical Approach , Methodologies , and 4Ps . We next explain each feature and its respective values.

Publication Year : Observed years were 2010—2021 , inclusive. Only studies available through December 2021 were included in our scope to allow for comparison across complete calendar years. This feature offers valuable information about the progress and patterns of research in OR and Analytics over more than ten years.

Category : We considered three categories: Operations Research (OR), Analytics , and Position / Thought . Whereas the first two categories are distinguished by their methodological focus, the latter includes position / thought pieces from either the OR or Analytics domains. We required a single category to be assigned to each study, and thus selected the category that we felt best matched the primary theme of the work.

Context : We classified the primary topical HT area (as stated or inferred) into three contexts: Sex, Labor , and General . If the application was not specified, we assumed it to be general and thus applicable to both sex and labor trafficking.

Demographics : We classified studies into five demographic groups based on the population of interest (such as victims, potential victims, and survivors): Female, Male, Child, LGBTQ+ , and Unspecified / All Individuals . If no specific demographic characteristics were stated or could be inferred, we assumed it to be applicable to all individuals. A study could be classified into multiple demographics such as a study focused on female children.

Target Region : We subdivided the geographic location specified either by the data used in the study or by the region discussed in the background of the study, into world regions: Africa, Asia, Australia/Oceania, Europe, North America, South America, Unspecified / All regions . A study could cover multiple geographic locations and therefore have multiple target regions identified.

Data Source : We classified the type of data used in the study into four categories: Primary, Secondary, Mixed, N/A . Primary data are collected directly from anti-HT organizations or researchers, including interviews and surveys. Secondary data are data that have already been collected for other purposes or are publicly available such as data from websites hosting illicit advertisements (such as backpage.com and rubmaps.com) and government reports. While many studies used their own methodologies to scrape public data sources such as escort and massage websites, we still consider these to be secondary sources. We classify studies utilizing expert judgements for determining data estimates to be secondary data. Mixed data means the study used both primary and secondary data in their work, and N/A indicates data was not used in the study.

Theoretical Approach : We classified the central theoretical approach to address HT into six categories: Decision Support, Inferential Statistics / Detection, Network Flow, Resource Allocation, Supply Chain , and Other / Unspecified . Decision Support explores ways to inform decision makers about initiatives to improve and better address HT, often building tools or systems for practitioners to use. Inferential Statistics / Detection focuses on identifying, estimating, or inferring aspects of HT. Network Flow studies are related to the flow of individuals and possibly trafficking network interaction. Resource Allocation addresses the use and allocation of resources in anti-HT efforts. Supply Chain studies examine the supply and demand of HT within a network. If a study approaches HT from a theoretical approach not listed, we label these studies as Other / Unspecified. A study may be classified under multiple theoretical approaches.

Methodologies : We classified the main methodologies used in the set of studies into 21 categories:

Active Learning
Clustering or Classification
Data Envelopment Analysis
Empirical Analysis
Facility Location
Game Theory
Graph Construction
Investigative Search
Link Inference
Machine / Deep Learning (General)
Natural Language Processing
Information Extraction
Integer Programming
Network / Graph Theory
Network Interdiction
Queueing Theory
(Social) Network Analysis
Unsupervised or Minimally Supervised Learning
Web Crawling / Scraping

We ascribe methods to a study based on the introduction, conclusion, and main method or focus throughout the study. A study may apply a variety of different methods and therefore be classified into multiple methodologies.

4Ps : Activities to fight HT are often discussed under four broad principles: prevention, protection, prosecution, and partnership. These principles are collectively referred to as the 4Ps—a well-recognized classification within the anti-HT community [ 22 ]. A study may be classified under multiple principles. The 4Ps naturally correspond with efforts in the social science, healthcare, and law enforcement disciplines, and their alignment with OR and Analytics works is less evident. Thus, we adapt the 4Ps definitions to define each as it relates to OR and Analytics using the collective knowledge and experience of the authors in the anti-HT and OR and Analytics fields. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to define each of the 4Ps as it relates specifically to the OR and Analytics fields and constitutes an important contribution of this study. Prevention, Protection, and Prosecution were originally referred to as the 3P paradigm [ 25 ] which has since been informally expanded to include a fourth “P” representing Partnership. Prevention refers to efforts focused on a proactive approach to prevent trafficking such as awareness campaigns and education; Prosecution refers to efforts to punish traffickers; and Protection involves meeting post-trafficking victim needs such as counseling, job training, housing, and other support to facilitate survivor recovery and restoration.

Partnership was introduced to serve as a complementary means to further improve the efficacy among the 3Ps, enlisting all segments of society in the fight against HT [ 25 ]. Together the 4Ps capture the spectrum of efforts in combating HT and therefore are an important feature for our literature review. Accordingly, we have adapted these 4Ps and classified studies in the following manner:

Prevention : The goal of the study is the prevention of HT either now or in the future and assumes no trafficking is currently taking place. Such studies typically feature victim-centric methodologies to help potential victims avoid being trafficked, such as awareness campaigns and education. Studies that consider reducing the re-trafficking risk of survivors who have left their trafficking environment also fall within the scope of the prevention principle.
Protection : The goal of the study is to protect and aid the survivor during and post-exploitation. We consider victim-driven detection and disruption of HT networks to be a form of protection, as the focus of the study is mitigating the risk to an individual of further exploitation (including studies that consider NGOs, healthcare, and other non-law enforcement detection).
Prosecution : The goal of the study is to aid the prosecution of traffickers (often from a law enforcement perspective). We consider detection and disruption of HT networks aimed at locating, understanding, and stopping traffickers under the prosecution principle.
Partnership : The goal of the study is to show the benefit of collaboration and data sharing across different sectors, countries, or groups working together toward the common goal of addressing one or more areas of HT.

Implications and observations

Of the 142 studies in the set, the majority (73.9%) were categorized as Analytics [ 30 – 134 ], with 15.5% classified as Operations Research [ 135 – 156 ] and 10.6% as Position / Thought [ 22 , 24 , 157 – 169 ]. Fig 3 depicts this breakdown. Fig 4 provides summary statistics on each of the nine key features. All percentages are calculated in relation to the total number of studies in the set (142) unless stated otherwise. As some studies contained multiple methods or were identified to have multiple values within a feature, a feature may not always sum to 100.0%.

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Research question 1: What aspects of HT are being studied?

Although both sex and labor trafficking have been addressed in the OR and Analytics literature, an overwhelming number of studies focus specifically on sex trafficking. Fig 4 illustrates the inclination of OR and Analytics studies to focus on sex trafficking (4 7.9%), with only 1 2.0% concentrating on labor trafficking, while 4 0.1% apply to general (both) trafficking contexts. As observed in Fig 5 , studies overwhelming use secondary data, with fewer than 4.0% using a primary data source. The use of secondary data is likely due to accessibility; almost all studies on sex trafficking (60.3%) used data pulled from escort websites (or other online sites hosting illicit advertisements) which are public and therefore easier to access. The use of escort websites (in particular, backpage.com) as a source of data result in over 3 8.0% of the studies focusing on the North American region. Although the United States Department of Justice shut down backpage.com in 2018 [ 170 ], other escort and massaging sites offer illicit services and constitute the data source for several studies. Remarkably, 7 6.8% of studies were not tailored to a specific demographic, despite the differences between typologies and demographics of victims [ 6 ]. From the 4Ps perspective, prosecution is the most common principle (62.7%) among all studies, with considerably less focus on partnership, protection, and prevention ( Fig 6 ). A single study may be categorized under multiple 4Ps principles, and therefore the values in Fig 6 do not sum to 100.0%.

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Research question 2: What OR and analytical methods are being applied in the anti-HT domain?

Fig 4 provides summary statistics such as counts and percentages for the frequency each value was observed in the set of studies. While the percentages are calculated based on the 142 studies in the set, because a study may belong to multiple values within a feature, the total observations within each feature are provided in the parenthesis. The colors highlight the magnitude of studies within each feature value, with green indicating higher percentages, and red lower percentages. A study may fall under more than one value and therefore the percentages will not always sum to 100.0%. Methods related to machine learning (Machine / Deep Learning (General), Clustering or Classification, Unsupervised / Minimally Supervised Learning, Natural Language Processing, and Active Learning) were observed in over half of the studies. Machine / Deep Learning (General) and Clustering or Classification were the two most popular methods, accounting for about 32.0% of all methods observed (out of the total 404 methods identified, see Fig 4 ). Web Crawling / Scraping was used to generate a secondary dataset for analysis in 18.3% of the studies, reflecting our previous observations in Research question 1 regarding the high use of secondary data extracted from massage and escort websites. At least one method for the construction and analysis of networks (Graph Construction, Network / Graph Theory, Network Interdiction and (Social) Network Analysis) were observed in 34.5% of the studies, with most emphasizing Graph Construction.

The observed theoretical approaches are closely related to specific methods. For example, nearly half of the studies focused on Inferential Statistics / Detection or Decision Support, most of which applied various machine learning methods. Network Flow methods appear in nearly 24.0% of studies, specifically Graph Construction and (Social) Network Analysis.

Figs Figs7 7 and and8 8 depict each study on the x -axis. In Fig 7 we display all studies categorized as Analytics, and in Fig 8 we categorize studies on the left as Operations Research (in blue), and studies on the right as Position / Thought studies (in red). For each study, the top six y -axis labels indicate its Theoretical Approach(es), while the remaining 21 following labels indicate methods used. If a study includes a given feature value, the box is black, and grey otherwise. Theoretical approaches and methods are sorted in descending order based on the total count for each row. Fig 7 indicates that the majority of studies (over 77.0%) in the Analytics category take an Inferential Statistics / Detection or Decision Support theoretical approach. Fig 8 shows that studies in the Operations Research category are diverse, addressing the problem from distinct theoretical approaches and applying a variety of methodologies. Studies categorized as Position / Thought address a variety of theoretical approaches and topics, which is a good indication that OR and Analytics researchers are exploring HT from different fields.

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The x -axis lists each study; and the y -axis depicts each of the Theoretical Approaches and Method. If a study includes a given feature value, the box is black, and grey otherwise. Theoretical approaches and methods are sorted in descending order based on the total count for each row.

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The x -axis lists each study; and the y -axis depicts each of the Theoretical Approaches and Method. Operations Research studies appear on the left (in blue), and Position / Thought studies appear on the right (in red). If a study includes a given feature value, the box is black, and grey otherwise. Theoretical approaches and methods are sorted in descending order based on the total count for each row.

While Resource Allocation and Supply Chain roughly make up only 9.0% of all studies, they account for over 40.0% within the Operations Research category. Looking more closely at the relationship between Web Crawling / Scraping and Clustering and Classification methods we see a large majority (nearly 70.0%) of Web Crawling / Scraping studies apply Clustering and Classification methods. In addition, more than 72.0% of studies that applied both Web Crawling / Scraping and Clustering and Classification shared the goal of identifying sex trafficking in online advertisements or tweets.

To compare studies across all three categories: Analytics, Operations Research, and Position / Thought Figs Figs7 7 and and8 8 are combined and the resulting figure can be found in the supplementary materials (see S1 Fig ). We also provide a publicly available spreadsheet that can be used for closer examination of the individual studies, at https://github.com/gldimas/Dimas-et.-al-2022_Human-Trafficking-Literature-Review . This spreadsheet allows filtering studies on any combination of our nine features, returning all qualified studies. A screenshot of this tool can be see in Fig 9 . As seen in this review, research at the intersection of anti-HT and OR and Applied Analytics is rapidly evolving and there is necessary complexity in the reviewing process. The selected keywords, search engines used and growing literature streams may impact the articles included in this review. In an effort to counter this limitation and support the longevity of this study, the authors have created an online submission form where individuals can submit works they believe to be related to the present study. Related submissions will be added to the dashboard tool on a semi-regular basis (see Fig 9 ) and will provide an evolving source of knowledge for researchers. The link for this form can be found on the github link provided earlier in this paragraph.

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Research question 3: What are the existing gaps and opportunities for future research?

Several gaps emerged based on the classification and grouping of all 142 studies in the set on the prime principles (4Ps) ( Fig 6 ), methods (Figs (Figs7 7 and and8), 8 ), trafficking context ( Fig 5 ), and resulting observations to Research questions 1 and 2. The following sections present opportunities for new avenues of investigation for OR and Analytics researchers in anti-HT efforts.

Broaden the typology and demographics of trafficking studied

The typology of trafficking activity, and by extension the demographic composition of victims, is diverse and under-explored in OR and Analytics [ 6 ]. As noted in [ 164 ], OR and Analytics researchers can increase the relevance and impact of their work by understanding the typology of trafficking and distinguish between various trafficking business models. To start, there is a clear need to expand the current focus to include labor trafficking. In OR and Analytics, sex trafficking ( Fig 6 ) has received by far the most attention; while labor trafficking is estimated to account for over 60.0% of all trafficking instances [ 3 ], it constitutes only 12.0% of the reviewed studies. There is a close relationship between data source and type of HT studied. The absence of reliable, available data likely contributes to the lack of both analytically-based labor trafficking research, as well as the lack of diversity in data used in sex trafficking research; this is a well-documented issue across the anti-HT literature [ 22 , 171 – 174 ]. The implications of the lack of data are also evident in studies using OR and Analytics methods and discussed further in the next section.

The diverse populations of those experiencing trafficking warrants further analysis. Nearly 7 7.0% of the studies observed were classified as applicable to Unspecified / All Individuals, indicating that the nuanced differences in victimology may be lacking. For example, no study we observed looked at trafficking through the lens of male victims or those who identify as LBGTQ+. These groups tend to be underrepresented in trafficking research despite their known presence [ 175 , 176 ]. Inclusivity of more diverse victims and trafficker demographics in trafficking research expands insights into the unique characteristics, needs and behaviors across trafficking.

Beyond the demographics of those impacted by trafficking, it is apparent that there is an opportunity to expand the diversity of the demographics of trafficking locations. Whereas trafficking occurs globally in various facets of society, and differs in its appearance across cultures, many of the sex trafficking studies we reviewed were conducted within developed countries (approximately 78.0%). Thus, a clear opportunity exists to conduct anti-HT research in developing countries.

It is altogether possible that the lack of research identified in these areas may be a direct result of constrained factors such as the limited amount of data available. Even so, greater research diversity in trafficking typology and demographics will allow for an improved understanding of the extent and impact of trafficking worldwide, as well as greater insights into how future research can help address associated needs in the fight against HT. This brings us to the next research gap observed: the need to diversity data sources.

Diversify the data sources

Data collection and analysis have helped in the fight against HT in many ways, including the identification of HT victims [ 63 , 134 , 141 ], informing prevention campaigns [ 142 ], and detecting trafficking network behaviors [ 45 , 80 ]. While thorough data analysis lays the necessary groundwork for such discoveries, it relies upon the utilization of a variety of data from disparate sources.

Over 78.0% of all studies in the set used secondary data sources exclusively ( Fig 6 ). The use of secondary data is common across many domains and proves beneficial given that the data already exists, is oftentimes publicly available, and can provide researchers with large amounts of data they might not be able to obtain otherwise. In the context of the OR and Analytics studies observed, over 22.0% of the secondary data sources used were from the same source, the now defunct, backpage.com [ 170 ]. Of the secondary data sources, around 54.0% of these studies focused on sex trafficking. So, while secondary data sources have their place, as noted in the previous section the lack of data diversity compounds issues such as the typologies studied. Obtaining more robust data can broaden the information available, provide better insights into the scope of trafficking (such as prevalence), and examine changes that occur over time. Even with the limited current state of available data, OR and Analytics can still offer valuable contributions.

Researchers, particularly those in the Analytics community, could leverage collaborations and focus on developing the already existing, practitioner-collected data and help to operationalize it. For example, a common issue faced in anti-HT analysis pertains to missing and incomplete data [ 177 ]. Many analytical methods exist that could help bridge this gap and improve the current anti-HT data landscape. Additionally, although many disparate datasets are available and growing, the anti-HT community rarely leverages combined data sources in a way to assess the status, trends, and dynamics of trafficking activities, and is another avenue for future work.

Despite the usefulness of secondary data, they have drawbacks that may hinder the results of a study. Secondary data is often collected with another objective in mind and therefore the nuances of that data collection process may cause bias. For example, what constitutes trafficking may differ from study to study and is a well-documented issue across anti-HT research [ 178 – 180 ]. There may also be a context in which data simply does not exist. For these and other reasons, we advocate for the collection and use of primary data where possible. While primary data may be more resource-intensive to obtain, it provides researchers with curated data for their specific research goals. When possible, sharing this data within the anti-HT community provides additional resources for other work. In addition, embracing collaborations with practitioners or other researchers in the anti-HT domain throughout the data collection phase can serve to increase the quality of this data by providing domain-specific insights. Building such collaborations demonstrates effective employment of the partnership principle (the fourth P) and embodies our next recommendation.

Better inclusion and collaboration of the 4Ps

The 4Ps (prevention, protection, prosecution, and partnership) are widely acknowledged as a holistic set of principles that accounts for the spectrum of anti-HT efforts. To date, the majority of OR and Analytics studies in the set appear to be focused on prosecution ( Fig 6 ). Thus, while there exists demonstrated impact for prosecution-related activities, there are opportunities to contribute to anti-HT efforts in the spheres of prevention, protection, and partnership. A key way to increase the impact of OR and Analytics research in the fight against HT is to be keenly aware of all stakeholders involved, their various objectives, and how the research addresses the 4Ps. For example, while law enforcement may make decisions based on the likelihood of prosecuting traffickers, possibly at the expense of additional trauma to victims, Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) may focus more on the immediate needs of the survivors, offering an avenue for research around prevention and protection.

NGOs and governmental agencies often work directly with victims and survivors and could both inform avenues for profitable research studies, and themselves benefit from collaboration with OR and Analytics researchers. Given the often extreme resource constraints under which NGOs and governmental organizations operate, examining ways to evaluate current operations and improve resource allocation is a direction that deserves more study; less than 3.0% of all studies considered these areas.

Beyond the scope of the present study, OR and Analytics can help in the fight against HT by looking at push factors associated with HT. These areas include and are not limited to poverty, abuse, and lack of resources to meet basic needs [ 181 ]. More broadly, looking at ways to help improve circumstances of vulnerable populations at risk of HT is a needed avenue for future research.

While there are many ways in which the OR and Analytics communities can apply methods in the fight against HT, researchers ought to judiciously evaluate the problem context at hand, and whether an off-the-shelf method is justified; likely, the context warrants in-depth understanding, so that proper methodologies can be developed to accurately model and address the trafficking context [ 164 ].

Conclusions

This survey provides a synopsis of the current state of the literature in OR and Analytics approaches in anti-HT contexts by surveying the research methodologies adopted in studies published from 2010 through 2021. A total of 142 studies were included in the set and examined, demonstrating the ability and promise of applying analytical methods to advance the fight against HT. A number of themes arose after careful review of the features of these studies, thereby illustrating opportunities for future research. We observed an increasing trend in the number of studies for both OR and Analytics, thus demonstrating a growing awareness of the issue of HT. However, the tendency of these works to focus specifically on sex trafficking underscores the need for future research in labor trafficking. Very few (less than 2 4.0%) of the studies on anti-HT in OR and Analytics focus on a specific sub-population, potentially failing to consider the diverse needs of victims and survivors. Existing OR and Analytics studies echo the anti-HT community at large for more available data. HT is diverse and nuanced, and researchers should make careful considerations when adapting existing methods to this vexing societal issue, considering efforts equally in prevention, protection, prosecution, and partnership.

Supporting information

S1 checklist.

A list of related studies that fall outside of the scope of current work.

The x-axis lists each study; and the y-axis depicts each of the Theoretical Approaches and Method. Operations Research studies appear on the far left (in blue), Analytics studies appear in the middle (in black) and Position / Thought studies appear on the far right (in red). If a study includes a given feature, the box is black, and grey otherwise. Theoretical approaches and methods are sorted in descending order based on the total count for each row.

Acknowledgments

We express our deep gratitude for Dr. Meredith Dank at New York University for providing insights on the current research gaps in the domain of Human Trafficking and supplying feedback on how Operations and Analytical researchers can help fill these gaps.

Funding Statement

This work was in part funded by the National Science Foundation ( https://www.nsf.gov/ ) grant (Operations Engineering grants CMMI-1841893 and CMMI-1935602, awarded to principal investigator, R. Konrad. The lead author, G. Dimas receives a student stipend from CMMI-1935602 and previously received funding from CMMI-1841893. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Data Availability

Interventions to support the mental health of survivors of modern slavery and human trafficking: A systematic review

Affiliations.

1 School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Queens Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, UK.
2 School of Sociology and Social Policy, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, UK.
3 Research Centre for Transcultural Studies in Health, Middlesex University, London, Londonderry, UK.
PMID: 34431379
DOI: 10.1177/00207640211039245

Background: Modern slavery is a term which incorporates a range of exploitative situations that involve the violation of human rights and the subjugation of individuals. It presents a significant public health concern. Post-release, survivors of modern slavery have complex mental health needs. Whilst mental health provision is a component of international and national policy, the delivery of evidence-based support remains a gap in the global anti-slavery response.

Aim: To identify and synthesise the evidence base for mental health interventions developed and evaluated for use in a post-slavery survivor population.

Methods: A systematic literature review was undertaken. The review protocol was prospectively registered with PROSPERO and followed the PRISMA guidance in its reporting. A multi-stage search strategy was utilised to retrieve studies. Quality appraisal was undertaken using the QualSyst tool. Due to heterogeneity in study design, a narrative approach to synthesising the findings was undertaken.

Results: Nine studies met the final inclusion criteria. The narrative synthesis clustered the studies in three themes: study design and population; type of intervention; and outcomes reported. The included studies focussed on specific subpopulations, namely child soldiering, child labour or sex trafficking.

Conclusion: This review has highlighted not only important theory-practice gaps in relation to the provision of evidence-based mental health support but scant evidence limited to specific sub-groups (child soldiering, child labour or sex trafficking). The emphasis placed on PTSD within the interventions tested risks mental health support becoming exclusionary to those with other needs. When assessing intervention efficacy, the complex socio-political context in which survivors exist as well as the increasing emphasis on holistic care, personal recovery and lived experience need to be considered. Taking this into account, the case can be made for the inclusion of a wider range of non-clinical outcomes in the assessment of mental health intervention effectiveness.

Keywords: Literature review; mental health interventions; modern slavery.

Publication types

Systematic Review
Enslavement*
Human Trafficking*
Mental Health
Public Health

Exploiting People for Profit pp 101–118 Cite as

Preventing Human Trafficking

Simon Massey 3 &
Glynn Rankin 4
First Online: 27 June 2020

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The chapter analyses strategies, both general and specific, aimed at the pre-emptive prevention of human trafficking, focussing particularly on education and consciousness-raising campaigns. It finds that there is evidence that individual projects and prevention strategies often suffer from either no evaluation, or unscientific evaluation. Unproductive evaluation prevents the development of evidence-based approaches to countering human trafficking, and inhibits lesson learning. Moreover, the divergent interpretations of human trafficking in different jurisdictions, analysed in preceding chapters, can lead to preventive training reinforcing a disparate, rather than unified, international response to countering human trafficking.

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Massey, S., Rankin, G. (2020). Preventing Human Trafficking. In: Exploiting People for Profit. Palgrave Pivot, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-43413-5_5

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The Anti-Trafficking Review promotes a human rights-based approach to anti-trafficking. It explores trafficking in its broader context including gender analyses and intersections with labour and migrant rights.

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The Anti-Trafficking Review is the first open access, peer reviewed journal dedicated to the issue of human trafficking. It explores trafficking in its broader context and intersections with gender, labour, and migration.

Each issue relates to an emerging or overlooked theme in the field of human trafficking. The Review ’s focus is global in nature, exploring micro and macro levels of anti-trafficking responses and the commonalities, differences. and disconnects in between.

The journal contributes to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, in particular Goal 5 (Gender Equality), 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions).

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anti human trafficking campaigns a systematic literature review

This Special Issue of Anti-Trafficking Review examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of low-wage, migrant, and informal workers. With contributions from Australia, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Europe, Nigeria, Brazil and the United States, it describes the experiences of temporary migrants, victims of trafficking, sex workers, internally displaced persons, and LGBTQ asylum seekers with violence, exploitation, discrimination, racism, and (lack of) access to healthcare and social protections. It also highlights the work of civil society organisations who stepped in to provide lifesaving support to people abandoned by the state. Importantly, contributors draw lessons from the pandemic and make policy and practice recommendations how to ensure that future disasters do not have the same negative impact on human rights.

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Editorial: Labour, Migration, and Exploitation during COVID-19 and Lessons (Not) Learnt

‘inanimate objects’: human consequences of australia’s commodified approach to migrant workers during covid-19, ‘the pandemic played a cruel joke on us’: the vulnerabilities of kyrgyz women migrant workers in russia during covid-19, no one wants to hire us: the intersectional precarity experienced by venezuelan lgbtq+ asylum seekers in brazil during covid-19, negotiating multiple risks: health, safety, and well-being among internal migrant sex workers in brazil during covid-19, are they victims of covid-19 the livelihood and quandaries of sex workers in the new kuchingoro camp for internally displaced people in abuja, nigeria, key stakeholder perspectives on the potential impact of covid-19 on human trafficking for the purpose of labour exploitation, ‘now more than ever, survivors need us’: essential labouring and increased precarity during covid-19, short articles, providing services to women in situations of prostitution and human trafficking during the covid-19 pandemic in spain, italy, and portugal, access denied: sex workers’ exclusion from covid-19 relief in the united states.

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The Anti-Trafficking Review is published by the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW) , an alliance of over 80 NGOs worldwide focused on advancing the human rights of migrants and trafficked persons.

'a journal that is seeking to move things forward through new ideas and a genuine commitment to dialogue' - Anne T. Gallagher, Independent scholar and legal advisor

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Szablewska, Natalia and Kubacki, Krzysztof (2018). Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns. Social Marketing Quarterly , 24(2) pp. 104–122.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1524500418771611

This study aims to systematically identify and review studies on anti-human trafficking campaigns published in peer-reviewed journals to determine the extent to which such campaigns have been critically and rigorously evaluated so as to guide future policies and practice in this area and to identify the main characteristics, problems, and challenges associated with the campaigns in the identified studies. This systematic literature review identified 16 studies that have assessed anti-human trafficking campaigns but found that none of these included outcome, process, or impact evaluations. As identified in our study, anti-human trafficking campaigns tend to rely on advertising techniques to target vulnerable groups and the wider public, with the primary aim of informing and educating. Further, a thematic analysis of the studies identified problems in eight areas that require attention in the future development of anti-human trafficking campaigns: stereotyping, compounding human trafficking with migration, conflating prostitution with human trafficking, sexualization/erotization of women, victimization, role of anti-human trafficking organizations, data shortcomings, and oversimplification of human trafficking. Studies presenting the results of evaluations of social marketing anti-human trafficking campaigns are urgently needed to show which social marketing tools work and to provide an evidence base for future campaigns.

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Operations research and analytics to combat human trafficking: A systematic review of academic literature

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Data Science Program, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, United States of America

Roles Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Business School, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, United States of America

Affiliation Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States of America

Affiliations Data Science Program, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, United States of America, Business School, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, United States of America

Geri L. Dimas,
Renata A. Konrad,
Kayse Lee Maass,
Andrew C. Trapp

Published: August 29, 2022
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708
Reader Comments

Citation: Dimas GL, Konrad RA, Lee Maass K, Trapp AC (2022) Operations research and analytics to combat human trafficking: A systematic review of academic literature. PLoS ONE 17(8): e0273708. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708

Editor: Yong-Hong Kuo, University of Hong Kong, HONG KONG

Received: May 5, 2022; Accepted: August 11, 2022; Published: August 29, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Dimas et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All data files are available on GitHub at https://github.com/gldimas/Dimas-et.-al-2022_Human-Trafficking-Literature-Review .

Funding: This work was in part funded by the National Science Foundation ( https://www.nsf.gov/ ) grant (Operations Engineering grants CMMI-1841893 and CMMI-1935602, awarded to principal investigator, R. Konrad. The lead author, G. Dimas receives a student stipend from CMMI-1935602 and previously received funding from CMMI-1841893. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

(i). What aspects of HT are being studied by OR and Analytics researchers?
(ii). What OR and Analytics methods are being applied in the anti-HT domain?
(iii). What are the existing research gaps associated with (i) and (ii)?

Method of collection and categorization

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.t002

Methodologies : We classified the main methodologies used in the set of studies into 21 categories:

Active Learning
Clustering or Classification
Data Envelopment Analysis
Empirical Analysis
Facility Location
Game Theory
Graph Construction
Investigative Search
Link Inference
Machine / Deep Learning (General)
Natural Language Processing
Information Extraction
Integer Programming
Network / Graph Theory
Network Interdiction
Queueing Theory
(Social) Network Analysis
Unsupervised or Minimally Supervised Learning
Web Crawling / Scraping

Prevention : The goal of the study is the prevention of HT either now or in the future and assumes no trafficking is currently taking place. Such studies typically feature victim-centric methodologies to help potential victims avoid being trafficked, such as awareness campaigns and education. Studies that consider reducing the re-trafficking risk of survivors who have left their trafficking environment also fall within the scope of the prevention principle.
Protection : The goal of the study is to protect and aid the survivor during and post-exploitation. We consider victim-driven detection and disruption of HT networks to be a form of protection, as the focus of the study is mitigating the risk to an individual of further exploitation (including studies that consider NGOs, healthcare, and other non-law enforcement detection).
Prosecution : The goal of the study is to aid the prosecution of traffickers (often from a law enforcement perspective). We consider detection and disruption of HT networks aimed at locating, understanding, and stopping traffickers under the prosecution principle.
Partnership : The goal of the study is to show the benefit of collaboration and data sharing across different sectors, countries, or groups working together toward the common goal of addressing one or more areas of HT.

Implications and observations

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.g003

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.g004

Research question 1: What aspects of HT are being studied?

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.g005

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.g006

Research question 2: What OR and analytical methods are being applied in the anti-HT domain?

Figs 7 and 8 depict each study on the x -axis. In Fig 7 we display all studies categorized as Analytics, and in Fig 8 we categorize studies on the left as Operations Research (in blue), and studies on the right as Position / Thought studies (in red). For each study, the top six y -axis labels indicate its Theoretical Approach(es), while the remaining 21 following labels indicate methods used. If a study includes a given feature value, the box is black, and grey otherwise. Theoretical approaches and methods are sorted in descending order based on the total count for each row. Fig 7 indicates that the majority of studies (over 77.0%) in the Analytics category take an Inferential Statistics / Detection or Decision Support theoretical approach. Fig 8 shows that studies in the Operations Research category are diverse, addressing the problem from distinct theoretical approaches and applying a variety of methodologies. Studies categorized as Position / Thought address a variety of theoretical approaches and topics, which is a good indication that OR and Analytics researchers are exploring HT from different fields.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.g007

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.g008

To compare studies across all three categories: Analytics, Operations Research, and Position / Thought Figs 7 and 8 are combined and the resulting figure can be found in the supplementary materials (see S1 Fig ). We also provide a publicly available spreadsheet that can be used for closer examination of the individual studies, at https://github.com/gldimas/Dimas-et.-al-2022_Human-Trafficking-Literature-Review . This spreadsheet allows filtering studies on any combination of our nine features, returning all qualified studies. A screenshot of this tool can be see in Fig 9 . As seen in this review, research at the intersection of anti-HT and OR and Applied Analytics is rapidly evolving and there is necessary complexity in the reviewing process. The selected keywords, search engines used and growing literature streams may impact the articles included in this review. In an effort to counter this limitation and support the longevity of this study, the authors have created an online submission form where individuals can submit works they believe to be related to the present study. Related submissions will be added to the dashboard tool on a semi-regular basis (see Fig 9 ) and will provide an evolving source of knowledge for researchers. The link for this form can be found on the github link provided earlier in this paragraph.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.g009

Research question 3: What are the existing gaps and opportunities for future research?

Several gaps emerged based on the classification and grouping of all 142 studies in the set on the prime principles (4Ps) ( Fig 6 ), methods (Figs 7 and 8 ), trafficking context ( Fig 5 ), and resulting observations to Research questions 1 and 2. The following sections present opportunities for new avenues of investigation for OR and Analytics researchers in anti-HT efforts.

Broaden the typology and demographics of trafficking studied.

Diversify the data sources.

Better inclusion and collaboration of the 4Ps.

Conclusions

Supporting information

S1 checklist. prisma 2020 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.s001

S1 File. Related studies.

A list of related studies that fall outside of the scope of current work.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.s002

S1 Fig. Granular view of theoretical and methodological topic inclusion for the set of 142 studies.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0273708.s003

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Human Trafficking: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda

This study aims to examine the topic of human trafficking (HT) to outline the definition and typology of HT, stages of HT, research themes, and future research directions in HT studies. This study used a systematic literature method to analyze 229 articles from the social sciences category from the Scopus database. This study found that the definition of HT is complex. Thus, to define HT, scholars need to be specific about the context, characteristics, and typology of trafficking. There are many internal and external factors in mobilizing the victim's choice of victim's immigration into this crime's vortex. Hence, policymakers need to know the critical issues of victim preference in the HT stage. Ultimately, there are three primary themes in the HT topic. They are: (1) developing models and strategies for dealing with more effective ways to combat HT around the world, (2) exploring and further comprehending the social and cultural factors underlying HT in different regions, and (3) capacity-building countries and implementation of more effective policies to protect and assist trafficking victims. Our integrative literature review may be the most recent study to provide detailed information about each research stream of HT literature in the social sciences discipline. The results of our review are limited to HT publications in the social sciences field, which stemmed from Scopus.

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Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns: A Systematic Literature Review
This systematic literature review identified 16 studies that have assessed anti-human trafficking campaigns but found that none of these included outcome, process, or impact evaluations. As identified in our study, anti-human trafficking campaigns tend to rely on advertising techniques to target vulnerable groups and the wider public, with the ...
Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns: A Systematic Literature Review
This systematic literature review identified 16 studies that have assessed anti-human trafficking campaigns but found that none of these included outcome, process, or impact evaluations. As ...
PDF Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns: A Systematic Literature Review
anti-human trafficking efforts by organisations through systematic analysis of their online activities (Foot, Toft, & Cesare, 2015). However, to the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first to systematically review scholarly literature on anti-human trafficking campaigns. Social marketing campaigns
Reframing human trafficking awareness campaigns in the United States
Introduction. In the United States, human trafficking has been recognized as a federal crime for 23 years ().While the exact count of trafficked victims in the country is unknown, in 2021 alone, 10,360 incidents of human trafficking were reported through the US National Human Trafficking Hotline ().In addition, from 2015 to 2020, the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) received 6,171 ...
[PDF] Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns
This systematic literature review identified 16 studies that have assessed anti-human trafficking campaigns but found that none of these included outcome, process, or impact evaluations. As identified in our study, anti-human trafficking campaigns tend to rely on advertising techniques to target vulnerable groups and the wider public, with the ...
Full article: Combatting Human Trafficking since Palermo: What Do We
The promising practices database is a systematic review of evaluations of anti-modern slavery programing and related phenomena from 2000 to 2015; a 2019 update of the database has recently begun. ... A 2012 evaluation of an anti-trafficking campaign in Kosovo also determined that there was a slight increase in ... Central to most anti-human ...
Operations research and analytics to combat human trafficking: A
Human trafficking is a widespread and compound social, economic, and human rights issue occurring in every region of the world. While there have been an increasing number of anti-human trafficking studies from the Operations Research and Analytics domains in recent years, no systematic review of this literature currently exists.
Anti-Human Trafficking Interventions: How Do We Know if They Are
This article explores the approaches that have been used to evaluate anti-human trafficking interventions. Through a review of 49 evaluations, the study finds that action is required to increase quality evaluations of anti-human trafficking programs in order to ensure that programs are targeted, implemented, and delivered effectively, and ...
Interventions to support the mental health of survivors of modern
Interventions to support the mental health of survivors of modern slavery and human trafficking: A systematic review Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2021 Dec;67(8) :1026-1034 ... the delivery of evidence-based support remains a gap in the global anti-slavery response. ... A systematic literature review was undertaken. The review protocol was ...
Social schemas about human trafficking involving girls and women: A
Applying this framework to the human trafficking topic, the present systematic literature review aims to understand the state of evidence on social schemas (e.g., perceptions, attitudes) about human trafficking involving girls and women, critical to inform evidence-based policies and guide social responses in the anti-trafficking field. 1.1.
Preventing Human Trafficking
The utility of evaluations of anti-human trafficking campaigns published in peer-reviewed journals has also been questioned by Natalia Szablewska and Krzysztof Kubacki who argue that none of the 16 studies that met their ... 'Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns: A Systematic Literature Review', Social Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 24, No ...
Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns
This systematic literature review identified 16 studies that have assessed anti-human trafficking campaigns but found that none of these included outcome, process, or impact evaluations. As identified in our study, anti-human trafficking campaigns tend to rely on advertising techniques to target vulnerable groups and the wider public, with the ...
Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns: A Systematic Literature Review
This systematic literature review identified 16 studies that have assessed anti-human trafficking campaigns but found that none of these included outcome, process, or impact evaluations. As identified in our study, anti-human trafficking campaigns tend to rely on advertising techniques to target vulnerable groups and the wider public, with the ...
A systematic review of the sex trafficking-related literature: Lessons
As identified in the literature, limited attention has been paid to human trafficking in tourism and hospitality; thus, we performed a systematic literature review assuming a broader scope. Notably, the clusters appearing in Fig. 3 are based on a broad literature review related to human trafficking in general rather than in the tourism and ...
Anti-Trafficking Review
The Anti-Trafficking Review is the first open access, peer reviewed journal dedicated to the issue of human trafficking. It explores trafficking in its broader context and intersections with gender, labour, and migration. Each issue relates to an emerging or overlooked theme in the field of human trafficking.
Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns: A Systematic Literature Review
Browse. All of Griffith Research Online
PDF Impact Evaluation for Anti-Human Trafficking Initiatives
literature review is to assess impact evaluation in anti-human trafficking policies. ... policies. Second, this literature review will analyze how anti-human trafficking policies create a victim ... N., & Kubacki, K. (2018). Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns: A Systematic Literature Review. Social Marketing Quarterly, 24(2), 104-122. https ...
Trafficking and Health: A Systematic Review of Research Methods
A systematic literature review of 70 peer-reviewed, published articles revealed that there are various quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis methods being used to investigate TIP and health and shows that the limitations of current methodologies affect what is known about Tip and health. Trafficking in persons (TIP) is a human rights violation with serious public health ...
Anti-Human Trafficking Campaigns
This systematic literature review identified 16 studies that have assessed anti-human trafficking campaigns but found that none of these included outcome, process, or impact evaluations. As identified in our study, anti-human trafficking campaigns tend to rely on advertising techniques to target vulnerable groups and the wider public, with the ...
Operations research and analytics to combat human trafficking: A ...
Human trafficking is a widespread and compound social, economic, and human rights issue occurring in every region of the world. While there have been an increasing number of anti-human trafficking studies from the Operations Research and Analytics domains in recent years, no systematic review of this literature currently exists. We fill this gap by providing a systematic literature review that ...
Human Trafficking: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda
Human Trafficking: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda. This study aims to examine the topic of human trafficking (HT) to outline the definition and typology of HT, stages of HT, research themes, and future research directions in HT studies. ... systematic literature review; human trafficking; social science; research themes. Full ...
Nigerian Migrant Women and Human Trafficking Narratives ...
During the last decades, Nigerian migrant women in the European sex market, described as victims of trafficking, have generated consistent concern and outrage. This article analyzes data from an ethnographic study of more than 800 Nigerian sex workers in southern Spain, describing the networks used by these women to carry out their migration projects and the relationships they establish with ...
Operations research and analytics to combat human trafficking: A
We fill this gap by providing a systematic literature review that identifies and classifies the body of Operations Research and Analytics research related to the anti-human trafficking domain ...
Microorganisms
A systematic review of the literature was conducted based on the selection and search of articles, available in English, Spanish, or Portuguese in the time frame of 1990-2022, of primary and secondary types in the PUBMED, Science Direct, SciELO, and LILACS databases through descriptors (MeSH) together with "AND": "CCR5"; "CCL5 ...